Professional Documents
Culture Documents
International Review of Intellectual Property and intellectual property rights are unsuitable for TK
Competition Law protection because they protect only the rights of
individuals and do not recognize collective rights.
2002 The collectivity of TK certainly poses challenges
for the IP system. However, the FFMs and other
Article literature indicate that the situation is more
complicated than some of the generalizations often
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, TRADITIONAL made would suggest. We were told that not all TK
KNOWLEDGE AND FOLKLORE: WIPO'S is collective. As Gupta and others point out, while
EXPLORATORY it is true that many indigenous and local
PROGRAMME: PART 2 community cultures generate and transmit
knowledge from generation to generation
Wend B. Wendland. collectively, in some cases individuals distinguish
themselves and are recognized as informal creators
Copyright (c) Sweet & Maxwell Limited and or inventors separate from the community. [FN70]
Contributors Collectivity of creation and ownership may not be
characteristic of traditional knowledge systems in
Subject: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY all cases: "Many earlier definitions of folklore
insist that all folklore is necessarily the creation of
the community at large ... such a view of folklore
Keywords: Cultural property;
is now out of date.... It is presently recognized that
Intellectual property; WIPO
works of folklore were created by individuals.
Works of folklore were, however, communally
Abstract: Role of intellectual
used and enjoyed." [FN71] Second, not all
property in protection of traditional
intellectual property *607 rights are individualistic.
knowledge and folk lore and
Increasingly, invention and creation take place in
criticisms of intellectual property
firms where groups of persons may be cited as co-
system that have resulted following
inventors or co-authors, concepts recognized by the
fact finding missions conducted by
intellectual property system. Trademark law
World Intellectual Property
recognizes "collective marks" and geographical
Organisation.
indications also protect the interests of a collective.
Additionally, the collective management of
*606 In the first part, the author described the intellectual property rights is very familiar to the
background to and scope of fact-finding missions music industry, where copyright in musical works
(FFMs) on traditional knowledge (TK) conducted has been collectively managed for many years.
by the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) in 1998 and 1999, and the main lessons
The FFMs identified a need for further work
learned from them. These related to questions of
on the relationship between collectively originated
terminology and subject matter for protection, the
and held TK and intellectual property rights.
threats to the maintenance and survival of TK, the
Although collective management systems in the
rights that TK holders wish recognized, and the use
field of copyright concern the collective
of intellectual property rights to protect TK. Part
management and exercise of individual rights, and
One ended with an overview of the main criticisms
may therefore not be directly applicable to TK, an
leveled at the intellectual property system in
interesting task could be to test the possible
relation to TK. Part Two continues with a
usefulness of rights management systems in the
discussion of some of these criticisms.
copyright field for managing future rights in TK.
[FN72]
It was widely stated on the FFMs that
right to exclusivity may be exercised. The merely "tinkered" with a natural substance or
village healer may exploit his position to traditional practice making only minor changes.
extract resources from his fellow villagers, or Once again, a patent only covers the invention
he may share the knowledge openly out of a described. As Downes observes, if the invention is
sense of altruism or to gain prestige and status. indeed minor and not worth very much, then the
Recognizing the existence of an exclusive right patent covers only a minor invention and is not
does not determine how the right will be worth very much. If the invention is a major
exercised. [FN83] advance, the patent is more valuable. [FN84] On
the other hand, even patents for inventions that
It is often stated that the intellectual property hardly advance the state of the art can still be
system distinguishes clearly between "artistic" and remunerative and have "nuisance value" for the
"useful" articles, and can therefore not activities of other inventors. [FN85]
accommodate creations and innovations that are
both artistic and useful, such as many tradition- *610 b) Use of Intellectual Property to Protect TK
based innovations and creations. However, the
artistic/useful dichotomy is not as stark in the Despite criticism of intellectual property laws
intellectual property system as some would allege. and principles and a skepticism of their usefulness
For example, industrial design law protects the in the TK domain by certain persons consulted on
original ornamental and non-functional features of the FFMs, others expressed interest in exploring
an industrial article. The design of an article which further the actual and potential role of the
is dictated solely by its function is thus not intellectual property system in TK protection.
protectable as a design. However, increasingly, There are some examples of traditional and
under certain theories of design, form follows tradition-based creations and innovations that are
function, so that in some cases a design's form protected by the existing intellectual property
cannot be easily distinguished from its function. system. In addition, there is interest in undertaking
Similarly, copyright protection can be obtained for further work on how the IP laws and system can be
articles that might also qualify for industrial design modified to curb those aspects of IP laws and
protection, such as items of applied art. Copyright systems "which allow piracy or are seen to condone
is intended to protect aesthetic creations, but in the it." [FN86] Several persons suggested certain
case of applied art and other useful artistic works, modifications to IP law to improve its functionality
such as works of architecture, for example, the fact in TK protection, and, others, new IP tools. This
that they are also useful is irrelevant. cluster of views may be described as "legal
questions."
It is often argued that patents based upon
knowledge acquired from traditional communities Concerns were also expressed that TK holders
prevent members of these communities from have or would have difficulty in availing
continuing to use their knowledge. It is important themselves of the benefits of the IP system, as well
to understand that a patent covers only the specific as IP-like rights, because of the costs associated
invention described and nothing more. Hence, for with the acquisition, maintenance and enforcement
example, a patent on an invention derived from or of intellectual property rights (at least those, as far
based upon TK does not prevent the continued use as acquisition costs are concerned, that depend
of the TK by the relevant community. In addition, upon registration). It was added that indigenous
in a number of countries, the "prior use" exception peoples, local and rural communities and other TK
allows people already engaged in exploiting an holders are hindered by having generally little
invention to continue doing so after the invention knowledge of or practical experience with the
becomes subject to a patent held by another party. formal intellectual property system. These views
Similarly, it is argued that industrial patent holders may be termed "operational questions."
paid for his or her original work from all sales Populations, [FN91] has been cited as an
subsequent to the first sale of the work by the artist, example of a sui generis model at the
has also been mooted as potentially useful in this international level;
area. *613 c) At the regional and national
levels, there are several initiatives. For
Unfair competition. There have been extensive example:
debates on protecting certain elements of TK by - the Member States of the Andean
using trade secrecy, or the protection of undisclosed Community have adopted four pieces of
information as referred to in Art. 39 of the TRIPS legislation, being Decision 345 - Common
Agreement, as well as the common law remedy of Provisions on the Protection of the Rights
"passing off." of Breeders of New Plant Varieties,
Decision 351 - Common Provisions on
Copyright and Neighboring Rights,
- New (sui generis) intellectual property standards
Decision 391 - Common Regime on
Access to Genetic Resources, and
As already mentioned, several persons
Decision 486 - Common Intellectual
consulted pointed to limitations which are inherent
Property Regime. In addition, a Decision
in existing intellectual property standards and have
on a Common Regime on Protection of
articulated a need for the development of new
TK is being prepared; [FN92]
intellectual property tools to protect forms of TK
- the Organization of African Unity
not already covered. New intellectual property
(the OAU) has adopted a Model Law on
standards could be accommodated within the broad
the Protection of the Rights of Local
concept of "intellectual property" in the WIPO
Communities, Farmers and Breeders, and
Convention, which provides that intellectual
for the Regulation of Access to Genetic
property shall include existing intellectual property
Resources. This Model Law was adopted
rights "and all other rights resulting from
by the Council of Ministers of the OAU in
intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific,
June 1998, and an updated version was
literary or artistic fields." [FN90]
more recently endorsed by the OAU Trade
Ministries meeting in Algiers in 2000;
New standards for TK protection have been or [FN93]
are being developed, mostly in the form of sui - the 10 countries of the Association
generis legislation, to protect elements of TK not of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) are
covered by existing intellectual property systems. elaborating a Framework Agreement on
For example: Access to Biological and Genetic
a) At the international level, WIPO has Resources; [FN94]
developed a model for sui generis protection of - Pacific Island States are considering
certain TK-related subject matter in draft guidelines and a draft sui generis
cooperation with UNESCO, namely the Model Law for the protection of TK and
UNESCO-WIPO Model Provisions for expressions of culture in the Pacific
National Laws on the Protection of region; [FN95]
Expressions of Folklore Against Illicit - at the level of national laws, several
Exploitation and Other Prejudicial Actions States have enacted or are enacting
(1982); legislation in the area of TK protection.
b) Within the frame of Indigenous These may or may not be related to
Peoples' rights, the Principles and Guidelines intellectual property rights. Examples
for the Protection of the Heritage of include Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Indigenous People, elaborated by the United India, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, the
Nations Working Group on Indigenous Philippines, South Africa and Thailand.
types of protection. However, this does not Report, expressed views along these lines. Noting
mean that TK should not be protected, only diverse interests among and within indigenous
that any changes should be consistent with the communities in respect of TK and folklore, the
underlying purpose and goals of the IP system. USPTO questioned:
[FN102] Is it possible, or even desirable, to
establish a comprehensive, uniform set of rules
Another comment on the Draft Report at the international level to govern the use of
expressed concern at the risks and negative effects TK and folklore? At the very least, we wonder
for publishers posed by proposed new intellectual whether it is advisable to undertake such
property tools to protect TK: activity before individual countries have, in
Recognising that publishers, and in conjunction with the communities within their
particular local publishers, greatly contribute own borders, established their own regimes for
to the dissemination and preservation of TK, protection within their own territories and
IPA (the International Publishers Association) gained experience in the application of that
is in particular concerned with ensuring that protection and its effect on the communities
new tools to protect TK do not negatively involved. We believe that WIPO parties should
impact on the development of local publishing consider these issues carefully. [FN105]
industries. [FN103]
The need for an international framework for TK In addition:
protection was also stressed by persons spoken to Moreover, as the Draft Report indicates,
on the FFMs. Particularly with current advances in there are so many different expectations, goals
information and biological technologies, purely and native systems, for approaching ownership
national systems are of limited value. A multilateral and the transgression of ownership that a
framework, under which TK can be protected in all useful, enforceable global system would be
signatory countries in the same way as any other virtually impossible to create. Indeed, a "one
intellectual property, is desirable, FFM informants size fits all" approach might be interpreted as
advised. The Model Provisions for National Laws demonstrating a lack of respect for local
on the Protection of Expressions of Folklore customs and traditions. [FN106]
Against Illicit Exploitation and Other Prejudicial
Actions of 1982 was mentioned as a possible basis (ii) Operational questions
for future standard setting at the international level.
There are valid and important concerns as to
However, the need for solutions to be first the ability of indigenous and local communities to
developed and tested nationally and regionally was use the intellectual property system effectively.
emphasized by some. It was suggested that Informants pointed to the unfamiliarity among TK
multilateral consensus on international norms is holders with the system and the costs of acquiring,
unlikely in the short term, and that after workable maintaining and enforcing intellectual property
solutions have been tested and proven at the local rights. Such operational questions are perhaps as
and national levels, the evolution of an agreed important as, if not more so than, the legal
international framework is more likely. [FN104] questions discussed above. They are also a strand
The idea would be first to develop and experiment of larger concerns with "power" - the financial and
with existing intellectual property tools to protect political power to use and take advantage of
TK, in what was described as a "bottom up" intellectual property systems, to influence the
approach, before any consideration can be given to progressive development of intellectual property
multilateral standard-setting. law and policy and to challenge intellectual
property claims made by others. As stated during
*616 The USPTO, in its comment on the Draft the WIPO Roundtable on Intellectual Property and
TK held from November 1 to 2, 1999, "... if TK is searchable prior art, and an examination of the
inadequately protected and the innovations of firms methods used by patent offices to access and
and 'modern knowledge' is protected, it is not review prior art;
because of incompatibility of the systems (TK and (iv) testing options for the collective
intellectual property rights) but because of a acquisition, management and enforcement of
difference in power." [FN107] intellectual property rights in TK by the
relevant community or association. The
These broader questions may fall beyond the exploration of the application to TK of
scope of intellectual property, but the more specific copyright collective management systems;
need to facilitate access to the intellectual property (v) the study of customary laws and
system to enable TK holders to use it more protocols relating to the use, development,
effectively, and to provide information and transmission and protection of TK, and their
assistance to TK holders to enforce their rights relationship with intellectual property
were keenly felt by WIPO during all the FFMs. standards;
These needs could be met, for example, by wider (vi) testing the usefulness of existing
dissemination of intellectual property information intellectual property standards for the legal
to indigenous *617 and local communities, public protection of TK by means of practical case-
information activities aimed specifically at TK studies and pilot projects;
holders, and other activities carried out by national (vii) the provision of practical training and
intellectual property offices and other agencies information materials and workshops to
designed to demystify intellectual property and to governmental officials and holders and
facilitate access to the national intellectual property custodians of TK;
offices and the intellectual property system. For (viii) the development and testing of sui
example, certain national patent and trademark generis intellectual property laws and systems
offices offer reduced application fees to for the protection of TK at the national level,
independent inventors and small and medium-sized using inter alia the Model Provisions as a
enterprises. If such schemes do not already apply to possible foundation;
members of indigenous and local communities, the (ix) the elaboration of an international
possibility of extending them to such persons and framework for the legal protection of TK using
communities could be explored by national offices. inter alia the Model Provisions as a possible
foundation;
(x) the adjustment of intellectual property
7. Summary of Main Needs and Expectations
standards and practices to the extent that they
Expressed on the FFMs
may permit, or do not prevent, the derogatory,
offensive and fallacious use of TK;
By way of a summary, the following may be
(xi) assisting, in a practical manner,
identified as the main needs and expectations
holders and custodians of TK to acquire,
expressed to WIPO during the FFMs:
manage and enforce rights and interests in
(i) clarity on the subject matter for which
their TK; and
protection is sought;
(xii) the economic valuation of TK.
(ii) greater dialogue between the
intellectual property community and TK
*618 III. WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on
holders. Increased contribution of accurate,
Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources,
technical information on intellectual property
Traditional Knowledge and Folklore
to forums in other policy areas, such as
biodiversity, cultural heritage and indigenous
peoples; The first and second sessions of the
(iii) the documentation of TK as part of Intergovernmental Committee have recently taken
Committee is expected to take place in Geneva in expectations at the interface between intellectual
June 2002. property and traditional knowledge. Together with
the other exploratory activities conducted in 1998
IV. Conclusions and 1999, they prepared the way for the more
formal consideration of the issues by States within
the WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on
The possible role of intellectual property rights
Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources,
in the legal protection of TK is an emerging field
Traditional Knowledge and Folklore which was
which requires thorough exploration and an active
established in September 2000. In addition, WIPO's
search for solutions. This must be based upon an
program of activities for 2000 and 2001 responded
understanding of the context within which TK
to several of the needs identified on the FFMs.
formations are generated, sustained and used, and
Thus, a series of national and sub-regional
the cultural and ethical values of their holders.
information workshops on intellectual property and
Effective intellectual property systems that protect
TK was commenced and will continue in 2002 and
and maintain TK will depend on the participation
2003. They are attended by TK holders and
of all stakeholders, such as governments,
government officials. Accessible and informative
indigenous peoples and local communities, in the
materials have also been written to constitute the
process. Further exploration of the role of
basic reading materials for the workshops. In
intellectual property *621 in TK protection also
response to the need for studies of actual examples
requires a technical understanding of intellectual
in which TK holders have used the intellectual
property and its application in the specifics of
property system, eight cases were studied in
concrete uses of TK.
Australia in 2001 and these will be published by
WIPO in 2002. A project on the documentation of
It is evident that some of the needs and
TK and its inclusion as part of searchable prior art
expectations identified during the fact-finding
has also been launched.
missions conflict or reflect competing policy
objectives. They pose challenges for the entire
The intellectual property system cannot,
intellectual property community - national and
however, respond fully to all the needs of TK
regional intellectual property offices, collective
holders. Further, many of the problems encountered
management societies, the private sector, NGOs,
by TK holders are less "legal" than "operational" -
civil society, consumers, and the international
TK holders (as do some other sectors of society)
community, including WIPO and its Member
often lack the know-how and financial resources to
States. As the WIPO Report on the FFMs shows,
take advantage of the intellectual property system,
many persons consulted expressed needs and
whether in its present or in an evolved form, and
expectations specifically addressed to their
they need support in this respect. There are
respective national governments, which have a key
nevertheless certain conceptual difficulties.
role to play.
Following on from the exploratory program of
WIPO described in this article, these issues are now
The FFMs could, as some have pointed out,
being addressed in intergovernmental discussions
have covered more countries, reached more people,
within the context of the new WIPO
particularly traditional knowledge holders
Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual
themselves, and probed the issues more thoroughly.
Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional
Yet, within the available resources and time, they
Knowledge and Folklore established for this
succeeded in raising awareness and making
purpose.
available factual and empirical information
gathered directly from traditional knowledge
FN The author participated in several of the fact-
holders upon which States and other stakeholders
finding missions and other activities referred to in
can better identify and evaluate needs and
this article. The views expressed in the article are Macquarie University, Australia, July 20, 1998,
those of the author and not necessarily of the WIPO section 5.4.
Secretariat or any of the Member States of WIPO.
FN75. Article 8.
FN Head, Traditional Creativity and Cultural
Expressions Section, Global Intellectual Property FN76. See Arts. 12 and 33. Draft United Nations
Issues Division, World Intellectual Property Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,
Organization (WIPO), Geneva, Switzerland. (Sub/Com/Res/1994-45).
FN73. DUTFIELD, op. cit. at 281. FN85. Comment on the Draft Report by Mr.
Graham Dutfield, Researcher, Oxford Centre for
FN74. Quoted in H. MARRIE, "The Convention on the Environment, Ethics and Society, dated
Biological Diversity, Intellectual Property Rights December 12, 2000.
and the Protection of Traditional Ecological
Knowledge," Masters Dissertation, Law School,
"Banyak definisi sebelumnya bersikeras bahwa tentang Hak Kekayaan Mataatua Budaya dan
cerita rakyat cerita rakyat semua tentu penciptaan Intelektual Masyarakat Adat, 1993, dan Pernyataan
masyarakat luas ... pandangan seperti cerita rakyat Julayinbul pada Adat Hak Kekayaan Intelektual,
sekarang keluar tanggal .... Hal ini saat ini diakui 1993. Kebutuhan untuk pengakuan sistem hukum
bahwa karya-karya cerita rakyat diciptakan oleh adat juga termasuk dalam Konvensi ILO 169,
individu. Pekerjaan cerita rakyat itu, bagaimanapun, [FN75] Draft Deklarasi PBB tentang Hak-Hak
komunal digunakan dan dinikmati. " [FN71] Kedua, Masyarakat Adat, 1994 [FN76] dan Prinsip dan
tidak semua kekayaan intelektual * 607 hak Pedoman untuk Perlindungan Warisan 608 *
individualistik. Semakin, penemuan dan penciptaan dariMasyarakat Adat, [FN77] diuraikan oleh Pelapor
berlangsung di perusahaan di mana kelompok Khusus PBB Sub-Komisi Pencegahan Diskriminasi
orang dapat disebut sebagai co-penemu atau co- dan Perlindungan Minoritas. [FN78]
penulis, konsep yang diakui oleh sistem kekayaan
intelektual. Hukum merek dagang mengakui "merek Mungkin, karena itu, tidak benar untuk
kolektif" dan indikasi geografis juga melindungi menganggap bahwa paten, hak cipta, rahasia
kepentingan kolektif. Selain itu, pengelolaan kolektif dagang dan merek dagang adalah konsep yang
hak kekayaan intelektual sangat akrab bagi industri sama sekali asing atau tidak cocok untuk semua
musik, di mana hak cipta dalam karya musik telah masyarakat pedesaan asli dan tradisional. [FN79]
secara kolektif dikelola selama bertahun-tahun. sistem proprietary memang ada dalam masyarakat
tradisional banyak.Bahkan, masyarakat tradisional
Para FFMs mengidentifikasi kebutuhan untuk sering memiliki sistem adat highlydeveloped,
bekerja lebih lanjut tentang hubungan antara TK kompleks dan efektif untuk perlindungan TK.Sistem
kolektif berasal dan diadakan dan hak kekayaan ini memiliki, sampai sekarang, ada di kemerdekaan
intelektual. Meskipun sistem manajemen kolektif di virtual sistem kepemilikan formal yang
bidang hak cipta perhatian manajemen kolektif dan intelektual. Intinya, oleh karenanya, tidak bahwa
pelaksanaan hak-hak individu, dan karenanya pemegang TK tidak mengenali konsep-konsep
mungkin tidak langsung berlaku untuk TK, tugas kekayaan intelektual, melainkan bahwa sistem
yang menarik bisa untuk menguji kegunaan kepemilikan formal yang intelektual adalah jenis
kemungkinan sistem manajemen hak di bidang hak sistem kekayaan intelektual yang mereka tidak
cipta untuk mengelola masa depan hak di TK. akrab. [FN80]
[FN72]
Tapi, sama, setiap asumsi yang ada adalah bentuk
Beberapa informan percaya bahwa konsep-konsep generik dari hak kolektif / masyarakat kekayaan
seperti "kepemilikan" dan "hak milik" asing bagi intelektual mengabaikan kerumitan dan keragaman
masyarakat adat dan tradisional, dan tidak tepat sistem kepemilikan adat dan tradisional. [FN81]
untuk menggambarkan hak dan kewajiban
sehubungan dengan TK. Namun, temuan FFM dan Banyak informan mengakui kebutuhan anggota
sastra antropologi mengungkapkan bahwa konsep masyarakat tradisional dan masyarakat intelektual
tersebut - atau setara dekat setidaknya bagi properti yang formal untuk belajar tentang sistem
mereka - juga ada pada kebanyakan jika tidak masing-masing, dan bahwa interface, persamaan
semua masyarakat tradisional. [FN73] Menurut dan perbedaan antara sistem hukum adat dan
organisasi Masyarakat Adat Kanada ', Empat Arah modern membutuhkan pemahaman dan
Dewan: "Masyarakat adat memiliki sistem mereka manajemen. Beberapa informan menganjurkan
sendiri locallyspecific yurisprudensi sehubungan perlindungan TK oleh penerapan hukum adat
dengan klasifikasi jenis pengetahuan yang berbeda, properti intelektual pada istilah sendiri. [FN82] Ada
prosedur yang tepat untuk memperoleh dan berbagi kebutuhan yang jelas untuk mempelajari hubungan
pengetahuan, serta hak dan tanggung jawab yang antara perlindungan adat TK dan sistem kekayaan
melekat pada pengetahuan memiliki, semua yang intelektual, dan khususnya implikasi dari hukum
tertanam unik di setiap budaya dan bahasa nya. adat dan protokol untuk properti intelektual.
" [FN74]
dokumentasi TK melalui perlindungan database asli b) Dalam kerangka hak-hak Masyarakat Adat ',
dan non-asli. Hak terkait secara tidak langsung Prinsip dan Pedoman untuk Perlindungan Warisan
dapat melindungi TK melalui perlindungan hak-hak Masyarakat Adat, yang dikembangkan oleh
pemain. Ada juga perdebatan mengenai Kelompok Kerja PBB untuk Masyarakat Adat,
memanfaatkan sistem payant domaine publik [FN91] telah dikutip sebagai contoh model sui
dalam hal TK, di mana royalti terus harus dibayar generis di tingkat internasional;
untuk penggunaan karya sastra dan musik dalam * 613 c) Pada tingkat regional dan nasional, ada
domain publik. Para droite de suite, royalti dijual beberapa inisiatif. Sebagai contoh:
kembali di mana seniman menerima bagian dari - Negara Anggota dari Komunitas Andes telah
harga yang dibayarkan untuk karya asli-nya dari mengadopsi empat lembar undang-undang,
semua penjualan setelah penjualan pertama karya menjadi Keputusan 345 - Ketentuan umum tentang
oleh seniman, juga telah diperdebatkan sebagai Perlindungan Hak Varietas Tanaman Peternak
berpotensi berguna di daerah ini . Baru, Keputusan 351 - Ketentuan umum tentang
Hak Cipta dan Hak Tetangga, Keputusan 391 -
Anti Monopoli. Ada perdebatan yang luas untuk Rezim Umum Akses ke Sumber Daya Genetik, dan
melindungi unsur-unsur tertentu dari TK dengan Keputusan 486 - Rezim Kekayaan Intelektual
menggunakan kerahasiaan perdagangan, atau Umum. Selain itu, Keputusan pada Rezim umum
perlindungan informasi yang dirahasiakan tentang Perlindungan TK sedang dipersiapkan;
sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Seni. 39 dari [FN92]
Perjanjian TRIPS, serta obat common law "lulus - Organisasi Persatuan Afrika (OAU) telah
off." mengadopsi Model Law tentang Perlindungan Hak-
Hak Masyarakat Lokal, Petani dan Peternak, dan
untuk Peraturan Akses Sumber Daya
- Baru (sui generis) standar kekayaan intelektual
Genetik. Model Law ini diadopsi oleh Dewan
Menteri dari OAU pada bulan Juni 1998, dan versi
Seperti telah disebutkan, beberapa orang terbaru belum lama ini disahkan oleh rapat
berkonsultasi menunjuk keterbatasan yang melekat Perdagangan OAU Ministries di Aljir pada 2000;
dalam standar kekayaan intelektual yang ada dan [FN93]
telah diartikulasikan kebutuhan untuk - 10 negara Asosiasi Bangsa Asia Tenggara
pengembangan alat baru untuk melindungi (ASEAN) yang mengelaborasi Persetujuan Akses
kekayaan intelektual bentuk TK belum Sumber Daya Hayati dan Genetik; [FN94]
tertutup. Standar baru kekayaan intelektual bisa - Pulau Pasifik Amerika sedang mempertimbangkan
diakomodasi dalam konsep luas "kekayaan rancangan pedoman dan draft sui generis Model
intelektual" dalam Konvensi WIPO, yang mengatur Law untuk perlindungan TK dan ekspresi budaya di
bahwa kekayaan intelektual harus mencakup hak kawasan Pasifik; [FN95]
kekayaan intelektual yang ada "dan semua hak lain - Pada tingkat hukum nasional, beberapa negara
yang dihasilkan dari aktivitas intelektual di industri, telah memberlakukan atau memberlakukan
ilmiah, sastra atau seni ladang. " [FN90] undang-undang di bidang perlindungan TK. Ini
mungkin atau mungkin tidak terkait dengan hak
Standar baru untuk TK perlindungan telah atau kekayaan intelektual. Contoh termasuk Brasil,
sedang dikembangkan, sebagian besar dalam Kosta Rika, Guatemala, India, Nigeria, Panama,
bentuk undang-undang sui generis, untuk Peru, Filipina, Afrika Selatan dan Thailand. [FN96]
melindungi elemen TK yang tidak tercakup oleh d) proses antar-pemerintah telah mengidentifikasi
sistem yang ada kekayaan intelektual. Sebagai "unsur-unsur umum dari undang-undang nasional
contoh: sui generis" untuk melindungi lingkup penuh subyek
a) Pada tingkat internasional, WIPO telah TK; [FN97]
mengembangkan sebuah model untuk * 614 e) Selain itu, beberapa organisasi non-
perlindungan sui generis tertentu TK terkait materi pemerintah telah mengembangkan model untuk sui
yang dibahas dalam kerjasama dengan UNESCO, generis perlindungan TK.[FN98]
yaitu Model Ketentuan UNESCO-WIPO untuk
Hukum Nasional Perlindungan Ekspresi Folklore Sui generis inisiatif seperti yang dijelaskan mungkin
Melawan Eksploitasi terlarang dan Lain- memasukkan kebutuhan untuk pengungkapan
lain Tindakan merugikan (1982); dalam aplikasi untuk judul properti industri dari
negara dan / atau komunitas asal TK digunakan bahkan untuk pemegang pengetahuan tersebut.
untuk mengembangkan penemuan ("sertifikat asal [FN100]
(CO)" kebutuhan) dan / atau untuk "informed
consent sebelum" (PIC) dari pemegang TK Dalam komentar terhadap Draft Laporan,
relevan. Sejumlah undang-undang nasional dan Pemerintah Kanada, menyatakan:
regional telah disediakan untuk recordals tersebut, Analisis lebih lanjut diperlukan sebelum bisa ada
dengan cara menetapkan bahwa dokumen paten pertimbangan dari rezim sui generis untuk
akan mengungkapkan asal sumber daya genetik melindungi TK. Penelitian lebih lanjut diperlukan di
yang digunakan dalam pengembangan penemuan sejumlah daerah. Misalnya, analisis banyak
serta menunjukkan bahwa persetujuan sebelumnya keluhan sehubungan dengan bioprospecting * 615
telah diperoleh dari pihak yang berwenang dan bio-pembajakan, termasuk analisis dari
dan pemegang TK. Tujuan dari pengungkapan perspektif yang berbeda, diperlukan. [FN101]
tersebut adalah untuk memberikan mekanisme
untuk memverifikasi kepatuhan dengan hukum
Lain mengomentari Draft Laporan menyatakan
nasional dan kontrak berkaitan dengan akses
sebagai berikut:
terhadap sumber daya genetik dan pembagian
Dalam upaya untuk melindungi TK, sebuah usaha
keuntungan dan terkait TK.
tidak harus dilakukan untuk mengambil sistem IP
dikembangkan dengan menyeimbangkan
Orang berkonsultasi pada FFMs menyarankan kepentingan yang bersaing dalam satu sistem nilai,
bahwa alat baru kekayaan intelektual dapat dan mencoba untuk membuatnya cocok dengan
diakomodasi dalam konsepsi, luas evolusioner dan sistem nilai yang berbeda. Selain itu, fokus harus
adaptif dari "kekayaan intelektual" dalam Konvensi tetap pada hak kekayaan intelektual, meskipun TK
WIPO, [FN99] sebagai sebelumnya disebut. yang dicari perlindungan juga dapat simbolis dari
suatu tatanan yang lebih dalam atau sistem
Namun, dalam komentar terhadap Draft Laporan, kepercayaan, dan per se subjek dikecualikan
Amerika Serikat Paten dan Trademark Office dicatat dalam Draft Laporan. Hanya setelah
(USPTO) menyatakan pandangan yang berbeda: mengkaji secara menyeluruh bagaimana sistem
yang ada dapat digunakan untuk melindungi TK
Amerika Serikat sepakat dengan Draft Laporan dapat keputusan dibuat pada apakah dan
yang ke properti intelektual batas tertentu adalah bagaimana sistem baru harus dikembangkan untuk
"evolusioner dan adaptif "....Namun, harus dicatat memberikan perlindungan jenis lain. Namun, ini
bahwa generasi baru dari hukum kekayaan tidak berarti bahwa TK tidak boleh dilindungi, hanya
intelektual semua berbagi karakteristik tertentu bahwa setiap perubahan harus konsisten dengan
dengan generasi yang lebih tua dari hukum tujuan yang mendasari dan tujuan dari sistem
kekayaan intelektual hak cipta, paten, merek IP. [FN102]
dagang: yaitu, bahwa mekanisme insentif untuk
inovasi. Seperti memandang ke depan sistem yang Lain mengomentari Draft Laporan mengungkapkan
berusaha untuk mendorong perkembangan bentuk- keprihatinan pada risiko dan efek negatif bagi
bentuk baru ekspresi dan penemuan, jenis baru penerbit yang ditimbulkan oleh alat-alat properti
dari kekayaan intelektual masih didasarkan pada baru diusulkan intelektual untuk melindungi TK:
prinsip dasar dan karakteristik berbagi seperti Menyadari bahwa penerbit, dan penerbit lokal
tanggal pembuatan, identitas diketahui dari satu tertentu, sangat berkontribusi terhadap penyebaran
atau lebih pencipta , parameter yang didefinisikan dan pelestarian TK, IPA (International Publishers
dari produk yang relevan dan durasi yang terbatas Association) adalah terutama berkaitan dengan
perlindungan (atau dalam kasus merek dagang, memastikan bahwa alat-alat baru untuk melindungi
tunduk untuk menggunakan terus- TK tidak negatif berdampak pada perkembangan
menerus). Sebuah rezim untuk melindungi TK, industri penerbitan lokal . [FN103]
karena banyak peserta dalam misi pencarian-fakta Kebutuhan untuk kerangka kerja internasional
menunjukkan, tidak bisa dengan definisi mematuhi untuk TK perlindungan juga ditekankan oleh orang-
prinsip-prinsip ini. Dengan demikian, orang berbicara pada FFMs. Terutama dengan
mengembangkan rezim intelektual-properti-jenis kemajuan saat ini dalam teknologi informasi dan
baru di daerah ini tidak tampaknya paling cocok biologi, sistem murni nasional nilai terbatas.Sebuah
kerangka multilateral, di mana TK dapat dilindungi harapan yang berbeda begitu banyak, tujuan dan
di semua negara penandatangan dalam cara yang sistem asli, untuk mendekati kepemilikan dan
sama seperti hak kekayaan intelektual lainnya, pelanggaran kepemilikan bahwa sistem, yang
yang diinginkan, informan FFM berguna global yang dilaksanakan akan hampir
disarankan. Ketentuan Model untuk Hukum mustahil untuk membuat. Memang, "satu ukuran
Nasional Perlindungan Ekspresi Folklore Melawan cocok untuk semua" pendekatan bisa ditafsirkan
Eksploitasi terlarang dan Tindakan merugikan sebagai menunjukkan kurangnya penghormatan
lainnya tahun 1982 disebut-sebut sebagai dasar terhadap adat dan tradisi lokal.[FN106]
mungkin untuk menetapkan standar masa depan
pada tingkat internasional. (Ii) Operasional pertanyaan
Namun, kebutuhan untuk solusi untuk pertama kali Ada kekhawatiran yang valid dan penting untuk
dikembangkan dan diuji secara nasional dan kemampuan masyarakat adat dan lokal untuk
regional yang ditekankan oleh menggunakan sistem kekayaan intelektual secara
beberapa. Disarankan bahwa konsensus efektif. Informan menunjuk pahaman di antara
multilateral mengenai norma-norma internasional pemegang TK dengan sistem dan biaya
tidak mungkin dalam jangka pendek, dan bahwa memperoleh, mempertahankan dan menegakkan
setelah solusi diterapkan telah diuji dan terbukti hak kekayaan intelektual.Pertanyaan operasional
pada tingkat lokal dan nasional, evolusi dari sebuah semacam ini mungkin sama pentingnya, jika tidak
kerangka kerja internasional yang disepakati lebih lebih dari, pertanyaan-pertanyaan hukum yang
mungkin. [FN104] Ide akan pertama kali dibahas di atas. Mereka juga untai keprihatinan
mengembangkan dan bereksperimen dengan alat- yang lebih besar dengan "kekuatan" - kekuatan
alat yang ada untuk melindungi kekayaan finansial dan politik untuk menggunakan dan
intelektual TK, dalam apa yang digambarkan mengambil keuntungan dari sistem kekayaan
sebagai "bottom up" pendekatan, sebelum intelektual, untuk mempengaruhi perkembangan
pertimbangan apapun dapat diberikan kepada progresif hukum kekayaan intelektual dan kebijakan
standar-pengaturan multilateral. dan untuk menantang kekayaan intelektual klaim
yang dibuat oleh orang lain. Seperti yang
* 616 The USPTO, dalam komentar terhadap Draft dinyatakan selama WIPO Roundtable Kekayaan
Laporan, menyatakan pandangan sepanjang jalur Intelektual dan TK berlangsung dari November 01-
tersebut.Memperhatikan kepentingan yang 02, 1999 "... jika TK adalah tidak dilindungi secara
beragam antara dan di dalam masyarakat adat memadai dan inovasi perusahaan dan
sehubungan dengan TK dan cerita rakyat, USPTO 'pengetahuan modern' dilindungi, itu bukan karena
mempertanyakan: ketidakcocokan sistem (TK dan hak kekayaan
Apakah mungkin, atau bahkan diinginkan, untuk intelektual) tapi karena perbedaan dalam
membangun satu set, seragam aturan yang kekuasaan. " [FN107]
komprehensif di tingkat internasional untuk
mengatur penggunaan TK dan cerita rakyat?Paling Pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang lebih luas bisa jatuh di
tidak, kita bertanya-tanya apakah itu disarankan luar lingkup kekayaan intelektual, namun kebutuhan
untuk melakukan kegiatan tersebut sebelum lebih spesifik untuk memfasilitasi akses ke sistem
negara-negara individual memiliki, dalam kekayaan intelektual untuk memungkinkan
hubungannya dengan masyarakat di dalam pemegang TK untuk menggunakannya secara lebih
perbatasan mereka sendiri, membentuk rezim efektif, dan untuk menyediakan informasi dan
mereka sendiri untuk perlindungan dalam wilayah bantuan kepada pemegang TK untuk menegakkan
mereka sendiri dan memperoleh pengalaman hak-hak mereka tajam dirasakan oleh WIPO
dalam penerapan dan perlindungan yang efeknya selama semua FFMs. Kebutuhan ini dapat
pada masyarakat yang terlibat. Kami percaya dipenuhi, misalnya, dengan penyebaran informasi
bahwa WIPO pihak harus mempertimbangkan yang lebih luas kekayaan intelektual masyarakat
masalah ini dengan hati-hati. [FN105] adat * 617 dan masyarakat setempat, kegiatan
informasi publik khusus ditujukan pemegang TK,
Selain itu: dan kegiatan lainnya yang dilakukan oleh kantor
Selain itu, sebagai Draft Laporan menunjukkan, ada nasional kekayaan intelektual dan lembaga lain
dalam lingkup subyek yang dibatasi di bawah tugas dengan, karya CBD dan FAO;
di atas dan mengidentifikasi setiap elemen pokok - Mereka akan dikembangkan dengan partisipasi
yang disepakati yang membutuhkan perlindungan penuh dan efektif dari semua pemangku
tambahan; kepentingan, masyarakat adat dan lokal tertentu.
- Mempertimbangkan revisi kriteria yang ada dan
mengembangkan kriteria baru yang akan Selain itu, Komite disebutkan poin spesifik tertentu,
memungkinkan integrasi efektif dokumentasi yang mencakup isu pengungkapan asal sumber
pengetahuan tradisional menjadi seni dicari daya genetik, persetujuan informasi, kedaulatan
sebelumnya; negara atas sumber daya genetik mereka, transfer
- Mempertimbangkan cara-cara membantu teknologi, masalah hukum yang berlaku, dari
pemegang pengetahuan tradisional dalam menjaga ilmiah dasar penelitian, pendidikan dan
kaitannya dengan penegakan hak kekayaan bantuan hukum kepada masyarakat adat dan lokal,
intelektual, khususnya dengan membantu mereka status hukum sumber daya genetik di bawah
untuk memperkuat kapasitas mereka untuk hukum internasional, definisi istilah, dan
menegakkan hak-hak mereka; pendekatan berbasis proses untuk praktek panduan
kontrak. Komite menetapkan bahwa
Ekspresi dari cerita rakyat pengembangan database elektronik pada kontrak
harus dipertimbangkan dan bahwa bekerja pada
- Melakukan koleksi dan analisis pengalaman tugas ini harus tanpa prasangka terhadap
nasional yang berhubungan dengan perlindungan kemungkinan perkembangan sui generis rezim
cerita rakyat. tentang perlindungan pengetahuan tradisional;