Wireless Pers Commun (2009) 51:231–244

DOI 10.1007/s11277-008-9640-9

Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time

Coding Employing Alamouti Scheme in Wireless Relays
Networks

Trung Q. Duong · Ngoc-Tien Nguyen · Trang Hoang ·

Viet-Kinh Nguyen

Published online: 13 November 2008

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. 2008

Abstract In this paper, we analyze the pairwise error probability (PEP) of distributed
space–time codes, in which the source and the relay generate Alamouti space–time code in a
distributed fashion. We restrict our attention to the space–time code construction for Proto-
col III in Nabar et al. (IEEE Journal on Selected Areas Communications 22(6): 1099–1109,
2004). In particular, we derive two closed-form approximations for PEP when the relay is
either close to the destination or source and an upper bound for any position of the relay.
Using the alternative definition of Q-function, we can express these PEPs in terms of finite
integral whose integrand is composed of trigonometric functions. We further show that with
only one relay assisted source-destination link, system still achieves diversity order of two,
assuming single-antenna terminals. We also perform Monte-Carlo simulations to verify the
analysis.

Keywords Distributed space–time codes · Relay channels · Pairwise error probability

(PEP)

This paper was presented in part at the 7th International Symposium on Communications and Information
Technologies, Sydney, Australia, Oct., 2007.

T. Q. Duong (B)
Blekinge Institute of Technology, Ronneby 372 25, Sweden
e-mail: quang.trung.duong@bth.se

N.-T. Nguyen
Ministry of Posts and Telematics (MPT), Hanoi, Vietnam
e-mail: nntien@mpt.gov.vn

T. Hoang
Heterogeneous Silicon Integration Department, CEA/LETI, Grenoble, France
e-mail: trang.hoang@cea.fr

V.-K. Nguyen
University of Technology-Hanoi National University, Hanoi, Vietnam
e-mail: kinhnv@vnu.edu.vn

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232 T. Q. Duong et al.

1 Introduction

It is well-known that the multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems can remarkably

improve the capacity and reliability of wireless communications over fading channels using
multiplexing scheme and space–time coding [2–5]. However, the demand for low-cost and
small-size portable devices has prohibited practical implementation of MIMO system.
Recently, with the increasing interests in ad-hoc networks, cooperative diversity has been
proposed to exploit MIMO benefits in a distributed fashion [6–8].
Distributed space–time coding (DSTC) has been considered to achieve cooperative
diversity in wireless relay networks, in which different relays work as co-located transmit
antennas and construct a space–time code to realize spatial diversity gain [1,9–11]. Recently,
a closed form expression of bit-error-rate (BER) has been presented for DSTC in [11]. Also,
a simple DSTC for two relays has been investigated in [12,13]. More specifically, Alamouti
scheme has been applied into relay systems where two single-antenna1 relays simultaneously
receive a noisy signal from the source and generate Alamouti space–time codes in a distrib-
uted fashion before relaying the signals to the destination. This model has been demonstrated
to obtain a full diversity order, i.e., the degree of diversity is order of two [14]. In practice, such
code design is difficult due to distributed and ad-hoc nature, as opposed to codes designed for
co-located (MIMO) systems. Furthermore, coherent reception of multiple relays transmission
obliges synchronization (at the symbol and carrier level) among multiple transmit-receive
pairs, which enhances the receiver complexity. The problem we are interested in is whether
we still achieve a full diversity order with only one relay.
The considered relay network model is similar to the Protocol III in [1]. Unlike [1], in
which the channel of relay-destination link was assumed static, in this paper we analyze the
PEP taking into account random fading channels for all links. The source communicates with
the destination during the first hop. In the second hop, both relay and source communicate
with the destination. We also assume the channel information is only available at the destina-
tion. A key feature of our work is that the relay simply amplifies the signal and transmits to
the destination without any sort of signal regeneration, called non-regenerative or amplify-
and-forward protocol. This simplification of relay operations avoid imposing bottlenecks on
the rate of the relays.
Our contribution in this work can be briefly described as follows. We analyze the PEP
of DSTC, in which the relay and the source construct a distributed-Alamouti space-time
code (each terminal transmits one row of Alamouti code [15] to the destination). We then
successfully derive two closed-form expressions for PEP as the relay approaches both ends
and an upper bound for any position of relay. Assessing two tight approximations of PEP
in the high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) regime, we further show that the considered distrib-
uted-Alamouti system can achieve a full diversity gain with only one relay assisted the direct
communication. We also perform Monte-Carlo simulations to validate our analysis.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2, we briefly review the cooperative
system of one non-regenerative relay based on Alamouti scheme. Two closed-form approxi-
mations for PEP when the relay is either near to the destination or source and an upper bound
for any position of relay are derived in Sect. 3. Using the asymptotic (high SNR) PEP formulas
we show that the distributed system employing Alamouti codes achieves a diversity gain of
order two in Sect. 4. Numerical results are given in Sect. 5. Finally, Sect. 6 concludes the paper.
Notation: Throughout the paper, we shall use the following notations. Vector is written as
bold lower case letter and matrix is written as bold upper case letter. The superscripts ∗ and †

1 In this paper, we only consider the single-antenna terminal.

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Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time Coding 233

Fig. 1 Schematic of relay channel

stand for the complex conjugate and transpose conjugate, respectively. I n represents the n ×n
identity matrix. A A F denotes Frobenius norm of the matrix A and |x| indicates the envelope
of x. Ex {.} is the expectation operator over the random variable x. A complex Gaussian dis-
tribution with mean µ and variance σ 2 is denoted by CN (µ, σ 2 ). Let us denote Ñm (m m, )
as a complex Gaussian random vector with mean vector m and covariance matrix  . log
natural logarithm.  (a, x) is the incomplete gamma function defined as  (a, x) =

is∞thea−1
x t e−t dt and Kn (.) is the nth-order modified Bessel function of the second kind.

2 System Models

We consider a wireless relay network with three terminals as shown in Fig. 1. Every terminal
has a single antenna, which can not transmit and receive simultaneously. The relay terminal
assists in communication by simply amplifying and forwarding received signals. We also
assume all terminals are synchronized in the symbol level and channel remains constant for
a coherence time (at least two symbol-intervals) and changes independently to a new value
for each coherence time.
The source transmits the first row of Alamouti code to the destination during the first hop
with average transmit power per symbol Ps . For the first hop transmission, the receive signal
at the relay is given by
y R = h SRs 1 + n R (1)
where h SR ∼ CN (0, SR ) is Rayleigh-fading channel coefficient for the source-relay link,
s 1 = [ s1 s2 ] is the first row of Alamouti code, si (i = 1, 2) is selected from signal constel-
lation S , and n R ∼ CN (0, N0 ) is complex additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) at the
relay.
In the second hop, the source sends the second row of Alamouti code to the destination,
whereas the relay retransmits a scaled version of y R to the destination with the same power
constraint as in the first hop. The relaying gain is determined only to satisfy the average
power constraint with statistical channel state information (CSI) on h SR . For the second hop
transmission, the receive signal at the destination is readily written as
y D = h RD ωyy R + h SDs 2 + n D (2)
where ω is the scalar relaying gain, h RD ∼ CN (0, RD ) and h SD ∼ CN (0, SD ) are
Rayleigh-fading channel coefficients for the relay-destination and source-destination links,

123
234 T. Q. Duong et al.

respectively, s 2 = [ −s2∗ s1∗ ] is the second row of Alamouti code, and n D ∼ CN (0, N0 ) is the
AWGN at the destination. Note that all the random quantities hA and nB , A ∈ {SD, SR, RD},
B ∈ {R, D}, are statistically independent and the variations in A capture the effect of
distance-related path loss in each link. To constrain transmit power at the relay, we have
 2   
E ωyy R F = E ss i 2F (3)

yielding
 −1
1
ω2 = SR + (4)
SNR
where SNR = P s
N0 is the common SNR of each link without fading [8]. The receive signal at
the destination in (2) is now formed as follows
yD = hS + n (5)
 

s1 s2
where h = h RD h SR ω h SD , S = is Alamouti space–time code, and n =
−s2∗ s1∗
 
h RD ωnn R + n D ∼ Ñ2 0, N0 1 + |h RD | ω I 2 .
2 2

3 Pairwise Error Probability

As mentioned above, assuming the destination knows channel information for all links, it
is easy to see that y D |hA is a Gaussian random vector with mean vector h S and covariance
matrix N0 1 + |h RD |2 ω2 I 2 . Hence, the maximum-likelihood (ML) decoding of the system
can be readily seen to be
 2
Ŝ = arg min y D − h S F (6)
S

where the minimization is performed over all possible codeword matrices S . With the ML
decoding in (6), the PEP, given the channel coefficients hA , of mistaking S by E is obtained as
 
hh (SS − E )2F
P(SS → E | hA ) = Q  (7)
2N0 1 + |h RD |2 ω2
It is important to note that S and E (SS  = E ) are the two possible codewords of Alamouti
space–time code, hence, we have
(SS − E ) (SS − E )† = Ps d E2 I 2 (8)
where

d E2 = |s1 − e1 |2 + |s2 − e2 |2 > 0 (9)

π/2  
x2
Applying the alternative definition of Q-function [16]: Q(x) = π1 0 exp − 2 sin 2θ dθ
into (7) and integrating over all channel realizations, we obtain the unconditional PEP as
follows:
π/2  
1 SNRd E2
P(SS → E ) = Eγ {P(SS → E |γ )} = φγ dθ (10)
π 4 sin2 θ
0

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Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time Coding 235

where
hh 2F |h RD |2 |h SR |2 ω2 + |h SD |2
γ = = , (11)
1 + |h RD |2 ω2 1 + |h RD |2 ω2

and φγ (ν)
Eγ {exp (−νγ )} is the moment-generating function (MGF) of the random var-
iable γ . To evaluate the integration in (10), next we discuss two specific cases: (i) when the
relay is close to the destination (ii) when the relay is close to the source.

3.1 The Relay is Close to the Destination

If the relays are much closer to the destination than the source, then we may have 1 +
high SNR
|h RD |2 ω2 ≈ |h RD |2 ω2 . In this case (11) can be approximated as

|h SD |2
γ ≈ |h SR |2 + (12)
|h RD |2 ω2
Recalling that hA , A ∈ {SD, SR, RD}, are assumed to be statistically independent, the
MGF of γ , φγ (ν), can be determined by
 ν 
φγ (ν) = φ|h SR |2 (ν) φ y 2 (13)
ω
|h SD |2
where y = |h RD |2
. Since hA ∼ CN (0, A ), it is obvious that |hA |2 obeys an exponential
distribution with hazard rate 1/A . The probability density function (p.d.f.) of |hA |2 can be
written as
1
p|hA |2 (x) = exp(−x/A ), (14)
A
yielding
 
φ|h SR |2 (ν) = E|h SR |2 exp − |h SR |2 ν = (1 + νSR )−1 (15)

Following Lemma 1 in the Appendix 6, p.d.f. of y is given by

pY (y) = SD RD (SD + RD y)−2 , (16)

yielding

 ν  ∞  νy 
φ y 2 = exp − 2 SD RD (SD + RD y)−2 dy
ω ω
0
   
νSD νSD νSD
= 2 exp  −1, (17)
ω RD ω2 RD ω2 RD
where (17) follows immediately from the change of variable u = SD + RD y and [17,
Eq. (3.381.1)]. Substituting (13), (15), and (17) into (10), we obtain

π/2
1 −1   
P (SS → E ) = 1 + ξ SR ξ̂ exp ξ̂  −1, ξ̂ dθ (18)
π
0

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236 T. Q. Duong et al.

where
SNRd E2
ξ= (19)
4 sin2 θ
and
SD
ξ̂ = ξ (20)
RD ω2

3.2 The Relay is Close to the Source

On the other hand, if the relays are much close to the source, the following approximation
high SNR
may be hold 1 + |h RD |2 ω2 ≈ 1. In this case, (11) can be readily written as
γ ≈ |h RD |2 |h SR |2 ω2 + |h SD |2 (21)
yielding

φγ (ν) = φz ω2 ν φ|h SD |2 (ν) (22)
with
 
φ|h SD |2 (ν) = E|h SD |2 exp −ν |h SD |2 = (1 + SD ν)−1 (23)

and φz ω2 ν , where z = |h RD |2 |h SR |2 , is given by
  
φz ω2 ν = Ez exp −ω2 νz
∞   
 2 z
= exp −ω2 νz K0 2 dz (24)
SR RD SR RD
0
= λ exp(λ) (0, λ) (25)
2 −1
where λ = ω SR RD ν , (24) follows immediately from [14, Theorem 3], and (25) can
be obtained from the change of variable t = ω2 · ν · z along with [17, Eq. (8.352.4)].
Combining (22), (23), (25), and (10), the PEP becomes
π/2  
1 −1
P (SS → E ) = 1 + ξ SD ζ exp (ζ )  (0, ζ ) dθ (26)
π
0
−1
where ξ is given in (19) and ζ = ω2 SR RD ξ .
We can clearly see that the PEPs are given in closed-form expressions when the relay is
either close to the destination or source, shown in (18) and (26), respectively. These results can
be readily calculated by common mathematical software packages such as MATHEMATICA
or MAPLE.

3.3 An Upper Bound of Pairwise Error Probability

So far, the closed-form approximations of PEP have been considered for the case when the
relay is close to both ends. In this subsection, we will derive the upper bound of PEP for any
position of relay. From (11), the value of γ can be shown as

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Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time Coding 237

|h RD |2 |h SR |2
γ > = γ0 . (27)
1
ω2
+ |h RD |2
Applying (27) into (10), we can upper bound the PEP as
π/2  
1 SNRd E2
P (SS → E ) < φγ0 dθ
π 4 sin2 θ
0
π/2  
1 1
= 1 + ρξ SR exp (ρ)  (0, ρ) dθ (28)
π 1 + ξ SR
0
where (28) follows immediately from Lemma 2 in the Appendix, ξ is given in (19), and
 
 −1
ρ = ω2 RD 1 + ξ SR

4 Diversity Order

Noting that, in [1] the diversity order was obtained from the Chernoff bound (not a tight bound)
with an assumption that the relay-to-destination link is static (non-fading) and deduced from
the upper bound of PEP (assuming fading relay-destination link) when the relay is close to
the source. In this section, we quantify the effect of our relay protocol on the PEP curve in the
high-SNR regime when the relay approaches both ends. Using the two tight approximations
of PEP derived Sects. 3.1 and 3.2, we can assess the diversity order of distributed-Alamouti
systems by the following theorem.
Theorem 1 (Achievable Diversity Order) The non-regenerative cooperation of our scheme
provides maximum diversity order, i.e., D = 2, when the relay is near both ends.
Proof The diversity has been defined as the absolute values of the slopes of the error proba-
bility (e.g., PEP) curve plotted on a log–log scale in high SNR regime [16], i.e.,
− log P (SS → E )
D
lim (29)
SNR→∞ log (SNR)
As can be seen from (10), the PEP is expressed in a form of finite integral whose integrand
is the MGF of random variable γ . Therefore, the asymptotic behavior of the MGF φγ (ν) at
large SNR reveals a high-SNR slope of the PEP curve, we have
− log φγ (ν) |θ =π/2
D= lim . (30)
SNR→∞ log (SNR)
• The relay is close to the destination
Substituting (15) and (17) into (13), the diversity order D in (30) is now shown as
log(1+αx) log(βx exp(βx)(−1,βx))
D = lim x→∞ log x − lim x→∞ log x
= 1 − (−1) = 2 (31)
d E2 SR d E2 SD
where α = 4 , β = , x = SNR, and (31) follows immediately by applying
4ω2 RD
l’Hospital rule.
• The relay is close to the source
Substituting (23) and (25) into (22), the diversity order D is now given by

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238 T. Q. Duong et al.

Fig. 2 Collinear topology with an exponential-decay path loss model where SD ∝ d −α , SR = ε −α SD ,
and RD = (1 − ε)−α SD with α = 4

log(1+ηx) log( ϕx exp( ϕx ) (0, ϕx ))

D = lim x→∞ log x − lim x→∞ log x
= 1 − (−1) = 2 (32)
d E2 SD −1
where η = 4 , ϕ = 4 d E2 ω2 SR RD , and (32) follows immediately from
l’Hospital rule.
This completes the proof.2 

5 Numerical Results

In this section, we validate our analysis by comparing with simulation. In the following
numerical examples, we consider the non-regenerative relay protocol employing Alamouti
code as in Sect. 2. We assume collinear geometry for locations of three communicating termi-
nals, as shown in Fig. 2. The path loss of each link follows an exponential-decay model: if the
distance between the source and destination is equal to d, then SD ∝ d −α where the exponent
α = 4 corresponding to a typical non line-of-sight propagation. Then, SR =  −α SD and
RD = (1 − )−α SD . For Alamouti code transmission, the source send symbols selected
from binary phase-shift keying (BPSK). The reason we use BPSK modulation is to simplify
the calculation of PEP as described in the following. For the normalization, the BPSK con-
stellation points are −1 and 1. When only one of the corresponding symbols in S and E are
different, for example s1 = e1 and s2  = e2 , we have d E2 = 4. On the other hand, when both
corresponding symbols in the transmit and receive codewords are different from each other,
it holds d E2 = 8.
Figures 3 and 4 draw the PEP versus SNR when the relay approaches the destination for
 = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 with d E2 = 4 and the source for  = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 with d E2 = 8. As can
be clearly seen from both figures, analytical and simulated PEP curves match exactly when
the relay is located near by both ends. Observe that the PEP slops for  = 0.2,  = 0.3,
and  = 0.4 are identical at the high SNR regime, as speculated in Theorem 1. Similar
observation can be made for  = 0.6,  = 0.7, and  = 0.8.
However when the relay moves far away from both ends, analytical and simulated curves
do not completely agree together, for example  = 0.4 and  = 0.6, since the approximations
in (12) and (21) only satisfy when the relay is closely located to the destination and source,
respectively.
In Fig. 5, the PEP at SNR=20 dB with d E2 = 4 is depicted as a function of the fraction
. It is clear to see that the performance is decreased when the relay approaches both end
2 It has been confirmed by using mathematical software package MATHEMATICA.

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Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time Coding 239

Fig. 3 Pairwise error probability

of BPSK versus SNR in
non-regenerative relay channels
employing Alamouti scheme
when  = 0.6 , 0.7 , 0.8 with
2 = 4 (the relay is close to the
dE
destination). SD = 161

Fig. 4 Pairwise error probability of BPSK versus SNR in non-regenerative relay channels employing
2 = 8 (the relay is close to the source). 
Alamouti scheme when  = 0.2 , 0.3 , 0.4 with d E 1
SD = 16

and the symmetric geometry ( = 0.5) shows an optimal performance. For comparison, we
also plot the upper bound of PEP. The upper bound closely matches the simulated curve
when the relay approaches the destination. It can be explained in the following: At the rela-
tively high SNR regime, we have ω2 ≈ 1SR which makes the numerator of (11) becomes
|h RD |2 |h SR |2
SR + |h SD |2 . In addition, when the relay is close to the destination, SR is relatively
small leading to γ ≈ γ0 , given in (27).

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240 T. Q. Duong et al.

2 = 4 and SNR = 15 dB in
Fig. 5 Pairwise error probability of BPSK as a function of the fraction  with d E
non-regenerative relay channels employing Alamouti scheme. We also plot the upper bound of PEP

6 Conclusion

In this paper, we have analyzed the PEP of cooperative system, in which the source and the
relay generate Alamouti space–time code in a distributed fashion to exploit the benefit of
MIMO system in relay fading channels. Specifically, two tight approximations of PEP as the
relay approaches both ends and an upper bound of PEP for any position of relay have been
derived in closed-form expressions. We have quantified the effect of PEP in the high SNR
regime and shown that the full diversity order can be achieved.

Appendix 1: Auxiliary Results

The following lemmas will be helpful in the paper.

Lemma 1 Let X and Y be statistically independent and not necessarily identically dis-
tributed (i.n.i.d.) exponential random variables with hazard rate x and y , respectively.
Suppose that the ratio of Z takes the form
X
Z= (33)
Y
Then, we obtain the p.d.f. of random variable Z as
−2
p Z (z) = x y x + y z (34)
Proof Note that
∞
p Z (z) = y · p X Y (yz, y) dy (35)
0

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Pairwise Error Probability of Distributed Space–Time Coding 241

∞    
y z 1
= exp − + y dy (36)
x y x y
0
−2
= x y x + y z (37)
where (36) follows immediately from (14) and the statistical independence of X and Y . This
completes the proof. 

Lemma 2 Let X and Y be statistically independent and not necessarily identically dis-
tributed (i.n.i.d.) exponential random variables with hazard rate x and y , respectively.
Suppose that the ratio of Z takes the form
XY
Z= , a > 0. (38)
a+Y
Then, we obtain the MGF of random variable Z as
 
1
φ Z (ν) = 1 + τ νx exp (τ )  (0, τ ) (39)
1 + νx
with
a
τ= (40)
 y (1 + νx )

Proof The cumulative distribution function (c.d.f.) of Z is given by

XY
FZ (z) = Pr{ ≤ z}
a+Y
 
= EY FZ |Y (z)
  
z (a + Y )
= EY 1 − exp −
x Y
∞  
1 z (a + y) y
= 1− exp − − dy (41)
y x y y
0

The p.d.f. of Z is obtained by differentiating (41) with respect to z as follows

∞    
1 a+y z (a + y) y
p Z (z) = exp − − dy
x  y y x y y
0
∞  
1 z (a + y) y
= exp − − dy
x  y x y y
0
∞  
1 a z (a + y) y
+ exp − − dy (42)
x  y y x y y
0
    
2 z az y az
= exp − K1 2
x  y x x x  y
    
2a z az
+ exp − K0 2 . (43)
x  y x x  y

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242 T. Q. Duong et al.

where (43) follows immediately from [17, eq. (3.471.9)]. The MGF of Z can be expressed
by
φ Z (ν) = E Z {exp (−νz)}
 ∞       
2 a y 1 az
= z exp −
1/2
+ ν z K1 2 dz
x  y x x x  y
0
∞       
2a 1 az
+ exp − + ν z K0 2 dz (44)
x  y x x  y
0
 
1
= 1 + τ νx exp (τ )  (0, τ ) (45)
1 + νx
where (44) is obtained from (43), (45) follows immediately from [17, Eq. (8.353.4)] and
some simple manipulations, and τ is given in (40). This completes the proof. 

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17. Gradshteyn, I. S. & Ryzhik, I. M. (2000). Table of integrals, series, and products, 6th ed. San Diego:
Academic.

Author Biographies

Trung Q. Duong was born in Hoi An Town, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam, in 1979. He received the B.S.
degree in electrical-electronics engineering from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam, in
2002, and the M.S. degree in computer engineering from Kyung Hee University, South Korea, in 2005. In April
2004, he joined the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport,
Vietnam. He was a recipient of the Korean Government IT Scholarship Program for International Graduate
Students. In December 2006, he was awarded the Best Paper Award of IEEE Student Paper Contest—IEEE
Seoul Section. He finished a two-year Ph.D. course in radio communications engineering from Kyung Hee
University, South Korea, in 2007. In December 2007, he joined the staff of the School of Engineering, Blekinge
Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden. His current research interests include wireless and mobile commu-
nications.

Ngoc-Tien Nguyen was born in Hanoi, Vietnam, on February 26, 1964.

He received the B.S. degree in electronics and communications from
Military Technical Academy, Vinh Yen, Vietnam, in 1985, and the M.S.
degree in electronics and telecommunications from Hanoi National Uni-
versity. Currently, he is a Ph.D. candidate at the Vietnam Posts and
Telecommunications Institute of Technology (PTIT). Since 1993, he has
been working at the Ministry of Posts and Telematics (MPT) of Viet-
nam. His research interests include multi-user detection for DS-CDMA
systems, OFDM, MC-CDMA, and MIMO.

Trang Hoang received the B.S. and M.S. degree in electronics-

telecommunications engnieering from Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology, Viet Nam in 2002 and 2004, respectively. Currently, he is a
research staff in CEA/LETI-Minatec, Heterogeneous Integartion on Sil-
icon Division, Grenoble working towards his Ph.D. degree in the field
of MEMS at University Joseph Fourier, France. His research interest is
in the domain of integration of passive components, SAW devices, IC
design, SoC and MEMS fabrication.

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244 T. Q. Duong et al.

Viet-Kinh Nguyen received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering

from Poland Academy of Sciences, in 1977. Nowadays, he is a professor
teaching at University of Technology, Hanoi National University, Viet-
nam. His current research interests are CDMA, MC-CDMA, OFDM and
MIMO.

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