CHEM 1031 Final Exam Study Guide

GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
CHAPTER 1: MATTER, MEASUREMENT AND PROBL EM SOLVING
Topic 1: States of Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and volume
3 states
 Solid
 Crystalline
 Atoms or molecules are in a regular pattern and fixed positions
 Atoms or molecules vibrate in place and don’t move
 Ex: diamond
 Amorphous
 no regular pattern
 random arrangement of atoms and molecules
 ex: charcoal
 Liquid
 Atoms/ molecules not packed together tightly
 Atoms/molecules free to move about
 Fixed volume
 Atoms/molecules assume shape of the container
 Gas
 Compression possible because lots of space between atoms/molecules
 Random movement of atoms/molecules with high velocity
 Atoms/molecules assume shape and volume of the container
Topic 2: Types of Mixtures
Homogenous
 Separable by distillation
Heterogeneous
 Separable by filtration
Topic 4: Physical vs Chemical Properties
Physical
 Properties which a substance displays without changing its chemical composition
 Properties which do not depend on the amount of substance
 Ex: MP, BP, density, color, smell
Chemical
 Properties which a substance displays only by changing its composition during a
chemical change
 Ex: flammability, corrosiveness, acidity, alkalinity, toxicity
Topic 5: Physical vs Chemical Changes
Physical
 Change in the state of matter or appearance
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 Sublimation: solid to gas

 Deposition: gas to solid
 No change in chemical identity
 Changes require input or removal of energy
Chemical
 Changes that alter the composition of matter
Topic 6: Basic SI Units and Prefix Multipliers
SI Base Units
Quantity Unit symbol
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
SI Prefix Multipliers
Prefix Symbol Multiplier
Tera P 1012
Giga T 109
Mega G 106
Kilo M 103
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
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pico p 10-12
Topic 7: Dimensional Analysis involving Mass, Volume and Density

Dimensional analysis – using units as a guide to solving problems
Use the formula
Information given x conversion factor(s) = information sought
Given unit x desired unit/given unit = desired unit
Topic 8: Significant Figures

The greater the number of significant figures, the greater the certainty of the measurement
Significant figures = those which are the non-lace-holding digits
To determine the number of significant figures
 We must distinguish between zeroes that are significant and those that simply mark the
decimal place
 The leading zeroes mark the decimal place, so are not significant
 Trailing zeroes after a decimal point are significant
 Trailing zeroes before a decimal always significant
 Trailing zeroes before an implied decimal points are ambiguous
 All nonzero digits are significant
 Interior digits are significant
 How to multiply and divide
 How to subtract and add
Topic 9: Scientific Notation
 Used to avoid ambiguity in significant figures
 How to multiply and divide
 How to subtract and add
CHAPTER 2: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
Topic 1: Laws of Basic Chemistry

Law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier)
Law of definite proportion – all samples of a given compound have the same proportions as
their constituent elements
Law of multiple proportion – when two elements (A and B) form two different compounds,
the mass of B that combines with 1 g of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers
Topic 2: Atomic Theory
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Atoms first seen through scanning tunneling microscopy

First thought by Leucippus & Democritos that atoms were uncuttable and that nothing exists
except atoms and empty space
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 All matter is composed of atoms
 Atoms cannot be made or destroyed
 All atoms of same elements are identical
 Different elements have different atoms
 Chemical reactions occur when atoms rearrange
 Compound form from atoms of constituent elements
Thomson’s discovery of the electron
 Experiment: cathode ray tube
 Cathode rays are a stream of negatively charged particle
 Deduced charge-to-mass ratio: 1.76X108 C/ 1 g
 Electron is 2000X lighter than a H atom
 Significance: proved that atoms could be further divided
Millihan’s discovery of the charge of the electron
 Oil drop experiment
 Negatively charged drops suspended between two plates
 Using the voltage and mass of the drop, Millihan found the charge in each drop
 Always a multiple of -1.60X10-19 C
 Therefore, charge of one electron is -1.60 X 10-19 C
 Given the mass-to-charge ratio and charge of a single electron, the mass of the electron
is 9.1 X 10-28 g
 Significance: the atoms is neutral and electrons are negatively charged, so there must be
a positively charged particle in the atom
Rutherford’s atomic model
 Proposed a positively charged nucleus
 Electrons surround the nucleus
 The rest of the atom is empty space
 Plum pudding model
 Experiment: gold foil experiment
 Alpha particles aimed at gold foil
 As many negative particles as positive particles
 Problem: Something must account for extra mass, if not protons
 Then, Chadwick proposed neutrons with same mass as proton
Topic 3: Subatomic particles
Charges, Weights, Symbols
Particle Symbol Relative Actual Weight Relative
charge charge weight
Proton p+ +1 +1.60 X 10-19 1.6762 x 10- 1.00 amu

27 kg
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Neutron n0 0 0 1.67493 x 10- 1.00 amu

27 kg
Electron e- -1 -1.60 X 10-19 9.10 x 10-31 5.48 x 10-4

kg amu
1 a.m.u. = 1/12 (mass of an atom of carbon-12) = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Protons and atomic number
 Atomic number (Z) is unique to each element
 Z = # of protons
 Z, and therefore # of protons, defines the element
 Different elements contain different numbers of protons
 Each element has a name and a symbol
Topic 4: Isotopes
Dalton proposed that all atoms of a given elements have the same mass, but this is not true!
Isotope = atoms that contain same number of p+ but different of n0
Mass number (A) = #n0 + #p+
Percent abundance calculations
 Mass of an isotope is measured through mass spectroscopy
 Atomic masses are weighted according to the natural abundance of each isotope
 Atomic mass = [(percent abundance of isotope 1 * weight of isotope 1) +
(percent abundance weight of isotope 2 * weight of isotope 2)]/100
Topic 5: Periodic law
Periodic Law – elements with similar properties occur with a similar patten when organized
in order of increasing mass
Most elements are metals
Non-metals on right
Metalloids: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At
Group Names
 Group 1 – Alkaline metals; produce alkaline solution in water
 Group 2 – alkaline earth metals
 Group 15 – Pnictogens
 Group 16 – Chalcogens
 Group 17 – Halogens
 Group 18 – Noble gases
Period
Topic 6: Ions
Ions form when atoms lose or gain electrons
To represent charge, remember that the number always goes before the charge
How to predict charges
 Metals tend to form cations by losing electrons
 Nonmetals tend to gain electrons and form anions
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 The number of electrons in a stable cation or anion = #electron in nearest noble gases
Topic 7: Avogadro’s number
Avogadro’s number: 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles
Ex: 1 mol carbon-12 = 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon-12
Particles could mean atoms, molecules, ions, etc.
Moles to number of atoms
 to convert from moles of an atom to number of atoms, multiply the moles by Avogadro’s
number
 to convert from number of atoms to moles, divide the number of atoms by Avogadro’s
number
Mass to moles using molar mass
 molar mass describes the mass of a substance in one mole of that substance
 calculated using Avogadro’s number
 to convert from mass to moles, divide the mass by the molar mass
Mass to numbers of atoms
 mass to number of atoms: divide mass by molar mass to get moles, then multiply by
Avogadro’s number
 number of atoms to mass, divide number of atoms by Avogadro’s number and then
multiply by molar mass
CHAPTER 3: MOLECULES, COMPOUNDS, AND CHEMICAL

EQUATIONS
Topic 1: Types of bonding

2 main types
Ionic bonding
 Occurs when a metal reacts with nonmetals to form ionic compounds
 Ionic bond = “an electrostatic attraction between an anion and a cation”
 An ionic compound is not a molecule, but a 3D lattice of alternating cation and anion
Covalent bonding
 occurs between two nonmetals or an nonmetal and metalloids
 pair of electrons shared between two atoms in a covalent bond
Topic 2: Types of formulas
Chemical formula – all compounds have a chemical formula; describes the relative number of
atoms/ions in the compounds
Molecular formula – only for covalent compounds; describes the number of atoms of each
element in the compound
Empirical formula – simples ratio of number of atoms
 For ionic compounds, the chemical formula = empirical formula
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Topic 3: Types of models

Ball and stick model
Space filling model
Topic 4: Naming ionic compounds and molecular compounds
Naming Ionic compounds
Binary compounds
 Two elements
 Write out the cation and the anion with their charges
 “cross” the charge of the cation as a subscript on the anion and the charge of the anion
as a subscript on the cation
 Simply the ratio of cation to anion if applicable
 Ex: Ca2+ S2- -> Ca2S2 -> CaS
Compounds containing polyatomic ions
 similar process to naming binary ionic compound
 treat the polyatomic ion as an anion or cation
 if the polyatomic ion has a subscript, place parenthesis around it
 Ex: Ca2+ PO43- -> Ca3(PO4)2
Naming covalent compounds
 know the prefixes: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
 the first element would not be called mono
 ex: CO2 is not monocarbon dioxide, it is just carbon dioxide
 name the first element with its prefix and name and the second element with the
prefix + element name – “ending” + “ide”
 ex: H2O becomes dihydrogen monoxide
Topic 5: Formula/Molar Mass
Formula mass = molecular mas = molecular weight = molar mass of a compound
Multiply the number of atoms by the molar mass of that atom and add all of the molar
masses of the various atoms together
Topic 6: Mass Percent Composition
Percent mass of element = [(mass of element * number of moles of elements in the
compound)/ (mass of one mole of compound)] * 100%
Mass percent can be used a conversion factor to go from mass of a compound to mass of a
particular element in a compound
Topic 7: Molecular Formula vs Empirical Formula
To determine the chemical composition of a compound using experimental data
 NxOy decomposes into 24.5 g N & 70.0 g O
 Plan: mass N -> mol N
mass O -> mol O
then get the simple whole number ratio of x:y
 The resulting formula is the empirical formula
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 To get the chemical formula from the empirical formula, you need the molar mass of
the compound
 Divide the molar mass of the compound by the mass of the empirical formula
 Then, multiply the resulting number with the empirical formula to get the the
chemical formula
Topic 8: Balancing Chemical Equations
use states (s) (l) (g) (aq)
total number of atoms n in reactants = total number of atoms in products
Combustion
 Burning in O2(g)
 Other reactant is hydrocarbon, which contains C and H
 Start by balancing C
 Then balance H
 Balance O last
Equations containing ionic compounds and polyatomic ions
 Treat polyatomic ions as 1 unit
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS
Topic 1: Stoichiometry, Mole-to-Mole and Mass-to-Mass Conversions

Reaction stoichiometry – numerical relationship between relative amount of moles of all
reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation
Ex: combustion of C4H10(g)
 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) -> 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
 coefficients specify the relative amounts in moles of all reactants and products
 mole ratio: 2 moles C4H10 : 13 moles O2 : 8 moles CO2 + 10 moles H2O
These mole ratios can be used as conversion factor to perform calculations
Mass-to-mass conversions:
 A + B -> C + D
 Mass A -> Moles A -> Moles C -> Mass C
 Use molar mass to convert between mass A and moles A
 Then, use mole ratio of A to B to convert from moles A to moles C
 Then, use molar mass to convert between moles C and mass C
Topic 2: Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Percent Yield

The limiting reactant (LR) is the one that yields that the fewer moles of product
To calculate which reactant is the limiting reactant,
 Calculate how much product results from each of the reactant using stoichiometry
 The lower yield is the actual theoretical yield
 The reactant that yields the fewer amount of product will be the limiting reactant
Percent yield
 In most chemical reactions, the theoretical yield is not equal to the actual yield
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 Reasons
 Impurities
 Product may get washed away when purified
 Side reactions can occur
 If percent yield is above 100%, the product is wet or contains impurities
 Percent yield = [actual (experimental) yield/theoretical yield] * 100%
Topic 3: Solutions
Substances are called AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Amount of SOLUTE (measured in moles) is less than amount of SOLVENT(measured in
Liters)
MOLARITY = concentration of solutions
 Molarity =(moles of solute)/(Liters of solution)
 Volume of solvent does not equal volume of solution
 Units =mol/L or M
 Ex: “the concentration of the solution is 2 M”
Concentrated solutions contain more solute than dilute solutions
 Concentrate solutions = those whose molarity is greater than 1 M
Topic 4: Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

If a solid is an ionic compound, the attractive forces between the ions must be broken in
order to make a solution out of the solid
A solid will dissolve when
 Solute-solvent interactions > solute-solute interactions
 Solid forms complex ions with water molecules
Conductivity
 When ions dissolve in water they move around
 The movement of the charged particles cause ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
 ex: “If NaCl conducts electricity, it is called electrolytic”
 Most ionic compounds that dissolve in water form ELECTROLYTES
Covalent compounds in water
 No covalent bonds broken
 OH bonds can interact with water molecules
 No ions in solutions = no conductivity -> called NON-ELECTROLYTES
2 types of electrolytes
1. strong
 good conductor
 high concentration of ions
 ex: strong acids - memorize - HCL, HBR, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4
2. weak
 poor conductor of electricity
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 low concentration of ions

Solubility of Ionic Compounds
o Not all ionic compounds are soluble in water, many are INSOLUBLE
Ex: limestone
o Use the Solubility Rules (pg. 147 in textbook)
Topic 5: Diluting a Solution

Concentrated solution + more water = diluted solution
STOCK SOLUTION = concentrated solution that is to be diluted before use
DILUTION EQUATION: M1V1 =M2V2
where M1 is the initial molarity, V1 is the initial volume,
M2 is the final molarity and V2 is the final volume
Solution stoichiometry
o A + B -> C +D
o When you know molarity and volume of A or molarity and volume of B, get the
moles of A and B
o Then, calculate moles of C or D like usual
Topic 6: Precipitation Reactions

Soluble salt (aq) + soluble salt (aq) -> precipitate (s) + soluble salt (aq)
A PRECIPITATE forms upon mixing two solutions
Know which is precipitate by looking at solubility rules
Procedure for writing equations for precipitation reactions (molecular equation)
1) Write the formulas of the solutions being mixed
2) Below the equation, write the formulas of the products that would form
3) Look at solubility rules to see if any of the resultant products are soluble
4) If all products are soluble, write no reaction
5) If there is an insoluble product, write the solid with (s) and any soluble products
with (aq)
6) Balance the equation
Topic 7: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations

They are all ways of representing aqueous reactions
Molecular equation - shows complete neutral formulas for each compound in the reaction
as if they existed as molecules
Complete ionic equation - equation that individually list all ions present
o These better represent the dissociated nature of dissolved ionic compounds
Net ionic
o SPECTATOR IONS appear unchanged on both sides of the equations
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 These are omitted from net ionic equation

 Only show the species that actually change during the equation
Topic 8: Acid-Base Reactions

Also called a NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
GAS-EVOLUTION REACTION - a subtype of neutralization reaction in which gas forms
Arrhenius definition: Acid produce H+ and Bases produce OH-
Strong acids completely dissociated in solution
Weak acid do not completely ionize in solution
POLYPROTIC acid - contain 2 or more H+ ions
 Ex: H2SO4
Strong bases completely ionize in solution - strong ELECTROLYTES
Weak bases partially ionize in solution
 These are not written as ions when writing net ionic equations
Acid+base -> water + a salt
Acid-base TITRATION
 Analytical technique to determine the molarity of an acid which is unknown
Gas-forming reactions
 Acid + base -> gas + water + salt
 ex: 2HCl(aq) + NaCO3(aq) -> CO2(g)+ NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)
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CHAPTER 5: GASES
Air = homogeneous mixture of gases

Atoms/ molecules are very fast, in random motion of varying speed, separated by large
distances and compressible
Topic 1: Gas Pressure

Pressure = Force/ area
Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 lbs/ in2 = 14.7 psi = 110,325 N/m2 = 1 atm
Conversion units
 1 atm = 760 mm Hg
 1 mm Hg = 1 torr
 1 atm = 101, 325 Pa
 1 atm = 14.7 psi
As amount of gas increases, pressure increase
As amount of gas in a vessel decreases, pressure decreases
Measuring gas pressure
 Use a barometer
 Torricelli discovers mercury barometer
o Height of column Hg = atmospheric pressure measured in
mm
 Manometers, LAB quest system
Topic 2: Gas Laws

4 physical properties related to pressure - Pressure, volume, temperature, amount
1) BOYLE’s LAW
• P and V are inversely proportional
• If P increases, V decreases and if P decreases, V increases and vice versa
• Only holds true if T and n are constant
• P1V1 = P2V2
2) Charles’ Law
• T and V are directly proportional
• If T increases, V increases and if T decreases, V decreases and vice versa
• Only holds true if P and n are held constant
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• Temperature must be in Kelvins!

• K = ℃ + 273
• V1/P1 = V2/T2
3) Avogadro’s Law
• V and n are directly proportional
• If n increases, V increases and if n decreases, V decreases and vice versa
• Only holds true if P and T are held constant
• V1/n1 = V2/n2
4)Amonton’s Law
• P and T are directly proportional
• If P increases, T increases and if P decreases, T decreases and vice versa
• Only holds true if V and n are held constant
• P1/T1 = P2/T2
5) The ideal gas law
• Constant R = .08206 L atm/mol K
• PV = nRT
• Make sure P is in atm, V in L, n in moles, T in K
Topic 3: Molar Volume and Density of Gases

Definition The volume of one mole of nay gas
Changes depending on P and T
Standard Temperature and Pressure = STP
 T = 273 K
 P = 1.00 atm
The volume of 1 mol of gas at STP = 22.4 L
Density of gases is measured in g/L
Density is proportional to molar mass
PV = nRT
 PV = (mRT)/(molar mass)
 P(MM) = (m/v) RT
Topic 4: Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressure

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
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• Ptot= P1 + P2 + P3 +…
To calculate partial pressure:
• Need mole fraction, X
• X = moles of gas A/ total moles of gas mixture
• Ex: XA = nA/(nA + nB)
• Partial pressure of gas A, PA = XA * Ptot
Topic 5: Collecting Gases over Water

Often, when the product of a chemical reaction is a gas, it is collected by
displacement of water
As the gas forms, it bubbles through water and gathers in the collection false
The gas collected in this way is not pure because it is mixed with water vapor
The partial pressure of the water in the resulting mixture is its vapor pressure,
which depends on the temperature of the water
Therefore, Pgas = Ptotal - Pwater
Topic 6: Gases and Stoichiometry

Plan: mass A -> moles A -> moles B -> mass B
Plan for gases: P, V, T of gas A -> moles gas A -> moles gas B -> P, V, T of gas B
Topic 7: Kinetic Molecular Theory

Definition: a model that explains the properties and behavior of gases
Developed after the gas law, explains them
A gas is modeled as a collected of particles in constant motion; a single particle movies in a
straight line until it collides with another particles
The three postulates (assumptions)
1) the size of a particle is negligibly small
 gas particles cannot occupy any volume
 this assumption is justified because under normal pressures, the space between
particles in a gas is very large compared to the size of the particles themselves
2) average kinetic energy of a particle is proportional to the temperature in kelvins
 motion of gas particles is due to thermal energy
 the higher the temperature, the faster the overall motion and the greater the
average kinetic energy
 kinetic energy (1/2 * mv2)
 note that kinetic energy, NOT volume is proportional to temperature
 two different samples can have same kinetic energy and very different velocities
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3) collision of one particle with another or with the walls is completely elastic
 elastic = no overall loss energy
 particles have no attraction forces between each other
Relation to the gas laws
1) Boyle’s Law
 if V decreases, number of collisions increase
 if number of collisions increase, pressure increases
2) Charles’ Law
 If T increases, KE increases, no of collisions increases
 If P is constant, gas will have to expand and V will have to increase
3) Avogadro’s Law
 If n increases, number of collisions increases
 P is constant, therefore V must increase
Temperature and Molecular Velocity
o KE = 1/2 * mv2
o Lighter particles travel faster than heavier particles
o For velocity, use ROOT MEAN SQUARE VELOCITY (urms)
 urms = √U2
 We use this formula because of the wide range of velocities in a sample of
gas as it gives a more accurate average
 urms = √(3RT)/(MM)
 Use molar mass in kg/mol !
 R = ideal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol K
 1 J = 1 kg m^2/s^2
o As T increase, root mean square velocity increases and as T decreases, root mean
square velocity decreases
o At constant temperature, as MM increases, root mean square velocity decreases and
as MM decreases, root mean square velocity increases
Topic 8: Diffusion and Effusion

Molecules collide with each other in elastic collision but change directions after they collide
Average distance between collision = MEAN FREE PATH
As P increases, collisions increase and mean free path decreases
Diffusion
o The process by which gas molecules spread out
o Light molecules travel faster than heavier molecules
o Mean free path of lighter molecules is greater than mean free path of heavier
molecules
Effusion
o The process by which gas molecules escape from a container through a small hole and
into a vacuum
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o 2 different gases, A and B

o GRAHAM’s LAW OF EFFUSION Rate a/ rate b = √(MM b/ MM a)
Topic 9: Real Gases

There is no such thing as an ideal gas
For all gases, the 3 postulates of the kinetic molecular theory do not hold true
o why?
o At high P, size of gas particles are significant
o Collisions b/w gas particles are non-elastic because attractive and repulsive forces are
present
Behavior of gases at extreme conditions
o At high pressures and low temperatures, we cannot use the ideal gas equation
o High pressure - volume of gas particles is significant and they take up some room
o Low temperature - temperature decrease, root mean square velocity decreases, fewer
collisions and collisions occur with less kinetic energy
• therefore, molecules may interact with each other and attraction forces occur
between them and the attractive force affect the collisions
• The result is a decrease in the number of collisions which leads to a decrease in
the pressure compared to that of an ideal gas
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CHAPTER 6: THERMODYNAMICS
themo=heat
Heat is a from of energy
Most chemical reactions involve heat
Heat can be absorbed - this type of reaction would be called ENDOTHERMIC or
heat can be released - this type of reaction would be EXOTHERMIC
Thermochemistry - the study of the relationships between chemistry and energy
Topic 1: Energy - Key Definitions

ENERGY - the capacity/ ability to do work
WORK is the result of a force acting through a distance
KINETIC ENERGY is energy due to motion
Heat energy = THERMAL ENERGY
POTENTIAL ENERGY = stored energy
• In chemistry, potential energy is chemical energy
• i.e., the energy associated with the chemical bonds as well as the relative positions of
electrons, protons, neutrons
• Chemical energy is stored in the bonds
Breaking bonds is endothermic - requires the absorption of energy
Making bonds releases energy and is exothermic
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY - FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed
• Can be transferred from one body to another
SYSTEM & SURROUNDINGS
• System - anything that is under investigation
• Surroundings - everything with which the system can exchange energy
Units of energy
• Joule (J) = 1 kg m2/s2
• calorie (cal) = 4.184 J
• Calorie (Cal) = 1 kcal = 1000 cal
• Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.60 X 106 J
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Topic 2: The First Law of Thermodynamics

The total energy of the universe is constant
INTERNAL ENERGY, E
o E = kinetic energy + potential energy of all particles in a system
o Ex: in a water molecule, there is translational energy, vibrational energy, rotational
energy and energy in the bonds
o Internal energy is a STATE FUNCTION, I.e., value depends only on the present state
of the system, now how the system arrived at the state
 ex: mountain climber analogy - no matter which path an climber takes, it
only matters that the altitude will be the same at the peak
Changes in internal energy, ΔE
o ΔE = Efinal - Einitial = Eproducts - Ereactants
1st Law: ΔEsurroundings = ΔEsystem
ΔEtotal = 0 = ΔEsurroundings + ΔEsystem
If the reactants have a higher internal energy than the products, ΔEsys is negative and
energy flows out of the system into the surroundings
If the reactants have a lower internal energy than the products, ΔEsys is positive and energy
flows into the system from the surroundings
Topic 3: Heat and Work

When energy is transferred from system to surroundings or vice versa, heat energy and
work is done
According to first law of thermodynamics, the change in the internal energy of the system
must be the sum of the heat transferred (q) and the work done (w)
o ΔE = q + w
o q…can be + or -
o w…can be + or -
o Signs conventions:
 When +: q - system gains energy from the surroundings
o w - work is done on the system by the surroundings
o ΔE - energy flow into the system , system gains E, endothermic
 When -: q - system loses energy to the surroundings
o w - work is done by the system on the surroundings
o ΔE - energy flows out of the system, system loses E, exothermic
HEAT is the transfer of thermal energy from system to surroundings
o Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy of either the system or
surroundings
o When a system loses or gains heat, there is always a change in temperature = ΔT
o Q = C ΔT
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 C is a constant that describes the heat capacity of a system, units: J/ ℃

 more commonly, Specific heat capacity, Cs, is used
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY is the amount of heat require to raise the heat of
1 g of the substance by 1℃, units: J/ g ℃ or J/ g K
 Q = mCsΔT
WORK is done by the system on the surroundings or by the surroundings on the system
o Type of work -> PRESSURE-VOLUME WORK = expansion work
o W = -PΔV
o Work is usually for the system (don’t really worry about the surroundings)
Topic 4: Measuring ΔE
Measuring ΔE at constant volume
o ΔE = q + w, but at constant V, w = 0, therefore at constant V, ΔE = qv (subscript v
denotes at constant volume)
o Method: bomb calorimeter
 At constant volume
 Sample(usually food) is combusted -> heat water -> cause ΔT
 qcal = Ccal ΔT
 Ccal = heat capacity of calorimeter (J/ ℃ or kJ/ ℃)
 Heat lost by food combusting = heat gained by a calorimeter
 qrxn = -qcal
 qrxn = -Ccal ΔT
Measuring ΔE at constant pressure
o Most chemical reactions are carried out at constant P rather than constant volume
o ENTHALPY = ΔE at constant pressure, denoted by H
o H = E + PV
o Changes in enthalpy, ΔH = ΔE + ΔPV
 At constant P, ΔH = ΔE + P ΔV
 ΔH = qp (subscript p denotes at constant pressure)
o Enthalpy is the heat absorbed or released in a chemical reaction at constant P
 Endothermic - when ΔH is positive and heat is absorbed
 Exothermic - when ΔH is negative and heat is released
o Method: coffee cup calorimeter
 ΔT = ΔHrxn
 Heat lost or gained by a solution, qsol’n
 qsol’n = mass sol’n * Cs sol’n * ΔTsol’n
 Heat lost by rxn = heat gained by surroundings (sol’n)
 +qrxn = -qsurr
 Difference between qrxn and qsurr is that qrxn doesn’t account for spectator
ions and water
 Calc qrxn in J -> kJ -> kJ/mol -> ΔHrxn
19
ΔHrxn and stoichiometry

o Every rxn has its own value go ΔHrxn
o ΔHrxn can be used as a conversion factor
o ex: -1648 kJ/ 4 mol Fe
o when calculating mass, make sure to leave out the negative sign in heat
Topic 5: Hess’s Law and Other Relationships Involving ∆Hrxn

Lecture 20 and 21 (10/18/17 and 10/20/17), Section 6.8 in Tro
3 quantitative relationships between a chemical reaction and ∆Hrxn

o ∆Hrxn is also multiplied by some factor if a chemical reaction is multiplied by that
factor
o ∆Hrxn changes sign when the chemical reaction is reversed
o When a chemical reaction can be expressed as a sum of a series of steps, ∆Hrxn for a
chemical reaction is the overall sum of the heats of reactions for each step of the
series – this principle is known as Hess’s Law
Use of Hess’s Law: Determine ∆H for a reaction without having to directly measure it in
the lab
Tips for doing a problem with Hess’s Law
o We’ll call the final equation we’re trying to achieve “the equation of interest”
o If the equation of interest has a reactant that is listed as a product in one step,
reverse the step
o If the equation of interest requires two moles of a reactant and a step has only one
mole of that reactant, multiply the step by two
o After you have manipulated all the equation as necessary, calculate the ∆Hrxn of each
of the steps using the quantitative relationships listed above
o Then add all the ∆Hrxn of each step to get the final ∆Hrxn of the equation of interest
Topic 6: Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Heats of Formation

Lecture 21 and 22 (10/20/17 and 10/22/17), Section 6.9 in Tro
∆Hrxn can also be calculated using standard enthalpies of formation

∆Hrxn is the change in enthalpy for a chemical reaction
o i.e. the difference in enthalpy between the products and the reactants
∆Hrxn is a standard state function, so its value depends on the initial and final values, not the
pathway taken
o therefore, we can relatively define the zero of enthalpy conveniently
Standard for enthalpy
20
1) Standard state
 For a gas, standard state is the pure gas at 1 atm
 For a liquid or solid, standard state is the pure substance in its most stable form
at 1 atm and temperature of interest (25 degrees Celsius usually)
 For a substance in solution, the standard state is concentration of 1 M
2) Standard Enthalpy Change (∆H0)
 The standard enthalpy change is the change in enthalpy for a process when all
reactants and products are in their standard state
 ∆H0rxn = ∆H0products - ∆H0reactants
3) Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆H0f)
 Every compound and element has its own ∆H0f – these are given in table 6.2 of
Tro
 For a pure compound, the standard enthalpy of formation is the change in
enthalpy when 1 mole of the compound forms from its constituent elements in
their standard states
 For a pure element in its standard state: ∆H0f = 0
 For an element not in its most stable form, ∆H0f ≠ 0
o Eg: carbon in diamond form
Calculating Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction
o Consider these principles:
 Formation of a compound from its constituent elements in their standard states
= standard heat of formation (∆H0f)
 Decomposition of a compound into its constituent elements = negative of the
standard heat of formation (∆H0f)
o Now:
1) Decompose the reactants into their constituent elements in their standard
states
Reactants -> Elements ∆H1 = - ∑∆H0f (reactants)
2) Form the products from the constituent elements in their constituent

elements
Elements -> Products ∆H2 = + ∑∆H0f (products)
∑ = “the sum of”

∆H1= sum of the negatives of the heats of formation of the reactants
∆H2=sum of the heats of formation of the products
Reactants -> Elements ∆H1 = - ∑∆H0f (reactants)

+Elements -> Products ∆H2 = + ∑∆H0f (products)
Reactants -> Products ∆H0rxn = ∑∆H1 - ∑∆H2
21
 Overall, to calculate ∆H0rxn , subtract the heats of formation of the reactants multiplied by their
stoichiometric coefficients from the heats of formation of the products multiplied by the
stoichiometric coefficients
 ∆H0rxn = ∑np∆H0 f (products)- ∑np∆H0 f (reactants)
22
CHAPTER 7 – THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN

ATOM
Topic 1: The Nature of Light (Lecture 22 – 10/25/17; 7.2 in Tro

textbook)
Wave-particle duality of light – certain properties are best described by thinking lights
as a wave, other properties are best described by thinking of it as a particle
Wave Nature of Light
o Light is not matter – has no mass and no volume
o It is ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, a type of energy with oscillating electric
and magnetic fields
o SPEED OF LIGHT (c) = 3.00 X 108 m/s
o Electromagnetic waves have amplitude and wavelength
o Amplitude – vertical height of a crest or depth of a trough and determines the
intensity or brightness of the light;
 Greater the amplitude, greater the brightness of light
o Wavelength (λ) – distance in space between adjacent crests or troughs;
measured in units of distance; wavelength of a light determines its color
o Frequency (√) – number of cycles that pass through a stationary point in a
given period of time, units = s-1
o Frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength
 ν = c/ λ
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
o Visible light is one part – many other types of EM radiation
o Figure 7.5 – memorize in order of lowest energy to highest energy:
Radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma

Visible: Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
o Interference and Diffraction (pg. 268 – 269)

 Waves interact in a characteristic way called interference
 Can either cancel each other out or build each other up
 Constructive interference: waves of equal amplitude from two sources
align with overlapping crests to products a wave with twice the
amplitude
 Destructive interference – waves are out of phase and align so that the
crest from one source overlaps the trough from the other source and the
waves cancel by destructive interference
23
 Diffraction – when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is

comparable in size to its wavelength, it bends around it
 Each slit acts as a new wave source, and the two new waves interfere
with each other
 Pattern that results – has a series of bright and dark lines that can be
viewed on a screen
 Waves out of phase (destructive) make a dark spot
 Waves in phase make bright spot
 “when a beam of light passes through two small slits, the two resulting
waves interfere with each other. Whether the interference is
constructive or destructive at any given point depends on the difference
in the path lengths traveled by the waves. The resulting interference
pattern can be viewed as a series of bright and dark lines on film”
Particle Nature of Light
o Key discoveries brought the classical wave nature of light into question
o Photoelectric effect – light of a minimum energy will cause the ejection of
electrons
 Study particle nature for light
 Amount of energy must exceed the electron’s binding energy
 Light used to dislodge electrons exhibits a threshold frequency, below
which no electrons are emitted from the metal
 Einstein’s theory – light is lumpy
 light comes in pockets called photons or quantum
o The amount of energy in photon or a quantum of light
 E=h √
 h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 X 10-34 J s
 E = (hc)/ λ
o LIGHT IS QUANTIZED
Topic 2: Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model (Lecture 22 and

23 – 10/25/17 to 10/27/17, 7.3 in Tro)
Atomic spectroscopy, the study of electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted
by atoms, was important in suggesting a wave nature for particles
An atom reemits energy as light when an atom absorbs energy
Emission spectrum – a series of bright lines that occurs when light emitted by an
element is separated by passing it into a prism
 Emission spectrum of a certain element is always the same
 Therefore, analysis of light allows us to identify elements
 As number of electrons in an element increase, the number of lines in an
emission spectrum increases
24
Rydberg developed an equation to calculate wavelength of each line in the hydrogen

emission spectrum
 1/ λ = R (1/m2 – 1/n2)
 m and n are whole numbers
 m<n
 R = Rydberg constant = 1.0997 X 107 m-1
 Neils Bohr explained the reason behind this equation
Bohr model of the atom
 Electrons travel in orbits around the nucleus
 Energy of each orbit is fixed and can only have certain values
 Electrons can be excited into higher orbits when they absorb energy (heat or
electrical)
 When the electron jumps back down, energy is released in the form of IR,
visible or UV light
 Bohr model only explains behavior of electron in H atom
Topic 3: The deBroglie Principle (Lecture 23 – 10/27/17, 7.4 in
Tro)
Electrons behave like light waves
Undergo diffraction
E=mc2 and E=hc/ λ
Therefore, λ = h/mv
h in J *s, m in kg, v in m/s
deBroglie’s equation only works in the atomic world when particle have very small
mass and travel at high speeds
Topic 4: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Indeterminacy

(Lecture 24 – 10/30/17, 7.4 in Tro)
You cannot determine simultaneously the wave nature and particle nature of the
electron
Therefore, you cannot know the exact position and exact velocity simultaneously
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
 ∆x * m∆v > h/(2π)
 ∆x is uncertainty in position
 ∆v is uncertainty in velocity
Uncertainty led chemists to think about probability
 The probable location of the electron in the atom is where it is MOST LIKELY
to be found
 Probability distribution map – a statistical map that shows where an
electron is likely to be found under a given set of conditions
25
Indeterminacy – the future path of an electron is indeterminate and can only be

described statistically
Topic 5: Quantum Mechanics and the Atom (Lecture 24 –

10/30/17, 7.5 in Tro)
Orbital – a probability distribution map showing where the electron is likely to be
found
Schrodinger took the ideas of Planck, Einstein, deBroglie, Heisenberg and developed
an equation for the energy of an electron in an atom
Hψ= Eψ;
H is the Hamiltonian operator – represents the total energy of the electron in the
atom
E is the actual energy of the atom
Ψ is the wave function, a mathematical function that describes the wavelike nature
of electrons
Ψ2 represents an orbital, a position probability distribution of the electron
Quantum Numbers
o Electrons can be present in different orbitals
o Several types of orbitals, different energies – they depend of
QUANTUM NUMBERS
o Quantum numbers are what specify each orbital
1) The Principle Quantum Number, n
 Always an integer
 determines the overall size and energy of an orbital
 Possible values: n=1,2,3….
 For a H atom, the energy of an electron in an orbital with quantum number n
is
En= -2.18 X 10-18 J (1/n2)
 The energy of the electron when it is very far away from the atom is taken to
be zero
 Therefore, the energy is negative because the energy of the electron in the
atom is less than the energy of the electron when it is very far from the atom
 The more negative the energy, the more stable the electron is
 As n increases, the spacing between energy levels decreases
2) The Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
 Determines the shape of the orbital
26
 Possible values: 0, 1, 2,…(n-1)

 Ex; when n = 1, l cannot equal 1
 Values of l are assigned letters
o l = 0, s
o l = 1, p
o l = 2, d
o l = 3, f
 letters correlate to line spectra of each given orbital
o s has a sharp line spectra
o p has a principled line spectra
o d has a diffused line spectra, and so on
3) The Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
 Specifies the orientation of the orbital with respect to x, y and z axes
 Possible values: range from –l to +l
 Ex: if l = 1, the possible values of ml are -1, 0, 1
 One only type of s orbital
 Three types of p orbital: px, py, pz
 Five types of d and seven types of f
4) The Spin Quantum Number (mx)
 Specifies the orientation of the spin of the electron
 Electron spin is a fundamental property of an electron
 All electrons have the same amount of spin
 Orientation of the spin is quantized
 Two possibilities only: spin up (+1/2) or spin down (-1/2)
Topic 6: Atomic Spectroscopy Revisited (Lecture 25 – 11/1/17, 7.5

in Tro)
Each wavelength in the emission spectrum of an atom corresponds to an electron
transition between quantum-mechanical orbitals
When an electron absorbs energy, it is excited or promoted from a lower-energy
level orbital to a higher-energy-level orbital
When the electron is excited, however, it is unstable
Therefore, the electron quickly falls back to a lower energy orbital
When it falls back, it releases a photon of light containing an amount of energy
precisely equal to the energy difference between two energy levels
o The difference in energy between two levels ninitial and nfinal is given by ∆E =
Efinal – Einitial
27
Depending on the energy level it falls to, the electron emits either UV, visible light or
IR
Formula:
∆E = Efinal – Einitial
Law of conservation of energy
∆Eatom = - ∆Ephoton
The transitions between orbitals that are farther apart in energy produce light that
is higher in energy than transitions between orbitals that are closer together
Topic 7: Shapes of Orbitals (Lecture 24 – 10/3/17, 7.6 in Tro)

Shapes of atomic orbitals are important because covalent chemical bonds depend on
the sharing of the electrons that occupy these orbitals
Ψ2= probability density
Orbital is a mathematical representation of where the electron is most likely to be,
90 % of the time
S-orbital (l = 0)
o Spherically symmetrical orbital
o To get a better idea of where the electron is most likely to be found, a plot called
the radial distribution function which shows the total probability of finding the
electron with a thin spherical shell at a distance r from the nucleus
o At the nucleus, r = 0, total radial probability is zero
o A node is a point in which the wave function (Ψ), probability density, and radial
distribution function all go to zero
 2s has 1
 3s has 2, and so on
o Shape primarily determined by l
P-orbital (l = 1)
o Not spherically symmetric
o Instead have two lobes of electron density on either side of the nucleus and a
lobe at the nucleus
o ml = -1, 0, +1
 therefore, 3 different p orbitals
d-orbital (l = 2)
o ml = +2, +1, 0, -1, - 2
 therefore, five different d orbitals
 four have a cloverleaf shape with four lobes of electron density and the
last is a donut-shaped ring
28
f-orbital (l = 3)
o ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
o more lobes and more nodes than d-orbital
CHAPTER 8 – PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
Topic 1: Electron Configuration (Lecture 25 – 11/1/17, 8.2 in Tro)

Arrangement of the electrons in an atom
Return to quantum numbers

 4th quantum number, ms – spin quantum number, describes the spin of the
electron
 only two possibilities for ms - +1/2, -1/2
 +1/2 is clockwise spin (up in orbital diagram); -1/2 is counterclockwise spin
(down in orbital diagram)
electrons have opposite spins when in the same orbitals

 Pauli exclusion principle – no two electrons have the same set of four
quantum numbers
Topic 2: Sublevel splitting

In general, Es orbital < Ef orbital < Ed orbital < Ef orbital
But for He and all other elements, there is energy level splitting
(degenerate = orbitals of same energy)
Topic 3: Electron Configuration and the Multielectron Atom

Aufbau principle – orbitals of lower energy are filled before orbitals of
higher energy
 Think building up
Know electron configuration up to calcium
Noble gas/short hand notation

 Ex: Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na [Ne] 3s1
29
Hund’s rule – when filling orbitals of the same energy electrons fill them
singly at first, with parallel spin
 I.e., electrons prefer to be unpaired if possible
Half full and full shells are extra stable
E3d < E4s

 Therefore, 4s electrons are lost first before 3d electrons when atoms are
ionized
D-block exceptions
 Copper, Chromium
F-block
 Really hard to predict
 For expected configuration, just count across
 Even though the true configuration differs from these most of the time
Topic 4: Electron Configuration of Ions

Chemical properties of elements are determined by the number of valence
electrons
Elements can gain e-‘s and lose e-‘s and will tend to have the same number
of electrons as the nearest noble gas
Isoelectric – having the same number of electrons
Octet rule – having a full eight valence electrons is considered most stable
Duet rule – for hydrogen, two valence electrons is stable
Topic 5: Atomic Trends

Atomic radii
 Down a group, radii increases – as n increase, size of orbitals increases,
therefore r increases
 Across a period, radii decreases because nuclear charge increases and the
nucleus pulls in the orbitals closer, therefore radii decrease
 Zef (effective nuclear charge)
Ionic radii
30
 Electron configuration of the transition elements and their ions

 After the 4s orbital is filled, the energy of the 3d orbital is below that of 4s
 Therefore, electrons in the 4s are removed first
 Transitions metals have magnetic properties due to unpaired electrons
 Diamagnetic – all electrons paired and not attracted to outside
magnetic force
 Paramagnetic – unpaired electrons and attracted to outside
magnetic force
 Cations are smaller than their corresponding atoms
 With loss of electrons from orbitals of highest quantum number, the
radius decreases
 Anions are larger than their corresponding atoms
 More electrons in an orbital = more repulsion between electrons =
orbital increases in size
 Isoelectric ions – ions of different elements that have the same number of
electrons
Ionization energy, IE
 Ionization involves removing an electron completely from a gaseous atom
 All ionization energies are endothermic
 As atomic radii increases, ionization energy decreases because it is easier to
remove the outer electrons from larger atoms
 Down a group, IE decreases
 Across a period, IE increases but there are exceptions
 i.e., hard to remove electrons from a stable, half-filled orbital
 trend in successive IE’s
 IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4
Electron affinity, En
 Involves an atom gaining an electron
 No regular trend in periodic table
 Group 17 (halogens) have the greatest (most negative) values of electron
affinity
Metallic characters
 Across a period, metallic character decreases
31
 Down a group, metallic character increases
CHAPTER 9 – CHEMICAL BONDING I: THE LEWIS MODEL
Topic 1: Types of Chemical Bonds

Lecture 28, 11-8-17; Section 2
Chemical bonds form because they lower the potential energy between charged
particles that compose atoms
I.e., PE of atoms > PE of molecules or ions
1) Ionic
 Electrostatic attraction between metals and nonmetals
 Metal and nonmetal react to form a cation (metal loses e-) and anion
(nonmetal gains e-)
 Electrons transferred from metal (cation) to nonmetal (anion)
 When bonds forms, the ions are attracted to one another, lowering their overall
potential energy
 For ionic compound, PE is directly proportional to q+ and q-
2) Covalent
 Forms between nonmetals
 Electrons shared between atoms
 When the bond forms, shared electrons interact with the nuclei of both of the
bonding atoms, lowering their potential energy
 The molecule is stable when the repulsive forces are balanced by the attractive
forces
3) Metallic
 Occurs in metals
 Sea of electrons surrounds cations
Topic 2: Simple Lewis Dot Structures of Atoms

(9.3, Lecture 29, 11-10-17)
Represent electrons using dots; helps explain properties of elements

Draw each valence electron as one dot
Why valence electron? They are involved in chemical bonding
32
Lewis dot structures are a way to visualize the number of valence electrons
Cannot draw Lewis dot structures of d-block or f-block elements
Topic 3: Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies

(9.4, Lecture 29, 11-10-17)
Lewis model can also applied to ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is represented by moving electron dots from Lewis symbol of the
metal to the Lewis symbol of the nonmetal.
Example: -
+
Na
Cl Na
Cl
Lattice Energy
o Energy associated with the formation of a crystalline lattice of alternating
cations and anions from the gaseous ions
o Lattice Energy is always negative because formation of the lattice is exothermic
o The more negative the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond
Trends in Lattice Energy
o Ion Size – As radius decreases, the lattice energy becomes more negative
because the potential energy of oppositely charged ions becomes more negative
as the distance between ions decreases.
o Ion Charge – As the product of the charges increases, the potential energy
increases. Therefore, lattice energy increases
Effect of lattice energy on other properties
o Melting points – As lattice energy increases (becomes more negative), melting
point increases.
o Solubility – As lattice energy increases (becomes more negative), solubility
decreases.
Topic 4: Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures

(9.5, Lecture 29, 11-10-17)
33
Octet rule – When the atom has 8 valence electrons, it is fully stable.
Duet rule – Exceptions for several atoms like hydrogen and helium; when they have
2 valence electrons, they are stable.
Bonding pair – A pair of electrons shared between two atoms.
Lone pair – A pair that is associated with only one atom.
Bonding pair are represented by dashes.
Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
o Two atoms may share more than one electron pair to get octets.
o Double bond – two electron pairs are shared between two atoms.
o Triple bond – Three electron pairs are shared between two atoms.
Topic 5: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

(9.6, Lecture 29 – 11-10-17)
When electrons are shared equally, the polarity has to be represented in the L
Lewis structure
 Either an arrow with a positive sign on the tail
 Or delta plus and delta minus sign

The delta minus sign is put on the element that attracts the electron.
δ- δ+
34
Electronegativity – the ability of atoms to attract electrons onto itself when part of
a molecule
 All electronegativity values are relative to that of fluorine
 Fluorine’s electronegativity value is 4.0
 Trends in electronegativity
 Decreases down a group
 Increases across a period
Polarity
 Difference in electronegativity determines if a bond between 2 atoms is non-
polar, polar, or ionic
 – 0.4 difference = nonpolar covalent
 0.4-2.0 difference = polar covalent
 2.0 – 3.3 difference = ionic
 when the difference is 2.0, you have to know the compound properties
Topic 6: Lewis Dot Structures of Polyatomic Ions and Ionic

Compounds
(9.7, Lecture 30, 11-13-17)
Steps
 Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule. Remember, that hydrogen
atoms are always terminal atoms (not central). Also, place the more electronegative
elements in terminal positions and the less electronegative in terminal positions.
 Calculate the total number of electrons for the Lewis structure by summing the
valence electrons of each atom in the molecule. Remember, for polyatomic ions,
consider the charge of the ion when calculating the number of electrons.
 Distribute the electrons among the atoms, giving octets to as many atoms as
possible.
 If any atoms lack an octet, form double and triple bonds as necessary to give them
octets.
Topic 7: Resonance and Formal Charges

(9.8, Lecture 305, 11-13-17)
35
Resonance
 For some molecules, we can write more than one valid Lewis structure
 The structures are called resonance structures
 The actual structure of the molecule is intermediate (an average) between the two
resonance structures, not a mixture of 50% of one and 50% the others. This structure
is called the resonance hybrid
Formal Charge
 The charge of an atom if all bonding electrons were shared equally between the
bonded atoms
 Not a real charge
 FC = # valence electrons – (# lone pair electrons + ½ # bonding electrons)
 Sum of formal charges of all the atoms = overall charge of molecule
 Small or zero formal charges on individual atoms are better (more stable)
 When formal charge cannot be avoided, the negative formal charge should be on the
most electronegative atom
Topic 8: Exceptions to the Octet Rule

(9.9, Lecture 31, 11-17-17)
Odd electron species – called radicals

 Total number of electrons is an odd number
 One unpaired electron on atom
 Reactive and toxic
Incomplete octets (less than 8 valence electrons on atom)
 Ex: BF3
 Could give fluorine a positive formal charge to give boron an octet, but this is
extremely unstable
Expanded octet (more than 8 valence electrons on atom)
 Common among 3 period elements because the d-block is “energetically accessible
 I.e. they are not much higher in energy so they can accommodate extra electrons
 Look at formal charges to see which is the most favorable resonance structure
Topic 9: Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

(9.10, Lecture 33, 11-25-17)
36
Use of bond energies – individual bond energies can be used to estimate enthalpy
changes in reaction (∆H0rxn) when standard enthalpies of formation for all the reactants
and products of a reaction are not available
 ∆H0rxn = ∑(∆H’s bonds broken) + ∑(∆H’s bonds formed)
 Forming bonds is exothermic, i.e. releases energy
 Breaking bonds is endothermic, i.e. requires energy
 The reaction is exothermic when weak bonds break and strong bonds form (when
∆H0rxn is negative)
 The reaction is endothermic when strong bonds break and weak bonds form (when
∆H0rxn is positive)
Bond energy definition – The bond energy of a chemical bond is the energy required to
break 1 mole of the bond in the gas phase.
 Bond energies are always positive because it always takes energy to break a bond.
 The higher the bond energy, the stronger the bond.
 Compounds with stronger bond energies tend to be more chemically stable than
compounds with weaker bond energies.
Average bond energy – an average of the bond energies for that bond in a large number
of compounds
Factors which affect bond energy
 Type of atoms
 Single vs multiple bonds
 Bond energy of triple bonds > bond energy of double bonds > bond energy of single
bonds for a particular pair of atoms
Bond lengths
 Bond length is the average length of a bond between two particular atoms in a large
number of compounds.
 Factors that affect bond length
 Type of atoms
 Type of bond – single, double, or triple
 Bond length of triple bonds < bond length of double bonds < bond length of
single bonds for a particular pair of atoms
Bond length and bond energies – bond energy generally decreases as bond length
increases, but it is not a smooth trend
CHAPTER 10 – CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR SHAPES,

VALENCE BOND THEORY, AND MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY
37
Topic 1: VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Repulsion Theory
 Theory states that bonding electrons and lone pair electrons repel each other and this
repulsion determines the molecular geometry
Definitions of important terms
 Electron groups – any lone pairs, single bonds, multiple bonds and single electrons
on the central atom of the molecule; # e- group = # LP + # BP
 Electron geometry – geometrical arrangement of the electron groups; determined by
number of electron groups on central atoms; not affected by presence of lone pairs
 Molecular geometry – geometrical arrangement of the atoms (actual shape of the
molecule); affected by TYPE of electron group – lone pair vs bonding pair
 Ideal bond angle – the angle of each basic shape without lone pairs
Five basic shapes (electron geometry)
 Linear Geometry – 2 electron groups
 Trigonal planar symmetry – 3 electron groups
 Tetrahedral geometry – 4 electron groups
 Trigonal bipyramidal geometry – 5 electron groups
 Octahedral – 6 electron groups
Effect on lone pairs on the central atom
 Lone pairs (LP) take up more room than bonding pair (BP) electrons
 LP, LP repulsion > LP, BP repulsion > BP, BP repulsion
 Repulsion between two lone pairs is highest
 Repulsion between two bonding pairs is lowest
 Because of the additional repulsion from the lone pair, molecules with lone pairs on the
central atoms will have bond angles that deviate from the ideal bond angle
Topic 2: Molecular Geometry
Molecular shapes
 A = central atom; X = peripheral atom bonded to A, E = lone pair electrons on A
 AX3E
 three bonding pairs; one lone pair
 Tetrahedral electron geometry (b/c of 4 electron groups)
 LP, BP repulsion pushes atoms in the molecules close; therefore, the actual angle
is less than the predicted 109.5° for tetrahedral
 Actual angle = 107°
 Molecular geometry = trigonal planar
 Ex: NH3
38
 AX2E2
 two bonding pairs; two lone pairs
 Tetrahedral electron geometry (b/c of 4 electron groups)
 Two LP, BP repulsion pushes atom even closer than in trigonal pyramidal
molecule, which has one LP, BP repulsion
 Therefore, actual angle = 104.5°
 Molecular geometry = bent
 Ex: H2O
 AX4E
 four bonding pairs; one lone pair
 Trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry (b/c of 5 electron groups)
 Two LP, BP repulsions exist 90° apart
 Molecular geometry = seesaw
 Ex: SF4
 AX3E2
 Three bonding pairs; two lone pairs
 LP’s always go on equatorial positions b/c this position minimizes repulsion
 Molecular geometry = t-shaped
 AX2E3
 Two bonding pairs, three lone pairs
 LP’s always go on equatorial positions b/c this position minimizes repulsion
 Actual angle = 180°
 Molecular geometry = linear
 AX5E
 Five bonding pairs, one lone pair
 Octahedral electron geometry (b/c of 6 electron groups)
 LP position does not matter because octahedral geometry is symmetrical
 Molecular geometry = square pyramidal
 AX4E2
 Four bonding pairs, two lone pairs
 Octahedral electron geometry (b/c of 6 electron groups)
 LP’s are as far away from each as can be (opposite positons)
 Molecular geometry = square planar
Topic 3: Molecular Geometry and Polarity
39
Nonpolar molecules with dipoles

 If molecular geometry causes the dipole movements to cancel each other, the molecule
will be nonpolar
 Ex: CO2
How to determine if a molecule is polar
 Draw a Lewis structure and determine molecular geometry
 Determine if the molecule contains polar bonds
 Determine if the polar bonds add together to form a net dipole moment
 Linear
 If a diatomic molecule has a dipole moment, the molecule will be polar
 Bent
 Dipole moments do no cancel because net dipole exists even when the two dipoles
are pointing in opposite directions
 Trigonal planar
 If all three dipole moments point out, the dipoles will cancel and the molecule will
be nonpolar
 If there are less than three dipole moments, the molecule will be polar
 Tetrahedral
 If all four dipole moments point out, the dipoles will cancel and the molecule will
be nonpolar
 If there are less than four dipole moments, the molecule will be polar
 Properties affected by polarity of molecules
 Polar molecules and non-polar molecules do not mix
 Like dissolves like
 Dipole-dipole forces
 Intermolecular forces (between adjacent molecules)
 Occur between polar molecule because opposite partial charges attract
 Dipole-dipole force is very weak
Topic 4: Hybridization
Relation to Valence Bond Theory
 Explains bonding using orbitals
 Atomic orbitals overlap to form a bond
 The greater the overlap between two orbitals, the stronger the bond and the lower
the energy of the molecule
 Hybrid orbitals create greater overlap with orbitals of other atoms because electron
probability density is more concentrated in a single directional lobe
 Therefore, hybrid orbitals minimize the energy of the molecule by maximizing the
orbital overlap in a bond
Types of bonds
 Sigma – direct overlap between orbitals
 Pi – results from side ways overlap between orbitals
40
 Single bond = one sigma bond

 Double bond = one sigma bond, one pi bond
 Exists in sp2 bonding
 Triple bond = one sigma bond, two pi bonds
 Exists in sp bonding
Hybridization
 Definition – a mathematical procedure that allows us to combine the standard
atomic orbitals to form new atomic orbitals that form HYBRID ORBITALS that
correspond more closely to the actual distribution of electrons in chemically bonded
atoms
 Purpose – to recognize that the orbitals in a molecule are not necessarily the same
as the orbitals in an atom
 Difference between standard orbitals and hybrid orbitals
 hybrid orbitals are localized over individual atoms, just like in standard orbitals.
 Hybrid orbitals have different shapes and energies than standard orbitals
 General rules
o # of standard atomic orbital added together = number of hybrid orbitals formed
o particular combinations of standard atomic orbitals added together determine
the shapes and energies of the hybrid orbitals formed
o type of hybridization that occurs is the one that yields the lowest overall energy
for the molecules
o carbon tends to form 4 bonds in compounds, and therefore always hybridizes
 sp3 hybridization
o tetrahedral geometry
o “sp3” indicates that the hybrid orbitals are a mix of one s orbital and three p
orbitals
o all four of the hybrid orbitals have the same energy
o each sp3 orbital contains one electron
o ex: NH3 -> N is sp3 hybridized and there are 4 sp3 orbitals around N
 sp2 hybridization
o trigonal planar geometry
o “sp2” indicates that the hybrid orbitals are a mix of one s orbital and two p
orbitals
o one unhybridized p orbital exists
o the unhybridized p orbital forms a double bond through sideways overlap
o ex: H2C
 sp hybridization
o linear geometry
o hybrid orbitals are a mix of two s orbitals and two p orbitals
o two unhybridized p orbitals
o the two unhybridized p orbitals form two sideways overlap, creating a triple
bond
41
o ex: N
 sp3d hybridization
o trigonal bipyramidal geometry
o ex: PF5
 sp3d2 hybridization
o octahedral geometry
o ex: SF6
EXTRA TOPICS FOR FINAL
Topic 1: Oxidation Numbers

For elements, oxidation number is 0
For ions, the oxidation number = its charge
For oxygen, the oxidation number is usually -2
For hydrogen, the oxidation number is usually +1
The sum of all the oxidation numbers = overall charge of a molecule or ion
Topic 2: Redox Reactions

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Involves a change in oxidation number
Oxidation = when reactant increases oxidation state
Reduction = when reactant decreases oxidation state
Redox reaction occurs when one reactant is oxidized and the other is reduced
Topic 3: Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

The charge that an electron “feels” due to shielding of the nucleus by the inner electrons
Zeff = Z - # of inner core e-
 but this formula is not accurate
Down a period, Zeff decreases
Across a period, Zeff increases
 Across a period, radii decreases because of increased Zeff
Topic 4: Melting Points

While a compound melts, the temperature remains constant
When melting ice, break dipole-dipole forces between molecules
The bond strength of an ionic compound is greater than the bond strength of covalent
compounds
42
Therefore, MP of ionic compounds is much higher than MP of covalent compounds

As lattice enthalpy increases, MP increases
Topic 5: Strong Acids

Dissociate 100% in solution
The strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid
(HI), nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), perchloric acid (HClO4)
On the other hand, weak acids are mainly undissociated in solution
Topic 6: Molarity of Solutions and Ions

Molarity = moles solute/ volume of solution
Molarity = concentration
43

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 1: MATTER, MEASUREMENT AND PROBL EM SOLVING

Topic 1: States of Matter

 Sublimation: solid to gas

Quantity Unit symbol

Amount of substance Mole Mol

Electric current Ampere A

Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Prefix Symbol Multiplier

Topic 7: Dimensional Analysis involving Mass, Volume and Density

Information given x conversion factor(s) = information sought

Given unit x desired unit/given unit = desired unit

Topic 8: Significant Figures

CHAPTER 2: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

Topic 1: Laws of Basic Chemistry

Atoms first seen through scanning tunneling microscopy

Proton p+ +1 +1.60 X 10-19 1.6762 x 10- 1.00 amu

Neutron n0 0 0 1.67493 x 10- 1.00 amu

Electron e- -1 -1.60 X 10-19 9.10 x 10-31 5.48 x 10-4

1 a.m.u. = 1/12 (mass of an atom of carbon-12) = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

CHAPTER 3: MOLECULES, COMPOUNDS, AND CHEMICAL

Topic 1: Types of bonding

Topic 3: Types of models

Topic 1: Stoichiometry, Mole-to-Mole and Mass-to-Mass Conversions

Topic 2: Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Percent Yield

Topic 4: Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

 low concentration of ions

Topic 5: Diluting a Solution

Topic 6: Precipitation Reactions

Topic 7: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations

 These are omitted from net ionic equation

Topic 8: Acid-Base Reactions

Air = homogeneous mixture of gases

Topic 1: Gas Pressure

Topic 2: Gas Laws

• Temperature must be in Kelvins!

Topic 3: Molar Volume and Density of Gases

Topic 4: Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressure

Topic 5: Collecting Gases over Water

Topic 6: Gases and Stoichiometry

Topic 7: Kinetic Molecular Theory

Topic 8: Diffusion and Effusion

o 2 different gases, A and B

Topic 9: Real Gases

Topic 1: Energy - Key Definitions

Topic 2: The First Law of Thermodynamics

Topic 3: Heat and Work

 C is a constant that describes the heat capacity of a system, units: J/ ℃

ΔHrxn and stoichiometry

Topic 5: Hess’s Law and Other Relationships Involving ∆Hrxn

3 quantitative relationships between a chemical reaction and ∆Hrxn

Topic 6: Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Heats of Formation

∆Hrxn can also be calculated using standard enthalpies of formation

2) Form the products from the constituent elements in their constituent

∑ = “the sum of”

Reactants -> Elements ∆H1 = - ∑∆H0f (reactants)

CHAPTER 7 – THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN

Topic 1: The Nature of Light (Lecture 22 – 10/25/17; 7.2 in Tro

Radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma

o Interference and Diffraction (pg. 268 – 269)

 Diffraction – when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is

Topic 2: Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model (Lecture 22 and

Rydberg developed an equation to calculate wavelength of each line in the hydrogen

Topic 4: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Indeterminacy