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1-Introduction
Pipelines are used to transfer liquid and gas products from one place to other place where
is in distant from source points. For example a pipeline between oil well to a refinery carries
extracted oil to a refining facility for being refined. The refined oil may be transferred to a
shipping terminal by other pipelines. Pipelines can be aboveground or underground. For
analysis and designing a pipeline, piping stress engineer should have knowledge about
piping behavior and design criteria mentioned in proper codes such as B31.4 or B31.8. For
instance for designing a buried pipeline which is based on B31.4, engineers must know how
soils interacts with pipes as well as proper criteria such as allowable stresses which are
defined in the code. One of the major differences between pipeline and process piping is
pipe materials. Pipes in pipeline industry are made of high strength steel because high
internal pressure in pipelines leads to a thick pipe. Using a normal piping material increases
the pipe thickness which is costly in transportation, fabrication and erection. Therefore in
pipelines high yield strength materials are used. The consequence of using high-yield
materials is a reduction in safety factor because the margin between yield and ultimate
stress is low comparing to its corresponding value in a process pipes. So a stress engineer
must pay attention to local stresses in discontinuity area such as branches. However,
fortunately pipelines are straight in the most of its rout. One of the major problems on which
an engineer my face is pressure and thermal elongation resulted from high pressure and big
length of pipelines. Depending on the situation and the elongation value an engineer may
find an economic solution. Increase in flexibility, using anchor blocks, using flexible supports
and providing a system enabling equipment to move a portion of the pipeline movement are
some possible solutions.
(1)
3-1-2-Longitudinal stress
SL = SE+ʋShopp (2)
Note: Referring to B31.4-2012, the above longitudinal stress developed in a restrained
system, includes range stress.
3-1-1-Combined stress
(3)
Note: B31.4-2012 considerers an allowable stress for combined stress in a restrained
system.
3-1-4-Effective stress
Referring note (2) of table 403.3.1-1 in B31.4-2012, an effective stress is “sum of the
stress caused by temperature change and from circumferential, longitudinal, and radial
stresses from internal design pressure and external loads in pipe installed under railroads
or highways.”
An allowable stress has been mentioned for the effective stress in B31.4-2012.
3-1-5-Elastic stability for AG restrained system
Referring 403.3.9.3 of B31.4-2012, system elastic stability should be checked.
3-1-6-Criteria stresses
The criteria stresses for various load cases are mentioned in Table 403.3.1-1 of B31.4-
2012. Obviously, for stress calculation and its criteria engineer must refer to proper codes
on which the system must be designed.
4-Unrestrained AG/UG piping system
4-1-Developed stress
4-1-1-Range stress due to thermal load
If an aboveground or unrestrained part of an underground pipe which is under temperature
change faces a resistance, some internal loads are developed in the pipe. These internal
loads including axial, shear forces and bending moments create stresses which are known
as thermal expansion or contraction stress. It is calculated in such a way all temperature
range of the system, from minimum to maximum system temperature is covered.
Addressing codes B31.3 or B31.4, because of shakedown; if system can go beyond at the
beginning of thermal cycles (follow up does not occurs), the allowable range stress which
is defined in the code satisfies integrity of the system.
Because of complexity of rang stress calculation, a finite element method is used for the
object. The only difference between AG and UG pipe is that the pipe-soil interaction should
be considered in UG analysis. The soil-pipe interaction is modeled as springs with specific
stiffness which are calculated based on the interaction characteristics. For being ensured
that the system sustains its integrity, a proper code should be used for both range stress
calculation and its criteria. For example B31.4-2012 suggests the following formula for the
range stress.
(4)(5)(6)
4-1-2-Longitudinal stress
This stress comprises longitudinal stresses due to internal pressure, sustained stresses
resulting from system weight and stresses due to pressure thrust.
(7)
4-1-3-Effective stress
Referring note (2) of table 403.3.1-1 in B31.4-2012, an effective stress is “sum of the
stress caused by temperature change and from circumferential, longitudinal, and radial
stresses from internal design pressure and external loads in pipe installed under railroads
or highways.”
An allowable stress has been mentioned for the effective stress in B31.4-2012.
4-1-4-Criteria stresses
The criteria stresses for various load cases are mentioned in Table 403.3.1-1 of B31.4-
2012. Obviously, for stress calculation and its criteria engineer must refer to proper codes
on which the system must be designed.
4-2-Pressure and thermal pipe elongation
4-2-1-Free Pressure and thermal elongation of an AG piping system
As shown if figure 4, the pipe elongation resulting from temperature and internal pressure
are and respectively.
(8)(9)(10)
(11)(12)
(13)
(14)
In which
(15)(16)
(17)(18)
(19)
4-2-3-Free Pressure and thermal elongation of an unrestrained UG piping system
4-3-2-1-Virtual anchor length
As mentioned early, virtual anchor concept plays an important role in UG piping analysis.
A friction force which is developed between soil and pipe causes the pipe gets fixed from a
point known as virtual anchor. The virtual anchor is defined as point A in figure 6. For
calculation of virtual anchor length, the anchored force which is defined in equation (14)
should balance the axial friction force between pipe and soil as follows:
Figure 6: Free body diagram of unrestrained part of an UG piping system
(20)(21)
In which f is defined as soil longitudinal resistance force per unit length of pipe.
4-2-3-2-Free movement
Referring to figure 7, end free movement of an unrestrained buried pipe is calculated as
follows:
(22)
From equations (22) and (21):
(23)
Comparing equations (19) and (23) show that free elongation of a buried pipe is half of the
corresponding free elongation in AG pipe. So regardless of soil longitudinal resistance force
(f), the free elongation of an UG pipe decreases to half of its corresponding value in AG. The
stress at end point of the UG pipe reaches to whereas the stress in restrained portion
is:
(24)
Please note that in the restrained part of a buried pipe, there is not any pulling force due to
pressure. So no any tensile stresses due to internal pressure appear in the pipe wall.
4-2-3-3- Pressure and thermal elongation of an unrestrained UG piping system with
a resistant force
Similar to AG piping systems, if the end pipe of an unrestrained UG pipe connects to
another system, a resistant force is developed in the pipe. This force leads to a reduction
in the elongation as shown in figure 8:
(28)(29)
6-Pipe-Soil interaction
6-1-Introduction
For safe design of a buried pipe, stress engineer should be familiar with all types of loads
exerted on the pipe such as soil weight, live surface loads, buoyancy loads, settlement,
earthquake, blasting loads and etc. There are some limitations for these loads, stresses and
strains which must be satisfied by a stress engineer. Moreover after a pipe moves in soil,
some resistance loads are developed. These loads are modeled as springs with a specific
stiffness which is function of the pipe-soil interaction characteristics. At this section the
interaction is studied.
6-2-Internal pressure
Obviously a circumferential membrane stress, known as hoop stress, is developed in pipe
wall resulting from an internal pressure. If pipe is free to move longitudinally, a longitudinal
membrane stress which is half of hoop stress appears in pipe wall. The wall thickness
calculation formula which is presented in [10] is different from the one mentioned in B31.4-
2012 as follows:
Equation (6-30) is presented in [10]:
(30)
(31)
For allowance consideration in above formula, some code requirements which are
mentioned in 403.2.2 of B31.4-2012 should be met by stress engineers. Referring 403.2.4
of B31.4-2012, mill tolerance is not required to be considered if pipe materials are
according to mandatory appendix I of B31.4-2012.
As an important rule, stress engineer must refer to the code on which the piping system
has been designed. All code requirements which are minimum design requirements must
be consistently satisfied.
6-3-Vertical loads: dead soil load, live surface loads and impact loads
Weight of soil prism on a pipe exerts an external dead load on the buried pipe. Also live
loads such as train or trucks cause pressure loads on the pipe. The pressure impact loads
resulting from falling big objects on the earth surface where a buried pipe has been placed
can be categorized in this category.
6-3-1-Dead loads
As shown in figure 11, [10] introduces the following formula to calculate the dead loads:
Figure 11: Dead loads on a buried pipe
(32)
In which
(33)
In equation (32), buoyancy force has been included.
Note: In undisturbed and unsaturated soil in which pipes are jacketed, the exerted load
reduces in .
In which: is soil cohesion.
6-3-2-Live loads
Live loads including truck loads on highways, train loads on railways and airplane gear
assembly loads on runways leads to a vertical load on buried pipes. Two following
methods for its calculation have been suggested by [10].
(34)
A surface load may lead to a vertical or lateral soil displacement around the pipe. For more
information please refer to [10].
6-3-3-Impact loads
If a heavy object falls on surface of earth where a pipe is buried, a vertical load exerts on
the pipe. For calculation of maximum load on the soil surface, the following formula has
been given by [10]. Equation (34) can be used to calculate its developed pressure on the
pipe.
(35)
5-2 of [7] suggests a following value for G for large strains near impact area:
(36)
Apart from the vertical load, a falling object causes a penetration in soil which may be
calculated by the formula bellow (refer to [10]):
(37)
Impact loads causes wave propagation which may create a deformation on a buried pipe
which is far away from the surface impact load. 5-4 of [10] suggests some formula for that.
6-4-Effects of external loads on a buried pipe
6-4-1-Ovality
The vertical surface loads may cause ovality, shown in figure 13, in a buried pipe. Iowa
suggests the formula bellow for its calculation (4-2 of [10]):
As shown in figure 14, a vertical load on pipe creates a circumferential bending moment
which is the source of bending stresses in circumferential direction.
Figure 14: Circumferential local stress
(41)
Pipe having a ratio greater than 100 needs to be studied more for buckling in the pipe
wall as demonstrated in figure 15.
6-4-4-Ring buckling
A high vertical load exerting on top of a pipe may cause a buckling on the top of pipe as
shown in figure 16. An allowable load has been defined by [10] as follows:
Figure 16: Ring buckling on top of a pipe
(38)
(39)
(40)
(42)
(43)
6-5-Buoyancy
In some places where a pipe is buried bellow a water table, it is possible the weight of
water which is displaced by the pipe is greater than sum of all vertical loads. In this case
an upward force named as buoyancy force tends to pull up the pipe. Whereas some parts
of the pipe which are not under the buoyancy force behave like anchor. So as figure 17
shows, the pipe is under stress.
(44)
6-5-1-Bending stress calculation resulting from buoyancy
The real boundary conditions at points A and B, shown in figure 17 is somewhere between
fully restrained supports and pinned ones (figure 18).
Figure 18: Maximum bending moments for fixed and pinned restraints
(45)
(46)
Buoyancy force increases when pipe is empty. So it is better to calculate stress when a
pipe is empty. For balancing of the force, concrete weights, gravel filled blanket and etc.
may be used.
6-6-Fluid transients
A sudden change in a fluid rate stemming from valve closing is one of the major factors of
a rapid change in fluid pressure, known as shock. This increased pressure is propagated
along the pipe very fast until reaching to an elbow or bend where the pipe direction
changes. Because fluid momentum changes at elbow, a force is exerted on the bend. This
phenomenon has two major effects which should be noticed by engineers: Firstly
increased internal pressure may lead to pipe burst and secondly a pressure thrust force
exerting at bends or elbows which tends to separate welded or mechanical joints and
besides to dislocate the pipe. For burst avoiding 403.3.4 of B31.4-2012 put some
limitations for increased pressure (10%). Figure 19 shows how a thrust block takes this
force.
[10] introduces the following sources which may cause some stresses on a buried pipe.
Because of complexity engineers need a FEM software and field information to calculate
some of them.
- Soil displacement resulting from fault, earthquake, settlement, landside, frost heave or
thaw settlement
- Mine subsidence
- Earthquake
- Blasting
- In-Service relocation
Soil resistance against a buried pipe exists when a pipe starts to move. As shown in figure
20, this soil behavior can be simulated as a spring with a specific stiffness which is
calculated as follows:
Figure 20: Soil resistance against pipe movement
[10] gives formula for maximum soil resistance and the corresponding displacement for the
following conditions. CAESAR II uses the formula in modeling of buried pipes.
Figure 21: Parameters for Hydrostatic thrust calculation for Wye, Tee and Birfucation
Branch Wye
(47)
(48)
Dead Ends
(49)
Tee
(50)
Reducer
The resultant thrust at bends and bifurcations is also a function of the deflection angle Δ
and is given by: [4]
(51)
Bends:
Bifurcationj:
(52)
7-3- Anchor force in pipelines
A pipe line anchor block consists of an anchor flange in a large concrete block, as shown
in figure 22. This anchor block generally is located at proper locations to prevent the
pipeline movement from causing damage to the connecting pipes and equipment. The
anchor force can be determined as mentioned in equation (20).
Figure 22: Anchor flange in a concrete block