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Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

8th Edition in SI Units


Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2015

CHAPTER 10
VAPOR AND COMBINED
POWER CYCLES

Byongjo Yun
Pusan National University
Note: The material is revised from the original slides prepared by Mehmet Kanoglu University of Gaziantep
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.

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Flow Diagram for Thermoelectric Power Plant

3
4
Fossil fueled boiler Condenser

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THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE

Isothermal
Boiler(Qin)

Isentropic. Isentropic.
Compressor Turbine

Isothermal
Condenser(Qout)

T-s diagram of Carnot vapor cycle.


1-2 isothermal heat addition in a boiler (T)
2-3 isentropic expansion in a turbine (S)
3-4 isothermal heat rejection in a condenser(T)
4-1 isentropic compression in a compressor(s)

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Isothermal
Boiler(Qin)

Isentropic.
Isentropic. Turbine
Compressor

Isothermal
Condenser(Qout)

T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.


The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely high
pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures. 7
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RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the
Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
1) superheating the steam in the boiler and
2) condensing it completely in the condenser.
The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle,
which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any
internal irreversibilities.
1-2 : Isentropic compression in a pump (S)
-> saturated water entering the pump
-> somewhat increasing in Twater due to slightly
decrease of specific volume.
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler (P)
->generation of superheated steam.
3-4 : Isentropic expansion in a turbine (S)
-> After expanding of a steam, a saturated liquid-vapor
mixture with a high quality enters condenser
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser (P)
-> het rejection to a cooling medium such as a lake,
river or the atmosphere
The simple ideal Rankine cycle. 11
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation

The efficiency of power plants in


the U.S. is often expressed in
terms of heat rate, which is the
amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s,
to generate 1 kWh of electricity.
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted
as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process. 12
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DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common
sources of irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiencies

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle. 14
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Finding h4 and h3 from steam table for the previous example.

(1) h4 : 15.2 MPa & 625 oC


From table A6 (for superheated steam)

15MPa 15.2MPa 17.5MPa


625 ? 3647.6 A? 3627.6

(17.5-15) : (3627.6-3647.6) = (15.2-15) : x

X=-1.6
A=3647.6-1.6=3646 kJ/kg
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(2) h3 : 15.9 MPa & 35 oC
From table A7 (for compressed liquid)

15 MPa 15.9 MPa 20 MPa


35 ? 160.06 A? 164.5

(20-15) : (164.5-160.06) = (15.9-15) : x

X=0.7992
A=160.06+0.7992=160.9 kJ/kg

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How to increase efficiency of the following Rankine cycle?

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HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE
EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

1.Lowering the Condenser 2.Superheating the Steam to High 3.Increasing the Boiler Pressure
Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg) Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg) (Increases Thigh,avg)

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Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
-Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser
-> automatically lowers the steam temperature
--> lower temperature at which heat is rejected
-It requires increase of heat generation in boiler (curve 2’-2) but it is very small.
-To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers
of steam power plants usually operate well below the atmospheric pressure.

-Pressure can not be lowered than the


saturation pressure corresponding to the
temperature of the cooling medium
->Lower limit.
Side effect:
-Lowering the condenser pressure increases
the moisture content of the steam at the final
stages of the turbine. -> mor damage in blade.
-Possibility of air leakage into the condenser.

The effect of lowering the


condenser pressure on the
ideal Rankine cycle. 20
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of
superheating the steam to a higher
temperature. The overall effect is
an increase in thermal efficiency
since the average temperature at
which heat is added increases.
Superheating to higher
temperatures decreases the
moisture content of the steam at
the turbine exit, which is desirable.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations.
Presently the highest steam
The effect of superheating the temperature allowed at the turbine
steam to higher temperatures inlet is about 620°C.
on the ideal Rankine cycle.
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Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
-Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler
->Raising the temperature at which boiling takes place.
->Raising average temperature at which steam heat is transferred to the steam
->Finally, raising the thermal efficiency

Side effect :
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature,
the cycle shifts to the left and the
moisture content of steam at the
turbine exit increases. This side effect
can be corrected by reheating the
steam.

The effect of increasing the boiler


pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.
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Supercritical power plant
Today many modern steam power
plants operate at supercritical
pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
have thermal efficiencies of about
40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
for nuclear plants.

A supercritical Rankine cycle.


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(increasing by pumping : 15.13kJ/kg)

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THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

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1) The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average temperature
at which heat is transferred to the steam.
2) The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
3)The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the second
reheat is about half of that which results
from a single reheat.
4) If turbine inlet pressure with double The average temperature at which
reheat system is not high enough -> it heat is transferred during reheating
results in superheated exhaust at the increases as the number of reheat
second turbine -> decrease in efficiency stages is increased.
* Double reheat is used only for
supercritical-pressure power plants 27
5) A third reheat : increase the cycle efficiency by about half of the improvement
attained the 2nd reheat.
6) The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the turbine inlet temperature.
7) The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
eg) If boiler pressure is 12MPa ,then optimum reheat pressure is 3MPa.

* It should be noted here that the


primarily purpose of reheating is not
to make increase thermal efficiency
but to reduce the moisture content
of steam !

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THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
1. Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2’ at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.

2. One possibility : transfer of heat to the


feedwater from the expanding steam in a
counterflow heat exchanger built in turbine.
Problem : It would increase the moisture
content of the steam at the final stages of
the turbine
Higher The first part
irreversibility
of the heat-
3. If then what is a practical regenerator
addition
process in
design?
the boiler Answer might be regenerator or a
takes place at feedwater heater (FWH).
relatively low
temperatures. 30
4. Regenerator or feedwater heater(FWH)
1) In steam power plants, steam is extracted from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more work by expanding further in the turbine,
is used to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater is heated
by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).
2) A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from
the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feedwater
heaters) or without mixing them (closed feedwater heaters).
3) Additional advantages
-Not only improves cycle efficiency, but also provides a convenient removing the
air that leaks in at the condenser.
-It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at the final stages of
the turbine.

Open(direct-contact) Feedwater Heater Closed Feedwater Heater 31


Open Feedwater Heaters Per unit
mass
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.

The ideal regenerative


Rankine cycle with an open
feedwater heater.

expansion
Isentropic
Saturated y
Liquid
Isentropic (1-y)
Pump I
Boiler
Pressure
FWH
Isentropic
Pressure
Pump II Leaves at
saturated T 32
Summary for Open Feedwater Heaters
1. Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a results of
regeneration because
Regeneration raises the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the temperature of
the water before it enters the boiler
2. The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of feedwater
heaters increased.
eg) Many large plants in operation today use as many as eight
feedwater heaters.
3. What is optimum number: it is competing with the cost of heat
exchanger and saving of fuel costs. ->Analysis on cost per benefit
is required.

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Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the
feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at different
pressures, since they do not mix.
1. Ideal closed feedwater heater : feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the
extracted steam (Saturated).
2. Actually, the feedwater leaves below the exit temp of the extracted steam. The
condensed steam is then either to the feedwater line or routed to another heater or to
the condenser through trap.
3. A trap allows the liquid to be throttled to a lower pressure region but trap the vapor.

1-y

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater. 34


Turbine

Centrifugal Pump Steam Trap 35


Comparison of Open Feedwater Heaters and Closed Feedwater Heaters
The closed feedwater heaters :
1) More complex due to the internal tubing network, and thus they are more expensive.
2) Heat is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
3) However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater
since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Open feedwater heaters :


1) Simple and inexpensive
2) Have good heat transfer
characteristics.
3) For each heater, however,
a pump is required to
handle the feedwater.

*Most steam power plants


use a combination of open
and closed feedwater
heaters.

A steam power plant with one open and three closed feedwater heaters. 36
Actual power plant utilizing regenerative feed water heaters

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y
1-y

1-y

38
1-y

1-y 1-y

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Calculation of pumping works Wpump II,in and Wpump III,in in the previous example.

Wpump II,in

State 3 : 0.5 MPa, Tsat=151.83 oC, vf=0.001093


State 4 : 15 MPa
Wpump II,in= vf(P4-P3) =0.001093 x(15,000-500)=15.85 kJ/kg

Wpump III,in

State 6 : 4 MPa, Tsat=250.35 oC, vf=0.001252


State 7 : 15 MPa
Wpump II,in= vf(P7-P6) =0.001252 x(15,000-4,000)=13.772 kJ/kg

h5=640.09+15.85=655.94 kJ/kg
y=0.1726
z=0.1313
h8=1095.1 kJ/kg
qin=2923.47 kJ/kg
qout=1492.36 kJ/kg
th=48.95%
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system

( , )
Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a entire cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer


only with a source and a sink

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of vapor power cycles reveals where the


largest irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements. 41
Entropy balance for a control volume

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COGENERATION
•Remaining portion of the heat from the cycle -> rejected to rivers, lakes, etc.
•Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat.
•Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and
150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil,
natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.
Industries that use large amounts
of process heat also consume a
large amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce
power instead of letting it go to
waste.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity while meeting the
process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes
A simple process-heating plant. (cogeneration plant)

Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy


(such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.
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Ideal cogeneration plant Utilization factor

Including
1) heat rejected in the condenser.
2) all the undesirable heat losses
from the piping and components
3) combustion inefficiencies such
as incomplete combustions and
stack losses

• The utilization factor of the ideal steam-


turbine cogeneration plant is 100%.
• Actual cogeneration plants have
An ideal cogeneration plant. utilization factors as high as 80%.
-No condenser
-100% thermal efficiency • Some recent cogeneration plants have
-No adjustable between turbine even higher utilization factors.
work and process heating 45
Practical cogeneration plant At times of high demand for process heat, all
the steam is routed to the process-heating units
and none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste
heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6
and is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all
the steam leaving the boiler passes through the
PRV(Pressure Reducing Valve) (m5= m4). No
power is produced in this mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all
the steam passes through the turbine and the
condenser (m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration
plant operates as an ordinary steam power
plant.
Turbine work
A cogeneration plant with adjustable loads.
E in  E out  dE / dt  0
(m 4  m 5 )h4  Wturb  m 7 h7  (m 4  m 5  m7 )h6
Wturb  (m 4  m 5 )h4  m 7 h7  (m 4  m 5  m7 )h6

Wturb  (m 4  m 5 )(h4  h6 )  m 7 (h6  h7 ) 46


Processes 3-5 & 3-6 are isentropic (s1=s2=s3=s5=s5)
s5  s f  x5 s fg at 500 kPa h5  h f  x5 h fg
s6  s f  x6 s fg at 50 kPa h6  h f  x6 h fg

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Method1 Q out  m ( h6  h8 )  29028.75kJ
Method2

E in  E out  dE / dt  0

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COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
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Combined gas–steam power plant.
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2’ 3’

1’
5’ 4’

Gas cycle ( here state n means n’ )


Process 1’-2’ : isentropic compression of an ideal gas

ws h2 's  h1'
c    0.8 h2 '  605.39 kJ / kg
wa h2 '  h1'
Process 3’-4’ : isentropic expansion of an ideal gas

wa h3'  h4 '
T    0.85 h4 '  880.36 kJ / kg
ws h3'  h4 's
qin  h3'  h2 '  790.58kJ / kg
Wnet , gas  Wturbine  Wcompresser  ( h3'  h4 ' )  ( h2 '  h1' )  210.41kJ / kg

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Steam cycle (Ideal Rankine Cycle)

h1  137.75kJ / kg
2’ 3’

h2  h1  W pump  144.78kJ / kg
1’
s3  6.8kJ /( kgK ) 5’ 4’

Process 3-4 : isentropic expansion


s3  s4  s f  x4 s fg 6.8  0.4762  x4 7.9176 x4  0.7987
h4  h f  x4 h fg h4  137.75  0.7987  2423.0  2073.0kJ / kg at 5 kPa

Wnet , steam  Wturbine  W pump  ( h3  h4 )  W pump  1331.37 kJ / kg

E in  E out  dE / dt  0
m g ( h4 '  h5' )  m s ( h2  h3 )

m g wnet , gas  m s wnet , steam wnet , gas w


 th    y net , steam
m g qin qin qin

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Summary
• The Carnot vapor cycle
• Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle
• Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
 Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
 Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
 Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
 Open feedwater heaters
 Closed feedwater heaters
• Second-law analysis of vapor power cycles
• Cogeneration
• Combined gas–vapor power cycles
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Homework 10

Examples in the Text : 10.1~10.8

Problems
15, 33, 44, 54, 66, 80

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