American Philological Association

Xanthus, Hera and the Erinyes (Iliad 19.400-418)

Author(s): Sarah Iles Johnston
Source: Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), Vol. 122 (1992), pp. 85-
98
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
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 oftheAmerican
Transactions Association
Philological 122 (1992)85-98

Xanthus,Hera and the Erinyes*

(Iliad 19.400-418)

Sarah Iles Johnston

The Ohio State University

At ll. 19.400-403, Achilles tells his horsesXanthusand Balius, sons of the

Harpy Podarge,not to leave him dead on the battlefield,as theyhad left
Patroclus.Xanthusreplies,sayingthattheywill keephimsafeforthemoment,
butthathis deathlies near(408-417). In line407, Xanthus'abilityto speak is
creditedto Hera: caia6vtac 8' "Ogi0ceOscxX-o KiccXcvoq"Hpi. Later,in 418,
theErinyesare said to stophis voice: '; apca pwviWocCvto; 'EpwivhoCsOXsOov
cxi6inv.The passage presentsscholarsof Homericmythand religionwiththree
questions:1) Why is Hera involvedwiththishorse?2) Why are theErinyes
involvedwithhim?and 3) Whyare bothHera and theErinyesinvolved?
The theoriesthathave beenbrought to bearon thesethreequestionshave,
by and large,been unsatisfying, particularly because questions"1" and "3"
have been ignoredalmostcompletely.'HereI will suggestthatthementionof
Hera at I1. 19.407 draws on an epic traditionregardingheroic horses that
would have been familiarto the ancient listener,and that the Erinyes'
involvement in line 418 probablyalignswiththeirconsistentportrayalin the
Homericpoems and elsewhereas chthonicdeities. When the two typesof
divineinfluenceare understood correctly, it becomesclear thattheyare notat
odds withone another,but ratheraffectedthehorsein different ways and at
differenttimes.I also will revisea suggestionfirstmade by Wilamowitzand
MaltenthattheIliadic episode as a whole reflectsan epic scene in whichthe
divinehorseAreionprophesiedto thewarriorAdrastus.2

I thankJanBremmer, SanderGoldberg,BruceHeiden,DonaldLateiner, JosephTebben,

StephenTracy,andTAPA'stwoanonymous refereesforthehelpful comments andcriticisms
thattheyoffered atvariousstagesofthisarticle'scomposition.
Fragments fromtheepiccycle
arereferred to bythenumbers assignedinM. Davies,ed.,EpicorumGraecorum Fragmenta
(Gottingen 1988).Secondary workscitedbyauthor andshort
titlearelistedattheback.
1Alreadyin thesecondcentury B.C.,Aristarchus(Arn/A)suggestedathetizing line 407
becausehe thought it conflicted
withline418. The moderntheories thathaveaddressedthe
questionsI listherewillbedealtwithas necessary inthenotesbelow.
2Wilamowitz, "Lesefruchte" Hermes35 (1900)563-65,cf.Der GlaubederHellenen(1931;
rpt.Basel 1956) 1 149 n. 1; L. Malten,"Das PferdimTotenglauben" JDAI29 (1914) 203.
Wust,cols. 98-99, and Dietrich,"Xanthus"22 n. 99, also cite E. Heden,Homerische
Gotterstudien (Diss.Uppsala1912)136ff.as havingproposed thisidea;I havenotbeenableto
obtaina copyofthiswork,however.

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86 SarahIles Johnston

1. Hera and Warriors' Horses.

Homer tells us thatXanthusand Balius were the sons of Zephyrusand the
Harpy Podarge (ll. 16.149-51; cf. 19.400 and 19.415), and thattheywere
bestowedby the gods upon Peleus (ll. 16. 381 and 867, 17.443-44). At II.
23.277-78 and in Apollod. Bibl. 3.13.5 we are told morespecificallythatit
was Poseidonwho gave thesehorsesto Peleus. Whenwe recallthatPoseidon
similarlybestowedhis own son Areionon Copreus(I T on II. 23.347 = Theb.
fr. 6B and l D on ll. 23.346 = Theb. fr.6C), we suspect thatbehind II.
23.277-78 lurksan alternative traditionwherebyPoseidon,notZephyrus,was
thefatherof Xanthusand Balius. Fromfragments of Alcmanand Stesichorus,
we can piece togetheryetanotherstory,accordingto whichPoseidon,having
sired a horse named Xanthusand his brotherCyllarus(the motheris not
named),gave themas a giftto Hera. She in turngave Xanthusand Cyllarusto
the Dioscuri,who, like Achilles,used theirremarkablehorsesin battle.This
Xanthusspoketo Castor,as Achilles'Xanthusdidto him.3
We begin to suspectthe conflationof threedifferent traditionsin the
of Achilles' horses,probablyoccasionedby thecoincidenceof
Iliadic portrait
thename"Xanthus,"whichwas a commonone forheroichorses(cf. Hector's
Xanthusat ll. 8.185; Diomedes' Xanthusat Hyg. Fab. 30, and Erechtheus'
Xanthusat Nonn.D. 37.156-57). Clearly,Homerknewof a miraculoushorse
named Xanthuswhomthe wind had siredon a Harpy.He undoubtedlyalso
knew of a storywherebyPoseidonhad siredtwo horses-one of whomwas
namedXanthus-and thenbestowedthemon Peleus; he alludesto thisstoryat
23.277-78. Finally,Homeralso knewof a thirdtradition thatmade Hera the
ownerof a pair of horsesthatshe bestowedon warriors:boththehorseswere
Poseidon's sons and one of them,namedXanthus,could talk.4The thirdof
thesetraditions probablyincludedthe storythatHera endowedXanthus(and
perhapsCyllarusas well), withthe abilityto speak,just as she endowedthe
Iliadic Xanthuswith this gift.The motifis paralleled nicely by the gods'
bestowal on Jasonof the Argo's speakingfigurehead, a storyreferred to as

3Stesich.fr.1 Diehl = fr.178 Campbell;Alcm.fr.25 Campbell;cf.I Verg.G. 3.89. The

toXanthus
reference speakinginAlcm.is fr.76 Campbell= Aelian,HA 12.3.Aelianpresumed
thatAlcmanwascopying Homerinmaking a horsetalktoitsmaster.
4N. Yalouris,"Athenaals HerrinderPferde"MH 7 (1950) 79-88 has suggested thatHera
was themother of suchwonderhorsesin earlier,losttraditions,for,as he has shown,Hera
sometimes was Poseidon'spartner in cultsconnected withhorses.Such cultswouldbe the
remainsofa losttradition inwhichHerawasa or6vta His mainsupports
Opil)pv. forthisidea
areherepithets Poontir;, and
tcwpCiont;, ic-viCnt; and her occasional representations
artistic
withlions,e.g.,on someSamiancoins;overall,theargument seemsweak.

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 Xanthus,Hera and theErinyes 87

earlyas Aeschylusand incorporated by virtuallyall subsequenttreatments

of
the Argonautica.In Apollonius Rhodius and Apollodorus,the figurehead
specifically is said tohavebeengivento JasonbyAthena;ValeriusFlaccussays
that"Satumia," i.e. Juno,bestowedit, althoughhe latertells us thatit was
carvedto look like Minerva.5In constructing thepictureof Xanthusthatwe
get in theIliad, Homerdid not cleave to any one of the threetraditionsfor
heroichorsesthathe knew,butdrewon all of them:he made Xanthusa son of
Zephyrus,yet borroweda detail fromthe storyof Xanthus-the-son-of-
Poseidon when he broughtHera into the picture.Later, when he said that
Poseidon gave Xanthus and Balius to Peleus, he borrowedfroma story
wherebyPoseidon himself,ratherthanHera, bestowedhis sons on favored
warriors.
If we read 11. 19.407 carefully,we note thatit does not say thatHera
caused Xanthusto speak at theverymomentthathe repliedto Achilles-nor
does it say thatshe putthewordsof lines 408-417 in his mouth.Rather,line
407 saysthatHera madeXanthusto be 6u8i?jvtt,a "speakingcreature."6 Hera
could have endowed Xanthuswith this quality at any time. And indeed,
althoughwe have no othercertainscenesof Xanthusspeakingin theIliad, we
do have a narrativelyearlier scene of Xanthus and Balius mourningin
unmistakablyhuman ways (I1. 17.426-440): theycry out (icXociov),weep
6' IC(5c'c
(8&il4zpixxuaObp?x
cp PX?(pwpov xCCR6&;p?? jpoji?votnv), and
defile theirhair (OcXkpi18' pcdt'vvroxxitiq) afterhearingof Patroclus'
death."KXcdi," whichregularly is associatedwithspokenlamentsor criesfor
help (e.g., ll. 8.364 and 19.300, Od. 20.92), particularlysuggeststhatthe

5Aeschylus: fr. 20 Radt: t(noiv) e`Grtvt'Apyoji; ispov ac6fsev tvXov. A. R. 1.526-27

(cf. 4.582-83); Apollod. Bibl. 1.9.16; V. Fl. 1.305 and 8.203. In other sources, cited at
Jessen,"Argo" RE 2.1 cols. 721-22, thebestoweris notspecified.
6Cf. the use of a soqeGca to describe Calypso at Od. 12.449, Circe at 10.136, 11.8 and
12.150 and Ino at 5.334; it does not describe these goddesses as speaking at any specific
moment,butratherindicatesthetypeof goddesses thattheyare-they speak withmortals.Cf.
also Odysseus' use of thewordat Od. 6.125, wherehe wonderswhethertheinhabitantsof the
island on which he has washed up are "human," or nymphsof the wild. (These, plus II.
19.407, are the only Homeric passages in which the word is used.) One of TAPA's referees
pointsout to me thatthenounacrX&once has thesame connotationas theadjectiveac68&et;:at
II. 18.419-20, Hephaestus endows his golden handmaidens with ac0i6i1ica G0Cvo;. This
seems to mean thathe gives themthecapacityto speak ratherthansimplya voice (cf. F. Krafft,
VergleichendeUntersuchungen zu Homer und Hesiod [Gottingen1963] 48, n. 2). However,in
20 of the 21 otheruses of the word in Homer, cx1v6q1 denotes the voice itself(e.g., Nestor's
voice at II. 1.249) or a sound like the voice (the bowstringat Od. 21.411 has an caiz6i'like a
bird); the single possible exception may be II. 4.430, which describes the Danaan soldiers
marchingsilently,each man keepinghis cx061' in his chest.This suggeststhatwe should not
takeavrni-vat II. 19.418 to mean"capacityto speak,"butrather"voice."

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88 SarahIles Johnston

horses were speakinghere ratherthan simplyneighingor crying.Usually,

KX6aCQand g11KaoIoagare theverbsused of animalcries(e.g., II. 10.276,Od.
14.30; II. 10.362,Od. 9.439).7
In short,I suggestthatone of the traditionsthatunderlayII. 19.407
portrayedHera as the ownerof wonder-horsesand as bestowingthe giftof
speech upon thembeforegivingthemto a favoredwarrioror warriors.The
phrase ax'ie?vTc OdX XSoicKXEVo; "Hpi, then, is meant to remind
6' CiO11Ke
thelistenerof how Xanthuscame to be thesortof creaturethathe was, rather
thanto explainwhatmadehimspeakat thatparticular moment.8
2. The Erinyes as Chthonic Powers.
If Hera's manipulation of Xanthusoccurredbeforethescene at Iliad 19, then
theErinyesstandforthmoreclearlyas theimmediateagentsof his behaviorin
lines 404-418. Exactlywhatdid theydo to thehorse,and how does it reflect
theirnature?Althoughthebrevityof Homer'sdescription makesit impossible
to answer this question with complete security,examination of other
information aboutthesegoddesseswill suggesta solutionthatalignswell both
withtheHomericpassage and withwhatwe know of theErinyesfromother
sources. Before undertakingthat examination,however, I would like to
dispensewithsome of the mostpopulartheoriesthathave been advancedto
explaintheErinyes'interaction withXanthus.
B. C. Dietrich9developedWilamowitzand Malten'shypothesisthatthe
scene betweenAchillesand Xanthuswas modelledon a scenebetweenAreion
and Adrastus,who are linked as warriorand steed as early as the Iliad.10

reminds
70neofTAPA's referees methatatII. 16.469,whenAchilles'mortalhorsePedasos
as a normalanimalwould;at
he fallsintothedust"bleating"(gtxcdcv)
is killedbySarpedon,
Od. 18.98thesamephraseis usedof Irus-thebestialmanbecomesyetmorebestialin his
pain.
8Tomyknowledge, onlytwootherscholars haveaddressed Hera'sinvolvement inthisscene
directly.Edwards283 suggeststhatHerabestowsspeechon XanthusbecauseAchillesis a
favoriteof hers.His assumptionthatXanthus"didnot[normally] conversewithhismaster"
suggeststhathe believesthegiftto have been bestowedimmediately priorto Xanthus'
announcement inBook19.Dietrich,"Xanthus" 9, assumesthatHeragavethehorsehisvoiceat
themoment oftheprophecy toAchillesandthencomments thatshe"transgressedherofficein
bestowing sucha giftonXanthus."Whatheimagines her"office" tohavebeenis notstated.At
24 he saysthatHera"was addedto theoriginalstorybyHomer,"butgivesno motivation for
suchan addition.
9Dietrich,"Xanthus"23-24. Cf.his"Demeter," whichexploresthepossibility thatErinys
herselfwasoriginally anequimorphic Oipcov(thearguments
o',wtva seeminconclusive).
10Adrastus as Areion'smaster:II. 23.346-7; Y D on II. 23.346 and Y T on II. 23.347 =
Theb.frs.6C and6B; Paus. 8.25.7-8.= Theb.fr.6A; Prop.2.34.37-38;Stat.Theb. 11.443;
Paus.8.25.10;Apollod.Bibl.3.6.8.Areionalso carriesHeraclesintoandoutofbattle:I; T on
II. 23.347= Theb.fr.6B; I D onII. 23.346= Theb.fr.6C; Hes. Sc. 118-20,Paus. 8.25.10.

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 Xanthus,HeraandtheErinyes 89

Dietrich went furtherthan his predecessors,however,and suggestedthat

Xanthuswas littlemore thana doubletforthe betterknownAreion,whom
epic madeErinys'son by Poseidon.1 1 He supported thisby arguingthatHarpies
are to be equatedwithErinyes:thus,Xanthusand Areionhad thesame sortof
mother,and were essentiallythe same horse.12In otherwords,the Erinyes
stoppedXanthus'voice becauseone ofthemwas his mother.Dietrichis correct
to follow Wilamowitzand Malten in looking for similaritiesand cross-
influences betweenXanthusand Areion,as I will arguetowardstheend of this
article,buthis development of thisidea is flawedin severalwaysand does not
adequatelyexplaintheErinyes'actionsinI. 19.418. Mostimportantly, Harpies
and Erinyesare notto be equatedin Homer,and probablynotto be equatedin
laterliteratureand beliefeither.Harpiesare winddemonswho snatchpeople
away; Erinyesare chthonicentitieswitha farwiderrangeof activities(to be
reviewedbelow,p. 92-93). Dietrich'sattempts to arguetheoppositeare based
mostlyon post-Homericiconographicaltraitsthatthetwo groupsshare(e.g.,
wings,snakeyhair); manyotherfemaledemons share these traitsas well,
however,and therefore theircoincidencein Erinyesand Harpieswouldnotbe
sufficientproofof identity,even if we were to assume, despite a lack of
evidence,thatHomericErinyesand Harpies bore these traits.Dietrichalso
adduces Od. 20.77-78 as proofof the identity of Harpiesand Erinyes.There,
however,theHarpiessteal Pandareus'daughters and givethemto theErinyes;
thedifference,again,seemsto be between"winddemons"who werepopularly
responsibleforsnatchingpeople or souls away intodeathand demonsof the
Underworlditself.13

CopreusandOncusalsoarementioned sometimes
amongAreion'sowners. Copreus:E T onII.
23.347 = Theb. fr.6B; Z D on Il. 23.346 = Theb. fr.6C. Oncus: Paus. 8.25.10. On the
evidenceforAreion'sownersin theEpic Cycleand otherearlysourcesgenerally, see the
thorough analysisofJanko51-55,which,interalia, convincingly supportstheviewthatZ D
on II. 23.346 shouldbe acceptedas reflecting
theEpic CycleifnottheThebaisitself.Also
Turmpel, "Areion"RE 2.1 col. 622.
11Areionis said to be thesonof PoseidonandErinysat Z D on II. 23.346andX T on II.
23.347= Theb.frs.6C and6B; heis calledthesonofPoseidonand"DemeterErinys"atPaus.
8.25.4-7;see also comments at Tumpel(above,n. 10) col. 621. TheepicpoetAntimachus of
Colophon,in his own Thebais, madeAreiontheson of Ge (ap. Paus. 8.25.8-9 = fr.33
Wyss).I T onII. 23.347(= Theb.fr.6B) saysthatalthough theold cyclicpoetsmadeAreion
thesonofPoseidonandErinys, theneoteroimadehimthesonofPoseidonanda Harpy-this
lookslikelaterconfusion withthestory ofXanthusandBalius.
121basemysummary ofDietrich's arguments
primarilyuponthelasttwopagesofhisarticle,
wherehe himself summarizes thepointshe hastriedtomake.His discussions on pp.9-22 are
detailed,drawon a largevariety of material,
and aredifficult to follow.Cf. theremarks of
Edwards284-5.
130n Harpiesas winddemons,see, amongrecenttreatments, G. Nagy,TheBestofthe
Achaeans (Baltimore1979) 194-96.Dietrichtriedto arguethatHarpieswereessentially

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90 SarahIles Johnston

Finally,Dietrich'sargument failsbecause Erinys'allegedidentity withor

similarity to Xanthus'motherdoes notexplainin itselfwhyshe and hersisters
stoppedhis voice, or whyXanthusprophesiedin thefirstplace. Dietrichnever
explicitlyaddressesthe firstpoint;to cover the latter,he adduces an "Indo-
European"tradition of horsesbeinginnatelyprophetic(22). Greekor Roman
examplesare lacking,however-Dietrichcan citeonlyHdt.3.84-85 (a passage
thatrefersto thePersiansprognosticating by meansofhorses'neighings),Tac.
Ger. 10 (whichdescribestheGermansdoingthesame thingas thePersians)
and theseventh-century A.D. Spanishencyclopaediast Isidorus,Orig. 12.1.44,
who mentionsthatsome peoples believe thatthe outcome of a battlecan be
gaugedin advancefromthemood or behaviorof thehorses.14This seems,on
the whole, weak prooffora Greek belief thathorses in generalhad innate
manticabilities,notonlybecausetwoof theseexamplesare notactuallyGreek
themselves(theprovenanceof Isidorus'exampleis uncertain; see note 14), but
also because all of thesetechniquesare examples of "inductive" or "artificial"
prognostication rather than "direct" or "inspirational" divination.
Schachermeyrmentionsa few more examples of Indo-Europeanprophetic
horses [Indian and Celtic beliefs(106); Slavic prognostication fromhorses'
steps (98); possible Etruscan observationof horses' steps for prophetic
purposes(92); Armeniandivinationby means of horses' steps and neighing
(1 18)] buthe adducesno Greekexamples.15
Anothertheorycommonlyadduced to explainthe Erinyes'behaviorin
Iliad 19 is thattheyare "guardiansof the naturalorder";theymustput the

chthonicdeities,ratherthanwinddemons.His onlyevidence,however, was thefactthatthe

Harpiesbearseveralhorses(PhlogeusandHarpagusas wellas XanthusandBalius);horses,
Dietrichargues,alwayshavechthonic overtones.But,as Schachermeyr has shown(passim,
butesp. 16 n. 5; 116-17 and chpt.7), thereare two typesof wonderhorses:thosewith
chthonicassociations,bornfrom"earthy" mothers suchas Medusa,Erinys, DemeterandGE,
andthosebornfromwindor weather deitiessuchas theHarpies,BoreasandZephyrus, who
areexceptionally swift.As Schachermeyr notes,thetwotypesof horsesinevitably become
combined:Pegasus,forexample,is bornfromchthonic Medusayethas thewingsof a wind
horse;see also mycomments on I. 20.221-29below,pp. 97-98. Nonetheless, windhorses
andchthonic horsesareofseparate origins andtheHarpies'associationswithhorses,therefore,
areinsufficient
proofoftheirchthonic nature.
14lsidorusHispalensisdiscussesa widevariety ofbeliefsandcustomsregarding horsesin
12.1,gathered fromracesas disparate as theHunsandthePersians.Whenhe saysat 12.1.44,
solentetiamexequorum velmaestitiavelalacritateeventumfuturum dimicaturicolligere;itis
unclearwhothesubjectof"solent"is.
15Edwards suggests
283 alternatively thatXanthus'spokenprophecy canbe compared tothe
wiseremarks ofthehawktothenightingale inHes. Op. 203-12.Theideaofanimalsspeaking
to one another,however-a verycommonfeature of fables-is notthesameas thatof an
animalspeaking toa human.

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 Xanthus,Heraand theErinyes 91

worldto rightsby stoppingthe "unnatural"act of a horse speaking.16There

are several weaknesses here. First,if the Erinyes' goal was to preventa
disruption of thenaturalorderas manifested by a speakinghorse,thentheydid
a poor a job of it-they did notstopXanthus'voice untilhe had finishedhis
statementto Achilles. The fact thatXanthus' statementwas completeand
uninterrupted is confirmedby thephrasea'pa(pviaavtocq, whichalways
follows a finishedstatementin Homer,never an interrupted one. Second,
speakingwarriors'horsesare not actuallycontrary to the "natural"orderof
themythicor epic world,as I alreadyhave noted.We knowthathorsesspoke
notonlyto Achillesbutto Castorand Adrastus17 as well,and also thatJason
was spokento by a woodenfigurehead-theclosestthingto a warrior'ssteed
thatthisherohad.
Finally,theErinyesshowno evidenceof being"guardiansof thenatural
order,"in Homeror elsewhere.They interactwithmen and gods, frequently
correctingor punishingan individual's infringement upon the rightsof
another, buttheyshowno interest in simplypreserving thecosmicstatusquo at
large.The passage thatrepeatedlyhas been used to supporttheidea thatthe
Erinyesare "guardiansof the naturalorder"is Heracleitus' statementthat
t'HXw; Pyap 'U iirspf3 ?at Acrpa- i ? j, 'Eptvig gv Aificr
niol)Opol i4FpiiGOUGIV (fr. 94 DK), but even here the Erinyescan be
understoodas guardiansof the individual'srightsand thepunishersof those
who wouldignorethem.The passage is quotedin Plutarch'sde exil. (604A) in
orderto illustratetheidea thatthecelestialbodies enjoyfelicitybecause they
take precautionsagainstthepossibilitythatone may trespassupon another's
territory:"Each planet,revolvingin a singlecircuit,as if on an island,protects
its own place (tiv); indeed,'the Sun will notgo outsideof his limits,forif
he does, the Erinyes,as ministersof Dike, will seek him out."' Plutarch
understoodHeracleitus'statement to meannotthattheErinyeshad an interest

16Notable proponentsofthe"naturalorder"theory includeDodds7; C. Robertinhisedition

ofL. Preller,Griechische
Mythologie4(1894;rpt.Berlin,ZurichandDublin1964)vol. 1 835;
0. Gruppe,GriechischeMythologie und Religionsgeschichte (Munich1906) 764-65; E.
Leitzke,MoiraundGottheit imaltengriechischenEpos (Diss.Gottingen 1930)20,n.22; H. J.
Rose,La NotionduDivin,Entretiens surl'Antiquite ClassiqueI (Vandoeuvres-G8neva 1952)
13; M. P. Nilsson,GGR 13 101;Wiust,col. 106,cf.col. 115,also seemstoholdtothisidea.I
B ad II. 19.418., who says that the Erinyes are b?icricoirot yap eiLrtvrdv zapa pOLv,
sometimesis citedin supportofthisargument, butthislookslikea latermisinterpretation
of
Heracleitus'statement; see pp. 91-92 below.Edwards285 suggeststhatHomerhereis
thinking
oftheErinyes'functions inpunishingthosewhoviolatedtherights ofthegodsand
elderfamilymembers, andthattheseareextendedto covermaintaining thenormalrulesof
whichbarhorsesfromspeech.
behavior,
170n CastorandXanthus, above,n. 3. On Adrastus
andAreion,below,pp.95-97.

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92 SarahIles Johnston

in keepingnatureat large runningin any pre-determined "normal"manner,

but ratherthatwhen any celestial body withinthe cosmos oversteppedits
bounds and therebyinfringed upon the ct6't or jItpa of anotherbody, the
Erinyes would help to punish the transgressor and reestablishwhat Dike
decreedto belongto thewrongedparty, just as theErinyeswouldact on behalf
of a parent,older sibling,or beggarwho had not been givenhis or her due.
Heracleitussimplyextendedone of theErinyes'dutiesin thehumansphereto
thecelestialsphere.18
A thirdtheory,althoughnot so influentialas the firsttwo, deserves
mentionboth because it was presentedin two worksstill studiedby those
interestedin theearlynatureof theErinyesand also because,as I will suggest
immediately below, it does containa kernelof truth.In bothan 1899 article
and herProlegomenato the Studyof GreekReligionof 1903, JaneHarrison
argued thatthe Erinyesare to be identifiedwiththe Moirai. As such, she
suggested,theyinspiredXanthusto tellAchilleswhathis moirawouldbe and
thenstoppedhis speechwhenthatprophecywas completed:"The horsespeaks
as themouthpieceof thefates,theErinyes;theytell of whatfate(goipa) will
accomplish...When Xanthushas uttered themandateof fate,theFates close his
mouth,notbecausehe transgresses theirlaw butbecausehe has uttereditto the
full."'9The Erinyesand moiraare,indeed,connectedin Homer,butas Dodds
alreadyhas shown,Harrisonwenttoo farwhenshe identified them;rather,the
Erinyessometimeshelp to fulfillan individual'smoira. Moreover,as Dodds
notes,moira scarcelyis personifiedin Homer; thus,it is hardto imagineit
stopping-orstarting-ahorse'svoice.20
All thatconsistentlycan be said abouttheErinyes'natureand behaviorin
Homer is thattheyare chthonicgoddesses and display a varietyof traits
commonlyassociatedwithsuchdeities.Theyare presentwhenoathsare taken

Prolegomena
18J.E. Harrison, to theStudyofGreekReligion(Cambridge1903) 216-17
similarlyremarkedthatHeracleitus' Erinyesare"embodiments ofthevengeancethatattends
"Xanthus"10,who,although
Cf.Dietrich,
transgression." agreeing withthecommonopinion
thattheErinyesmaybe "guardians ofthenatural order"inHeracleitus, does notsee themas
suchinHomer.
aboven. 18,216 and"Delphika,"
19Harrison, JHS 19 (1899) 205-251,esp.205-210.
20Dodds,chpt.1, esp. pp. 7-8. HarrisonadducedtheErinyes'statement thatApollohad
"blighted poipa;" (Aesch.Eu. 172) as earlyproofoftheiridentity
thexaXoatyeveii; withthe
Moirai,butI wouldagreewiththemostrecentcommentator (A. H. Sommerstein, ed. and
comm.,Aeschylus: Eumenides[Cambridge 1989])andwithmosttranslators of thepassage,
thatthephraseaccusesApolloof disregarding theancientdispensations.The onlyexplicit
ofErinys/the
identifications Erinyes andMoira/the MoiraiofwhichI amawareoccuratHymn
Orph.69.16 andEur.fr.1011 (Nauck),whereErinyscalls herself Fortuna,Nemesis,Fata,
andNecessitas(ap. Serv.A. 7.337).

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 Xanthus,Hera and theErinyes 93

(II. 19.259-60) and correspondingly help to bringcurses to fulfillment(II.

9.454-56; II. 9.571-72), they walk the dark and mistypathwaysof the
Underworld(II. 9. 571-72; II. 19.87) and are called up whenone beats upon
the earth(II. 9.568-72), theybringon madness or delusion or sterility(II.
9.454-56; II. 19.86-89; Od. 15.233-34), theyassociatewiththesouls of those
whohave died (Od. 20.78). Hesiod and othersourcesmakethemthedaughters
of Ge herself;culticmythsconnectErinyswithDemeterin herroleas an earth
goddess.21
The earthand itscavernsfrequently are portrayedas sourcesof prophetic
inspiration,and manychthonicentitieshave propheticinterests. To cite buta
fewexamples:at theoracleof Ge in Aegira,thepriestessdescendedintocaves
in orderto prophesy;therealso had been an oracle of Ge at Olympiaat one
time(Plin.Nat. 28.147,Paus. 5.14.10) and Ge was called theoriginalownerof
the Delphic oracle (Aesch. Eu. 2; cf. Eur.IT 1248-83). Even afterApollo's
arrogationof Delphi, thereremaineda shrineto Ge (Plut. de pyth. orac.
402C-E), and ancientsourcesportrayed thePythiaas descendingintoa cave or
depression, assumedlyso as to be in closercontactwiththechthonicpowers.22
At Claros,too, theprophetawaitedinspiration in an underground roomafter
drinkingfroma subterraneanspring(Tac. Ann. 2.54). The epic Eumolpia
made Poseidon 'Evvoaixyatoganotherearlyownerof the Delphic oracle; an
altar to the chthonicEarthshakerstill could be seen in the temple when
Pausaniasvisited(Paus. 10.5.6, 10.24.4).

21Daughters of Ge: Hes. Th. 185,Soph.OC 40 andfurther at Wustcol. 85. For Erinys'
connectionstoDemeter, see myarticle,
"PenelopeandtheErinyes: Interpreting
Odyssey 20.61-
82," forthcoming in theSpring,1994issueofHelios; W. Burkert, Structureand Historyin
GreekMythology andRitual(Berkeley 1979)125-29;B. C. Dietrich,Death,FateandtheGods
(London 1965) 118-38; ibid. "Demeter";Wustcols. 94-101. Generallyon theErinyes'
chthonicnature,seeHenrichs.
22Citationsofancientsourcesanddiscussionofthe"cave"or"depression" at DelphiinJ.
Fontenrose,TheDelphicOracle:ItsResponses andOperations witha CatalogueofResponses
(Berkeley1978) 197-228; and H. W. Parkeand D. E. W. Wormell,The Delphic Oracle
(Oxford1956) 1 17-30.As bothworksnote,no underground chamber has beenfoundat the
site.The frequency withwhichsourcesreferto sucha phenomenon, however,is hardto
ignore,especiallybecause therewas no secrecyconcerning theoperationof theoracle:
completelyfalsedescriptions wouldhavebeenrecognized as suchbyanyonewhohadvisited
Delphi.Alreadyin theHomericHymnto Apollo,thegodis saidto &cu-rovKaire6aos(line
443) and evenPlutarch, who generally is thought
to be a highlyaccurateinformant about
Delphi, uses the verbs icorTet, Kcocpxogzt, and icKatx(xivco to describethe entranceof the
Pythiaintothemanteion(e.g.,de pyth.orac. 397A,408D; de def.orac. 438B). The sources
mayhavebeenreferring toan artificial
depression.
Whatis important forourdiscussion is the
persistence
of thebelief,evenin connectionwiththeoracleof an "Olympian"god suchas
Apollo,thatmantic
powerscameupfrom theground.

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94 SarahIles Johnston

At thesanctuary of Demeterand Persephonein Patrae,thesickdescended

a
to spring that was known farand wide as a gtavtsov a&rs8C%. By meansof
a cord, the questionerlet a mirrordown into the springwhile prayingto
Demeter;whenit was raised,thesurfacewoulddisplaya portrait of thepatient
eitheralive or dead (Paus. 7.21.12). At theoracleof thedead at Ephyra,ghosts
themselveswere imaginedto appear (Hdt. 5.92); we do not know how this
oracle worked,althoughit may have been similarto thatof Trophoniusat
Lebadeia, wherethe questionerdescendedinto a chasm (Paus. 9.39.5-14).
Trophoniusis butthemostfamousexampleof whatRohdelongago identified
as a widespreadtendencyforheroesand heroines-i.e., thefamousdead-to
be creditedwithoracularpowers23(cf. Plutarch'sdiscussionof the mantic
powersof the dead and of chthonicdaemonesat de def.orac. 431E - 432E).
Mantic dreams,too, regularlyare said to rise out of the earth(e.g., Eur. IT
1261-83,Hec. 70-71). Achilles'description of theDodonianSelloi as sleeping
on thegroundwouldseem to reflecta beliefin theearth'spropheticpowersas
well,althoughtheallusionis too briefforus to be sureof this(II. 16.234-35).
Given the frequencywith which the earth and chthonicdeities are
creditedwithoracularpowers,it would be naturalfor the Erinyesto have
them as well. And in fact, Euripides tells us that theirsanctuaryon the
Areopagus included a subterraneanoracle:24at El. 1270-72 the Dioscuri
predictthat,afterOrestes' acquittal,the 8stvai Oeai...natyovstap' a6 ov
Xa(Ra bvaovtat %OVo6, asgvOv J3potoiatvs?asf3pal xpi1aGriptov. As
Aeschylus'chorusof Erinyesprepares to descend intothissame sanctuary,it
describesitselfas Osairi'aax (Eu. 922).25 Henrichs and Lloyd-Jones,among
others,have arguedconvincinglyforthe greatantiquityof this Areopagite
cult.AlthoughevidencefromAtheniancultsis notthesecurestcomparandum

23Further discussionofPoseidon'soracularassociations GreekReligion.tr.

atW. Burkert,
JohnRaffan(1977; Eng. ed. Oxford1985) 139. On theprophetic powersof heroesand
heroines,see Rohde 133; on theprophetic powersof thedead and of chthonic entitiesin
general,see furtherTh. Hopfner,Griechisch-agyptischer Offenbarungszauber.Studienzur
Palaographie undPapyruskunde 21 and22 (1921and1924;rpt.Amsterdam 1974and 1983) 1
?? 256,257,266; 2, chpt.8 (?? 328-76).
24Thelocationof thissanctuary in a cave or cleftis confirmedbyAesch.Eu. 804-807,
838=873, 1006-1007,1036.The cultis mentioned by EuripidesatIT 968-69 as well.On
possiblelocations,see W. Judeich,Topographie vonAthen(Munich1931) 299-300.On the
identityof Erinyes,Eumenidesand SemnaiTheai,see mostrecently HenrichsandLloyd-
Jones.
25I thankDon Lateiner forreminding meofthepassagefromAeschylus. I also notethatthe
chorus calls Erinys a ICavaXnOCij iCaK6c6vrt; at Aesch. Th. 722. It is unclear, however,
couldmeansimplythatwhenErinysappearson the
howwe areto takethisdescription-it
Erinysdoesnotseemtohaveanyactual
ofOedipus'houseis imminent.
scene,thedestruction
intheplay.
function
prophetic

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 Xanthus,Hera and theErinyes 95

forHomericreligionand folkbelief,takenin combinationwiththe frequent

of propheticpowersto chthonicentitiesthatI have demonstrated
attribution in
the previousparagraph,it encouragesus to reconsiderHarrison'sidea that
Xanthus'prophecyat 11. 19.408-17 was inspired26 by theErinyes,even if we
of thesegoddesseswiththeMoirai.Whenthe
have rejectedher identification
prophecythat they intendedXanthusto convey had been completed,the
Erinyeswouldhave stoppedthehorse'svoice,as line418 says-they no longer
wouldhave inspiredhim.
3. Xanthus and Areion.
Even when we use materialthatwould have been available to the ancient
audienceto elucidatetheroles of Hera and theErinyesin Iliad 19, however,
the episode seems allusive ratherthandescriptive:thepoet neitherspecified
when and why Hera gave Xanthusthe giftof speech nor explicitlytold his
audiencethattheErinyesinspiredhis prophecyto Achilles.To some degree,
this cursorytreatment of the episode may reflectthe poet's disinterestin
describingsupernaturalphenomenain detail(see note26), butit also suggests
thatwe still are missingbackgroundinformation thatthe ancientaudience
wouldhave had. We mustconsideragaintheway in whichIi. 19.400-418 may
havebeen constructed.
I arguedin the firstsectionof thisarticlethatthephrasecxX6hvrnx&'
'0i X? AuKW'Xsvoq
OsX "Hprjlooksbacktoa tradition ofwhichwe nowhave
only fainttraces,accordingto whichHera endowedheroicwarriors'horses
withspeech.Homer'sinclusionof thephrasenotonlyinformed theaudienceof
how Xanthusoriginally became x05i1stq,butalso placed Xanthusmorefirmly
withinthetraditionof greathorses,and in doingso, of course,placed Achilles
morefirmlywithinthetradition of greatheroes.Similarly,I would argue,the
phrase'Eptv"Th;%aXcOov ac8il'v looks back to a lostepisodein whichAreion
prophesiedto his master.Such an episodefirstwas positedby Wilamowitzand

26Itusedtobe assumedbysomescholarsofGreekreligion, M. P. Nilsson(GGR

including
13 166) andRohde(289) thatHomerknewonlyof"inductive" not"inspirational"
divination,
prophecy,i.e.,prophecythatdemanded directcontactwitha godordaemon.Theoclymenus'
prophecy at Od. 20.351 ff.was explainedawayas "dichterischesSchauen"(Nilsson).This
assumption has beenchallengedvigorously by others,however,includingS. Eitrem,"The
Necromancy in thePersaiof Aischylos"Sym.Osl. 6 (1928), 1-16; Dodds 70; andG. Luck,
ArcanaMunda(Baltimore 1985)242,andnowshouldbe discarded. All threeofthesescholars
arguethatHomeravoideddetailed descriptions
ofsuchspectacularly
supernaturalphenomena as
inspirational
prophecy outa concernfor"seemliness andepicdignity"(Dodds).On Homer's
avoidanceof thingsweirdor supernatural,cf.also theremarksofJanko53; Edwards283; J.
"TheEpic CycleandtheUniqueness
Griffin, ofHomer"JHS97 (1977) 39-53,esp.pages40-
42; andLloyd-Jones.

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96 SarahIles Johnston

Malten,who suggestedthatthemasterin questionspecificallywas Adrastus.

Althoughboththeepisode's existenceand anyinvolvement in it by theErinyes
mustremainhypothetical, both of theseideas are worth a closer look.
We mightbeginby examiningtheevidencethatWilamowitzand Malten
adducedin supportof thefirstidea. In Statius'Thebaid,a poemthatmayhave
drawnon theearlierThebais,Areionprophesiedin orderto warnAdrastusas
he droveaway fromEteocles and Polyneices'fatefulduel (Theb. 11.442-43):
fata monentem /conversumque iugo propellitAriona(sc. Adrastus).At Theb.
6.424, Areionis describedas praesagus as Polyneicesdriveshimin a chariot
race at the funeralgames of Archemorus. The passage goes on to describe
Polyneices' reckless driving,his narrowescape fromdeath and Areion's
forfeitureof the winninghonors; it may be this dangerand dishonorthat
Areionforesees,or it may be thatthe adjectivepraesagus simply describes
Areion in general-he is a horse who is knownforhis propheticabilities.
Propertius brieflyrefersto Areion's abilityto speak at 2.34.37-8, again with
referenceto thefuneralgames of Archemorus: Adrastifueritvocalis Arion,/
tristisad Archemorifunera victorequus. The contextof the passage-it
appears in a list of favoriteliterarythemes-makes it clear thatAreion's
behaviorat thegames was a well knownstory,whichsuggestsin turnthatit
had rootsin the epic cycle. G. P. Goold, who takes tristiswithArchemori
ratherthanwithArion in his new Loeb translation(Cambridge,MA 1990)
243, suggestsin a notethatwe shouldunderstand vocalis to alludeto thesame
prophecythatStatiusmentionedat Theb. 11.442-43. This seems tenuous-
perhapsbothPropertius'vocalis and Statius'praesagus pointto somenow lost
versionin whichAreionorallywarnedtheineptPolyneicesas he set outon the
racecourse,to mentionjust one possibility-buthoweverwe read thepassage,
it is notable thatone of the thingsthatPropertiusemphasizes in his brief
mentionof Areionis thathe is vocalis. This confirmsthatthehorsewas well
knownforone or morethingsthathe had said.
As a whole, these passages suggest that Areion was famed for
prophetically warningone or moreof his mastersof danger.(Wilamowitzand
Maltengo too far,in myopinion,whentheyassumethatHomerhad Adrastus
in mindwhenhe composed11. 19.400-418;he also mighthave been thinking of
a storyin whichAreionwarnedPolyneicesor of some lost episode in which
Areionprophesiedto Heraclesor Copreus,who appearedas Areion'smasters
in theEpic Cycle.27)We now can examinethesecondidea: is therereasonto
believe thatit was Erinysor theErinyeswho inspiredAreion'sprophecyin a

ofAreion,see above,n. 10.

270nHeracles'andCopreus'ownership

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 Xanthus,Heraand theErinyes 97

lost episode? If so, thenthe allusive 'Eptvig Ca%?00ovai98i7vmakes more

sense; like ai6&fjcvta8' ?C9pce O XcCdXcvoq "Hpi, it wouldhave served
s?a
to aligntheXanthus-Achilles episodewitha morefullydevelopedepisodethat
was familiarto theaudience.
As I notedon p. 89 duringmyreviewof Dietrich'sanalysis,accordingto
most authorities, includingthe epic Thebais, Areionwas siredon Erinysor
DemeterErinysby Poseidon. Antimachusof Colophon said thathe sprang
fromGe herself,but this seems to be eithera confusionwiththe storyof
Poseidon's siringof Skyphioson Ge or a reflection of Erinys'own role as an
earthgoddess. (See note 21.) AfterAdrastusescaped frombattle,Areion
carriedhim eitherto Colonus, Argos,or Sicyon,all of which were sites of
important cults to the Erinyes;it is as if the horse returnedto his home.28
Althoughchthonicentitiescould workto inspireanyone,we mightimagine
thatthosewho had a special connectionto themwould be especiallyopen to
theirmanipulation. Areion-son of Erinys-would be a perfectcandidatefor
inspiration by one or moreErinyes.
I may seem simply to have returnedhere to the premise on which
Dietrich based his analysis of II. 19.418 in suggestingthat the Erinyes'
presence at II. 19.418 reflectsErinys' or the Erinyes' inclusion in a lost
episode in which Areion prophesied.But my developmentof the premise
differsfromhis in significantways. I have arguedthatthe Erinyesdid not
intervenein orderto stop XanthusfromwarningAchilles,but ratherinspired
thehorse'sprophecy, stoppingit onlywhenit was completed.I have supported
thisargument by suggestingthattheErinyes,like manychthonicdeities,had
generalpropheticfunctions. This releasesus fromseekingsome otherreason
thatXanthuswouldsuddenlyhavebecomeprophetic, suchas Dietrich'stenuous
"Indo-European traditionof prophetichorses" or Harrison's problematic
identificationof theErinyeswiththeMoirai.
Epic poets had several traditionson whichto draw when describinga
warrior'shorse, some of which I have exploredin this article.Because a
horse's lineageand affiliations werenotimportant substantively,
however,but
ratherservedprimarily as a meansof markingthathorseas an appropriately
grandone forthewarriorto own,epic poetswerenotoverlyconcernedabout
whethertheirdescriptions of any givenhorseor his genealogyagreedexactly
withthose of otherpoets, or even whethera single descriptionof a horse
coheredwithinitself.At II. 20.221-23, forexample,Homer says thatthe 12
wonderhorsesof Erichthonius were siredby Boreas, a wind god; in thishe

28Discussion
ofAreion'sreturn
tocultsitesoftheErinyes
atMalten(above,n. 2) 203.

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98 SarahIles Johnston

followsthe traditionwherebygloriouslyswifthorsesare bornof the winds.

Yet in thefollowingline (20.224), he describesBoreas as havingassumedthe
formof a lcczvoxacitj stallionto impregnate Erichthonius' mares;thisdetail
probably is drawn from a story of how Poseidon, in the form of a
x-avoXa{tril stallion,matedwithDemeterErinysin the formof a mare,in
order to sire chthonic Areion.29 Both details add to the prestige of
Erichthonius'horses,even if theyseem somewhatcontradictory to a modem
scholarwho has theleisureto pause and cogitateovertheirimplications.
I have suggestedthatHomer similarlydrew on different traditionsto
composeII. 19.400-418: 1) Hera's reputationas an owner of divinehorses,and
as one who bestowedthosehorseson favoredwarriors;and 2) an episode in
which Areion,the son of Erinys,was inspiredby Erinysor the Erinyesto
prophesyto his master.In thepassage as we have it, thesetraditionsappear
onlyin abbreviated,allusiveforms.For theancientaudience,however,which
was familiarwitha largercorpusof epic themesand folkbeliefsthanwe are,
theseallusionswouldhave sufficedto sketcha picturethataccordedwiththeir
conceptionsof what a warrior'shorse should be, and of how the divine,
demonic,and heroicworldsinteracted.

WorksCited
B. C. "Demeter,
Dietrich, Artemis"
Erinys, Hermes90.2 (1962) 129-148.
"Xanthus'Prediction,"AClass.7 (1964)9-24.
Dodds,E. R. TheGreeksandtheIrrational (Berkeley 1951).
Edwards,M. W. TheIliad,A Commentary. vol.V: books17-20(Cambridge 1992).
Henrichs,A. "NamenlosigkeitundEuphemismus: ZurAmbivalenz derchthonischenMachteim
attischenDrama"inFragmenta Dramatica.BeitragezurInterpretation dergriechischen
Tragikerfragmente undihrerWirkungsgeschichte, ed.H. Hofmann (Gottingen1991) 161-
201.
Janko,R. "TheShieldofHeraclesandtheLegendofCycnus," CQ 36 (1986) 38-59.
Lloyd-Jones, H. "Erinyes,SemnaiTheai,Eumenides" inOwlstoAthens: Essayson Classical
SubjectsPresented toSirKenneth Dover.ed. E. M. Craik(Oxford1990)203-11.
Rohde,E. Psyche:TheCultofSouls andBeliefin Immortality amongtheGreeks.tr.W. B.
Hillis.(1894; Eng.ed.,London1925).
Schachermeyr, F. PoseidonunddieEntstehungdesgriechischen Gotterglaubens(Bern1950).
Wust,E. "Erinys"RE suppl.8 cols.82-166.

29AsidefromII. 20.223,I findonlyonepassageinwhich navoVaxtul;describessomeone

otherthanPoseidonorAreion:at h.Cer.347,itdescribes Hades.Cf.Paus. 8.25.8-9: having
rapeofmare-Demeter,
justrelatedthestoryofstallion-Poseidon's Pausaniassaysthat"some
peoplesay"thattheThebais'description provesthatthestoryof
ofAreionas icuczvoXcztixl
Poseidon'spaternity is true.Edwards318 followsA. Heubeck,Glotta50 (1972) 133,who
suggeststhatbothII. 20.224, [Bop&j;] Ylco 8' cio6ivo; iapsXAtaco 1cuavoxai'T and
Hes. Th. 278, ...*--5i gtj ncpeX?atao KixxvoXait,rj (of Poseidon siring Pegasus upon
of *t9j 8i nocFt84oV
Medusa)areadaptations 1xpEX?tro KicavoXcTn7;.

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