CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
Low-Temperature Stress Corrosion Cracking
of Stainless Steels in the Atmosphere
in the Presence of Chloride Deposits
T. Prosek,‡,* A. Iversen,** C. Taxén,*** and D. Thierry*
ABSTRACT
Several cases of ceiling collapses and other failed elements
have been reported in indoor swimming pool halls in the last
two decades. The collapses were caused by stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) of stainless steel fastening elements covered
with chloride deposits at temperatures as low as room tem-
perature. The goal of this study was to assess the applica-
tion limits of different austenitic and austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
stainless steels subject to tensile stress and contaminated
with chloride deposits in atmospheric non-washing conditions
as a function of temperature (20°C to 50°C), relative humidity
(15% to 70% RH), and deposit composition. Austenitic stainless
steels Type 304 (UNS S30400) and Type 316L (UNS S31603)
were susceptible to SCC in the presence of magnesium and
calcium chlorides at temperatures of 30°C and higher and at
low relative humidity. The tendency to SCC increased with
increasing temperature and decreasing relative humidity. The
corrosivity of chloride deposits under given exposure condi-
tions decreased in the following order: calcium chloride (CaCl2)
> magnesium chloride (MgCl2) > sodium chloride (NaCl). It was
governed by the equilibrium chloride concentration in the sur-
face electrolyte formed as a result of interaction of a given salt
with water vapor in the air. Threshold values of the minimum
chloride concentration and relative humidity intervals leading
to SCC were established for Type 304 and Type 316L. Duplex
stainless steels S32101 (UNS S32101), 2304 (UNS S32304),
Submitted for publication July 2008; in revised form, October
2008. Presented as paper no. 08484 at CORROSION/2008, March
2008, New Orleans, LA.
‡
Corresponding author. E-mail: tomas.prosek@institut-corrosion.fr.
* Institut de la Corrosion/French Corrosion Institute, 220 rue
Pierre Rivoalon, 29200 Brest, France.
** Outokumpu Stainless AB, Avesta Research Center, PO Box 74,
SE-774 22 Avesta, Sweden.
*** Swerea KIMAB AB, Drottning Kristinas väg 48, SE-114 28 Stock-
holm, Sweden.
ISSN 0010-9312 (print), 1938-159X (online)
CORROSION—Vol. 65, No. 2 09/000019/$5.00+$0.50/0 © 2009, NACE International
2205 (UNS S32205), and 2507 (UNS S32750) were resistant
to SCC but corroded selectively with the maximum depth of
200 µm. Austenitic stainless steels Type 904L (UNS N08904)
and Type S31254 (UNS S31254) showed no tendency to SCC.
KEY WORDS: atmospheric corrosion, chloride stress corrosion
cracking, duplex stainless steel, stainless steel
INTRODUCTION
Common austenitic stainless steel grades of 300
series have been widely applied in the building, chem-
ical, engineering, and other industries for many
decades. The corrosion properties of these materials
are known and they serve well when properly used,
since there is an understanding about the reactions
and processes fundamental for material selection.
Austenitic stainless steels are also used in swim-
ming pools for three main types of applications:
the pool water conditioning plant, the equipment
immersed in pool water, and the equipment exposed
to swimming pool atmospheres. In general, there is no
critical corrosion problem connected with the former
two categories.1 However, problems occurred with the
equipment exposed to swimming pool atmospheres,
particularly with safety-relevant accessories subject
to tensile stress. Several cases of ceiling collapses and
other element failures were reported to have occurred
in swimming pool halls.2-9 In all reported cases, failed
parts, such as fasteners, wires, bars, strapping, bolts,
hooks, hangers, and other fittings, were made of
300 series austenitic stainless steels. Acidic chloride
deposits were found on the surface of damaged stain-
less steels, with typical pH values of 3 to 4.6-8 Consid-
105
CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

TABLE 1
Stainless Steel U-Bend Specimens
Stainless Steel Grade Microstructure Typical Chemical Composition (wt%) Thickness Total
ASTM EN UNS (PRE) Cr Ni Mo N Other (mm) Strain
304 1.4301 S30400 Austenite (18) 18 8.4 0.1 0.04 2.9 0.15
316L 1.4404 S31603 Austenite (24) 18 11.4 2.1 0.04 2.9 0.15
904L 1.4539 N08904 Austenite (30) 20 24.7 4.5 0.04 1.5% Cu 1.9 0.10
S31254 1.4547 S31254 Austenite (43) 20 18.0 6.1 0.20 Cu 2.0 0.10
S32101(1) 1.4162 S32101 Duplex (26) 22 1.5 0.3 0.23 5% Mn 1.4 0.07
2304 1.4362 S32304 Duplex (26) 22 4.8 0.3 0.09 2.0 0.10
2205 1.4462 S32205 Duplex (35) 22 5.5 3.0 0.12 2.0 0.10
2507 1.4410 S32750 Duplex (43) 25 7.7 4.0 0.29 3.0 0.15
(1)
LDX 2101.

ering cations, relatively large quantities of calcium,
as well as magnesium, aluminum, and zinc, were
often detected.7-11 The deposits were hygroscopic and
formed water solutions even in the air with low rela-
tive humidity. Metallographic analyses revealed that
the collapses were caused by stress corrosion crack-
ing (SCC). The cracks were transgranular and
branched. In most cases, SCC was observed in con-
junction with pitting.9,12 All failed parts were princi-
pally in the cold-worked condition and/or were
subject to an additional stress or work hardening on
installation or in service.2,8
It should be noted that temperature in the
respective swimming pool buildings was about 30°C,
which contradicts the general corrosion literature
on SCC of austenitic stainless steels that considers
this phenomenon to occur at temperatures exceeding
50°C to 60°C. Recent corrosion studies disclosed that
there are two specific conditions leading to low-tem-
perature SCC. First, solutions with chloride concen-
trations from 0.5 M to 5 M and pH from –0.5 to 0.5
were found to cause SCC of austenitic stainless steels
at temperatures below 60°C.2,6,8,10,13-15 Since stainless
steels under these conditions are in the active/pas-
sive potential region,2,6,10,12,15-16 this mode of SCC was
accompanied by considerable general corrosion and
corrosion rates were typically a few mm per year. Sec-
ond, SCC was observed in environments with high
surface chloride concentrations greater than 20 wt%.
Such solutions can be formed on a metal surface in
the presence of salts with sufficient solubility, such as
calcium or magnesium chlorides exposed to air at the
relative humidity (RH) close to the point of deliques-
cence.12,16-20 High chloride concentration is the only
prerequisite for inducing this type of SCC, and acidic
conditions are generally not necessary. Under these
conditions, stainless steels are probably in a passive
state.7,10,12,16 Results of examinations of failed stain-
less steel segments indicate that the latter mechanism
of SCC, i.e., the passive type, is more likely associ-
ated with the conditions in swimming pool atmo-
spheres.10,12,16 In addition, the former type of SCC was
observed only under full immersion conditions and
has never been simulated in the atmosphere.
Thus, non-washing conditions and the accumu-
lation of highly soluble chloride deposits on the metal
surface is necessary for initiation of the passive-type,
low-temperature SCC. It has been postulated that vol-
atile, chlorine-based products of water disinfectants
such as chloramines play an important role in the
transport of Cl to the metal surface. However, it has
been proven by various laboratory experiments that
the presence of chloramine or another oxidizer is not
essential for initiation of this type of SCC12,16,21 and it
has been observed, e.g., in plants operating in coastal
areas.22-23 This study focused on the application limits
of selected austenitic and austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
grades of stainless steel submitted to stress under
atmospheric non-washing conditions in terms of SCC
and pitting. The corrosion resistance of U-bend speci-
mens with deposited droplets of magnesium, calcium,
and sodium chloride (NaCl) was evaluated as a func-
tion of temperature and relative humidity at levels
selected to represent typical and limiting application
conditions in indoor environments.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Materials
Eight austenitic and duplex stainless steel grades
were included in the investigation. A list of tested
stainless steels with a typical chemical composition
and pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) values cal-
culated using the formula PRE = %Cr + 3.3%Mo +
16%N is given in Table 1. U-bend specimens were pre-
pared according to ASTM G30-94.24 Specimens were
cut from pickled sheets longitudinally to the direction
of rolling. The metal strip width was 13 mm and the
strip thicknesses are listed in Table 1. Total strain on
the outside of the bend was calculated according to
an approximate equation ε = T/2R, where T is thick-
ness and R is radius of the bend (10 mm). The speci-
mens were used as-received and no other finish was
applied.
Experimental Setup
Chloride deposits on stainless steel specimens
were formed according to a modified procedure devel-

106 CORROSION—FEBRUARY 2009

 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

oped by Shoji and Ohnaka,17 which was used later by

other laboratories.8,18,20 Six droplets of saturated chlo-
ride salt solution were deposited on the top of a U-
bend specimen. The deposits were separated in six
spots to allow evaluation of the probability of crack
formation. Figure 1 shows a photograph of the U-bend
specimen with freshly deposited droplets. The four
droplets at the sides were smaller than the two central
ones because the droplets on angling sides tended to
drop down when their size surpassed a certain limit.
All together, 66±2 µL of the solution was applied on
each specimen. The total covered area was approxi-
mately 90 mm2. Details of the chloride surface con-
centration are given in Table 2.
The specimens with deposited chlorides were FIGURE 1. U-bend specimen with chloride droplets.
exposed in climatic chambers at 20, 30, and 40°C
and 30, 50, and 70% RH for 10 weeks (1,680 h). Two
series of specimens were exposed also for 4 weeks. TABLE 2
Surface Contamination with Droplets
The accuracy of humidity regulation in the cham-
of Saturated Chloride Solutions
bers was ±2%. The experiments started from the most
Chloride Metal Surface
detrimental conditions expected from the results of
previous studies, i.e., at 40°C and 30% RH. When it Concentration Applied Chloride
in Saturated Chloride Concentration
was clear from the acquired results that the follow- Salt Solution (g/L) (mg) (g/m2)
ing exposure conditions would be benign, the testing
MgCl2 350 23 260
matrix was reduced. In addition, U-bend specimens
CaCl2 400 26 290
contaminated with magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and NaCl 190 13 140
calcium chloride (CaCl2) were tested at an elevated
temperature of 50°C over saturated solutions of the
respective salt, keeping the relative humidity in the
test chambers close to the deliquescence point. Rela-
tive humidity was registered and it was 30±5% and
15±3%, respectively. Two sets of specimens were
tested for 22 weeks and one set for 4 weeks.
After the exposure, photographs were taken (Fig-
ure 2) and the specimens were cleaned in water and
examined with an optical microscope at a magnifica-
tion of 16X. Some of them were evaluated with a con-
focal microscope to establish the depth of pits and
etched areas. Selected specimens were cut in the lon-
gitudinal direction, embedded into resin, polished,
and examined with a metallographic microscope FIGURE 2. Deposits of CaCl2 on U-bend specimen of stainless steel
at the cross section. When needed, grain boundar- Type 304 after exposure at 40°C and 30% RH for 10 weeks.
ies were highlighted by etching in 10% oxalic acid
(H2C2O4) at 6 V for 5 s to 60 s.
Stress corrosion cracks were found in specimens
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of stainless steel grade Type 304 (UNS S30400)(1)
exposed with MgCl2 and CaCl2 deposits at 50°C/30%
Corrosion of Austenitic Stainless Steels RH, 40°C/30% RH, 40°C/50% RH, and 30°C/30%
Results of all experiments are summarized in RH. Photographs of the Type 304 specimen prone to
Table 3, and the performance of the austenitic grades SCC before and after cleaning is shown in Figures 2
as a function of exposure conditions is presented in and 4. Similar observations were made for stainless
Figure 3. A detailed description of the degradation is steel grade Type 316L (UNS S31603), but the extent
given elsewhere.25-26 Only principal results and trends of SCC was lower and cracks were finer. In compari-
are presented in the following paragraphs. son to Type 304, SCC did not initiate at 40°C/50% RH
and only calcium chloride was able to cause crack-
(1)
ing at 40°C/30% RH and 30°C/30% RH. Morphol-
UNS numbers are listed in Metals and Alloys in the Unified Num-
bering System, published by the Society of Automotive Engineers ogy of SCC was studied with an optical microscope on
(SAE International) and cosponsored by ASTM International. selected cross-cut specimens. Photographs in Figure 5

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CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

TABLE 3
Corrosion Degradation of U-Bend Specimens Exposed with Chloride Deposits to Humid Air
Exposure Conditions Exposure Stainless Steel Grade (UNS)
Salt T (°C) RH (weeks) 304 316L 904L S31254 S32101 2304 2205 2507
MgCl2 50 ~30 4 SCC 6 SCC 6 PIT PIT PIT PIT PIT PIT
CaCl2 50 ~15 4 SCC 3 SCC 2 ET ET PIT ET ET ET
MgCl2 50 ~30 22 SCC 6 SCC 6 PIT PIT PIT ET PIT PIT
CaCl2 50 ~15 22 SCC 5 SCC 4 PIT PIT PIT PIT PIT PIT
MgCl2 40 30 4 SCC 2 PIT NO NO PIT ET ET PIT +
CaCl2 40 30 4 SCC 6 SCC 6 PIT PIT PIT ET ET PIT +
MgCl2 40 30 10 SCC 2 PIT PIT NO ET ET ET NO
CaCl2 40 30 10 SCC 6 SCC 6 PIT PIT ET ET ET PIT +
NaCl 40 30 10 NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
MgCl2 40 50 10 SCC 5 PIT PIT PIT ET PIT + PIT ET
CaCl2 40 50 10 SCC 4 PIT PIT PIT ET PIT + PIT ET
NaCl 40 50 10 NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
MgCl2 40 70 10 ET NO NO NO ET NO NO NO
CaCl2 40 70 10 ET NO NO NO ET NO NO NO
NaCl 40 70 10 NO NO × NO NO × NO NO
MgCl2 30 30 10 SCC 2 PIT × PIT ET × ET ET
CaCl2 30 30 10 SCC 6 SCC 6 × PIT ET × PIT ET
MgCl2 30 50 10 PIT NO × NO PIT × PIT ET
CaCl2 30 50 10 PIT PIT × ET PIT + × PIT ET
MgCl2 30 70 10 ET NO × NO NO × NO NO
CaCl2 30 70 10 ET NO × NO ET × NO NO
MgCl2 20 30 10 PIT PIT × PIT ET × PIT PIT
CaCl2 20 30 10 PIT PIT × PIT ET × PIT PIT
MgCl2 20 50 10 PIT PIT × NO PIT + × ET ET
CaCl2 20 50 10 PIT PIT × NO PIT + × ET ET
SCC #: stress corrosion cracks found in a given number of six contaminated zones
PIT: pitting
ET: surface etching
NO: no corrosion
×: not tested
+: tiny cracks

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3. Summary of corrosion deterioration of austenitic stainless steels with chloride deposits exposed to air as a
function of temperature, relative humidity, and grade; (䡩) 304, (
) 316L, (〫) 904L, (▫) S31254; (black) SCC, (gray) pitting
corrosion, (empty symbol with thick border) etching, and (empty symbol with thin border) free of corrosion.

make it well apparent that the cracks were branched
and transgranular as typical for SCC of stainless
steels in chloride environments.
There was practically no difference in the number
of chloride spots with cracks on specimens exposed
for a shorter (4 weeks) and longer (10 or 22 weeks)
period of time under identical exposure conditions.
Indeed, the depth of the attack increased in time. It
suggests that SCC initiated rapidly, probably within
the first days of exposure. This is supported by visual

108 CORROSION—FEBRUARY 2009

 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

observations of specimens exposed at 50°C where the

first cracks were visible already after 7 days.
The systematic study at 20, 30, and 40°C and 30,
50, and 70% RH with deposits of NaCl, MgCl2, and
calcium chloride (CaCl2) clearly showed that the ten-
dency of a given stainless steel grade to develop SCC
depends on temperature. In the presence of MgCl2
deposits, stainless steel grade Type 316L was prone
to SCC at 50°C and no cracks developed at 40°C and
below. It cracked at 50, 40, and 30°C in CaCl2. Lower
alloyed austenitic stainless steel Type 304 was prone
to SCC at 50, 40, and 30°C in both environments and
it was resistant at 20°C. FIGURE 4. U-bend specimen of Type 304 after exposure with CaCl2
The extent of corrosion diminished with increas- at 40°C and at 30% RH for 10 weeks.
ing relative humidity. As seen in Figure 3, stainless
steel Type 304 with CaCl2 and MgCl2 deposits exposed
to air at 40°C was prone to SCC at RH of 30% and SCC of Type 304 in the presence of different chlorides
50%, whereas it was only superficially etched at 70% at RH from 33% to 75%.27
RH. At 30°C, it was the RH of 30% that led to SCC, Cracks were found in all cases in the two center
pits were found at 50% RH, and the specimens were spots, while it was only pits with a typical depth of
only slightly etched when exposed to air at 70% RH. 10 µm to 40 µm that were observed in some of the
A similar trend was observed for Type 316L. In any side spots at less-aggressive conditions. Since the
case, no pitting or SCC was observed at the highest stress varies from zero at the ends to the maximum in
RH of 70%. the center of the U-bend specimen, the side areas rep-
Considering the effect of chloride salts at iden- resent places with lower stress compared to the cen-
tical relative humidity and temperature, it is obvi- tral zone. Thus, a higher stress level was needed for
ous that deposits of CaCl2 were the most aggressive. the SCC initiation under less-aggressive conditions.
The number and size of cracks and the extent of pit- It was also noticed that cracks in both Type 304
ting was lower on surfaces contaminated with MgCl2. and Type 316L often came through pits under less-
Specimens with NaCl spots were free of corrosion at aggressive conditions. Although the pits were shal-
all exposure conditions. The same observation was low, they probably served as stress raisers facilitating
reported by Oshikawa, et al., who studied pitting and the initiation of SCC. This was observed particularly

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5. Morphology of SCC of Type 304 stainless steel exposed with MgCl2 at 50°C and at 30% RH for 4 weeks; width
430 µm (left) and 160 µm (right).

CORROSION—Vol. 65, No. 2 109

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
(a)
FIGURE 6. SCC on Type 316L exposed with MgCl2 deposits at 50°C and at 30% RH for 22 weeks; left: surface, width
4.3 mm; right: cross section, width 650 µm.
(a)
FIGURE 7. Pit morphology on UNS S31254 exposed with MgCl2 at 50°C and at 30% RH for 4 weeks: (a) surface, width
800 µm, (b) 3D depth profile of the same area, and (c) cross section, width 250 µm.
on specimens of the more resistant grade Type 316L.
A cross section of the Type 316L specimen exposed at
50°C and 30% RH showing a shallow pit with a depth
of 40 µm and width of 200 µm with cracks is shown
in Figure 6. It indicates that pits as stress collectors
enabled the initiation of SCC of more alloyed mate-
rials or under less-aggressive conditions, whereas
cracks could have been initiated on a free surface
of lower alloyed stainless steel Type 304 exposed to
higher temperature and lower relative humidity.
Superaustenitic stainless steel grades Type 904L
(UNS N08904) and UNS S31254 were fully resis-
tant to SCC. The specimens were usually pitted when
exposed to lower relative humidity. The extent of cor-
rosion deterioration increased with time of exposure
and temperature. Metallographic examination and 3D
profiling showed that pits were rather shallow with
the depth ranging from 50 µm to 100 µm (Figure 7).
Instead of pitting, small etched areas with the depth
below 20 µm were found under certain exposure con-
ditions (Table 3, Figure 3). Etching was observed also
along with pits. It is possible that pits would develop
110
(b)
(b) (c)
there in time. No significant difference was seen in the
performance of Type 904L and S31254.
The presented results agree well with the avail-
able literature data. The experiments of Shoji and
Ohnaka17 carried out at room temperature showed
that grades Type 304 and Type 316L were prone to
SCC when contaminated with MgCl2 and CaCl2 and
exposed to RH of about 33% to 45% and 21% to 45%,
respectively. Except for the results of Type 316L with
MgCl2 deposits, it is in agreement with the results of
this study, provided that the room temperature in
the experiments of Shoji and Ohnaka was somewhat
higher than 20°C, e.g., 25°C. Arlt, et al.,16 studied the
SCC above saturated solutions of magnesium chlo-
ride, i.e., at RH of about 30%. The results at 30, 40,
and 50°C for Types 304, 316 (UNS S31601), and 904L
exposed for a comparable period of time correspond
to those given in Figure 3. Fairweather, et al.,22 used
a different experimental setup, i.e., C-ring specimens
of stainless steel grade Type 304 contaminated with
MgCl2 at about 2 µg/cm2 and 10 µg/cm2 of chloride.
The cracking frequency was 12% at 30°C and 45%
CORROSION—FEBRUARY 2009
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

RH. In this study, SCC was found at 30°C and 30%

RH but not at 30°C and 50% RH. The data obtained
by Fairweather, et al., at 45°C are difficult to compare
to our results because most experiments in this work
were done at temperatures up to 40°C.

Equilibrium Chloride Concentration as a Function

of Temperature and Relative Humidity of Air
The results revealed that the tendency to SCC
and pitting depends, beside temperature and stain-
less steel grade, on relative humidity and the type of
applied chloride salt. It is assumed that the aggres-
siveness of chloride salt deposits is predominantly
controlled by the activity of chloride ions in the sur-
face solution formed in equilibrium with water vapor
in air. Salt interacting with humid air tends to attract FIGURE 8. Solubility of chloride salts as a function of temperature.
water from the atmosphere and a saturated salt solu-
tion is formed at a certain level of relative humid-
ity, the deliquescence point. Chloride concentration
drops with increasing relative humidity as the solu-
tion attracts more water from air and the volume of
the solution increases. If the relative humidity of air
is lower than the deliquescence point of a particular
salt, the deposit is dry. Since the activity coefficient of
chloride in solutions corresponding to the conditions
of this study was not available, chloride concentra-
tions were calculated and used for the estimation of
corrosion properties of electrolytes on the metal sur-
face instead of the activity.
Solubility of the chloride salts was calculated
based on earlier literature data28 and it is plotted as
a function of temperature in Figure 8. Solubility val-
ues of NaCl and MgCl2 are very close within the whole
FIGURE 9. Osmotic coefficient of water solutions; full curve: literature
temperature interval. However, chloride concentration data, dashed curve: extrapolated data.
in water solution is twice as high in the case of MgCl2
as a result of the presence of two chloride atoms in
the molecule. Steep changes in solubility of CaCl2 cor- water activity has the same significance as the relative
respond to the fact that different phases become sta- humidity.
ble with increasing temperature, i.e., CaCl2·6H2O, Values of osmotic coefficients vary strongly
CaCl2·4H2O (α), and CaCl2·2H2O. Again, it should be between salts. Reliable data were obtained at 25°C.29-30
noted that calcium chloride solution contains twice Data at higher temperatures were found only for NaCl,
as many chloride ions as NaCl at the same salt con- where the temperature dependence of the osmotic
centration. coefficient is negligible. Therefore, the osmotic coeffi-
To calculate the point of deliquescence and cients were considered to be independent of tempera-
dependence of chloride concentration on relative ture for these calculations. Since the osmotic coeffi-
humidity, the osmotic coefficient for each salt must be cients were available only up to the concentrations of
known as well. The osmotic coefficient varies with the about 4.5, 6, and 10 mol/kg water for NaCl, MgCl2,
concentration and temperature. The following equa- and CaCl2, it was necessary to extrapolate the litera-
tion shows the relation between water activity, aW, ture data. Literature and extrapolated values of the
osmotic coefficient, Φ, and concentration, m, in moles osmotic coefficient are plotted in Figure 9 in solid and
of salt per kilogram of water: dashed curves, respectively.
The calculated equilibrium chloride concentra-
ν m Φ MW tions in water solutions of NaCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 as
ln a w = – (1)
1, 000 a function of the relative humidity of air are given in
Figure 10 and Table 4. The calculated deliquescence
In the equation, ν is the number of ions that the salt points of concerned chloride salts at 20, 30, 40, and
formally dissociates into, i.e., 2 for NaCl and 3 for 50°C and corresponding chloride concentrations are
CaCl2 and MgCl2. MW is molar weight of water. The in Table 5.

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CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

Lower aggressiveness of CaCl2 in terms of a lower

FIGURE 10. Calculated equilibrium chloride concentration in water
solutions of different salts as a function of the relative humidity of
air; horizontal lines indicate solubility limits at 20, 30, 40, and 50°C
(from top).
Tendency to Stress Corrosion Cracking in View
of the Equilibrium Chloride Concentration
Since the equilibrium chloride concentration on
the surface of specimens contaminated with MgCl2
and CaCl2 was calculated for all relevant climatic con-
ditions, it was possible to connect it to the occurrence
of SCC and pitting corrosion. Charts in Figure 11
summarizing results for materials contaminated with
MgCl2 and CaCl2 and exposed to 20, 30, and 40°C and
to 30, 50, and 70% RH demonstrate that the equilib-
rium chloride concentration was crucial for the cor-
rosiveness of the deposits in contact with air. CaCl2
solutions contained 20, 10, and 8% more chloride
than MgCl2 solutions at the same relative humidity of
30, 50, and 70%, respectively, and the former depos-
its were clearly more corrosive at temperatures from
20°C to 40°C (Table 3 and Figure 3).
number of chloride spots with cracks (Table 3) in the
experiments over saturated solutions of correspond-
ing salts at 50°C is somewhat surprising in light of
these facts. Under these conditions, concentration of
the solution formed in the presence of CaCl2 should
be almost double compared to MgCl2 in an equilib-
rium state according to data in Table 5. It is possible
that the actual relative humidity in the chambers dif-
fered from the equilibrium one, probably due to kinet-
ics reasons. These data are not included in Figure 11.
Calculated deliquescence points listed in Table
5 show that the relative humidity of 30% was too low
to dissolve MgCl2 and CaCl2 deposits at 20°C and
MgCl2 deposits at 30°C. Despite that, pitting or even
SCC developed under these conditions. It was shown
by other authors31 that chloride salts are corrosive
even at relative humidity slightly below the deliques-
cence point. It is supposed that there is enough water
absorbed in salts to provide electrochemical condi-
tions close to those in saturated water solution. It
implies that the effective chloride concentration in a
deposit exposed to air at the relative humidity only
slightly below the deliquescence point might be com-
parable to that of the appropriate saturated solu-
tion. Therefore, the saturated solution concentrations
were used in charts presented in Figure 11 to describe
these experimental conditions as well as in further
considerations.
NaCl deposits should not dissolve at any of the
tested relative humidity levels. The deliquescence
point of NaCl is 75% RH in the whole range of tested
temperatures. As discussed above, it can be assumed
that at 70% RH there was enough water absorbed
in NaCl deposits to make them corrosive. However,
stainless steel specimens were free of corrosion. It
may suggest that even the maximum chloride concen-
tration in NaCl solution of 6.1 mol/kg to 6.2 mol/kg

TABLE 4
Calculated Values of the Chloride Equilibrium Concentration in Salt Solutions in Contact with Air at Given Relative Humidity
and at Temperatures from 20°C to 50°C; in mol Cl–/kg H2O
Salt 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
NaCl NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 5.2
MgCl2 NA NA 12.0+ 10.5 9.1 7.7 6.3 4.8
CaCl2 NA 18.8+ 14.4+ 11.8 10.0 8.4 6.8 5.1
NA: no solution is formed
+: soluble only in a part of the temperature range

TABLE 5
Calculated Deliquescence Points (DP) and Corresponding Chloride Concentrations for Salts in Equilibrium with Air
(mCl, in mol Cl–/kg H2O)
20 °C 30 °C 40 °C 50 °C
Salt DP mCl DP mCl DP mCl DP mCl
NaCl 75 6.1 75 6.2 75 6.2 75 6.4
MgCl2 34 11.4 32 11.7 30 12.0 28 12.4
CaCl2 33 13.6 22 17.5 17 20.8 13 23.8

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 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

H2O is too low to cause any serious corrosion dete-

rioration to the tested stainless steels in atmospheric
conditions at temperatures up to 40°C.
It is apparent from Figure 11 that the threshold
chloride concentrations defining conditions leading to
SCC, pitting, and no corrosion can be defined for each
material and temperature. For current experimental
conditions, they are listed in Table 6.

Application Limits of Austenitic Stainless Steels

in Atmospheric Conditions
The results allow us to define relative humidity
intervals for each temperature and salt when SCC of
stainless steels Type 304 and Type 316L might be ini-
tiated. These ranges summarized in Table 7 can be
understood as the application limits of stainless steel
grades Type 304 and Type 316L in non-washing con-
ditions where chloride deposits can be formed and
some level of tensile stress is present. It was assumed
that at a relative humidity more than 5% lower than
the deliquescence point, there is no risk of SCC and
the deposits are harmless. When relative humidity FIGURE 11. The effect of the equilibrium chloride concentration in
exceeds a certain limit, chloride concentration in the salt deposits on corrosion of austenitic stainless steels exposed to
air at 20, 30, and 40°C for 10 weeks. Results of experiments with
surface solution will be too low to initiate SCC. At
CaCl2 and MgCl2 at 30, 50, and 70% RH are included: (䡩) Type 304,
20°C, the chloride concentration needed for the initia-
(
) Type 316L, (▫) Type 904L, (〫) S31254; (black) SCC, (gray)
tion of SCC is higher that the solubility of MgCl2 and pitting corrosion, (empty symbol with thick border) etching, and
CaCl2, and there is no danger of SCC under these (empty symbol with thin border) free of corrosion.
deposits. At 30°C, SCC can develop when the chloride
concentration in water solution is above 10 mol/kg
and 12 mol/kg H2O for Type 304 and Type 316L, 40%. Intervals of the relative humidity causing SCC of
respectively. Thus, stainless steel Type 304 can suffer the austenitic stainless steel grades at 40°C are logi-
from SCC when contaminated with MgCl2 and CaCl2 cally wider.
deposits and exposed to relative humidity below 44% Mayuzumi, et al., showed that suppression of
and 49%. To form similarly corrosive environments for SCC of low-alloyed austenitic stainless steel grades
Type 316L, CaCl2 deposits must be present on the Type 304 and Type 304L (UNS S30403) by reduc-
surface and the relative humidity must drop below ing the residual tensile stress of the structure might

TABLE 6
Threshold Values of Chloride Concentration for the Tendency to Stress Corrosion Cracking and Pitting Corrosion
of Austenitic Stainless Steels in Air at 20°C to 40°C (in mol Cl–/kg H2O)
Pitting Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stainless Steel 20°C 30°C 40°C 20°C 30°C 40°C
304 <9.1 6.8 to 9.1 6.8 to 9.1 >13.6 10.0 to 11.7 6.8 to 9.1
316L <9.1 9.1 to 10.0 6.8 to 9.1 >13.6 11.7 to 14.4 12.0 to 14.4
904L × × 6.8 to 9.1 >13.6 >14.4 >14.4
S31254 10.0 to 11.4 10.0 to 11.7 6.8 to 9.1 >13.6 >14.4 >14.4
×: Not tested

TABLE 7
Approximate Ranges of Relative Humidity and Chloride Concentrations that Can Lead to SCC
of Stainless Steel Grades 304 and 316L in the Presence of Salt Deposits at Temperatures 20, 30, and 40°C
304 316L
Salt Deposits 20°C 30°C 40°C 20°C 30°C 40°C
MgCl2 — 27 to 44 25 to 67 — — —
CaCl2 — 17 to 49 12 to 69 — 17 to 40 12 to 39
Chloride concentration (mol Cl–/kg H2O) >14 >10 >7 >14 >12 >12
–: No danger of SCC

CORROSION—Vol. 65, No. 2 113

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
(a)
FIGURE 12. Etched surface of duplex stainless steels; left: 2205 exposed with CaCl2 to 50°C and to 15% RH for 4 weeks,
width 1.2 mm; right: 2507 exposed with MgCl2 to 50°C and to 30% RH for 22 weeks, width 4.0 mm.
be very difficult.32 The authors found that the thresh-
old stress of SCC for specimens with deposited drop-
lets of synthetic seawater and exposed to air at 30°C
and 35% RH was as low as one-half of the 0.2% proof
stress for solution-annealed materials, and smaller
than one-fourth of the 0.2% proof stress for sensitized
Type 304. Thus, if the deposit formation and access
to air with relative humidity within given intervals
are possible, application of such materials must be
avoided.
The SCC cannot initiate on austenitic stainless
steel grades Type 904L and UNS S31254 in the pres-
ence of any tested chloride salt and at temperatures
up to 50°C within the whole range of relative humid-
ity. It can be assumed that the threshold value of the
chloride concentration leading to SCC is higher than
the solubility of the salts. There is probably no dan-
ger in application of these grades even at conditions
where salt deposits can be formed.
Indeed, there are other salts than those studied
in this work with a solubility high enough to cause
SCC, e.g., lithium chloride (LiCl), zinc chloride (ZnCl2),
or nickel chloride (NiCl2). Currently, it is also not clear
if salts affect the tendency to SCC only due to differ-
ent chloride concentrations in the surface electrolyte.
It is possible that pH of the solution is also relevant.
Due to hydrolysis, the pH of CaCl2 and MgCl2 solu-
tions is lower than that of the NaCl water solution.
However, the effect of pH cannot explain the difference
in the aggressiveness of calcium and magnesium
chlorides observed in this study. Calcium chloride
solutions are less acidic than solutions of magnesium
chloride, and it was the former salt that caused a
higher degree of SCC in most experimental conditions.
For example, the pH of NaCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 water
solutions at the chloride concentration of 5 mol/kg
water are 6.3, 5.4, and 5.6 at 20°C.33 Also, the free
114
(b)
corrosion potential of stainless steels in solutions of
the chloride salts differs. Although it was shown by
Arlt and coworkers that the effect of the potential on
the studied mode of SCC is rather low, it cannot be
fully neglected.12,16,21 Moreover, the salt cation might
play a direct role in the degradation mechanism.34-35
These concerns will be addressed by further research.
The conclusions are based on experiments with
pure chloride deposits. In real applications, mixed
deposits are formed. Since there are no data on the
effect of other salts on the tendency to SCC in avail-
able literature, further experiments are planned to
evaluate this aspect. Finally, it should be noted that
the data for this discussion were obtained in 10-week
(1,680 h) exposures. The possibility that a prolonged
time of exposure would lead to SCC at lower chloride
concentrations and temperature cannot be excluded.
However, results of exposures for 4, 10, and 22 weeks
indicate that the initiation process is rather rapid. No
fundamental difference was observed on specimens
exposed for shorter and longer periods. Also, data of
Shoji and Ohnaka17 show relatively small differences
in the presence of cracks on specimens exposed for
3 months and 24 months. Therefore, the authors
believe that a 10-week exposure under very severe
conditions in terms of both stress and aggressiveness
of the environment are sufficiently representative for
long-term applications of stainless steel members in
non-washing conditions.
Austenitic-Ferritic Stainless Steels
Corrosion of all tested specimens is summarized
in Table 3. The surface of duplex stainless steels was
typically etched (Figure 12). Etched zones were usu-
ally large, covering almost the entire contaminated
surface of lower alloyed materials at more aggres-
sive conditions. The zones were often elongated in the
CORROSION—FEBRUARY 2009
 CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

(a) (b)
FIGURE 13. Morphology of pitting on UNS S32101 exposed with CaCl2 at 50°C and at 15% RH for 4 weeks; left: surface,
width 1.5 mm; right: cross section, width 160 µm.

direction perpendicular to the longer side of the metal

strip, i.e., in the same direction as cracks in austen-
itic stainless steels. Under certain conditions, the
metal deterioration appeared to have been closer to
pitting corrosion (Figure 13). Also, the pits were often
perpendicularly elongated. It is supposed that there
was no principal disparity in the two corrosion fea-
tures and that etching and pitting might differ only in
the depth and/or density of the attack.
Tiny cracks were seen on the surface of some
duplex stainless steel specimens. As shown in Figure
14, these cracks usually passed through small pits.
Observations of the superficial cracks are also sum- FIGURE 14. Tiny crack on the surface of duplex stainless steel 2304
marized in Table 3. It is obvious that the cracks were exposed with MgCl2 at 40°C and at 50% RH for 10 weeks; width
found only on lower-alloyed duplex stainless steels 1.4 mm.
at less-aggressive conditions; on specimens of more
alloyed materials, they were present only at higher
temperature and lower relative humidity. It might In total, 19 duplex stainless steel specimens
indicate that these cracks were, in fact, formed in exposed to different conditions were investigated in
more conditions but they were rapidly “etched off” as cross section. Zones of selective corrosion were found
a result of general corrosion (etching). Consequently, under all surface cracks. An example of a large selec-
no cracks were found on lower-alloyed duplex stain- tively corroded area is given in Figure 15. Selected
less steels after 10 weeks in more aggressive environ- specimens without observable cracks were examined
ments, since elongated etched zones developed on the as well. The corrosion morphology varied between
surface. rather shallow pitting (Figure 13) and selective corro-

FIGURE 15. Selective corrosion of duplex stainless steel UNS S32101 exposed with CaCl2 deposits at 30°C and 50% RH
for 10 weeks; an arrow indicates location of a tiny crack; width 400 µm.

CORROSION—Vol. 65, No. 2 115

CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION
(a)
FIGURE 16. Selective corrosion of duplex stainless steel 2304 exposed with MgCl2 at 50°C and at 30% RH for 4 weeks;
width 100 µm (left) and 60 µm (right).
sion (Figure 16). With energy-dispersive x-ray (EDX)
analysis, it was found in all cases that the corroded
phase contained more chromium and it was therefore
identified as the ferritic phase. The depth of the selec-
tively corroded zones depended systematically neither
on the exposure conditions nor on the grade. Maxi-
mum depths of the selective attack were 200, 90, 140,
and 190 µm for UNS S32101, 2304, 2205, and 2507,
respectively. No principal difference in the aggres-
siveness of magnesium and calcium chloride was
observed. NaCl deposits did not cause any corrosion.
Although elongated pits and etched zones and
tiny cracks were often observed on the surface, the
metallographic examination did not confirm the pres-
ence of cracks in the structure. It is generally known
that duplex stainless steels have better SCC resis-
tance than the corresponding austenitic stainless
steels. Newman36 attributes these properties to the
differences in stress intensity factor of ferritic and
austenitic phases. Very likely, one phase assists in
blocking the crack propagation.36 It is possible that
the microcracks initiated in the austenitic phase that
is more susceptible to SCC and were subsequently
blocked in the ferritic phase.
It is often observed that one phase in duplex
stainless steel corrodes preferentially. The more vul-
nerable phase can be either austenite or ferrite,
depending on the exact material composition and
exposure conditions. It was reported by Lothongkum,
et al., that the concentration of nitrogen in highly
alloyed duplexes was essential for the phase sensi-
tivity to pitting corrosion in aerated NaCl solution.37
The corroded structure in the tested stainless steels
without nitrogen alloying was the austenite phase,
whereas it was the ferritic phase in materials alloyed
with nitrogen. Batista and Kuri showed that due to
different concentrations of alloying elements in the
116
(b)
ferritic and austenitic structure, PRE of the phases
can vary significantly.38 Based on this work and the
results of the EDX analyses, it can be estimated that
a PRE ratio of ferritic and austenitic phases was
about 0.8, 1.0, 1.1, and 0.9 for grades UNS S32101,
2304, 2205, and 2507, respectively. The ferritic phase
of duplex stainless steels with a lower content of
nitrogen and higher content of chromium and molyb-
denum tend to have higher PRE than the austenitic
phase and vice-versa. Thus, it might be expected that
stainless steels UNS S32101 and 2507 would be cor-
roded preferentially in the ferritic phase and the oth-
ers in the austenitic phase. However, experiments
showed that the ferritic phase was preferentially cor-
roded in all duplex materials.
Since rather large zones of selective corrosion
of the ferritic phase, reaching depths up to 14%
of the cross section, developed in duplex stainless
steels under chloride deposits in atmospheric condi-
tions and no systematic effect of climatic parameters
was observed, no application limits can be set based
on this work. Further measurements are planned
to assess the impact of the selective corrosion on
mechanical properties of these materials.
CONCLUSIONS
❖ Austenitic stainless steel grades Type 304 and Type
316L were susceptible to the atmospheric SCC in the
presence of magnesium and calcium chloride deposits
at temperatures from 30°C and at low relative humid-
ity. Cracks were branched and transgranular.
❖ The corrosivity of salt deposits decreased in the fol-
lowing order: CaCl2 > MgCl2 >> NaCl. It increased with
temperature and decreased with relative humidity.
❖ The corrosivity of salt deposits was controlled by
equilibrium chloride concentration in the surface elec-
CORROSION—FEBRUARY 2009

trolyte formed by absorption of water from air. CaCl2
was more corrosive than MgCl2 because it forms more
concentrated solutions at a given relative humidity.
❖ Intervals of relative humidity giving rise to SCC
of Type 304 and Type 316L at 30°C and 40°C were
defined together with threshold chloride concentra-
tions. They limit application of these grades when
highly soluble chloride deposits can be formed and
tensile stress is present.
❖ The tendency of austenitic stainless steels to
SCC and pitting decreased with increasing PRE.
Superaustenitic stainless steels Type 904L and
UNS S31254 showed no tendency to SCC. It can be
assumed that the threshold value of chloride concen-
tration leading to SCC of these materials is beyond
the solubility of the tested salts at temperatures up
to 50°C.
❖ Duplex stainless steels were resistant to SCC. The
dominant mode of degradation was selective corrosion
of the ferritic phase. Although the corrosion attack
was often only superficial, under certain circum-
stances the materials were corroded up to 200 µm in
depth, i.e., 14% of the material cross section. No sys-
tematic effect of the climatic parameters and PRE on
the degradation was observed. Further research is
needed to clarify their application limits in non-wash-
ing atmospheric conditions.
❖ Application of austenitic stainless steels with the
molybdenum content from 4% such as grades Type
904L or UNS S31254 is recommended in non-washing
conditions where it is impossible to eliminate depo-
sition of highly soluble chloride salts, temperatures
above 20°C, relative humidity below 70%, and the
presence of tensile stress.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge financial support of
Outokumpu Stainless AB. The authors wish to thank
E. Johansson of Outokumpu Stainless AB for valu-
able discussions on the results.
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