T H E G OD OF T U N D ER

F r o» : a C / mus e pu tur e
’
m t he R) /a m i s L i bra ry , Ma n e /t e s te r
TH E GRE S H AM PUBL IS H I
N G COMPAN Y LT D
.

66 CHAN DOS S T C
. OVE N T G ARDEN L ON D ON
 P RE F A C E

This vo l ume deals with the myt h s o f C h ina and

Japan and it i s sho w n that these throw light on the
,

origin and growth o f civilization and the widespread dis

semination o f compl e x ideas associated with certain modes
o f life
. T h e Far East does n o t app e ar t o h ave remained
immun e to outside cultural influences in anci e nt times .

Modern research h as estab l ished that the old school o f

opinions whic h insisted o n th e co m plete isolation of C h ina
“
can no longer obtain As Laufer says : I t cannot be
.

strongly enough emphasize d on every occasion t h at

Chinese civilization , as it appears n o w is n o t a unit and
,

not the excl usive production o f th e Ch inese but the final

,

r e su l t of the cultural e Ho rt s o f a vast conglomeration o f

'

the most varied trib e s an amalgamation o f ideas acc um u

,

l ated from manifold quarters and widely di ffe rentiated in

space and tim e . No graver error can hence be
committed than t o attribute any cu l ture idea at the
outset to th e Chinese fo r n o ot h er reason t h an because
,
”
it appears within the pr e cincts o f their empire .

Even th e Chinese records have to be regarded wit h

caution . It is impossible nowadays t o accept as s e rious
contributions to history the inflated c h ronology and the
obvious fables compi l ed and invented by C h inese scholars
vi P REFACE
for political and other purposes during the Han and later
dynasties These scholars h ad really little knowledge o f
.

th e early history of th e ir country and people They were

.

puzzled even by certain existi n g customs and religious

practic e s an d provided ingenious secondary explana
,
“

tions wh ich , li k e their accounts o f the early d ynasties,

”

do n o t accor d with the data acc um ulat e d by arch ae ologists

and other wor k ers in the scientific fi eld The complex
.

religious ideas o f the Chinese w e re obviously n o t of

spontaneous generation Many o f these r e semble too
.

closely the complexes found elsewhere and the ir h istory

,

cannot be traced within the limits o f the Chines e empire .

I ndeed , as is sho w n , some o f them are undoubtedly

products o f human experiences obtained elsewhere , and
t h ey reveal traces o f the influences t o whic h they were
subj ecte d during the process o f gradual transmission
from are as o f origin N o r would it appear, was Chinese
.
,

civilization n e arly as anci e nt as the native sc h o l ars wo uld

have us b e lieve .

When t h e early Chinese entered China, they found

non Chines e peopl e s in d i fle re n t parts o f that vast area
- ’

which th e y ultimately w e lded into an empire They were

.

an inland people and did not invent boats ; they did not
originate the agricultural mod e of l ife but adopted it ,

using the seeds and implements they had acquired ; nor

did they invent t h e potter s w h eel with which they were
’

familiar from the earliest tim e s in China, having evidently

become possessed o f it along with the complex culture
,

associated with it, before they m igrated into the provinc e

o f Shensi Nor could an agrarian peop l e like the Chinese
.

have been t h e originators of the belief in t h e existence of

 P REFACE vii
Isles o f the B l est in th e Eastern Ocean ; they were
n o t alone in Asia in believing in a Western Paradise
situate d among t h e m ountains .

The Chinese , as Laufe r demon strat e s i n h is Ja d e ,

did not pass through in C h ina that culture stage called

the Neolithic When they first settled in Shen si , t h ey
s e arched fo r and found j ade, as did t h e carriers of bronze
w h o first entered Europe .T h ere was obvious l y an ac
quired psyc h ological m otive for t h e search fo r j ade , and
the evidence o f Ch in e se j ade symbolism demonstrates to
the full that it had b e e n ac q ui re d from those who had
,

transferred to j ade the e arlier symbolism o f she ll s , pear l s ,

and pr e cious metals . I n the chapter devoted to j ade

it is shown t h at this V iew i s confirm e d by t h e evidence
a fforded by Chines e customs connected wit h j ade , s h ell s,
pear l s , & c
.

I n no country in the world are the processes of cu l ture

drifting and culture mixing made more manifest than in
China T h e Chin ese dragon is as Professor E ll iot Smith
.
,
“
puts it, a composite wonder beast T h roughout t h is
”

vo l ume it is shown to yi e l d w h en dissected , remarkab l e

,

evidence r e garding the varied influences u n der w h ich it

acquired its high l y complex character Th e fact t h at a .

C h inese dragon c h arm cl osely resemb l es a Scottish serpent

charm is o f specia l interest in t h is conn ection When , .

h owever, it is found t h at C h ina obtained certain myths

and practices from the area call ed by its writers E u l in “ -
”

(the Byzantine Empire) , and that not on l y Byzantine but

n ean influences are traceab l e in the Ce l tic fie l d t h
,
e c h arm
l ink between Gael ic Scotl and and China may not, after a ll ,

be regarded as far fetc h ed

“ -
”
T h e sam e may be said
.
viii P REFACE
regard ing the curious similarity betwe e n the myths and
practices connected with shells , and e specially cockle
sh e lls i n Japan an d the Scottis h Hebri d es Although
, .

the West Highland e rs and the inhabitants o f the Land o f

the Rising Sun were never brought into contact, it may
be that similar cultural infl uences drifted east and west
from their area o f origin and that the carriers were the
,

anci ent mariners w h o introduced the same type o f vessel

into far separated oceans
—
.

A s in China, w e d o not in Japan find a culture o f

purely native origin , but rat h er o n e wh ich has grown up
from a mass o f imported elements as varied as the racial
types that compos e th e pres e nt day population B oth in
—
.

China and Japan these importe d elem e nts have been s ub

e c t e d t o t h e influences o f time and locality and infused
j
with national ideas and i d e als The process e s o f growth
.

and change have n o t, however, concealed the sourc e s from

which certain o f t h e early ideas emanated in varying de
grees of development .

The early native history o f Japan is , like that o f

China, no mor e worthy o f acceptance than are the long
discarded English and Scottis h fables regarding B rute and
Scota .

The data accumulated in this volume tend to show ,

although w e have n o direct evidence o f systematic m is

s i o n ar enterprise earlier than that o f the B h ud d i s t s that
y ,

the in fluential r e ligious cults o f ancient times that flourished

in Mesopotamia and in the Egyptian Empire (w h ich i n
cluded part o f Western A sia) appear t o have le ft their
impress o n the intellectual life o f even far distant peoples
-
.

A pparently modes o f thought were transmitted along

 P REFACE
direct and indirect avenu e s o f intercourse by groups of
traders Even before trad e routes were open ed, religious
.

be l iefs and practices appear to h ave been introduc e d into

distant l ands by prospectors and by settlers w h o founded
colonies from whic h l ater colonies budded When the
same s e t o f complexes are found in wide l y separated
areas , it is d i fli cul t t o accept the V iew that they originated
'

from th e same particular experiences and t h e same s e t o f

circumstances , especially wh en it is made manifest t h at
the comp l exes in the ol d er c e ntre o f culture reflect strictly
local physica l conditions , and even the local politica l con
d i t i o n s that resulted in a fusion o f peoples and of t h eir
myths , symbols , and re l igious beliefs and practices .

D O NAL D A . M AC K E N Z I E .
 C ON T E N T S

C H AP .

T HE A N O F C I I L I AT ION
D W V Z

A F T R A E LL E D IN E N T ION
A R- V V

A N I E N T MA R IN ER S AN D E
C L O RER S XP

T HE W O R L D W I D E S E A R H F O R W
—
C E AL T H

C H IN E S E D R A G ON L O RE

B I R D AN D S ER E N T M P Y T HS

D R A G ON F O L S O R I E S
K- T

T HE K IN GD O M N D ER T HE S U EA

T HE ISL AN D S O F T HE BL E S T
T HE MO T HER G O DD E SS O F C H INA AN D JA AN
-
P

T REE H ER AN D S TON E L O RE
E -

H w C O ER
o PP LT RE RE A HE D C H INA
-
CU U C

T HE S M Y M O F JA D E
B O L IS

C RE A T ION M AN D T HE G AN D G O DD E SS
Y T HS OD

CU L T S

MY T H ICA L AN D L E G E N D A R K IN G S Y

M Y T HSAN D D O T R IN E S O F TAOI S MC

C MI IN G IN JA AN
U L T U RE X P

JA AN E S E G O D S AN D D R A G ON S
P

RI A L D E I T I E S O F L I F E AN D D
V E AT H , SU N S H IN E AN D
S T O RM

T HE D R A G ON SLA ER AN D
-
Y H IS I AL
RV

A N I ENT
C MI K A D O S AN D H ER O E S
IN D E X
 L IS T OF PL AT E S

T H E G OD OF T UN D E R (
H in co lo u r)
F rom a Ch i n es e p z c t ure m th e j oh n Ry l a nd s L z bra ry , Ma nc h e ster

P O T TE R S W HEEL S I M L A I N D I A
’

, ,

Fr o m a s k e tc h s by L o c k w oo d l m g i n t h e Vi ct orz a a nd A l bert Muse um

A M O E R N CHINE S E JU N
D K ON T H E C A NTON R I V E R
CHINE S E R AG ON B OA T F E ST I VA L
D -

Fr om a rp i c tu r M
e w o v en m r
co l o u e d sz l k s a n d go l d t h e ad i n t h e Vi c torz a a nd r
A lb e t
us e um

CHINE S E R AG ON S AM O N G
D T H E CL O U S D

Fr om a p ai n ti ng i n th e B rz ti s h Mus e um

CHINE S E R A G ON VA S E W ITH C A RV E D W OO S T A N
D D D

( rM ) Vi c torz a an d A lbe t us eum

C A R P LE A P IN G F R O M WAV E S
Fr om a r
j ap a ne se p a i n ti ng i n th e B i t i s h Mus eum

CHINE S E P O RCEL A IN VA S E D ECO R ATE D W ITH F I VE

CL AW E D D R AG O N S RI S IN G F R O M WAVE S
( Vi c to rz a a nd A lbert Mus e um )
x1 ii
 P LATES LIS T OF
R E S O N A N T S TO N E O F JA E S HO W IN G D R A G ON W ITH D
CL O U D O R N AM EN T S S U SP EN D E D F R O M C A R V E BL A C
,
D K
W O O D F R AM E
By r
co u f r F
tesy of B M .
f
L au e r , Ci e ld us e um o N a tu a l H i s tory , h ic ago

TO RTOI S E AN D SNA E K

Fr om a r ubbi ng r
i n t h e B i t i sh Museum of a C h i ne s e o r
i g i n al

G ATHE R IN G F R U IT S O F LO N G E IT Y V

Fr om a r C h i ne se p ai n ti ng i n th e B i ti sh Mus e um

S HOU S H A N (i e.
“
HILL S O F LO N G E V ITY T H E TA OI S T
PA R A D I S E
.

Fr om a wo v en sz lk r
p i c tu e i n rM
th e Vi c tori a a nd A lb e t us eum

T H E CHINE S E SI WA N G MU UA P A N E S E S E IO B O ) A N D MA O
NU

Fr an z a j ap ane se p ai nti ng ( by H i d eno bu) i n th e B r i ti s h Mus eum

M OUNTA IN V IE W W I T H S CH O L A R S RETRE AT ’

Fr C om r M a hi ne se p ai n t i ng i n t h e B i ti s h us e um

G ENII AT T HE COU R T OF SI WA N G M U
Fr om a C h i nes e p ai n t i ng i n t h e B ri t i sh Museum

S Q UA RE BRIC O F K T HE H AN Y N A STY W ITH

D , MY T H O
LO G IC A L F I G U R E S AN D IN S CRI PT ION S
CHINE S E BOW L W ITH S YM BOL LON GE V IT Y OF

rM ( Vi c tori a a nd A lb e t us eum )

G OA T S CR O PP IN G P L A NT OF LI F E
Fr j om th e r ad e sc ulp t u e i n th e S c o tt i s h N i
a t o na l Mus eum , E di nb u gh r
 LIST OF P LATES
T HE F AM O U S OL D T O RI W - I (G O DD E SS SYM BOL ) M I Y A ,

J I MA JAPA N
,

Fr om a ph o tog r p h by H
a . G . P o n t z ng ,

T H E JAPA NE S E T RE AS URE S HI P
Fr om a r w o o d c ut m t h e B i t i sh Mus eum

S U SA - N O -W O MA IN G C O MPA CT W I T H I S E A S E S P IRI TS
K A D 3 60
Fr om a f apa n e s e p a i n t i ng (by H og a ) in th e B i t i sh r Mus eum

AMATER ASU , T H E SU N G O DD E SS E M ER G IN G F RO M
, H ER
C AV E
Fr om a j ap a ne s e p a i n t i ng i n th e B r i tis h Museum

S E IO BO ( 2 CHI N E S E WA N G M ) W I T H A TT EN D A N T
T H E SI U
AN D T HREE RI S I H

Fr j om a apa ne se ) r M
p a i n ti ng ( by S a nra k u i n the B i ti s h us eum
 MY T H S OF
C H IN A AN D JA PA N

C HA P TE R I
T h e D aw n o f C i v i liz at i o n
r I r
C h i n e s e C ul t u e — H ad i t n d e pe n d e n t O i gi n t— E v o l ut i o n i n H um an
r
A flai rs — S t rat i fic at i o n T h e o y — T h e My s t e y o f Mi n d — Man s
‘

r i st P h i lo
’
Fr
r
so h y o f L i fe — In flue n c e s e x e c i se d b y A n c i e n t C i v i l i z at i o n s — C ul t u e Mi x i n g
p r
- T he Id ea o f r r
P o g e ss— A rt i n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e A ge — n t o d uc t i o n o f A g i I r r
c ul t u er
— r r
B i t h o f O s i i an C i v i l i z at i o n T h e
— at e of W
e e n n e ss as
“
r Gr
at e W r
o f L i fe — H o w C o m m e c e B e ga n— r I r
n t o d uc t i o n o f C o
pp e w o i n g— T h er rk -

O l d e s t C al e n d ar i n the W o r ld — T he “
Ki n gs o f M ki d
an n i A nc
-
ent Ma n
an d Mod e r n Man .

T d e stinies of a people are shaped by thei r mod e s of

H E

thought and their real h istory is therefore the h istory of

,

their culture The C h inese frame of mind h as made the

.

Ch inese the people th e y are and China t h e country it is .

Every section of society has be e n sway e d by this far .

reaching and en d uring influence the sources of which lie ,

in remote antiquity It is the force that has even b e en

.

S hapi n g public opinion and directing political movements .

Emperors and l eaders of thought have been uplifted by

it o r cast down by it .

To understand China, it is ne c essary that we S hould

inquire into its inner history t h e history o f its culture —

( D 71 ) 1 2
2 MYTH S OF CHINA AND JA P AN
so as to get at the Chinese point of V iew and l ook at
things through Chines e eyes . T h at inner history is i n
part a record o f its early exp e rienc e s among the nations
o f the earth
“
. Th e re was a time when China was in the
making when t h e little leaven that leavened th e whole
lump began to move , when that culture w h ich sprea d
over a vast ar e a was confine d to a small c e ntre and to
a comparatively small group o f people W ho were t h is
.

people , wher e were they situate d what influences w e re at

,

work to stir them and shape their a mbitions , and what

secret did they learn which gave them power over the
minds and bodies o f about a third of the inhabitants of
the g l obe ? I n S hort, h o w and where did C h inese culture
originate and h o w did it S pread and become firmly estab
,

l i s h e d ? Was it a th ing o f purely local growth ? Did

it begin to b e quite independently o f all other cultures ?
Does it o w e its virility and d istinctiveness among the
.

cultures o f ancient and modern times to the influ e nce o f

the locality in whic h it had independent origin
“
Had
it an in d epen d ent origin ?
Th ese queries open up the l arger problem as to the
origin of civilization in the world A t this point, there
.

fore we must decide whether or not we are to acc e pt the

,

idea o f evolution in human aflai rs Can the principles of

f
.

biological evolution be applied t o the problems of e t h n o

logy (using th e term in its widest sense to include the
physical and cultural history of man k ind) ? Can we
acce pt the theory that i n isolated quarters of the globe
s e parat e d communities were stirred by natural laws to
make progr e ss in adapting themselves to t h eir environ
ments and that , once a beginning was made , separate d
,

commu n ities d e v e loped on similar lines Did each ancient

civilization have its natural p e riods o f growth and decay ?
Were s e parated communities uni n flue n ce d durin g these
 THE D AW N OF CIVILI Z ATI O N 3
periods by human m inds and wi ll s ? Were th eir destinies
shape d by natural laws , or by the cumu l ative force of
public O pinion ? Was it a natural l aw that ma d e men
abandon t h e hunting and a d opt t h e agricultural mode of
life ? Did certain communities o f men , influenced by
natural laws in ancient times begin to shape their reli
,

i o us systems by first worshipping groups of spirits and

g
ultimately, h aving passed through a sequence of well
defined stages , find t h emselv e s elevated by these natural
laws to th e stage o f monotheism ? Is it because certain
races have, for some myst e rious reason , be e n prompted
to pass t h rough these stages more quickl y than others ,
that they are deserving of the t e rm progressive w h ile
”
others m ust be characterized as backward ?
If these questions are answered i n t h e a ffi rmative, we
must assum e that we have solved t h e ridd l e o f M ind .

Those who apply t h e principles of bio l ogical evo l ution to

human aflai rs are in t h e habit of r e ferring to l aws that
’

contro l the workings of the human mind But what do

.

we really know about t h e workings of the h uman mind ?

T h is question has only to be asked so t h at the hazardous
ch aracter o f the fashion o f thinking adopted by extrem e
exponents of the Evolution School may be emp h asized .

I t cannot b ut b e a d mitted that we know litt l e or not h ing

regarding the human mind . What happens w h en we
t h ink ? H o w are memories stored in the brain ? H o w
are emotions caused ? W h at is Consciousness ? H O W
does the Will operate ? Grave psycho l ogical prob l ems
have to be solv e d befor e we can undertake the responsi
b i l i ty of discussing with any degree of confide n ce the law s
t h at are supposed to govern human thought and action .

The researches into t h e earl y h istory o f man o f about

,

a generation ago , were believed by some to h ave reveale d

“

t h e essential simi l arity wit h which , under many superficia l

4 MYTHS OF CHI NA A ND JA P AN
di fferences the human mind h as e laborat e d its first cru d e
,

philosophy o f life I t w as found that si m ilar beliefs

and practices obtained a m ong widely separat e d communi
ties, an d it was not suspecte d that the i nfluence exercised
“
by direct and indirect cultural contact between pro gre s
sive an d backward communities exten d ed to suc h
” “ ”

great d istances as h as since be e n found t o be the case .

Prospect i ng routes by land an d sea w e re the avenues along

“ ”
which cultural influenc e s drifted Early man was
.

m uch more enterprising as a trader and explorer than was

believed in T y l o r s day The evidenc e accumulated of
’
.

late years tends to S how that almost no part of the

globe re m ain e d im m une to the influences exercised by
th e great ancient civilizations an d that these civilizations
,

wer e neve r in a state o f splendid isolation at any

“

period in their histories In the light o f this knowle d ge

.

it is becoming more an d more clear that Victorian eth mo

l o gi s t s were inclined to make t o o much o f res e mblances ,
and failed to take into account the di fferences that a more
intensive study o f local cultures have revealed Th e re .

were, of course r e semblances which suggest the influ e nce

, ,

o f cultural contact and the settlement a m ong backward

peoples o f colonists from progressive communities, but

'

there were also d i fle re n c e s o f beliefs and customs which

w e re of local origin and can hardly be characterized as
One o f t h e results o f contact was the
“
process o f culture mixing Customs and fash ions o f
thinking were intro d uced into a country and blended
with local customs and local mod e s o f thought In early .

“
C hina as w ill be shown there w as
, ,
culture m ixing
The C hinese frame o f mind is the r e s ul t o f compromises
e ffe ct e d in remote ti m es .

H o w , then did t h e idea of progress originate ?

, Is
th e re in the h uman mind an instinct which stirs mankind
 THE D AW N OF CIVILI Z ATI O N 5
to achi e ve progress ? I f s o h o w does it come about t h at ,

some peoples have fai l ed to move until brought i nto

contact with progressive races ? Why did t h e Melane
sians, for instance , remain in the Stone Age until reached
by t h e missionary and the sandal wood trader ? T h e —

missionaries and the traders caused t h em to advance in

a brief period from the Stone Age to the Age of Stee l
and Mac h inery Can it be maintained that in ancient
.

days n o sudden changes took place ? Did the people ,

for instanc e , w h o introduced bronze working into a -

country introduc e noth ing else ? Did they leave behind

th e ir beliefs their myths their customs , and their stories ?
, ,

When it is asked h o w progress originated , we can

on l y turn to such evidence as is available regard ing the
early h istory of Modern M an At a remote period,
dating back in Europe to the P l eistocene Age men lived ,

in organized communities and pursued the h unting mode

of life T h eir culture is revealed by their pictorial art in
.

the prehistoric cave dwel lings of France and Spain and —

,

t h eir decorative art by their finely engraved implem e n ts

and weapons This art reached a h ig h state of pe rfe c
.
1

tion. In some aspects it compares favourab l y wit h

mo d ern art Evidently it h ad a long history, an d was
.
2

practised by those w h o were e ndowed wit h the artistic

faculty an d h ad receive d a training These early men , .

who be l onged to the Cro Magnon races , were trad e rs as -

wel l as hunters In some of t h eir inland stations

“
.

h ave been found sh e ll s that h ad been imported from the

Mediterranean c oast .

The h unting mode o f life pr e vailed al so among t h e

proto Egyptians in t h e Ni l e val l ey , an area whic h was
-

less capable in remote times o f maintaining a large po pu

1 My ths of C r e te a n d P re—H e llent c E r
u ope, pp 2 6 e t se
q
r
. .

2 Ibi d . S e e i l l us t at i o ns o ppo s ite p

. 20 .
6 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JA P AN
lation than were the wid e and fertil e plains o f Europe .

Egypt w as thinly peopled unti l the agricultural mode o f

life was intro d uced Someone d iscovered h o w to make .

us e o f t h e barley that grew wild in t h e Nile valley and

western Asia In time the se e d s w e re cultivat e d and
.
,

som e littl e community thus provi d e d its e lf with an

abundant food supply M e n s minds were afterwards
—
.
’

engag e d in solving the problem h o w to extend t h e area

available for cultivation in the narrow Nil e valley .

Nature w as at hand to make suggestions to th e m Each .

y e ar the River Nile ca m e down in flood and fertilized the

parched and sun burnt wast e s The waters caused th e
-
.

desert to blossom like t h e rose Intelligent observers

p e rceiv e d that if the proc e ss o f wat e r fe rtilization w e r e -

maintaine d as in the D e lta region they could e xtend

, ,

th e ir little farms and form n e w ones The art o f irriga .

tion was discovered and gradually adopted with t h e ,

result that the narrow river valley whic h had be e n thinly ,

peopled during th e Hunting P e rio d , became capab l e o f

maintaining a large population .

I n what particular area the agricultura l mode of life

was first introduced, it is impossible to s ay Some favour .

southern Palestine an d some southern M e sopotamia .

Those who favour Egypt can r e fer to interesting and i m 1

portant evidence in support o f their vi e w It is the only .

ancient country for instance in which ther e are traditions

, ,

r e gar d ing the m an w h o introduc e d the agricultural mode

2

o f life This was Osiris a priest king w h o w as deified —

3
.
, ,

o r a god to whom was credit e d the d iscov e ry, m ade by a

1
P r f r C rr
o e s so he y T h e Origi n of A gri cul tu r (Me em . an d P r o c. Man ch e s t e r L it . an d

P hi l S oc ,
d rd d
. .

“ ”
2 In B aby l o n i an l e ge n i
s c i v i l i z at o n i s i nt o uce by t h e go at -
fis h go d E a, who
c am e fr r
o m t h e P e s i a n G ul f
T Or r fi
.

“
3
h o s e w h o gi v e si is a L i by a n o i gi n b e l i e v e h i s n am e s i gn i es T h e Old
T h e O l d Man
” ”
O ne , or .
8 MYTHS O F CHI NA AN D JA P AN
become an agriculturist by instinct H e conducted .

observations ex e rcised his reason i ng faculty made ex

, ,

e ri m e n t s and a gr e at discove ry w as fort h coming The

p , .

man w h ose memory is enshrined in that o f Osiris was

o n e of th e great b e nefactors o f t h e human race When .

h e solved the problem of h o w to provi d e an abundant

supply o f food, h e made it possible for a large population
to live in a small area I t is told of Osiris that he gave
.

them (the Egyptians) a body of l aws to regulate their

conduct by No doubt the early h unters observed
”
.

laws which r e gulat e d conduct in the cave home as wel l -

as on the hunting fie l d The fact that a great pictoria l

-
.

art was cultivate d by A urignacian man in west e rn

Europe about ,
years ago indicates that the social
,

organization h ad b e e n s ufli c i e n tly well d e veloped to per

mit of certain individuals o f a class possibly the priestly —

class devoting themselves to the study o f art, while

—

others attend e d t o th e food supply A urignacian art

-
.

coul d never hav e reached the d egree o f excellenc e it did

h ad there not been a school o f art appar e ntly religious —

art an d a system of laws that promoted i t s welfare

—
.

When , in Egypt the agricultural mode o f life was

,

introduced and an abun d ant supply o f food was assure d ,

,

n e w laws b e came a necessity s o that t h e growing c o m

,

m un i t i e s might be k e pt under control These laws were .

“
given a religious significance Osiris instructed them .

the Egyptians in that rev e rence an d worship which t h ey

( )
were to pay to the gods Society was united by t h e
”
.

bon d s o f a r e ligious organization and as is found Nilotic , , ,

religion had a close association with th e agricultural mode

o f life . It reflected th e experienc e s o f the early farmers ;
it refl e cted t o o the natural phenomena o f the N ile vall e y
, ,
.

Water t h e Nile wat e r was t h e fe rtilizing agency I t

— —
.

was the wat e r o f life

“
Th e god Osiris was close l y
 TH E D AW N OF C I V I L I ZAT I O N 9
associated with t h e Nil e ; he was the fr e sh o r t h e “

“ ”
ne w water that flowe d in due season after th e trying
“ ”
period of the l o w N ile , during which the land was
parched by the burn ing s un and every green thing was
coated by the sand storms Ho, Osiris ! t h e inun d ation
-
.

comes , cried the priest when th e N i l e began to ris e .

Horus com e s ; h e recognizes h is father in thee , youthful

”1
in thy name of Fresh Water The literal rendering .

is : “
Horus com es ; he beholds h is father in the e ,gree nness
in t h y name of Wa ter of G reenness The reference is t o
t h e new water which flows quite green for the first
“

few days of the annual inundatio n T h e new water

“
.
”

entered the soil and vegetation sprang up Osiris was .

the principle of life ; he was al so th e ghost god who -

controlled t h e river A s the Ni l e, Osiris was regarded

.

as t h e source of al l l ife the creator and sustainer and

—

ruler in o n e .

When t h e discovery of how to grow corn was passed

from people to people and fro m lan d to land , not only
the seeds and agricultural implements w e re passed along,
but the ceremonies and re l igious b e liefs connected wit h
the agricultural mode o f life in t h e area of origin The .

ceremonies were regarded as of as much importance as th e

impl e ments .

It need not s urpris e us, t h erefore , to find , as we do

find, not only Nort h African millet in t h e East I ndies ,
but North African religious beliefs connected with agri
culture in widely separate d countries Osirian r e ligious .

ideas and myths w e re, it wou l d appear, d istributed over

wid e areas and among various races T h ere is therefore .

a germ o f historical truth in the account giv e n by Plu

tarch o f t h e missionary e fforts o f Osiris “
W ith th e .

same disposition w e read “

h e (Osiris ) afterwards ,
I
B r ’
e as t e d s Rel igi on a nd T h ough t i n E gyp t, p
. 1 8 .
Io MYT H S O F CHINA AN D JA P AN
trav e lled over the rest o f t h e world inducing the people ,

everywhere to submit to his d iscipline The Gre eks .

conclude him to have b e en the same person with their

” 1
Dionysos o r B acchus .

I n the process of time the Egyptians found t h at they

w e re able t o produce a larger food supply than they -

require d for their o w n needs They were consequently .

abl e to devote th e ir surp l us to stimulating tra d e s o as to ,

obtain from other countri e s things which were not to be

h ad in Egypt They were thus bro ught into touch with
.

other communities and these communities , such as the

,

wood cutters of Lebanon w e re influenced by Egyptian

—
,

civilization and stimulat e d to adopt n e w modes o f life .

T heir food supply was assured by the Egyptian d emand

-

for timber They rec e ived corn from the Nile valley i n
.

paym ent for their labour There are references in the .

Egyptian texts to the exports of wheat to North Syria

an d Asia Minor .

When th e great discovery was made of h o w to work

copper the e arly agriculturists ac h ieved rapid progress
, .

Boats were built more easily and in larger numb e rs n e w ,

weapons wer e produced an d the Upper Egyptians con ,

quered the Lower Egyptians , with the result that Egypt

w as united under a singl e king Wit h this union wh ich .
,

was followed by a perio d of remarkable activity, begins

t h e h istory o f A nci e nt Egypt .

The man r e membered as Osiris who first sowed h is

, ,

lit tl e corn patch sow e d also the seeds from which gr e w

,

a mighty e mpir e and a great civilization His d iscovery .

spread from peopl e to people and from land to land , and ,

a n e w era w as inaugurated in t h e history of the world .

Progr e ss was ma d e possible when mankin d were l e d from

the wide hunting fie l d s to the little fields o f th e Stone
—

1
S . S qui r e, Pl uta r c h
’
s T r i
ea t s e
qf Is i s an r (C r d
d Os i i s am b i ge ,
 TH E D AW N O F CI V I L I ZAT I ON II

Age farmer, and s h own how they cou l d live p l easant

1

and well ordered lives in large communities

-
.

The ear l y Egyptian farmers found it n ecessary to

measure time and take account o f the seasons A Calen .

dar was introduced and adopt e d during the prehistoric

( Pa l e olithic
) period ,
2
and was used by the Egyptians for

thousands o f years Julius C ae sar adapted this Calendar

.

for use in Rome It w as subsequently adj usted by Pope

.

Gr e gory and ot h ers , and is n o w in use al l over the

civilize d world Eac h time we hang up a new calendar
.
,

t h erefore we are reminded o f the man who stimulated

,

progress over vast areas by sowing corn , s o as to provide

food f o r h is family in a distant land at a far d istant period -

of time .

W h en we consider the prob l em of the origin of pro

gress, let us not forget h im and oth e rs like him those —

early t h inkers and discoverers to w h om all h umanity owe

a debt of gratitude T h e fe w invent, the many adopt ;
.

t h e few t h ink and lead , and the many fo l low .

No abstract doctrine writes Sir Jam es F Frazer .

“
in this connection , is more false and mischievous than
t h at of th e natural equality o f men T h e e x pe ri .

ence o f common l ife s ufli c i e n tly contradicts such a vain

imagination T h e men o f keenest inte ll igence and
.

strongest characters l ead the rest and shape the mou l ds

into which , outwardly at least society is cast Th e , .

true ru l ers of men are t h e thinkers wh o advance know

ledge . I t is knowledge whic h , in the long run ,
directs and contro l s the forces o f society Thus the dis .

coverers o f n e w tr uths are the rea l thoug h uncrowned

”
and unsceptred kings of m ankind 3
.

1 r
In E gy pt th i s w as t h e S o l ut e an s t age o f t h e ao - c all e d P al ae o l i t h i c A ge
2 T r
h e e w as n o N e o l i t h i c A ge i n E gy pt
r d
.

3 T h e S cope of S aci a ’ A n th opol ogy (L o n o n,

pp . 1 2— 1
3 .
1 2 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JA P AN
Progress has its origin in Mind I t has been mani .

fe s t e d in the past in those districts in which the mind o f

man was applied to overcome natural obstac l es and to
develop natural r e sources T h e histories of the great .

ancient civilizations do n o t support the idea of an e v o l u

t i o n ary process which had its origin in human instinct .

“
T h ere has , Professor G Elliot Smith writ e s
” “
b e en .
,

no g e neral o r wid e spr e ad tendency o n t h e part o f h uman

societi e s to strive after what by Europeans is regarded
as intel l ectual or material progress Progressive societies .

are rare becaus e it requires a very comp l ex series of

factors to compel men to embark upon the h azardous
”
process o f striving after such artificial advancement .

Professor E ll iot Smith will have none of what Dr .

W H R Rivers refers to as crude evo l utionary ideas

. . .
“ ”
.

“ Th e history o f man
, he writes
“
wil l be truly inter
”
,

re t e d , not by mean s o f hazardous and mistaken analogies

p
with biological evolution but by the application of t h e ,

true h istorical m ethod The causes of the mo d e rn actions

.

o f mankind are deeply rooted in th e past But the spirit .

o f man has ever been the same : and the course of anci e nt

history can only be prop e rly appreciat e d when it is realized

that the same human motiv e s whose nature can be studied
”
i n our fellow men to day actuat e d t h e men of o l d also
— — 1
.

I n t h e c h apters that immediately fol l ow it wil l be

s h own t h at separated communities were brought into
close touch by traders T h e term trading however,
“
.
”
,

refe rs e specially in early times , chi e fly to prospecting and

,

the exploiting o f l ocal ly unappreciated forms o f w e alth .

I t was not until after civilization had S pread far and wide
that permanent trade routes were established Some .

overl and routes became less important when s e a routes

were ultimately opened .

1 r
P i m i ti v e Man (P r d
o ce e i n gs o f th e r
B i t i sh A ca d em
y, V ol . V II ), p. 50 .
 C HAP TE R II

A F ar -
t r av e ll e d In v e n t i o n
T h e P o t te r ’
s Wh e e l— A n E gy p i I
t an nv e n t i o n — T he Wh eel i n T h e o l o gy
— C l ay P o ts an d S to ne V e sse l s— k r r
S i ll e d A t i san s p o d uc e P o o r r
P o t te y — T h e
Y k ut
a E v id e n c e— F l
em a e Po t te r
s— P o t S y m b o l o f Mo t h e g o d dre
-
s s —
P o t te r ’
s

Wh l ee wo rk
b y Me n E gy pt i a n
ed heel
—
ad o t e d i n
p
“
W ”
e t e , B ab y l o n i a, Cr
Iran , I
n d i a, an d C h i n a No “
h e el
”
W
i n A m e i c a— S e c u a an d
-
r
e l i gi o us l r R
r
P o t t e y i n C h i n a, apan , n d i a, an d J I
o m e— C o a se R r Gr
av e P o t t e y — P o t t e s -
r r ’

W r r rr
h e e l as S y m b o l o f C e at o — C h i n e s e E m pe o s as P o tt e y — C ul t u e H e o e s r r r
r r r
A sso c i ati o n o f A g i c ul t u e w i t h P o tt e y — E gy pt i an d e as i n F ar E as t I .

W H A T bearing, it may be asked , have the discoveries made

in Egypt on the earl y history of China ? Is there evidence
to sho w that these wi d e ly separated countries were brought -

into contact in remote times ? Did th e primitive C h inese

receive and adopt Egyptian inventions and if so , how ,

were such inventions conveyed across the wide and d i ffi

c ult country lying between the Mediterran e an coast and
the Yellow Sea ? IS there any proof that trade routes
ext e nded in ancient times right across Asia ? Did pro
specting and trading ancient mariners cross the I ndian
Ocean and coast ro und to Chinese waters ?
Interesting evidence regarding cultural contact is
This wonderfu l machin e
'

aflo rd e d by the pott e r s wheel

’
.

was invented in Egypt some tim e before the Fourth

Dynasty (about 3 0 0 0 B C ) and in its area o f origin it ,

exercised an influence not only o n c e ramic craftsmans h ip

but on religious ideas I t was regarded as a gift o f t h e .

gods, as in ancient Scot l and bronze weapons implements , ,

13
I4 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JA P AN
musical instruments , & c were regarded as gifts from the
.
,

fairies Apparently the invention was first introduced in

.

M emphis , the ancient capital , t h e chief go d of which w as

Ptah the suprem e deity of all handicraftsmen and o f al l
,
”
workers in metal and stone Ptah was alrea d y regarded
.

as the creator of the primeval egg from which the universe

”
was hatched , and o f the sun egg and the moon egg
“ “
.

H e was evi d entl y a deity whose life history goes back to -

primitive times when t h e m other go d dess was symbolized —

as the goose that laid the primeval egg T h e problem o f .

wh e ther the egg o r th e bird came first was solved by the

priests o f th e Ptah cult o f Memphis , who regarded their
“ ”
d e ity as the creator o f the egg A fter the potter s .
’

wh e el came into us e they depicted Ptah turning the

,
“ ”
egg upon it The man ufacture of wheel made pottery
.
-

thus came to hav e r e ligious associations It was closely .

connected with the culture o f Egypt which had its basis

in the agricultural mode o f life The arts and crafts were
.

all stimulated by religious ideas ; they were cu l tivated by

the priestly class i n temple workshops , and were essen
t i all y an expression o f Egyptian beliefs and conceptions .

B efore th e potter s wheel came into use, the potter s

’ ’

art had d egenerated Vases , bowls j ars, platters and

.
, ,

other vessels were made of such costly stones as diorite ,

alabaster and porphyry ; these were drilled o ut with
,

copper implements . Copper vess e l s were also made .

The discovery of h o w to work copper h ad caused the

craftsmen to neglect the potter s art, and to work with ’

enthusias m in the har d est stone until they achiev e d a high

degree of skill . The coarse pottery of the pre whe e l -

period is therefore no indication that the civilization had

reached a stage o f decadence This fact should be a warning
.

to those arch aeologists w h o are prone to conclude that

if the pottery taken from a stratum in some particular
 1 6 MYTHS OF CHINA A ND JA P AN
potter s whe e l w as invented by man , and credited to a
’

g od and h as from the beginning been worked by men

,

only There w as appar e ntly a religious sign ificance in

.

f
t h e connection o f the sex e s with the d i fie re n t processes .

The clay po t w as , in ancient Egypt, a symbol o f the

m other go d dess Pots used in connection with the wor
-
1
.

ship o f the Gr e at Moth e r were apparently pro d uced by

h e r priestesses A s women played their part in agri c ul
.

tural ceremoni e s s o did they play t h eir part e vidently a ,

—

pro m inent o n e i n producing the godd e ss s pot symbols

—
’
.

The coarse jars in which wer e store d wines and oi l s and

foo d stu ffs w e re gifts of the Great Mother, t h e giv e r o f
-

all ; S he was the inexhaustible sacred P o t the womb of —

Nature Domestic pott e ry used by women was very

.
,

properly, t h e ancient folks appear to have argued , pro

d uc e d by women .

It will be not e d writes O T Mason in t h is con . .

“
n e cti o n that t h e fe m inine gen d er is used throughout in
,

S p e a k ing o f aboriginal potters This is because every .

piece of such ware i s t h e work of woman s h ands S h e ’

.

quarri e d t h e clay and , lik e the patient beast of burden , ,

bore it ho m e o n h e r back She washe d it and knea d ed it .

and rolled it into fill e ts Th e s e she wound car e fully and .

sym m e trically until the vessel was built up She further .

decorated and burned it and wore it o ut in house h o l d ,

” 2
drudgery The art at first was woman s.
’
.

In many countries the conn e ction of women w ith

hand mad e and o f men with wh e el made pottery obtains
- —

even in o ur d ay T h e following state m ent by two Ameri .

can scholars w h o have pro d uce d a short but authoritative

,

paper o n the potter s art i s the result o f a close investiga ’

l The E v o l uti on f
o th e Dr a
gon, G E lli o t S m i th d
( L o n o n, pp 1 7 8 e t se q
T Or r
. . .

2
0 . . Ma so n, i
g i ns o
f In v e n ti on
, p. 1 66 ; an d W om a n s
’
S ha e in P ri m m v e Cul
f

ture , 1
p 9 . .
 A FAR -
TRAVELLE D I NVENTI O N 1 7

tion of evidence co l lected over a wide area, and carefully

1
digested and summarized
The potter s w h ee l is t h e creation o f man , and t h ere
’

fore is an independent act of invention whic h was not

evo l ved from any contrivance uti l ized during the period
of hand m ade ceramic ware The t wo processes have
-
.

grown o ut o f t w o radical ly distinct sphe res o f human

activity The wheel so speak , came from anot h er wor l d
.
, .

I t h ad no point of contact with any too l that existed in

the old industry, but w as broug h t in from an outside
quarter as a novel a ffair when man appropriated to
himself t h e work hit h erto cultivated by woman Th e .

development was o n e from outside , not from within All .

e flo rt s , according l y, which view t h e subj ect so l ely fro m

'

the tec h no l ogical angle , and try t o derive t h e w h ee l from

previous devices of the female potter, are futi l e and mis
leading It is as erroneous as tracing th e p l ough back to
.

the h oe o r digging stick whereas i n fact, t h e t wo are in

-
, ,

no historical interrel ation and belong to fundamentally

d i E e re nt cu l ture strata and periods t h e h oe to the —

gardening activity of woman , t h e plough to t h e agri cul

tura l activity of man B ot h in India and China the .

division o f ceramic labour sets apart the thrower or w h ee l

potter, and distinctly separates h im from the mou l der .

The potters in India, wh o work on the wheel , do not

intermarry with those who use a mould or make images .

They form a caste by thems e l ves 2

.
”

T h e oldest w h ee l made pottery is found in Egypt -

.

T h ere can be no doubt that the potter s whee l was ’

invented in that country It was imported into Crete .

,

1
T h e B egi nni ngs of P o cela i n i n r C
h i na, b y B e t h o l d L au e an d H r fr i ch o l sW N
F d N r r r r
. .

( i e l Mus e um o f at u al H i s t o y P ub l i c at i o n, 1 9 2, A n t h o po l o gi c al S e i e s , V o l X II, .

No 2. Ch i c ago ,
.

2
Ibi d , pp . 1 53
— 1 54
.

( D 71 )
1 8 MYTHS O F CHINA A ND JA P AN
which had tra d ing r e lations with the merchants o f th e
ancient Pharaohs as far back as about 3 0 0 0 B C Before ,
. .

the wh e e l w as a d opted the Cretans made stone v e ss e ls ,

foll owing Egyptian patt e rns , but using soft ston e instead
o f hard Their hand made pottery degenerate d , as d i d
.
-

“
the Egyptian Pott e ry came again to i t s o w n i n both
.

”
countries , writ e s Mr H R Hall, with t h e invention . . .

”1
o f the potter s wh e el and t h e baking furnace
’
-
.

T h e pott e r s wheel must hav e foun d a ready mark e t

’

in the o l d days It w as adopted , in tim e , i n western .

“ ”
Europ e ; it w as quickly taken up in Babylonia and in
Iran an d was ultimately in troduced into I n d ia and China
,
.

But only the high A siatic civilizations were capable o f

constructing it, and cons e quently wheel made pottery is -

“
not found everywh e re Among the aboriginal Am eri .

”
cans the wheel was n e v e r e m ploye d It is an interesting .

fact that t h e mind o f man which is al l eg e d to work o n ,

“
th e sa m e lines everywh e re, n e ver evolved a potter s ’

wheel in M exico o r Peru Maj or Gordon tells that in .

2

“
Assam the women fashion the pots by hand ; they do
3

' ”
n o t use th e potter s wh e el Similar evidence i s obtain .

ab l e i n various other countries I n China there are wheel .

potters an d moulders , and a d istinction is drawn betw e en

them by ancient writers This clear distinction i s ac c e n .

t uat e d by Chu Yen in his treatise o n pottery H e j us t l y 4

.

observes also that t h e articles made by the wheel potters —

were all inten d e d fo r cooking, wit h the exception o f the

vessel y u which w as designed fo r measuring ; while the
,

output o f t h e m oul d ers w h o m ad e the ceremonial vessels ,

h uei an d tau by availing themselves o f the plumb lin e , w as -

1 T he j our n a l n
y pna n A
( r che ol o r
gy , A p i l , 1 9 1 4, p 14
r
. s

A bori gi n a l P ott e ry of t h e E (T w e n t i e th A n n ual Re po t ,

2
as t e r n U n i te d S ta tes , p 5 0
r r W
.

Bu e au o f Am e i can E t h n o l o gy , as h i n gt o n ,
3 T h e K h as i s, p 6 1 . .
4
T a o S h uo, c h ap i i , p . . 2 (n e w e d i t i o n,
 A F A R— TRA VELLE D INVENTI O N I9
intended for sacrificial use Al so here , i n like manner as .

in ancient Rome, I ndia, and Japan , t h e idea may have

prevai l ed that a w h eel made j ar is of a l ess sacred char -

” 1
acter than one m ade by hand Her e then we touch on .

another point whic h must b e borne in m ind by those who

draw conc l usions regarding ancient cultures by means of
pottery In Britain, for instance, a rather coarse pottery
.

is found in graves It is possible that a better pottery .

was made for everyday use The conservatism O f burial .

customs may have caused coarser pottery to be put into

grave s than the early folks were capable o f producing
during the period at which t h e burial took place .

The wheel pottery w as as sacred to some cults as the

-

hand made was to others Even t h e potter s w h ee l was

-
.
’

sacred I n Egypt the Ptah cu l t adopted it, as has been

.

stated ; in I ndia it was a symbo l of the Creator ; in China

(as in ancient Egypt ) the idea original l y prevai l e d that

the Creator was a potter who turned on his wheel t h e

sun and t h e moon , man and woman although in time ,

this myth became a p h ilosophical abstraction The

symbo l ism o f Jeremiah has simi l arl y a h istory
“
0 h o us e o f I s l c nn t I d o w i t h y o u s t h i s p t t r ?
rae , a o a o e

s ith t h e L d B h l d as t h l y i s i t h e po t t h an d s o
’
a or e o e c a n er s
, ,
.

”
a e r i m ine h n d
n 0 h o us o f Is
e l
a C h t X V II I 6 —
y p
, ,
e rae . a er .

St Pau l, t o o , refers to t h e pott e r

.

“
N ay b ut , 0 m an , w h o art t h o u t h at re p i e s t a ai n s t G o d ? l g
S h all th e th in g
fo rm e d s ay t o h i m t h at fo m e d i t , W h y h as t t h o u r
m ad e m e t h us ? H at h not th e po t t e r po w e o v e r t h e r ly
c a , o f t h e

s am e lum p to m a e k one n
v e ss e l u t o h o n o ur
, a
nd a no t h er n
u to
i
d sh o n o ur ? ”
(R o m an s, i x , 20

C h inese emperors were compared to potters . Th e y

1 Th e B egi n nz ngs f
o P orcela i n i n C h i na, pp 1 —
54 5 In “
r
c ul t u e m i x i ng old l o c al
r f r r
. .

eli
gi o us b e l i e s we e no t o bl i t e at e d .
20 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND JA P AN
were credited with t h e power to control a nation as th e
potter controlled his wheel T h e anci e nt peoples who .

adopted t h e Egyptian potter s wheel evi d ently l e arn e d’

that it was of divine origin They adopted the Egyptian

.

beliefs and myths associated with it Withal the whee l .

,

was associated with t h e agricultural mo d e o f life , having

originat e d in a country of agricul turists Ptah th e .
,

d ivine potter , was , lik e all the oth e r prominent gods of

Egypt, fused with Osiris the god who was , among other
—

“
things , the c ul ture hero T h e Chinese “
cul ture
hero , Shun , who becam e emperor, is said to h ave
”

practised h usbandry, fis h ing, and making pott e ry j ars ”

.

He manufactured cl ay vessels without flaw on the river

bank .
1

The Chinese culture h ero , S h en ming ( Divine “ -

”
Husbandman ) was regar d ed as the father o f agriculture
and the d i s coverer of the healing property O f plants ”
.

I n ancient C h inese l ore we meet a close association o f

“

agriculture wit h pottery, and an il l ustration o f the fact

that husban d man and potter were one and the same
”
person during the primeval period 2
.

Memories of Ptah Osiris c l ung to the potter s whee l

-
’
.

T h e trade routes must have hummed with stories about

the god who had gifted this wonderful contrivance to
mankind These stories were l ocalized in various coun
.

tries and they took o n t h e colour o f the period during

,

which t h e wheel was imported I n Japan t h e Ptah .

,

legend has been given a Buddhistic significance Th e .

potter s wheel is reputed there to be the invention o f the

’

famous K orean monk , G y Ogi (A D 6 7 0 No doubt . .

the first potter s whe e l reached Japan from K orea whence

’

came the con q uerors of the A inus B ut there is evidence .

1
r
Ch av an n e s, Me m oi res hi s to i ques d e S m a T s i e n, V o l I, pp 7 2 — 4
'
e-
’

r C
. . .

2
T h e B egi n ni ngs qf P o ce l ai n i n h i na, p 1 60
. .
1 1 MYTHS O F CHINA AN D JA P AN
l e dge w as of In d ian origin T h e s e a traders who had .

crossed the Indian Ocean reached the B urmese coast

several centuries before the Christian era, as the archaic
character o f B urmese river boats suggests It may be .
,

how e ve r that the potter s wh e el w as carried along the

,
’

mid Asian trade routes long before the shipp e rs coast e d

-

roun d to Chin e se waters There can be no d oubt that .

the potter s wheel was introduced into China at a very

’

remote period Investigators are unable to discover any

.

native legen d s regarding its origi n Nor are there any .

traditions r e gardi n g female potters T h e culture heroes .

of China who made the first pots appear to have used the
wheel , and the C hinese potter s whe e l is identica l with ’

t h e Egyptian .

Wh e n the w h eel w as introduced into Japan , hand

made pottery was i n use fo r religious purposes and fo r ,

long afterwards the vessels use d at Shinto S hrines were

not turned o n the w h e e l I n India hand ma d e pottery
.
,
-

was similarly reserved for r e ligious worship after the

wheel made variety came into us e
-
The wheel did not .
1

reach southern India until its Iron A ge W hen the .

2

southern India Iron Age began is uncertain It was not , .

“
o f cours e , an Age in the real sense but a cultural ,

stage Iron was known and apparently in us e during

the A ry o Indian Vedic period in the north
-
.
3

The potter s wh e el was introduced i nto Babyl onia at

’

a v e ry remote period From Babylonia it was carrie d

.

i nto P e rsia The A vestan word fo r kiln is ta n ura , which

.

is believed according to Laufer to be a loan word from

, ,

Semitic ta nur .

Ther e are, o f course, no r e cor d s r e garding the intro

l
A n ti q ui ti es of In d i a, L Ba D r n e tt, p76 1

r r C r r
. . . .

2
Ma d as G ov e n m en t M use um l
a ta o ue
g f
o P e h i s to i c A n ti qui ti es, p 1 1 1

d
. .

3 Ve d t c In d ex of N a m es an d S ubj e cts, Mac o n e l l an d K e i t h, V o l I, pp 3 1. .

, 3 2.
 A FAR TRAVELLE D INVENT I O N
-
23

duction o f the potter s wheel into Babylonia, India, o r

’

China Al l that we know d efinitely is that it first cam e

.

into us e in Egypt , and that it was aft e rwards adopted in

the various anci e nt centres o f civilization from which
cultural influences flowed to various areas With t h e
“
.

w h eel went certain religious ideas and customs T h ese

.

are not found in t h e areas unreached by t h e potter s ’

wheel.

C h ina appears to have been influenced at the dawn of

its history by t h e cu l ture represented by the Egyptia n
w h ee l
.
 C HA P TE R I I I
A n c ie nt Ma rin e r s an d E x
pl o re r s

T h e C h i ne se un — J k K utas— T h e A n ci e n t : “
R eed Fl o at an d k
S in
b uo y e d R
aft —
“
T w o o at s fl o f th e S ky
”
— D ug- o ut C an o e s — Wh r
e e S h i ppi n g
w as d e v e l o ed —
p Bu r m e se an d C h i n ese J k r
un s e se m b l e A n c i e n t E gy pt i an
S h i ps — C r e t an an d P h oe n i c i an Ma ri rne s — A fri ca r
c i c um n av i ga t e d — W as

S um e ri a co l oni z ed by S ea -
frr
a e s?— E gypt i an B o a ts on S e a o f O h o ts k k
Jp
a an e se d P ly i
an o n e s an B o at s — E gy pt i an T yp e s i n Me d i te rr anean an d

N r h r r p S ri
o t e n E u o e— to es o f L o ng V o
y age s i n S m all C r f Vi i
a t— s t of C h i n e se
J k h Th
un to t S l e am e s— o om on s
’

S h i ps .

F U R T H E R important evidence regarding cultural contact in

early times is aflo rd e d by shipping H o w came it about
’

that an inland people like the primitive C h inese took to

seafaring ?
Th e question that first arises in t h is connection is
Were s h ips invent e d and deve lop e d by a single ancient
people, or were they invent e d independentl y by various
ancient peop l es at d i fle re n t periods ? Were the Chinese
'

j unks o f independent origin ? Or were these j unks

developed from early mo d els of vessels such foreign —

vessels as first cruised in Chinese waters ?

Chinese j unks are flat bottome d ships , and t h e largest -

of th em reach about 1 0 0 0 tons The poops and fore .

castles are high and the masts carry lug sails generally
,
-
,

of bamboo splits Th ey are fitted with ru d ders Often

. .

on the bows appear painted o r inlaid eyes These eyes .

are found o n models of ancient Egyptian S hips .

D uring the first Han dynasty (about 2 0 6 B C ) j unks

24
 Ph o to . U n d e rw o o d

A M O D ER N CHI N E S E JU N O N
K T H E C A N T O N RI V ER
 ANCIENT MARI NERS AND E X P L O RERS 25

of one thousand hi n (about I 5 tons) were regarded as

very l arge vessels . I n t h ese boats th e ear l y Chinese
navigators appear to have reac h ed K orea and Japan .

But long before t h ey took to the sea there were ot h er

mariners in the C hina sea .

T h e Chinese were , as stated, original l y an in l and

people Th ey were acquainted with river hufas (coracles)
.

before they reached the seashore These resembled t h e .

kufas of the Babylonians referred to by Herodotus , who

wrote
“
T h e boats which come down the river to Babylon
are circ ular, and made of skins The frames , which are .

of willow, are cut in the country o f t h e Armenians above

Assyria and on these whic h serve for hulls , a covering
, ,

of skins is stretched outside, and thus the boats are made,

wit h out eit h er stem o r ste m , quite round lik e a shie l d .
” 1

These kufas are sti l l in use in Mesopotamia T h ey .

do not seem to h ave altered much since t h e days o f

Hammurabi , or even of Sargon o f Akkad The Assyrians .

crossed rivers o n ski n floats , and some of the primitive

peoples o f mid Asia are still using the inflated skins of
—

cows as river ferry boats -

But such contrivances h ard l y
enter into t h e history of s h ipping The modern liner did .

“ ”
not evolve from either kufa or skin float Logs of wood .

were no doubt, us e d to cross rivers at an early period

, .

The idea o f utilizing these may have been suggest e d

to ancient h unters w h o s aw animals being carried down
on trees during a river flood But attempts to utilize .

a tree for crossing a river wou l d have been disastrous

w h en first made, if the hunters were unab l e to swim .

Trees are so apt to ro l l round in water Besides, t h ey .

would be useless if n o t guided wit h a punting pole, -

expert l y manipulated Early man must have learn e d

.

1
Boo k I, c h ap . 1 94 .
26 MYTHS OF CHINA A ND JA P AN
how to navigate a river by using to begin with at least , ,

two tr e es lashe d together In Egypt an d Babylonia we

.

find traces of his first att e mpts in this connection The .

re e d float consisting o f t w o bun d l e s of reeds and t h e raft

, ,

t o which th e inflat e d skins o f animals were attache d to

give it buoyancy were in us e at an early period o n the
,

Rivers Nile an d Euphrates A raft O f this kind h ad .

.

evi d ently its origin among a peopl e acc ustomed as were ,

the later Assyrians, to use s k in floats when swimming

across rivers There are sculptured representations o f
.

the Assyrian soldiers swimming with inflated skins under

t h eir ch e sts .

Th e reed float was i n us e at a very early period on t h e

Nile Professor Breasted says that the t w o prehistoric
.

floats were bound firmly together side by sid e , like t w o ,

huge cigars and ad d s the following interesting note :

The writer was once without a boat i n N ubia and a ,

native from a neighbouring village at once h urried away

and returned with a pair o f such floats mad e o f dried
reeds from the Nile S hores On this somewhat pr e carious
.

craft he ferried the writer over a wide C hannel to an island

in t h e river I t was the first time that the aut h or h ad
.

ever seen this contrivance an d it was not a littl e inter

,

esting to find a craft whic h h e knew only in t h e Pyramid

texts of 5 0 0 0 years ago sti l l surviving and in daily use on
”
the ancient river in far o f? Nubia —
.

I n the Pyramid t e xts th ere are refe rences to the

ree d floats used by the souls o f kings wh e n being
ferrie d across the river t o death The gods bind tog e ther
.

the t w o floats fo r this K ing Pepi runs a Pyramid

text .
“
T h e knots are tied, t h e ferry boats are brought -

together says another and there are all usions t o the

,

fe rryman (t h e prehistoric Charon ) standing in the stern

and poling the float B efore the Egyptian sun go d was
.
-
28 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JA P AN '

river When they began to convey stones fro m their

.

quarries , th e y required substantial rafts Egyptian needs .

promoted the d evelopment of t h e art of navigation on a

river specially suited for experiments t h at led to great
discoveries The de m and for wood was always great,
.

and it was intensified after metal working had been intro —

d uc e d , because of the increased quantities of fuel required

to feed the furnaces It became absolutely necessary for
.

the Egyptians to go far afield in searc h O f timber The .

fact that they received supplies o f timber at an early :

period from Lebanon is therefore of special interest .

Their experien c es in drifting rafts of timb e r across t h e

Mediterranean fi o m the Syrian coast apparently not on l y
stimulated n av al architecture and increased the experiences
of early navigators but inaugurated the habit of o rgan i z
,
”
ing seafaring expeditions on a growing scale “
M en , .

says Professor E l liot Smith , did not take to maritime

“

tra ffi cking either for aimless pleasure o r for idle ad v e n

ture They went to s e a only under the pressure of the
.

”1
strongest incentives .

The Mediterranean m ust have been crossed at a very

early period Settlements o f seafarers took p l ace in Crete
.

before 3 0 0 0 On t h e island have been found

flakes of obsidian t h at were imported at t h e dawn of its
h istory from the I sland of Me l os No doubt obsidian .

artifacts were used in connection with the construction

of vessels before copper imp l ements became common .

Th e earliest evidence o f shipbuilding as an organized

and important national industry is found in the Egyptian
tomb pictur e s of the Old K ingdom period (c 2 40 0 B C ) . .

Gangs o f m e n , under overseers , are seen constructing

many kinds o f boats large and small There are records ,
.

1 i d e nce, & c
S hips as E v
pp 5 , 6
,

r
. . .

2 My ths of Cre te a nd P r e- H el l e ni c E
p
u o e, pp . 1 46 an d 1
91 , e t s e q.
 ANCIE NT MARINERS AND E X P L O RERS 2
9

o f organized expeditions dating back 5 0 0 years earl ier .

Pharaoh Snefru bui l t vesse l s nearly one h undred and

“

seventy feet l ong “

He sent a fleet of forty vessels to ”
.

the Ph oe nician coast to procure cedar l ogs from the slopes

o f Lebanon
1
Expeditions were al so sent across t h e Red
”
.

Sea Vessels wit h numerous oars, and even vessels with

.

sai l s are depicted on Egyptian pr e historic pottery dati ng

,

back to anything like 60 0 0 B C I n n o other country . .

in the worl d w as seafaring and shipbui ld ing practised

at such a remote period .

T h e earl iest representations of deep sea boats are -

found in Egypt One is se e n in the tomb of S ah ure , .

of the Fifth Dynasty (c 2 60 0 B C ) A great expedition . .

sailed to Punt (Somaliland) during the reign of Queen

H al s h e ps ut (c I 5 0 0 B C ) Five of the highly deve l oped
.
1

.
—

vesse l s are depicted in her temple at Deir e l Ba h ari ‘

- -
.

It is o f interest to compare o n e of these vessels wit h

“
a Chinese j unk Between th e Chinese and Burmese .

j unks of t o day and the Egyptian ships o f about s i x

-

”
thousand years ago there are , writes E K ebel Chatterton , .

“
many points of simi l arity Unti l quite recently, .

China remained in the same state of deve l opment for

four thousand years I f that was so with her arts and .

life generally, it has been especially so in the case of

her sai l ing craft ”
B oth the Chinese j unk and the ancient
.

Egyptian s h ip show a common influence and a remark

able persistence i n typ e
Are we to believe a reader asks , that t h e ancient
Egyptian navigators went as far as China ? Is there any
proof that th e y made l ong voyages ? We re th e ancient
Egy ptians not a peop l e who l ived in isolation for a
”
prolong e d period ? 3

1
B r e as t e d ’
s r
A H i s to y qf E gypt, pp 1 1 4 5 - 2
S ai li ng S hips a nd th e i r r
S to y , pp 3 1 32
r D C r ,
. . . .

3
Mas pe o i n h i s T h e a w n o
f i v i li z a ti on
p ote sts agai n s t t h i s v i e w .
3 0 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JA P AN
It is n o t known definitely h o w far the anci e nt E gy p
tian mariners went aft e r they h ad begun to venture to
s ea . B ut o n e thing is certain Th e y made m uch longer .

voyages than wer e credited to them a generation ago .

T h e Ph oe nicians , who b e came the s e a traders o f the -

Egyptians learn e d the art o f navigation from those

,
.

Nilotic a d venturers who b e gan to visit their coast at a

very e arly period in quest o f timb e r ; they adopted the
Egyptian style o f craft, as d i d the C r e tans their prede ,

c e s s o rs in Mediterranean s e a tra ffi cking B y the time .

o f K ing Solomon the Ph oe nicians had e stablished coloni e s

in Spain , and were trading not only from C arthage in the

Mediterranean but apparentl y with the Britis h Isles ,
,

while th e y were also active in the Indian Ocean They .

were evidently accustomed to make long voyages o f

exploration At the time of t h e Jewish captivity , Pharao h
.

Necho ( 60 9 5 9 3 B C ) sent an exp e dition o f Ph oe nicians

—
.

from the Re d Sea to circumnavigate A frica T h ey re .

turned three ye ars later by way o f Gibral tar B ut their .

voyage excited n o surprise in Egypt It had long been .

1

believ e d by the priests that the world was surroun d ed by

water B esi d es these priests preserv e d many traditions
.
,

o f long voyages that had been made to d istant lands .

Th e re are those who believe that the early Egyptian

mariners , who were acc ustomed to visit British East
Africa and sail round t h e A rabian coast founded the ,

earliest colony in Sumeria (ancient B abylonia) at t h e head

o f the Persian Gulf The cradl e o f Sum e rian culture
.

”
w as Eridu ,
“
the s e a port Th e god o f Eridu w as Ea
.
,

w h o had a ship with pilot and crew According to B aby .

lonian traditions , h e instructed the p e ople as did Osiris ,

in Egypt h o w t o irrigat e the lan d grow corn build

, , ,

h ouses and t e mples m a k e laws e ngage in trad e and s o

, , ,
1 E gy pti a n My th and L
ge n d , p 3 7 2
e . .
 ANCIENT MARI NERS AND E X P L O RERS 3 1

on . He was remembered as a monster a goat fis h go d — —

,

o r half fis h half man A pparently h e was identical with

, .

the C an n e s o f B erosus It may be that E a Oannes s y m .

—

b o l i z e d the seafarers who visit e d the coast and foun d ed

a colony at Eridu introducing t h e agricultural mo d e of
,

life and the wor k ing o f copper Early inland peoples .

must hav e r e garde d the mariners with whom they first

came into contact as semi divine beings, j ust as t h e —

Cubans regarded Columbus and his fol l owers as visitors

from t h e S k y The Mongols of Tartary entertained
.

quaint ideas about t h e British for e ign devils after they

had fought in o n e o f the e arly wars against China M . .

Huc, the French missionary priest o f t h e congr e gation of

St Lazarus who travelled t h roug h Tartary Tibet, and
.
, ,

China during 1 8 44 6 had once an interesting conver —

,
“
sation with a Mongol , who had been told by the
Chinese what kind o f people , o r monsters rath er , these
English were T h e story ran t h at the Englishm e n
lived in the water l ike fis h , and when you least expected
it they would rise to the surfac e and cast at you fiery
,

gourd s Then as soon as you bend your b o w t o send an

.

arrow at them they plunge again into th e water like

,
”
frogs .
1

Those who suppose that the Sumerian s coasted round

from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea landed o n the ,

barren A frican coast and setting o ut to cross a terrible , ,

des e rt, penetrat e d to the Nile vall e y along a hitherto

unexplored route o f abo ut 2 0 0 miles have to explain ,

w h at was t h e particular attraction o ffe red to th e m by

prehistoric Egypt if according to their theory, it was ,
“ ”
still uncultivated and i n the Hunting Age How .

came it about t h at th e y knew o f a river which ran through

desert country ?
1
E n
gl i s h t r i
an s l at o n o f M . H ue
’
s Re coll e c ti ons ( L on d o n,
p
. 21 .
3 2 M YTHS OF CHI NA AND JAP AN
I t is mor e probable that th e N ilotic people penetrated
to t h e Red Sea coast, and afterwards ventured to sea in
their river boats , and that, in time , having obtained S ki ll
in navigation , they coasted round to t h e Persian Gu l f .

I n pre Dynastic times the Egyptians obtained shells from

-

the Red Sea coast .

At w h at period India was first reached is uncertain .

W hen Solomon imported peacock s from that country

(the land of the peacoc k ) , the sea route was alrea d y well
known I t is significant to find that al l round the coast,
.

from the Red Sea to I ndia Ceylon, and Burma, the ,

Egyptian types of vessels h ave been in use from th e

earliest s e afaring periods The Burmese junks o n the .

Iraw ad i resemble closely, as has been indicated , the Nile

boats o f the ancient Egyptians The Chinese j unks .
1

were developed from Egyptian models More antique .

Egyptian boats than are found on the Chinese coast are

still b e ing used by the K oryak trib e who dwell around
the sea of Okhotsk Mr Chatterton says that th e . .

K oryak craft have “

important similarities to the E gy p
tian sh ips o f the Fourth and Fift h Dynasties (c 3 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 .
—

BC
) Thus
.
,
besides copying the ancients in steering with
an o ar, the for e end of the prow of their sailing boats
-

terminat e s in a fork through whic h the harpoon line is -

passed, the fork being sometimes carved with a h uman

face which they believe will serve as a protector of the
boat Instead of rowlocks they have, like the earl y
.

Egyptians , t h ong loops through which the o ar or p addle

—

is ins e rte d Their sail too is a rectangular S hap e of

.
, ,

dress e d reind e er S kins sew e d tog e ther B ut it is their .

mast that is especially like t h e Egyptians and Burmese .

”

“
This mast is made o f three poles s e t up in th e manner
1 E . K ebel C h att e r
ton s
'
S a i l i ng S h i ps a nd th e i r S tory , pp 7 . an d 31 , an d i ll us t r a

tio n o
ppo s i t e page 8 .
 AN CIENT MARINERS AND E X P L O RERS 33

T h e do ub l e mast was common in ancient

”
o fa tripod
Egypt but M r Chatterton notes that Mr Villiers Stuart
,
. .

found o n t h e wal l s of a to m b belonging to the Sixth

Dynasty (c 2 40 0 E C ) at G ebe l Abu Faida the painting
. .
,

o f a boat with a trebl e mast made o f three spars arranged

l ike the e d ges of a triangular pyr amid 1

Thus we find ”
.

that v e ssels of Egyptian type (adopted by various peoples )

not only reached China but went a considerab l e distance
beyond it Japan e s e vesse l s stil l display Egyptian charac
.

t e ri s t i c s.I n the M oluccas and Malays t h e ancient thr e e

limbe d mast has not yet gone out of fashion Polynesian .

craft were likewise developed from Egyptian mod e l s .

William Ellis, the missionary noted the pec ul iar and

“
,
2

almost classical shape of t h e large Ta h itian canoes with

elevated prow and stern an d tells that a fleet o f them
reminded him of representations o f the sh ips in whic h
“

the Argonauts sailed , or the vessels that conveyed the

”
heroes of Hom e r to the siege o f Troy .

Various writers h ave called attention to the persis

tence of Egy ptian types in t h e Mediterranean and in
“
northern Europe I n every age and every district o f
.

the ancient world wrote Mr Cecil Torr, the great .

“
authority on classic shipping t h e method o f rigging,

ships w as substantiall y the same ; and this method is first

”
depicted by the Egyptians 3
.

The Far East e rn craft went l ong distances in ancient

days E ll is tells of regular voyages made by Po l ynesian
.

chiefs which extended to 3 0 0 and even 60 0 m il e s A .

chief from Rurutu onc e visited the Society Islands in

a native boat built somew h at in the shape o f a cres
“

cent, the stem and stern h igh and pointe d and t h e sides
1
S a i l i ng S h i ps a nd th e i r S tory , pp 3 2— 3
Fr d
. .

3
P oly nesi an Res e a rch es, i s t E i t i o n, 1 8 2 9 , V o l I, p
. . 1 69 .

3 A n i en t
c S hips, p 7 8
. .
34 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D JA P AN
deep Sometimes exceptional ly l ong voyages w e re
forc e d by the weat h er conditions of Oceania “
In .

“
Ellis writes , t w o canoes were driven from
A n cars o to one of t h e P hilippine Islands , a distance o f
8 0 0 miles He gives other i nstances of voyages of
.

like character A C hristian missionary, travelling in

.

a native boat was carrie d nearly 8 0 0 mi l es i n a south

“
,
”
westerly direction ? Reference has already been made
to the long and d aring voyage made by the P h oe nicians
who circumnavigated Africa Another extraordinary .

enterprise is referre d to by Pliny t h e elder, who quotes 3

from the lost work o f Cornelius N e pos This was a voyage .

perform e d by Indians w h o had, before 60 B C , embarked . .

on a commercial voyage and reache d the coast of Ger

many It i s unc e rtain whether they sail e d round the
.

Cape of Good Hope and up the Atlantic Ocean , or went

northward past Japan and discovered the north e ast -

passage s k irting the coast o f Siberia , an d sailing round

,

Laplan d and Norway to t h e Baltic They w e re made .

prisoners by the Suevians and handed over to Quintus

M e tellus C eler, pro consular governor of Gaul -
.

I n 1 7 7 0 Japanese navigators reached the northern

coast o f Sib e ria an d lande d at K a m chatka T h ey were .

t aken to St Petersburg w h ere th e y were received by the

.
,

E m press of Russia who treated them with marked kind ,

ness In 1 8 4 7 8 the Chin ese j unk Key i ng sailed from

.
—

Canton to the Tham e s and caused no small sensation on

its arrival This vess e l rounded t h e Horn an d took 4 7 7
.

days to complete th e voyage .

“
Solomon s ships made long voyages : Once every
’

1
P oly i
nes a n Res ea rch es, i Fr d st E i t i o n , 1 8 2 9 , V o l I, pp 1 81 , 2. T he r
c e s c e n t - sh a
pe d
r r
. .

v e sse l i s q ui t e E gy pt i an i n c h a ac t e .

3
Ibi d, V o l II, pp 5 0 , 5 1
. . .
3 Bo o k II, 6 7 .
 C H A P TE R I V
T h e W o rld w i d e S e a r c h fo r W e a l t h -

Rl i I i fQ
e ig o us f W l h S r
n c e nt v e f Pr i oM l ue s t o ea t —
‘
ac e d n e ss o e c o us eta s

an d G l d h Sky i i Ir
S t o n es — o d h D il M
an t l C i
e De t e s— o n as t e ev
’
s e ta — h n es e

Dr d M
ago n s l anG ld d d S i l r b i I d i r
e t a s— o d go o an ve ad n n a— D ago ns an

C pp r lp r f M r ry Dr Bl d li i r f i f “ ’
o e — Su hu et od e cu as ago n s oo an E x o L e

Dr P rl
ago n s a n d h J l ea r ll D i r
s —T ry f B d d h i
e
“
ew e t h at g an t s a es es — S to o u st

Abb d o t an G J l f Fl d d bb J p d K r
th e S ea -
od ewe s o oo an E —
a an an o ea

d
S e a go—
b d as P rl P r i
“
A unrl F i rl i y f
an t ea nce — Pea s h e rs - E a y H st o r o S ea
traffi k i c r d r d C l i C M S ll d P rl
n g— T a e s an o o n s t s— o w, o o n, he s, an ea s c o n n e c te d

w th
i M r d T othe -
G dd
go ll l f
d e ss C l r Dri f
— h e Sow o e ss— She Be i e s— u tu e ts an d

C l r C
u tu pl e om ex es .

T HERE can be no doubt as to the reasons why Solomon

sought to emulate t h e maritime activities o f the Ph oe nicians
who had been bringing peacocks from I n d ia silver from ,

Spain , an d gold from W est Africa and els e wh ere l ong

b e fore h i s day .

A d K i g S o lo m o n m d
n nn y o f h ip i E i o g b r a e a av s s n z n- e e ,

wh i h i s b si d E l t h
c th
e sh o ef th R d S o in t h l n d f
,
on e re o e e e a, e a o

Ed m o A d H i m s n t in t h
. n y h i s s a t s h i pm n t h t
ra e e n av e rv n s, e a

h d k no w l d g o f t h
a ew ith t h e s n t s f S o lo m n A d
e s e a, e e rv a o o . n

t h y cam
e t O ph i r d f t h d f m t h n c g ld f ur h un d r d
e o ,a
n e c e ro e e o , o e

d b ugh t i t t o K i g S o l o m n
” 1
an d t w e n ty t l n t s a e , an ro n o .

Wh n t h e Queen o f Sheba visited Jerusal e m s h e was

e

accompanied by camels that bare S pices , and very much

”
gold an d precious stones
,
2
About seven centuries
b e fore Solomon s d ay , Q ueen Hatsh epsut of Egypt, to ’

1 1 K i n gs , i x, 2 6- 8 .
2
1 K i n gs , x, 2 .
 W O RL D W I D E SEARCH FOR W EALTH
-
37

whom reference was made in the last chapter had emu ,

late d the fe ats o f her ancestors by sending a fleet t o Punt

(Somaliland o r B ritish East Africa
) to bring back among ,

other things , myrrh trees for her n e w temple Th e .

myrrh was required fo r the incense i n t h e temple

servic e Ancient mariners s e t o ut on long voyages ,

not only on the qu e st of wealth but a l so of various ,

articles requir e d fo r religious purposes I ndeed , the .

quest of wealth had originally religious associations .

Gold , si l ver, copper pearls , and pr e cious stones w e re

,

all sacred , and it w as because of their connection with the

ancient deities that they were first soug h t for Th e s o .

“ ”
call e d ornam e nts worn by our re m ot e anc e stors were
charms against e vil an d il l luck M etals were similarly .

supposed to have protective qualities Iron is still r e garded .

in t h e Scottish Highlands as a charm against fairy attack .

In China it is a protection against drago n s The souls o f .

the Egyptian dead w e re charm e d in the other world by

the amulets placed in t h e ir tombs W hen the Pharaoh s .
’

soul entered t h e boat of t h e s un god h e w as protected by —

”
metals B rought to the e a Pyramid text stat e s are , ,
” 2
blocks o f silver and masses of malachite Gold was the .

m e tal o f the s un god and S ilver o f the deity of the moon

-
.

Horus had associations with copper an d Ptah , the go d of ,

craftsmen , with various metals Iron w as the bones of .

Set , the Egyptian devi l I n Gr e ec e and India the mythi

”
.

cal ag e s were associated with metals and iron was the ,

metal o f th e dark age o f evil (t h e Indian K ali Y uga

In Ch ina the metals h ave similarly re l igious associa
‘

tions Th e dragon gods of water rain , and th under are

.
-
,

connected with gold ofvarious hues t h e golds co l oured

“ —
”

by t h e alchemists by fusion with other metals T h us we .

1
B r
e as t e d ’
s A H i s tor y on y pt, p 2 74
r d
. .

2
B Re l i gi on a n d T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gy pt , p
’
e as t e s . 2 79.
3 8 MYTH S OF C H INA AN D JA P AN
have Chines e refe r e nces to red , yellow white , bl ue , an d
black gold, as in the following extract
Wh n t h y llo w dr go b n f o m y ll w go l d t h u d
e e e a n, or r e o 2 o sa n

y s o ld t s d p pl
e ar ,
en ery ll w Sp i g das h s fo t h ; d i f
a ee ac e , a e o r n e r an

f o m t h i s s p in g s o m
r p t i c l s
(fi d
r ust ) a i se , t h b co m e ar e ne r e se e e a

y ll w lo ud
e o c .

“
In t h s m w y blu sp in gs d blu l uds o i gi t f m
e a e a e r an e c o r na e ro

b lu d g n s b n f m b lu g l d i g h t h un d d y
e ra o , or s ld ;
ro d e o e re e ar o re ,
w hit d bl k s p i gs
e , an d c l ud s f m r d w h i t
ac d bl k
r n an o ro e , e , an ac

d go s b o n f m g l d f m c l o urs a t h o us n d y
”1
ra n r ro s o ld
o o sa e o a e ar .

I n Indian Vedic lore gold is a good metal and silver a

bad metal One of the Creation Myt h s states in t h is
.

connection
H (P j p t i)
e t d As u s (d m o n s)
ra a a Th at w as d is
c re a e ra e .

p l s
ea i g t h
n i m T h t b
o m t h p i us
. m t l w ith t h b da e ca e e re c o e a e a

c o l ur (s i l
o ) T h i w s t
v erh i g in .f i l r H s t d g d s a e or o s ve . e c re a e o .

T h t w as pl in g t h i m Th t b m t h p c i o u m t l w i t h
a e as o . a eca e e re s e a

th g o d l u (g l d) T h t w s t h o i gin f g l d ” 2
e o co o r o . a a e r o o .

The dragon o f the Far East is associated with copper as

well as gold I n the Japanese H i stori ca l Re cord s the story
.

i s told h o w the E m peror Hwang brought down a dragon

so that he might ride o n its back through the air He .

first gathered copp e r on a mountain Then he cast a .

tripod I mm ediately a dragon , dropping its whiskers

.
,

came down to h i m After the monarch had used the god .

”
as an airship , no fewer than seventy o f his subj e cts
“

followed his exa m ple Hwang w as the monarch wh o .

prepare d the liquor of i m mortality (the Japanese

“

soma by m e lting Cinnabar (sulphuret o f m ercury,

known as dragon s
“
Chinese dragons accord ’

ing to Wang E u in Rh y a y i h dread iron and lik e precious ’

1
Q uo t e d fr om a Ch i n e s e wo rk D r Wby M W V r de i sse i n Th e Dr gon
a in C hi n a
Jp rd
. . . .

a nd a an
(A m s t e am ,
2
Mui r’
s S a ns /m t T ex ts, V o l I, p 5 1 6 . .
 W O RL D W I D E SEARCH F O R W E AL TH
-
39

stones In Japan the belief prevai l ed that if iron and filt h

.

were flung into ponds the dragons raised h urricanes that

devastated the l and The Chinese roused dragons, w h en .

they wanted rain , by making a great noise and by throw

“ ”
ing iron into dragon pools Iron has a pungent nature .

and inj ures the eyes of dragons , and t h ey rise to protect

t h eir eyes Copper has, in China, associations with dark
.

ness and d e at h The Stone of Darkn e ss is h o ll ow and

.
”

contains water or the vita l spirit of copper

“ 1
Dragons ”
.

are fond of these ston e s and of beautifu l gems .

2

T h e dragon shaped s e a gods of I ndia and t h e drago n

- -

gods of China and Japan have close associations with

pearls In a sixth century C h inese work, it is stated t h at
.
— 3

pearls are spit o ut by dragons Dragons have pearls .

worth a hundred pieces of gold in their mouths , under

their throats , or in their poo l s When dragons fig h t .

in the sky, pearl s fal l to the ground De Groot makes “

.

reference to t h under p e arls that dragons have dropped

from their mout h s These illuminate a house by night
. .

In Wang F u s d escription o f the dragon it is stated that

’

a dragon h as a bright pearl under its c h in

“

A mountain in Japan is called Ry us h uh o , w h ic h means

Dragon Pearl P e ak
-
It is S ituated in Fuwa district of
M ino province , and is associat e d in a legend w ith t h e
”
B uddhist temple called Cloud Dragon Shrine When -
.

this temple w as being erected a dragon , carrying a pear l ,

in i ts mouth , appeared before one of t h e priests Moun .

tain and sanctuary were cons e quent l y given dragon names .

The j ewe l that grants all desires is known in India,

“ ”

C h ina, and Japan A Japanese story relates that once

.

upon a time an Indian Buddhist abbot, named Bussei

2
Dr . W M . . W V r . de i s se
3
, The Dgon i n
ra C hi n a a nd Jp a a n,
p 69
. .

Ibi d ,p 223. S h i i hi , c h ap i i
V
. . . .

‘Reli i ous S s tem

g y of Ch i n a, V o l .
, p 8 67
. .
40 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JA P AN
s e t o ut o n a voyage wit h purpose to
( Buddha s )
’
v ow ,

obtain this j ewel (a pearl ) which w as possessed by th e “

d ragon king o f the ocean I n the mi d st o f the s e a t h e

boat hove to while B ussei performed a ceremony and
r e peated a charm , ca using the d ragon king to appear -
.

The abbot, making a mystic S ign t h en demanded t h e ,

pearl ; but t h e dragon d eceived him and nullifie d th e

”
mystic sign Risi n g in the air, the K ing o f the Oc e an
.

ca us e d a great storm t o rage The boat was d estroyed .

a n d all o n board it except Bussei we re drowne d

, Bussei
, .

aft e rwards migrated from south ern India to Japan , a e com

p an i e d by B aram o n W all gazing —

”
Th e Jew e ls o f Flood and Ebb w e r e j ewels that
“

grante d d e sires I n Japanese legend th e se w e re poss e ssed

.

by the drago n king (S aga ra ) whose kingdom li k e that o f

, ,

the I ndian Naga monarch and that o f the Gaelic ruler o f

“
Land Under W aves , i s situated at the bottom o f t h e
-
”

s ea . The white j e wel is called P e arl o f Ebb and the

”
blue j ewel Pearl o f Flood .

A Japanese story relates that the Empress Jingo

“ ”
obtain e d from a sea go d a j e wel that grants all desires
-

During her reign a great fleet w e nt to K orea to obtain

tribut e The K orean fleet w e nt out to m e et it but when
.
,

it w as drawn up for battle a Japanes e go d cast into the

,

sea th e Pearl of Ebb and immediately the waters with

dr e w leavi n g both fle e ts strand e d T h e r e solute K ing of
,
.

K orea n o t t o be daunted leapt o n to th e d ried s e a bed

, ,
—
,

and, marshalling his troops there advanc e d at the hea d o f ,

them to attack and d e stroy the Japanes e fleet Then the .

Japanese go d flung t h e P e arl o f Flood into the sea

“
.

No sooner was this done than the wat e rs returned and

drowned large n umbers of K oreans Th en a ti d al wave .

S w e pt over the K orean shor e wh ile t h e troops praye d for

,
“ ”
their lives in vain Not until the Pearl o f Ebb w as
.
41 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D JA P AN
myths , and religious b e liefs associated with a partic ular
mode of life .

Before the culture complexes of C h ina and Japan are

—

investigated , s o t h at loca l elements may be sifted o ut from

th e overlying mass o f imported elements , it would be
well to deal with the h istory of the search for wealth
across t h e oceans of the world .

It is necessary, t h erefore, to turn back again to the

cradle of shipbuilding and maritime enterprise to ancient —

Egypt wit h its wonderfu l civi l ization of over 3 0 0 0 years

that sent its influences far and wi d e Whether or not t h e .

Egyptians e ver reached China or Japan, w e h ave no

m eans of knowing P aut h i e r s V iew in this connection
.
’

has come in for a good deal of destructive criticism He .

r eferred to a Chines e tradition t h at about 1 1 1 3 B C . .

t h e Court was visited by seafarers from t h e kingdom of

”
“
Nili , and suggest e d that they came from the Nile
valley.
1
T h e N ili , N el e or N er e folk, accord
“ “ ” ”

ing to others came from t h e direction o f Japan or from

,

beyond K orea .Reference s to them are somewhat

obscure I t does not follow t h at because Egyptian s h ips
.

reached C h ina, t h ey were mann e d by Egyptians Ships .

were , l ike potter s wheels, adopted by folks who may

’

never h ave h eard o f Egypt A cu l ture flows far beyond

.

the areas reached by those who have given it a definite

character, j ust as the Bantu dial ects have penetrated to
areas in Africa far b e yond Bantu control .

What motives , then , stimulated maritime enterprise

at the dawn of the h istory of s e a t rafli c k i ng ? What —

attracted the ancient mariners ? I f it was wea l th, what

was wealth to them ?
Th e answer to the last query is that weal t h was some
t h ing wit h a religious significance Gold was searched .

1
C
h i ne A nci enne, pp 9 4 e t
. se
q
.
 W O RL D W I D E SEARCH FOR W EALTH
-
43

for, but not, to begin with for t h e purpose of m aking

,

coins. There w as no coinage Gold was a precious

.

metal in the sense that it brought luck, and to t h e ancient

“
people luck meant everything they yearned for in this
world and the next .

As far back as t h e S O called Pa l aeo l it h ic period

-
“

in western Europe , there was, as h as been noted a ,

systematic search for wealth in the form of sea shells -

.

The hunters in central Europe imported she l ls fi o m the '

M e diterranean coast and used them as amu l ets These .

imported shells are found in t h eir graves In Ancient .

Egypt, shells were carri e d from t h e Red Sea coast, as we ll

as from t h e Mediterranean coast l ong before t h e historica l
,

period begins The evidence of th e grave fin d s shows

.
-

that Red Sea pearl S hell and Red Sea cowries were in use
—

for religious purposes Millions o f them as Maspero

.

h as noted have been found i n Ancient Egyptian graves

, .

In tim e , pearls cam e into use, not only pearls from Ni l e

mussels , but from oysters found in t h e sout h ern part of
the Gulf of Aden As shipping developed, t h e pearl
.

fis h e rs went farther an d farther in search of pearl s Th e .

famous ancient pearl area in the Persian Gulf was dis

covered and drawn upon at some remote period N o .

doubt t h e pearls worn by Assyrian and Persian monarchs

came , in part , from the Persian G ul f A t what period .

C e ylon pearls were first fished for it is impossible to say .

Of one thing w e can be certain however They were , .

fished for by men who used the Egyptian type o f vessel .

T h e m igrating and trading pearl fis h e rs carri e d their

—

beliefs wit h them from land to land Almost every .

where are found the same beliefs and practices connected

with shells and pearl s T hese beliefs and practices are of
.

a highly complex character s o complex, indeed t h at t h ey

—
,

must h ave had an area of origin in wh ic h t h ey reflected

44 MYT H S OF C H I N A A N D JA P AN
th e beliefs and customs o f a people with a h istory o f their
o wn . The p e arl for instance, w as connect e d with the
,

moon with the god d ess w h o was the Great Mother, an d

,

with the s un and the sun god Venus (A phrodite) w as -

.

sea born She w as lifted from the s e a, by Tritons seated

—
.
,

o n a sh e ll She w as the pearl the V ital e ssence o f the

.
—

magic sh e ll an d s h e was the moon the Pearl of Heaven

, ,

Th e pearl like t h e moon was suppos e d to exercis e an

, ,

influenc e ov e r human b e ings I n Egypt, t h e Mother .

Goddess w as symbolized by a c o w, and c o w , moon , pearl ,

and S hell were connected in an arbitrary way .

I n those areas in which t h e Mother Goddess was

symbolize d by the s o w the S hell w as likewise connected ,

with h er T h e Greeks applied to the cowry a word

.

“
that means littl e pig this word h ad a sp e cial
reference to t h e fe male s e x The Romans called the .

shell porci and porcelain has a lik e derivation

“
As .
1

has been S hown women were connected with hand made

,
-

pott e ry and th e pot was a symbol o f t h e Gr e at Mother

,
.

I n Scotland c e rtain S hells are still referred to as cows

,
”
and pigs
“
They were anciently beli e ved to promote
.

fertility and bring luck The custom of placing shells o n .

window sill s , at doors , i n fire places and round garden

— —
,

plots still obtains in parts o f England, Scotland and ,

Ireland Some l o w reli e fs o f mot h er goddesses with

.
—

bask e ts of fruit corn & c surviving from t h e Romano

, , .
,

B ritish period which have be e n found in various parts of

,

B ritain hav e shell canopi e s

,
The Romans took over
-
.

t h e goddesses o f the p e oples o f west e rn Europe o n whom

th e y impose d their rul e , as they took over the Greek

pantheon .

Following the clues a fforded by t h e evidenc e of S hips ,

it is found that the early pearl fis h e rs coaste d round from -

1 E ll i o t S m i th , T he E v o l uti on f
o th e Dr gon, pp
a . 21 6 e t se
q .
 W O RL D W I D E SEARCH FOR W EALTH
—
45

the Red Sea to the Persian Gu l f, round I ndia to t h e Bay

o f B e ngal ,
ro und the Malay P e nin sula to the C h ina Sea,
northwards to t h e Sea of Ok h otsk, and on to the western
coast o f Nort h A merica Oceania was peopled by the
.

ancient mariners, who appear to have reach ed by this

route the coast of South America As we have seen.
,

Africa was circumnavigated W estern and north western

.
-

Europe and the British Isles were reached at a very early

period .

T h e ancient s e afarers searched not on l y for pearls and

pearl s h e l l but also for go l d , silver, copper, tin and ot h er
-
, ,

metals and for precious stones They appear to have

.

founded trading co l onies that became centres fro m w h i c h

'

cultura l influences radiated far and wide From these.

colonies expeditions set o ut t o discover n e w pearl ing

grounds and new mineral fields T h e sear c h fo r weal t h ,
.

having a religious incentive, caused, as h as been said , t h e

S pread of religious ideas . I n di fferent countries imported
,

beli e fs and customs became m ingle d with local beliefs and

customs, with the result that in many countries are found
“
c ulture complexes which h ave a historical significance
— re fle c t i n
g as they do t h e varied experiences of th e
peoples and the influences introduced into their hom elands
at various periods .

I n the next chapter it wi ll b e s h own h o w t h e dragon

of China h as a history that throws much lig h t on the
early movements of explorers and traders w h o carried the
elements o f complex cultures into far distant lands .
 C HAPTE R V

C h in e s e D rago n L o re
Dr ago n R ai n — go d an d T i ge r -
go d of Mo un tai n s an d W o o d s— T h un d e r
go d s o fE as t an d W
G rd i f T r r Dr
e st — Sha rk -
go d s as ua ans o e as u e — ago n an d

Wh l Fi h V r b r
a e C r
s Dr e te d D ae asCr il ha l m s —
ago n an ugo n g, o cod e, E e ,

& c P ly — i Dr o P rl
n es an r C h i Dr
ago n d
as
“
ea -
m o th e
”
— n e se ago n an
“
S t ag
l p G d G
.

of h ky
t B by l
e S i — d ah A ll
o n an S e a go-
an d t e nte o e, az e e, S t ag, an o at

— B by l i a Dr l y r y p i G ll
o n an ago n - s a l p de s— E gi ri t an az e e an d A n te o e - go s— Os s

as a fri
Se a— go dl p
— A d Dr
can rp
A n te oW r e an A s i at i c ago n — T he Se e n t as
“
ate

C fi
on i yp
ne r
”
d I n CEg i Dr h
t an r f r
n d i a—
p h n e se ago n as
“
N at u e o Se en t

A nci rb f
e nt r Dr
A t t i ut e s Dr o l Dr i
F ar—E as t e n ago n — ago n B at t es — ago ns n E as t

an d W e st—Dr g Dr M r d W rld Dr
S t o n e s as “
a on E ggs — ago n o th e an o ago n

— Dr d p r r
ago n s a n E m e o s .

T H EChines e d ragon is a strange mixture o f several

animal s Ancient native writers like Wang E u inform
.

us that it has the head o f a camel , the h orn s of a stag, the

eyes o f a demon , the ears of a cow, the neck o f a snake ,
the belly of a clam , the scales o f a carp , t h e claws of an
eagle , and t h e soles o f a tiger On its head is t h e ch i i h .
’

“ ”
m uh lump that (like a g as bag
) enables it to soar -

through the air The body has three j ointed parts, t h e

.

first being h ead to shoulders the second S houl ders

“ “
,
“ ”
to breast and the third, breast to tail The scales .

number 1 1 7 , o f which 8 1 are imbued with good influence

( g)
y an and 3 6 with bad influence ( )
y i n for th e d ragon is ,

partly a Preserver an d partly a Destroyer Under the .

”
neck the scales are revers e d Th e re are five fingers “
.

or claws o n each foot The male dragon has whiskers , .

and under the chin or in th e throat , is a l uminous pearl , .

46
 CHI NESE D RA G O N L O RE 47

There is no denying the importance and significance of

that pear l .

A male dragon can be distinguished from a femal e o n e

by its und ulating horn , which is thickest i n t h e upper
part A femal e dragon s nose is straig h t A h orned
.
’
.

dragon is called h i u l ung and a h ornless o n e ch i lung

’
-
’
—
.

Some dragons have wings I n addition t h ere are h orse .

dragons , snake dragons cow dragons, toad dragons dog

-
,
- -
,

dragons, fis h dragons , & c , in China and Japan I ndeed ,

-
. .

al l hairy, feathered , and scaled animal s are more or l ess

associated with what may be call ed the “
Orthodox
”
Dragon The tiger is an enemy of the dragon , but
there are references to tiger headed dragons T he -
.

dragon is a divinity of water and rain , and the tiger a

divinity of mountains and woods 1
The w h ite t i ger Is .

a god of the west .

Like the deities of ot h er countries the Chinese ,

dragon god (and the Japanese dragon ) may appear in

-

di fferent shapes as a yout h o r aged man as a l ovely

—
,

girl o r an old h ag as a rat, a snak e a fish , a tree, a

, ,

weapon, or an implem ent But no matter what its s h ape .

—

may be , t h e dragon is intimate l y connected wit h water .

It is a rain l ord and therefore t h e thunder god w h o

”
-

causes rain to fall T h e Chinese dragon t h us l inks wit h

.

the A ry o I ndian god Indra and other rain and thunder

-

gods connected wit h agriculture , inc l uding Z eus of

Greece, Tarku o f Asia M inor, Thor of northern Europe ,
the Babylonian Marduk (Merodach ) Se c There are sea , .

dragons that send storms like t h e wind gods , and may be -

appeased wit h o fferings These are guardians o f treasure .

an d especiall y of pearling grounds Apparent l y t h e ear l y

—
.

pear l fis h e rs regarded the s h ark as the guardian of pearls

-
.

“
It seized and carried away the robbers who dived for
1 De V r i ss e , The D gon i n
ra C h i na and
j apan, p . 1 0 9 .
48 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JA P AN
oysters The chief s e a god of China sometim e s app e ared
.
-

i n shark form an e normous lion h ea d ed S hark

— —
.

Procopius a sixth century writer, says in this connec

,
-

tion “
Sea d ogs are wonderful admirers of the p e ar l
-

fis h , a n d follow t h em o ut to s e a A certain fis h e r .

man , having watched for the moment when the shell fis h —

was depriv e d o f the attention o f its attendant s e a d o g -

s e iz e d the shell fis h and made for the shor e The s e a

-
.

dog however was soon aware of the theft , and, making

, ,

straight fo r the Finding himself

thus caught h e mad e a last e ffort, and threw the pearl
,

fis h on shore immediately on whic h h e was torn to

,
”1
pieces by its protector .

I n Polynesia the natives have superstitious ideas ,

about the shark “

Al though says E l lis , they would
.
“

not only kill but eat certain kinds of shark, the large
blue shark s S q ua lus gl a ucus were deified by them , an d ,
, ,

rath e r than attempt to destroy them , they would endea

vour to propitiate t h eir favour by prayers and o ffe rings .

Te mples were erect e d in whic h priests o ffi ciated and , ,

o ffe rings were presented to the d eified sharks , while

fishermen and others who w e re much at sea, sought
,
” 2
th eir favour Polynesian gods , like Chinese dragons
.
,
”
app e ared in various shapes “
One fo r instance , writes .
,
“
Turner, s aw his god in the eel another in the shark , ,

another in the turtle another in the d o g another i n the , ,

o w l anoth e r in th e lizard ; and so o n throughout a ll the

,

fis h o f the sea and birds and four footed b e asts and

, ,
-

creeping things I n some of the shell fis h even , gods

.
-
,
” 3
were supposed to be present Here w e meet again .

1
Q uo t e rf
d by PS o G E ll i o t m i th , T he E v o l uti on of th e Dr a
g on, p. 1 60
r Fr d
. . .

2 E l l i s, P oly nes i a n Rese a ch es, i st E i t i o n , V o l I, p 1 7 8

r Tr r
. . .

3
Re v G e o ge P o ly nes i a 2 3 8— T h e go d
’
u ne s N i ne t ee n T e a rs i n
pp 9
r fr f d M J k
. . .

gi n g om th e sh e l l fis h i s e xi co . S h el ls i d e nce o
f
’
em e -
o un in ac so n s as E v th e

Mi g f
r a ti ons o C r E ar ly ul tu e , p. 52 .
 CHI NESE D RA G O N L O RE 49

wit h the shell beliefs The avatars of dragons had pearls . .

In an o l d Chines e work the story is told of a dragon that

app e are d in the shape of a little girl sitting at the entrance
o f a cave and playing with t h ree pearls When a man .

appeared t h e c h ild fled into the cave and reassuming

, , ,

dragon form , put the pearls in its l e ft ear As the .

1

guardian o f pearls the Chinese dragon links with the ,

shark god o f t h e early pearl fis h e rs T h er e were varieties

- —
.

o f these sea gods I n Polyn esia they had , Ellis h as

“ —
.
”

“
recor d ed gods who wer e supposed to preside over the
,

fisheries and to d irect to th e ir coasts t h e various shoal s

,

by which they were p e riodically visited The Polyn e sians .

“
invoke d their aid either befor e launch ing their canoes ,
”
o r while engage d at sea It is of interest to find in .

this connection that the dragon h ad associations with the

whale Ancient marin ers rever e nc e d th e W hale
. The .

Ligurians and C retans carried home portions of the back

bones o f whales Th e habit o f placing spin e s o f fish in?

graves is o f great antiquity in Europe The early sea .

farers who reached California during its prehistoric age

perp e tuated this very ancient custom B euc h at gives an .

illustration of a kitch e n midden grave in California in -

which a w h ale s vertebra is shown near the human ’

s k el e ton 3
The s w as h t i k a app e ars among the pottery
.

d e signs o f early American pottery The ancient Peru ?

vians worshipped the whale , and the Maori dragon was

compared t o o n e I n Scottish folk lore witches some .
5 —

times ass um e the forms o f w h al e s .

1 De V r i ss e , T he D r a
gon i n C h i na an d Jp a a n,
p 88
. .

M f C r r r r
2
y th s
q r e te a n d P re H ell eni c E-
u ope, p p 30 6— 7 Pie ce d fis h ve t e b ae h av e
f d M S r
. .

be e n o un in al t a, It al y , t h e s o ut h -
e as t of pai n , an d T o
y See Ma l ta a nd th e

r N rd
.

Me d i te r a nean Ra ce, R . . B a ley ( L o n do n , p . 1 36 .

3
Manuel d A rch e ol ogi e A m e i ca i ne , F i g
’ ’ ’
r . 21 , p . 1 1 4 .

4 5
Ibi d .
,p . 1 69 . Ibi d .
, p
. 1 69 .

( D 71 )
 50 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JA P AN
The dolphin , the bluish d ugong (probably the semi 1 “

human whale referred to by fE l i an) and other denizens ,

o f the sea were regarded as d e ities by ancient seafarers .

D e Groot, in his T h e Religi ous Sy stem of Ch i na , quoting

from t h e S h a n h a i K i ng relates that in the Eastern Sea is ,
“
a Land o f Rolling Waves I n this region d wel l sea
monsters that are shape d like cows and have blue bodies .

They are hornless an d one legged Each time they leave -

.

or enter the waters , winds arise an d rain comes down .

Th eir voice is that of thunder and their glare that of sun

and moon .

T h e reference to the single leg may have been sug

gested by the fact that when the dugong dives t h e tail
comes i nto V iew This interesting s e a animal has been
.
-

“
recklessly and indiscriminately slaughtered in h istoric ”

times .

Classical writers referred to some o f the strange

m onst e rs seen by their mariners as sea cows I n like -

manner the Chinese h ave connected denizens o f the deep

with di ffe rent land animals .

The religious beliefs associat e d wit h various sea and

l and animals cling to that composite god the dragon I n .

dealing with it, t h erefore , we cannot ignore its h istory ,

not only in China but in those countri e s that influence d
Chinese civilization , w h i l e attention must also be paid to
countries that like China, wer e influ e nced by the early
,

sea and land traders and colon ists

’

In Polynesia the dragon is call e d 7720 0 and i n o ho - -

.

Their (the Polynesian ) us e o f this word in traditions

says W D Westervelt, s h owed that they O ften h ad
.
“
.
2

in m ind animal s like crocodiles and alligators , and some

1 T his m am m a l b e l o n gs to th e o rd r r
e Si e n i a, w h i ch i n c l ud e s m an at e e s It i s
d r f d
.

n at i v e to In i an s e as . A va i e ty h as b e e n o un in the Re d S e a .

2 L ege nd s f
o G od s a nd G h os ts (H a w a i i an My t h ology ), 1 9 5 , pp
1 . 2 5 5- 6 .
 CHI NESE D RA G O N L O RE 5 1

times th ey referred t h e name to any mo n st e r o f great

mythical powers belonging to the man destroying class -
.

Mighty eels immens e s e a turtles , larg e fish o f the ocean

,
—
,

fierce sharks w e re all called m o o The most ancient

,
-
.

dragons o f the Hawaiians are spo k e n of as l iving in pools

o r la k e s
“
M r We stervelt notes that one dragon
. .

‘
lived in the E w a lagoon , n o w known as Pearl Har
bour This was Ka ne hua a na w h o was sai d to have
’
.
- -

,
1
brought the pipi (oysters ) to Ewa She was worshipped .

by those w h o gather the shell fis h When t h e oyst e rs —

.

b e gan to disappear about 1 8 5 0 , the natives sai d the

d ragon had b e come angry and was sending the oyst e rs to
”
K ah i k i , or som e far away for e ign land It is evident -
.

that such a beli e f is o f great antiquity T h e p e arl u nder .

the chin of t h e C h inese dragon has , as will be seen , an

interesting history .

B ut it m ay be asked here what conn e ction has a

, ,

mountain stag with the ancient pearl fis h e rs ? As Wang —

F u reminds us the pearl guarding Chinese dragon has ,

-

“ ”
t h e horns o f a stag It was sometimes called, De .

Groot states t h e cel e stial stag the stag o f the S ky

,
2 -

This was not m e rely a poetic image Th e sea go d Ea o f .

-

ancient B abylonia w as in one o f his forms t h e goat “

”
fis h , as so m e put it Professor Sayce says in this .
,
‘
co n e ctio n
“
Ea was called t h e ant e lope o f the de e p ,
,
’

the ant e lop e the creator ‘

t h e lusty antelope He was
‘ ‘
sometimes referre d to as a gazell e L it hi n a stag , ’
.
,
’

‘
w as a reduplicated form o f e l i m a gazelle B oth wor d s
’

, .

were equivalent to sa rru, W hatever the Ea

land animal w as whether goat , gaz e lle , antelope or stag—
,

it was associated wit h a s e a go d w h o according to -

Babylonian belief, brought the elements o f culture to the

1
A fr
o m of t h e m o th e r dd
-
go e ss .
2
T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s t em f
o Chi na, V o l III p 1 1 43 .
r ,
. .

3 bbe
H i t L e c ture s, 2 80 —
84
pp . .
5 2 MYTHS O F CHI NA AN D JA P AN
anci e nt Sumerians , w h o were developing their civilization
at the seaport o f Eridu , then S ituated at the h ead o f the
Persian Gulf in which pearls were found
,
Ea was .

depicte d as half a land animal and half a fish , o r as a

man wrapp e d in t h e S kin o f a gigantic fish as Egyptian
deiti e s wer e wrapped in the skins o f wild beasts O n e .

of Ea s na m e s was Dagan , which was possibly t h e

’

Dagon worshipped also by t h e Philistines and by the

i nhabitants o f Canaan b e for e th e Philistin e s arrived fro m
K aph t o r (the land o f K eftiu , i e Crete) . . .

Ea was associated with the dragon Tiamat which his ,

s o n Marduk Mero ach slew It is stated in Babylonian

( d ) .

”
script that Ea conferred his name on Marduk In
“
.

other w ords Mar d uk supplante d Ea and took over

,

certain o f his attributes and part o f his history He , .

was the go d o f B abylon which supplant e d other cities , ,

for m erly capitals ; h e ther e fore supplanted the chief go d s

of thes e cities .

Ea was originally the slayer o f the dragon Tiamat and

th e conqueror o f the watery abyss over whic h he reigned ,

supplanting the dragon He became the d ragon himself

?

“ ”
—
the goat fis h o r antelope of the deep the —

co m posite deity con nected with animals deified by ancie n t

hunters an d fishers whose beliefs were ultimately fus e d
with those o f others with whom th e y were brought into
c l ose association in centres o f culture Ea who h ad .
,

a dragon form w as connect e d with the serpent, o r

,
“ ”
worm , as well as with the fis h .

I n Egypt Horus , Osiris , and S e t were associated with

t h e gaz e lle Osiris was , i n one o f his forms t h e River
.
,

Nile He w as n o t only the Nile itself, but the controller

.

of it ; h e was the serp e nt and soul o f t h e Nile and h e ,

was t h e ocean into which the Nile flowed , and the

1
L ege n d s of B a by l oni a an d E gypt , L eona rd W . K i n g, pp . 1 1 6— 7
 CH INESE D RA G O N L O RE 53
l e viathan of th e deep In the Pyramid texts Osiris is .

addressed : Thou art gr e at, thou art green in thy nam e ,

of Great green (s e a) ; 1 0 , thou art round as the Great

—

C ircle (O k e an o s ) ; l o , thou art turn e d about thou art ,

round as the circle that e n circles the H aun e b a (JE ge an s )

Osiris was thus t h e s e rpent (dragon ) that lying in t h e ,

oc e an encircled the world His s o n Horus is at one

,
.

point in t h e Pyramid texts (Nos 1 5 0 5 8 ) narrative .

—

”
repr e sented as crossing the sea Horus was some 2

times d e picted riding o n t h e back o f a gazelle or ant e lop e .

T h e Egyptian ant e lope go d was i n time fused with the —

serpent o r dragon of the s e a Referring to the e vidence .

o f Frobenius in this connection Professor Elliot Smith

3
,

says that in some parts of Africa especially in the west

“
, ,

the antelope plays the part of the dragon in Asiatic

stories ” W hen we reach I ndia it is found that the
’

wind god , Vayu , rides on the back o f t h e antelop e

-
.

Vayu was fused with I ndra, the slay e r o f th e dragon

that controlled the water supply and ind e ed retained -
, , ,

it by enclosing it as th e Osiris serpent o f Egypt or ,

the serpent mot h er o f Osiris enclosed t h e water in its

—
,
“
cavern during the p e riod o f the l o w Nile before the
inundation took place After Osiris , as th e water .
6

c o n fin i n
g serp e nt
( dragon ) was S lain ,
the river ran red
with his blood and ros e i n flood Osiris originally .
,
“ ” 6 ”
a dangerous go d , was the n e w o r fresh wate r
o f t h e inundation
“
The tradition o f his unfavourab l e
.

” “
character B reasted co m ments, survived in vague ,

reminiscences long centuries aft e r h e had gain e d wide

” “
popularity Osiris ultimat e ly b e cam e
. the kindly
1
B r e as t e d , Re l i gi on an d
T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gy pt, p 2 0 2
Ibi d , p 2 6
r Dr
. . . . .

3 4 T he E v lu
T h e Voi ce f f
o A i ca , V o l II, p 46 7 o ti on
qf t h e a o n,
g p 1 30
r r r fr
. . . . .

5
S e e i l l us t at i o n o f t h e s e
pe n t e n c l o s i n g t h e w at e s i n t h e s h ri ne of t h e N i l e, o m a

as s -
r f
elie i n th e s m all t e m pl e of P h l l as Mas pe r ’
o s T he D aw n
q i v i li z a ti on,
p 39
r d
. . .

2
B e as t e ,o p . ci t . , .
p 38 .
54 M YTH S OF CHINA AND JA P AN
dispenser of pl e nty and his slayer Set origi nal l y , ,

a b e n e fic e n t d e ity was made t h e villain o f the story

,

and fused with the dragon A pe p the symbol o f darkn e ss ,

and evil This change appears to have be e n e ffected

.

after t h e intro d uction o f t h e agric ultural mode of life .

T h e N ile , formerly the destroyer, then became the

“
preserver sustainer and generous giver of soul s ub
, ,

stance and daily br e ad .

Wh en th e agricultural mode o f life w as introduced

Into China t h e horned d ragon or h orned s e rpent (for —
,
—

“
the dragon, Chines e writers remind us , has the nature
of a became the Osiris water serp e nt —
.

H o w a snake becomes a dragon is explained in the

S h u i hi which says :
,
“
A water snake after 5 0 0 years -

Changes into a hi a o a hi a o aft e r 1 0 0 0 years changes

,

i nto a l ung ; a l ung aft e r 5 0 0 years chang e s into a hi oh

1

? ”
l ung and after 1 0 0 0 y e ars into a y i ng l ung
2
,
I n Japan —

is foun d in ad d ition the p a n lung ( coiled

,
“
,
’
-

wh ich h as not y e t asc e n d ed to h eaven The coiled

“
.
4

dragon i s e vi d ently the water retaining monster -

.

T h e Ch inese dragon is as cl os e ly connected with water

as was t h e serpent form o f Osiris with t h e Nile in ancient
Egypt and as w as I ndra with the droug h t dragon in
,
“ ”

India Th e dragon dw e lls in pools it rises to the clouds ,

.
,

it thund e rs and brings rain it floods rivers it is in the , ,

ocean and controls t h e tid e s and causes the waters to ebb

,

and flo w as do its magic pearls (the J e wels of Flood

“

and and it is a sy m bol o f the e m peror The .

”
Egyptian Pharaoh was an avatar o f Osiris , or Horus ,
5

”
and the Chin e se e m peror was an avatar o r incarnation
“

1 A k dr
i ao l un g i s
-
a ago n w i th fis h s c al e s

r d dr dr
.

2 3
A ho ne ago n . A ago n w i t h w i n gs
V r D C Jp
.

1
‘
De i sse T he ra
gon i n h i na a nd a a n,
pp 7 2 e t se
q
r O r f r d d D r rd r
, . .

5
H o us t le al i v e
,a d
n si is a te he ie , as . G a i ne i n s i s ts .
5 6 MYTH S OF CHINA A ND JA P AN
to lay waste Sicilian farms The floods o f t h e River ?

“
Rhone were supposed t o b e caused by the drac In
“ ”
Egypt Set became the roaring s e rpent who crept ,

into a hol e in th e groun d , wherein h e hid himself and

“

”
lived . He had previously taken the shapes o f the
crocodile and the hippopotamus to escap e Horus the ,
“ ”
Egyptian dragon slayer .

In C hina the season of drought is winter The .

dragons are suppose d to sleep in their pools during

the d ry sp e ll and that is why, i n the o l d Chines e work ,
,

T i h L i ng it is stated that
,
“
a dragon hidd e n in wat e r
is useless The dragons are suppos e d to sl e ep s o that
”
they may pr e serve their bodies They begin to stir .

and rise in S pring Soon they fight with o n e anoth e r,

.

so that there is no n e e d for a Horus , a M erodach , o r

an I ndra to comp e l them , by waging battle , to bring
benefits to mankind T h e Chinese welco m e what they
.

”
called a dragon battle after the dry season Thunder
“
.

storms brea k o ut and rain pours down i n torrents If

, .

a number o f d ragons engag e in battl e and the war in ,

the air continu e s longer than i s d esire d t h e rivers rise ,

in flood an d cause m uch destruction and loss of li fe .

As the e mperor was closely connected with the c h ief

dragon god, social uph e avals and war might result, it
-

was anciently b e lieve d , in cons e quence of t h e failure

o f the priests and the emp e ror (the holiest of priests)

to control t h e dragons The dynasty might be over

.

thrown by t h e in d ignant and ruin e d peasantry .

A m ong the curious superstitions entertaine d in

China regarding dragon battles , is o n e that no mortal
should watch them I t w as not only unluc k y but perilous
.

fo r human beings to peer into t h e m ysteries De Visser .

quotes a Chinese metrical v e rse in this connection

1 fE sc h y Ius , P r om e th e us Wnctus , 3 5 1 -
72 .
C I N E S E D R AG ON VAS E W I T H C A R V E D W OO D STA N D
H

( Vi ctori a an d A lbe rt Muse um )

 CH INESE D RA G O N L O RE
W h n t h y fi gh t
e e , t h e d rago ns do not l oo k at us ;

W hy sh o u ld we l oo k at t h e m wh n e th e y are fi gh t in g ?
If w e do n ot s ee h t h e d ragons,
T h ey a sol w i ll n ot s ee h us ?

I n Gaelic Scotland the serp e nt which is associated wit h ,

t h e goddess Brid e sl e eps all winter and com es fort h

,
“ ’
o n I s t February old style known as Brid s day
( ), e

A Gaelic verse t e lls in this connection

T h p t w i
e se r l l m f m
en t h h m co e ro e o e

On t h b w d y f B i de ro n a o r e
,

T h o ugh t h Sh ul d b t h e f t o f sn o w
e re o e r e ee

On t h fl t u f e f t h g un d
a s r ac e o e ro
?

AS in China a compact was made wit h t h e

, B ride
s e rpent o r dragon
T d y is th D y f B id
O- a e a o r e
,
T h p t h al l m f m hi h l ,
e se r e n s co e ro s o e

I w i ll n ot m o es t l t h e s e rpe n t ,

A nd t h e se r
pen t w i ll n o t m o es t m e l .

I t is e vident that some v e ry ancient belief, conn e cted

with the agricultural mo d e o f life li e s behind these ,

curious verses in such far separated countries as Scotland —

and China Bride and her serp e nt come forth to inaugurate

.

the season of fruitfulness as do the battli n g dragons in t h e

Far East .

Wh e n Chin e se dragons fight fire balls and p e arls fall ,

-

t o t h e ground Pearls give pro m ise o f abundant supplies

.

o f water in t h e futur e I t is necessary if all is to go ,

.

w ell with th e agriculturist ; that the blue and y e l l ow

d ragons should pr e vail over the others The blue dragon .

is t h e chief spirit o f water and rain and this is the d eity ,

t h at presides duri n g the spring s e ason .

1
T he Drgon i n h i na
a C a nd Jp
a a n,
p 46,
Dr Cr Cr
.

2
. A a m i ch ae l ,
. a m i na G a d l i ca, V o l I, p . . 1 69 .
5 8 MYTH S OF CHINA AND JA P AN
A glimpse is a fforded of the menta l habits of the early
searchers fo r precious or sacre d m e tals an d j e w e l s by the
beliefs ent e rtaine d in China regard ing the origin o f the
dragon go d s These were supposed to have been hatched
-
.

from ston e s especially beautiful stones The colours o f

, .

ston es were supposed t o reveal t h e characters o f t h e

spirits that inhabited them In Egypt, for instance , th e
.

blue turquoise w as connected with the mother godd e ss -

Hathor, w h o w as among other things a d e ity of the s k y

, ,

and therefore the controller o f the waters above the

firm am e n t as well as o f t h e Nile She was the mother
.

o f sun and moon S h e was appealed to for water by the

.

agricul turists and for favourabl e winds by the seafarers .

The symbol used on such occasions was a blue sto n e .

“
It was a luck stone that exe rcis e d an influence on the
elements controlled by t h e go d d ess In t h e Hebrides a
.

blu e ston e used to be rever e nced by the desce ndants of

ancient s e a rovers Martin in his Western Isl es tells of
—
.

such a stone , said to be always wet which was preserved

,

in a chapel dedicate d to St Columba o n the Island o f

.

“
F l ad d a. I t is an ordinary custom , he has written ,
when any of t h e fisherm e n are detained in the isle by
contrary winds to wash the blue stone with water all
,

ro und, expecting thereby to procure a favourable wind ,

which , the credulous tenant living in the isle says , never
”
fails especially if a stranger wash the stone
, Why a
.

“
stranger ? W as this curious custom introduce d o f
”

o l d by strangers who had crossed the deep ? Had the

washing ceremony its origin in the custom o f pouring out
libations practised by thos e w h o ca m e from an area in
which a complex r e ligious culture had grown up , and
where m en had connected a d e ity originally associated
,

with t h e water supply and therefore with the food

-

supply, with tempests a nd oc e an tid e s and th e s k y ?

-
 CHI NESE DRAGON LORE 59

T h e Chinese , w h o called certain beautiful s t m e s '

”
dragon s e ggs believe d that wh e n they split, lightning
’

flashed and thunder bellowed and darkness cam e on .

Th e n e w born dragons ascended to the s k y Befor e the

-
.

dragons came forth much water poured from the stone

,
.

As in t h e Hebr i des , the dragon ston e had , it would

appear, originally an association with the fe rtilizing water
deity.

The n e w born C h in e se dragon is no bigger t h an a

-

worm or a baby serp e nt or lizard, but it grows rapidly

,
.

Evidently b e li e fs associated with t h e water snake deities -

wer e fused wit h those regarding co l our e d stones The .

snake was th e soul of the river Osiris as the Ni l e was .

a snake His mother had therefore a snake form

.
, ,
.

The ha unting memory of the goddess mother of -

”
water spirits clings to the dragon mother of a Chinese
-
“

legend related by ancient writers a version o f wh ic h is ,

summarized by de Visser 1
Once it runs an o l d woman
.
, ,
“
found five dragon eggs lying in the grass When .

they sp l it (as in Egypt the mountain o f dawn sp l its

“

to give birth to the s un ) this woman carried the little ,

serpents to a river and l et them go For this service she .

was giv e n the power to foretell future events Sh e .

became a sibyl a priestess

—
The people cal l ed h er . !

The Dragon Mother When s h e washed clothes at

.
"

the river side , the fis h es , who were subj e cts of dragons ,

-

“ ”
used to danc e before h er
I n various countries certain fish were regarded as
forms o f the shape c h anging dragon Th e Gaelic dragon
-
.

sometim e s appeared as the salmon , and a migratory fish

was in Egypt associated wit h Osiris and his mot h er
“ ”
.

W h en t h e Chinese Dragon Mother died , s h e was

“

buri e d o n the eastern side o f t h e riv e r Why, it may .

1
T he Dr gon i n
a C hi na a nd Jp
a an
, p. 89 .
60 MYTH S O F CHI N A A ND JA P AN
be ask e d ,
o n the eastern side ? W as it because
, being
“
originally a goddess , s h e w as regarded as the mother
“
o f the s un god o f the east
—
the moth e r who was the
—

mountain o f d awn an d whose influenc e was conc e ntrated

in the blue stone ? Th e Chinese dragon o f the east i s
blu e an d the blue dragon i s associated with spring the
,
—

firs t born season o f the year

-
B ut apparentl y th e dragons
.

obj ected t o t h e burial o f the Dragon Mother o n t h e

“ ”

eastern bank Th e legend tells that they rais e d a violent

.

storm, and transferre d h e r grave to th e western bank .

Until t h e present age the belief obtains that t h ere is

”
always wind an d rain n e ar the Dragon Mother s Grave ’

T h e people exp l ain that the dragons l ove to “

wash th e
grave
Here we find the dragons pouring out libations as did ,

th e worshipp e rs o f t h e Gr e at M other who came from a

distant land .

The go d o f the w e stern quarter is w h ite, and presides

ov e r the autumn season o f fruitfu l ness J ust before t h e
.

“
birth o f autu m n the Chinese address their prayers to
t h e mountains and h ills .

I n ancient Egypt the conflict b etween the So l ar and

Osirian cults w as a conflict between t h e cult of the east
”
and the cult o f the w e st
“
Professor Breasted notes
“
that although Osiris is First o f the Westerners (th e
west being his quarter) he goes to the east (after d eath)
in t h e Pyrami d t e xts (of t h e solar cult) and the pair ,

Isis and N e pt h y s (the god d ess) carry the d e ad into the

,
”
east . The east was the place where the ascent to the
sk
y was m ade In.Egyptia n solar theology it combined

with the south T h e rivalry between t h e t w o cults is

.

reflected in o n e particular Pyramid text in which the “

dead is adj ure d to go to t h e west in preference to the east,

in ord e r to j oin the s un god 1
—
But to the solar cult t h e
”
62 M YTHS O F CHI NA AND JAPAN
historical classic tells that the dragons bones com e from
,
1 ’

Tsin land I t is noted that the fiv e coloured ones are

.
-

the best The blue yellow re d white , and black ones ,

.
, , ,

according to their colours correspond with the viscera, ,

as do the fiv e ch i h (felicitous plants ) , the fiv e crystal s

and the five kinds o f mineral bole
(shi h y i n
g) , (sh i h ch i
) .

De Groot gives the colours connected with t h e internal

2

organs as follows
I B lu . li d g ll
e— v e r an a .

2 W h i t e lu g d sm ll i t e t i n s
.
— n s an a n s e .

3 R d h a t
. e d l g i t st i s
— e r an ar e n e ne .

4 B l k k i d
ac s n d bl dd r ne a a e
y
fl
. .

5 Y l l w s pl n
. e od s to m h — ee an ac .

A pparently the special curative quality o f a dragon s bone ’

was rev e aled by its colour The go d s of t h e various .

mansions influ e nced di fferent organs o f the human

body .

I n anci e nt Egypt t h e interna l organs wer e placed in

j ars and protecte d by t h e H o rus e s of th e cardinal points .

The god o f the north had c h arge o f the small viscera, the
o d of the south of the stomach and large intestines , the
g
god of the west of liver and gall and the god of the east ,

o f heart an d lungs T h e Egyptian north was red and

.

symbolized by the Red C rown, and the south was white

and symbolized by t h e W hite Crown .

I n M exico the colours whit e red and yellow were , ,

connected with di ffe rent internal organs , and black with a

disembow e lled condition .

I t is evid e nt that the sea and land trad e rs carried their

strange stocks o f me d ical knowledg e over vast areas I t .

is n o t without significance t o fin d in this connection that ,

1
S ee E n gl i s h r
t an s l at i o n by W r r al t e Go n O ld (L o n d o n,
9
Th e Re l i gi ous Sy s te m f
o C h i n a , V o l IV , p. . 2 6.
 CH INESE D RA G O N LORE 63

according to C h inese belief, t h ere was an island on w h ic h

dragons bones were found
’
.

The dragons are not on l y rain gods and gods of t h e -

four quarters and the seasons , but also l ight gods ,

“ ”
-

connected with s un and moon day and night In t h e ,

.

T i h li n there is a reference to a black dragon whic h

vomits l ig h t and causes darkness to turn into lig h t T h e .

mountain dragon o f Mount Chung is cal l ed the E n “

“
lighten e r of Darkness When it opens its eyes it is
d ay when it s h uts its eyes it is night
,
Blowing he .

makes winter, ex h aling he makes summer T h e wind is .

”1
its breath .

I n like manner the Egyptian Ra and Ptah are un i

versal gods, the sun and moon being their eyes “ ”
.

Even Osiris , as far back as th e Pyrami d period, was t h e

source of all l ife and a worl d god He was addressed —
.

“
T h e soi l is on thy arm , its corners are upon thee as far
as the four pi ll ars o f the sky Wh en thou m o v e s t the .

eart h trembles As for thee, t h e Ni l e comes forth

.

from t h e swe at of t h y h ands T h ou s pe w e s t out the .

”2
wind . Osiris sent water to bring fertility as do
the d ragons , air for the life breath o f man and beast , and —

al so l ight , which was , of course, fire (t h e h eat w h ic h is

life)
.

T h e idea o f the l ife principle being in fire and water -

lies be h ind Wang Fu s statement : “

Dragon fire and ’

human fire are opposite I f dragon fire comes into .

contact with wetness it flames ; and if it m eets water , ,

it burns If one drives it (the d ragon ) away by means

.

”
of fire it stops burning and its flames are extinguished
,
8
.

Celestial fire is something di fferent from ordinary fire .

1
De V r i sse , T he D ra
gon i n f apa n a n d hi na , p 6 2 C
r d
. .

2
Re l i gi on a nd Th ou h t i n d n c i en t E
’
B e as t e s
g gypt, p 21

Dr C Jp
. .

Th e in h i na an d
a
g on a a n,
p 67
. .
64 MYTH S OF CHI N A AN D JA P AN
T h e vital spark is o f celestial origin purer and holi e r —

than ordinary fire Dragon skins , even wh e n cast o ff, .

shine by night S o d o pearls coral and precious stones

.
, ,

shine in darkness in the Chinese myths .

One traces the influence o f t h e solar cult in t h e i d ea

that the d ragon s vital spirit is in i t s eyes I t is because
’
.

iron blin d s a dragon that it fe ars that m e tal I n Egypt .

the eye o f Horus is blinde d by Set whose metal is iron ,

.

Th e re is a quaint m ixture o f religious ideas in t h e

C hin e se custom o f carrying in procession through the
streets on the 1 5 th o f the first month a dragon made
, ,

o f ba m boo lin e n , and pap e r In front of it is borne a

,
.

re d ball D e Groot says that this is the azure dragon ,

.

the head o f which rose as a star to usher in spring at

“ ”
th e beginning I n like mann er t h e E gyptian spring
.
1

is ush e re d in by the star Sirius the mother o f the s un , ,

from which falls a tear that causes the inundation But .

although the red bal l may have bee n a solar symbol it is ,

also connected with the moon The C hinese themselves .

call the ball Th e Pearl o f Heaven

“ “
that is, the —

7 ,
moon An inscription on porcelain brings this out
clearly Mr B lacker has translated the text be l ow two
. .

“
dragons rushing towards a ball as A couple o f dragons
facing t h e moon T h e dragons were n o t only m oon
and s un d evour e rs w h o caused eclipses but guardians o f ,

th e se orbs in th eir capaciti e s as gods o f th e four quart e rs .

The all absorbing dragon app e ars ev e n as a va m pir e

—
.

A tig e r head e d dragon with the body o f a snake seizes

-

human b e ings covers th e m with saliva , an d sucks blood

,

from under th e ir armpits No b l oo d i s l e ft wh en they .

”3
stop sucking I n Japanese l e gends dragons as white
.

1
De G r oot s
’
T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s te m of C h i n a, V o l I, p 3 6 9
C r C d
. . .

2 h a ts on O i e n ta l h i n a ( L o n o n ,
3
De V ri ss e , T he Dra
gon in C h i na and
j pa n, p 7 9
a . .
 CHINESE DRAGON LORE 65

eels draw blood from the legs of h ors e s that enter a river .
l

Evil or sick dragons send bad rain .

T h e gods ride on dragons and therefore emperors ,

and holy men can also use them as vehicles Y u the .

,

founder of the Hea Dynasty had a carriage drawn by t wo ,

dragons Ghosts sometimes appear riding on dragons

.

and wearing blue hats The souls o f the dead are

.

conveyed to the Celestia l regions by the winged gods .

Dragons appear w h en great men are born Emperors .

2

had dragon ancestors The Emperor Yaou was the son

.

’
of a red dragon ; one Japanese emperor had a dragon s
tail, being a descendant of the sea god 3 -
.

In the next chapter it will be shown that in Chinese

dragon lore it is possible to detect with certainty the
-

sources o f certain layers that were superimposed on

“

primitive conceptions regarding these deities .

l
The Dr C
gon: i n hi n a a nd j apa n, p 1 1 2
a

A dr r r f
. .

2
ago n a
ppe a e d at t h e b i t h o f C o n uc i us
V r D C
.

3 De i ss e , T h e ra on i n
g h i na an d j apa n, p . 1 45 .

( D 71 )
 C HA PTE R VI

an d S e rpe n t My t h s
B i rd

C l r C
u tu e p l i
om Dr l r P
e x es l y ni Dr B li f
ago n - o e— o n e s an ago n e e s— O ce an i c
an d A fri Fi h d R p i l D i i h r R p l f d C
can s -
go s— e t e e t es w e e no e t i e s are o un — h i n e se
D r ago n s an d I di n Dr li k b
an N agas— I i T i b Chi ago n -
n s etw ee n n d a, e t, n a, a n d

Jp
a an — Bi r ds d ank D i r b i f y p Wi d D i k
Sna es — st i ut ron o E g t i an n ge s — H o us
an d th e ry B r I d i M
S e cre t a i d ppl
— S rn ry rd
an un go o s e su an t s
“
e c e ta Bi
Mun go o se f r o f G d f Ri
m o D o B r
o d rp bi d
c h e s an d e at h — i d an Se e nt c o m ne in
D r ago n — B by l
a Dr o n i an b f l rp
ago n w as a c o m d i i n at i o n o E ag e , S e e n t, an L on

T r ee Fr f C
o m s o Dr
the ly
h i n ese i M h I
a go n , t h e
i Po n e s an o - o , an d t e n d an

N agas— T h e Dr h S lago n , t r e h T d r b i rd
a m o n, th e T e e , an d t e
“
h un e -

T H Eintensive study o f a count ry s beli e fs and i d eas as ’

revealed in its myth s and l ege nds , is greatly facilitated by

the adoption of the comparative method It may not .

always be found possib l e t o id e ntify areas in which certain

beli e fs h ad origin but when we d e t e ct, as we do in China ,
,

myths similar to those found in other lands, and espe

c i al l
y highly complex myths that had origin in one par ,

t i c ul ar count ry and received additions in another the ,

imported elements m ay be sifted out from a local religious

system without much d i fli c ul t y .

The Chinese dragon h as disti nct and outstanding

C hin e se characteristics , but it is obviously not entirely
a Chinese creation Attached to the composite wonder .

”
beast are complex ideas that have a history outside -

China as well as those ideas that r e flect Chinese natural

,

phenomena an d Chinese experiences and habits o f life and

thought The fused beliefs as symbolized by the drag on ,
.
,
66
 BI RD AN D SERPENT MYTH S 07

have passed t h rough a pro l onged process of l oca l de

v elo m e n t
p but ,
t h ose that were i m ported have not , it

is fo und been e ntirely divested o f their distinctive c h arac

,

t e ri s t i c s , and remain preserved as fl ies are in amber .

I nteresting and important evidence that throws l ight

o n the history o f the C hinese dragon is found in Poly

n e s i a, India and Babylonia, and even in Egypt and

,

Europe . The cultural influence o f Babylonia, w h ich

radiated over a wide area for a score o f centuries or
1 0 nger , is traceable in India , and , as is well known ,
B uddhist I ndia exercised a strong cultural influence on
China But , as will be shown Babyl onian influence
.
,

reached t h e Shensi province o f C h ina long before t h e

Aryans entered India B uddhist ideas regar d ing t h e
.

pearl protecting dragon god o f water and fire were e v i

- -

d e n t l y superimposed i n China upon earlier Babylonian

ideas regarding the water dragon , which had no particular
-

connection with pearls At any rate , there is no m ention

.

o f pearls in the Baby l onian myt h .

When it is found that many o f the ideas connected

wit h the C h inese dragon were prevalent in Polynesia,
what conclusion is to be drawn ? There is no evidence
that Ch inese culture was an active force in New Z ealand
or Hawaii , for instance It cannot have been from China
.

that the Polynesians derived their dragon , or their beliefs

connecte d wit h the serpent, a reptile unknown to the
islanders at first hand The only reasonab l e concl usion
.

that can be drawn is that the Chinese and the Poly n esians
were influenced at an early period by intruders from other
lands The Polynesian intruders must necessari l y h ave
.

been sea t raders Of cours e , the Polyn esians m ay them

-
.

selves h ave imported t h eir dragon be l iefs from th eir

home l and That home l and , however, was certainly not
.

China .
68 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D J A PAN
The Polynesian MO O o r Mo k o (dragon ) had, as was - —

shown in the last chapt e r, a connection with pearls On .

Maui writes W D W estervelt, t h e greatest dragon

”
,
“
. .
1

o f the island was K iha wahine The natives had t h e -

.

saying ,
K iha has m a na , or miraculous power , like
MO O i n an e a
- -
She lived i n a l a rge d eep pool on the
’
.
,

edg e o f the village Lahaina , and was worshipped by the

royal family O f Maui as their sp e cial guardian Royal .

families were invariably the descendants of intruding con

q u e ro rs It is
. of special interest ,
therefore , to find the Poly
n e s i an dragon god con nected with a m ilitary aristocracy
—
.

The Re v George Brown , missionary and explorer,

.

refers to similar dragon beliefs among the people of N e w

Britain He tells of a spring connected with the woman
.

(goddess ) who caused th e delug e Th e natives say t h at .

an immense fish lives in it which will come out when they ,

cal l it ”
The belief O btains among t h e M e lanesians
.

“ ”
that the creator of all things was a woman She .

made all l ands and the natives prayed to her

”
when an eclipse o f the sun o r the moon took p lace .
2

“
The king of Samoan gods was a dragon This god .

Brown tells had th e body o f a man to the breast onl y,

,

and the body O f an e e l (m ar e na) b e low This eel s body t .

’

lies down in t h e ocean , and from the chest to the head lies
down in the house This is t h e god to w h om all things
.

”
are reported The inferior gods are his attendants
. .

Gods half h uman and half reptile, or half human and

half fish , are found in various countries I n t h e Britis h .

Museum are bronze reliefs o f the K ing o f B enin (as the

repres e ntative of his chief deity) half shark an d half man .

The kings of Dah omey were depicted as sharks wit h bodies

L ege nd s qf G od s and G h ost: (H aw ai i an My t h o l o gy , p 2 58.

d
.

2
Me la nesi a ns an d P oly ne si a n s (L o n o n, pp 3 3 4
.
-
5 .

3
Ibi d ,
.
70 MYTH S O F CHI NA AN D JAPAN
“
Japan Th e Nagas are also Lords o f the Earth an d
.

send drought and disease w h en o ffe nded or neglected Ea, .

the s e a go d of the early B abylonians , was known also as

-

Enki The Lord of th e Earth

,

In B u d dhist art the Naga is shown in t h ree forms

( )
1 as a human being with a snake on or poise d ov e r the

head reminding o n e of the Egyptian kings o r queens who

,

wear the urm us symbol o n their foreh e ads ; (2 ) as hal f

“
human and half snake (the mermai d and (3 ) as
ordina ry snakes Th e first form is found not only in
.
‘

India but in Tib e t, C hina , and Japan Human S haped

,
.
-

Nagas are depicted wors h ipping Buddha, as they stan d in

water .

I n Tibet, the Naga is shown with t h e upper part o f

the body in human shape an d t h e lower in snake shape ;
there are horns o n the head and wings spreading out from
the shoul ders The sa m e form i s found i n Japan
. .

This Tibetan link between t h e I ndian Naga and the

Chinese D ragon is important T h e bird go d has been .
-

blended wit h th e snake go d I n India the bird gods

-
.
—

Garudas are enemies o f t h e Nagas (snakes , and Garudas

( ) )
in eagle shape are found d e pict e d in l o w relief ,

carrying o ff Nagas in snake shape This eternal conflict .

between eagle li k e birds and serpents is one O f t h e features

—

of Babylon ian mythology .

Th e story of Z u, the B abylonian Eagl e god, is found -

on tablets t h at were stored in the library o f the gr e at

Assyrian K ing Ashur bani pal Z u, it is related, stole
,
- —
.

from the gods the tablets of destiny and was pursu e d

and caught by Shamash the sun god I n one version O f
,
—
.

the myth Z u the e agl e is punished by the serpent which

, , ,

conceals its e lf in t h e body O f an o x When the eagle .

co m es to feast on th e flesh it is seized by the serpent and

slain.
 BIRD AND SERPENT M YTHS 71

I n Polynesia the eterna l conflict between bird god and -

serpent go d is illustrated in wood carvings Th e Egyptian

— —
.

winged disk , as adopted by the is l anders , shows t h e bird

in t h e centre wit h a struggling snake in its beak T h e .

Central American peop l es h ad l ikewise t h is bird and -

serpent myth I ndeed , it figures prominently in their

.

mythologies In Mexico t h e winged disk was p l aced, as

.

in Egypt, above the entrances to the temples .

The bird and s e pe n t myt h is to be found even in the

— —

Il i a d
. Wh en Hector s e t fort h wit h h is heroes to break
throug h the wall of the A c h a an camp an eagle appeared ,

in t h e air, bearing in its talons a blood red monstrous

“ —

snake, a l ive and struggling still Th e writhing snake

manages to sting the eagle w h ich immediately drops i t 1
,
.

Iii ancient Egyptian myt h s t h e bird was the Horus

hawk and t h e serpent was Set Horus assumed, in h is .

great battle against t h e snake, crocodile, and ot h er enemies

of Ra , the winged disk form the winged sun , protected —

by the two snake goddesses o f Upper and Lower Egypt

-
.

This strange combination of deities i n t h e W in n

“

disk symbol was as distinctively an Egyptian cultura l

”

and politica l complex as the Union Jack is distinctivel y a

B ritis h complex As the Union Jack h as been carried to
.

many a distant l and , so was the Egyptian winged d isk ,

the flag of Egyptian culture I n t h ose areas in w h ich .

the winged disk is found , are found al so traces of Egyptia n

ideas w h ich O f course, were not necessarily introduced by
,

the Egyptians themselves .

How did this myth of t h e struggl e between bird and

serpent have origin ? T h e on l y country in the worl d in
w h ich a great bird h unts serpents is Africa The bird in .

question is t h e famous secretary bird (S erp enta ri us secre

ta ri us , w h ich is nowadays domesticated by South African
)
1 Il i ad, B o o k XII ( L an g s, L e af’s , an d
’
D r
ye
’
s
p . 2 3 6.
72 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JA P AN
farmers s o as to keep down snakes I t is found in East .

and West Africa In general appearance it looks like

.

” 1
a modified eagle mounte d on stilts The bird attacks .

a snake with wings outspread , and flaps them in front of

its body to prevent itself from being bitten during the
conflict Early Egyptian seafarers were no doubt greatly
.

impressed when , in the land o f Punt , they s aw t h e se

“ ”

strange birds , wit h h eads like eagles o r hawks , standing

over snakes they had clutched in their talons , and t h en
flying away with th e m dangling from t h eir beaks T h e .

mariners stories about t h e snake devouring bird appear

’
-

to h ave crept into the mythology o f Egypt, with the resu l t

that t h e Horus hawk became the hunter O f Set in his
“
h issing serpent form Above the hol e in t h e ground .

into w h ic h the Set serpent fled fo r concealment and safety

was s e t a pole surmounted by the head o f t h e Horus
h awk As Dr Budge puts it : Horus t h e s o n o f Isis,
. .
,

stood upon h im (S e t) in the form o f a pole o r sta ff, on t h e

top o f which was the h ead of a hawk But , o ne may ”
.
2

urge, it could not h ave been until after Egyptian v e ssels

visited the coasts haunted by the secretary bird t h at t h e
bird an d serpent variation of the Horus Set myth was -

form ul ated in the land o f Egypt, whence, apparently, it

was distribut e d far and wide Horus was not n ecessarily .

an enemy o f serpents , seeing t h at there are two in h is

disk .

I n Tibet , as has been stated t h e bird and serpent ,

“
were combined, and the composite beast was given a
human h ead wit h horns Th e horned and winged dragon .

of China is thus , in part, a combination of t h e origina l

secretary bird and t h e snake .

1 The N r
a tu a
y of A n i m a ls
l H t s tor (G r es h am )
, L o n do n , V o l . III, p
. 1 76 an d
pp 4 6
.

Ct 3 6
9
d
.

2 E gypti a ns, V o l I, p 48 1
B u ge , T h e G od s o f th e . . .
74 M YT H S OF CHIN A AN D JA P AN
stituted by the j ewel spitting mungoose w h ic h has d e-
“

v o ure d its attributes .

T h e god K ubera h as a heaven o f its o w n , and is a

form of Ya m a god o f death I n his form as D h arma,
, .

god of j ustice, Yama figures i n t h e Ma h a hh d ra ta as a ' 1

blue ey e d mungoose with one side o f his body changed

-

“
into gold his voice being loud and deep as thund e r
Here Yama links with I ndra god o f t h under, who , ,

having a heaven o f his own , is also a god of death .

” 2
Egypt had its blu e ey e d Horu s
“
Th e god Horus —
.

was the living form o f Osiris The l iving Pharaoh was .

a Horus , and the d ead Pharaoh an Osiris , as Dr Gardiner .

reminds us .

Th e combination o f bird and serpent is found in

Persia as well as in Tibet On an archaic cylinder seal .

from th e ancient Elamite capital o f Susa the dragon is a ,

lion with an eagle s hea d and wings ; the forelegs are

’

those O f the eagl e , and the hind legs those of a lion .

A form o f the god Tammuz n amely th e god Nin ,

C irsu Lord of G i rs u o f the Sumerian ci t y o f Lagash

( G i rs u appears to hav e been a suburb
) was a lion h eaded ,
—

eagle.
3
Th e god Ea had a dragon form T h e dragon .
4

of the I shtar gate of B abylon is a combination of eag l e ,

serpent and lion , and is horned
, .

There can remain little doubt that the C h inese dr agon

has an interesting history not only in China but outside ,

that country It cannot be held to have indep e ndent

.

or i g i n At a remote period dragon beliefs reached China

.
,

I n d ia and Polynesia and even A merica

, , .
5

I n each separated area the dragon took on a local

1
p a m ed h a Pa r ‘
v a S e c t i o n X C, S l o k a
5
d , .

2
B u ge , G od s of t h e E gypti a ns, V o l II, p . . 1 0 7 .

3
My th s of B a hy l ont a a nd A ssy ri a, p 1 2 0 4
Ibi d , p. 62
Dr
. . . .

5 The E l uti on of th e E l l i o t S m i t h, pp 8 3
v o
gon, G
a . . e t se
q .
 BIRD AND SERP E N T MY T H S 75

colouri n g but the fundamental beliefs connected with

,

it remained the same It was closely connected wit h .

water (the water O f l ife

“
and also wit h trees (the
“
trees of Thus we find that in Chin a a d ragon
1 ”
might assume the shape o f a tree growing under water ;
a boat once co ll ided with drift wood which was found to -

be a dragon Crocodiles are sometimes m istaken for logs

.

o f wood .

In Hawa i i two noted dragons (mo O ) lived in a river -

.

They were called the moving boards whic h made a

‘ ’

”2
bri d ge across the river .

The Indian Nagas wer e not only water d e ities but

tree spirits, as Dr Rhys Davids has emphasized
. .
3

B ehind dragon worship is a comp l ex of beli e fs con

n e c t e d wit h what is usually called
“
tree and well wor
”
ship I n Gaelic stories the sacred tree is guarded by ,

the beast in the sacred well , and a form of the beast

(dragon ) is t h e salmon ; in the tree is the thund e r bird
”
.

Dragon , tree , and bird are connected wit h t h e god of

thunder who sends rain .

When Buddhism reac h ed China imported Naga ,

beliefs were superimposed o n earl ier Chinese beliefs con

n e cte d wit h the dragon god who controlled the rain -

supply , as Osiris in Egypt control l ed the Ni l e and t h e ,

Babylonian Ea the Euphrates .

I n the next c h apter various beliefs connect ed wit h t h e

dragon are brought out in representative legends .

1 De V ri ss e , T h e D ragon i n C h i na a nd
j apan, p . 1 30 .

2
We s t e rv e l t ’
s L ege n d s f
o G od s a nd G h osts, p . 2 5 8.
3 B udd h i s t Ind i a, pp . 2 2 4— 5 .
 C HA PTE R VI I
D r ago n F o l k
s t o ri e s -

H ow Fi h b s Chi Dr
e c am e Fi h f r f T
n e se i d C l i
ago n s -
s o m s o e ut o n c an e t c

G o d s— Dr l y r Dr
ago n s a-
e s e atr T a go n sf i rd
’
H r
e a ts -
he L an guage o B s
"
— H ea t

as S e at f I o ll i n te by l i
ge n c e Dr K p P l i Dr
— Ba o n an ago n - u u— o y nes an ago n

K up n a— Dr M i l
ago n s a n d rb ry f C i
ed i c na rb l i d R d
H e s— S to o h ne se H e a st an
“
e

C l o ud H rbe
y l d
Bo R r
B ue
p F r f
an l k Dr ed i
Ca as o m s o B ac ago n — I gn s

F a t uus as Dr “
r
ago n L r Fr
an t e n s ry f P r d Dr
H ea t i e — S to o i e st an ago n

wom an— h
T Fi r i l i J p
e
“
e Na P ly
”
i T
n Fi C r i
a an an d o n e s a— he “
a th u e
”
n

Jp
a an — T M he R agi c Gr R us h - m ki
a t— d i Wr p
av e e e d — m a t s, S n s , an L ne n a

pi n gs — T ph d M l i
he E o u
e usry f W d T h d r
na i n F ar E as t— S to o u an th e un e

Dr ago n .

IN Chin e se and Japanese folk stories the dragons have -

fish forms o r avatars They m ay be eels , carps , or .

migratory fis h like t h e sal m on It i s believe d that t h ose .

fish that ascend a river s dragon gate become dragons ’

while those that remain behind continue to be fis h .

Dragons are closely associated with waterfalls They .

haunt in o n e or other o f their forms t h e deep poo l s below

th e m .

I n western European stories , dragons and gods of

fire and water assum e the forms o f fish , and hide them
s e lves in pools Loki of Icelandic legend has a salmon
.

form Wh en the gods p ursue h im he hides in F ran an g s

.
,
’

“
stream , or und e r the waters of a cascade called Fra
n an urfo rs After h e is caught and boun d , Loki is
g
tortured by a serpent Wh e n h e twists his body violently, .

earthquakes are caused He is closely associated with .

1 T e ut oni c My th an d L ege nd , p . 1 74 e t se
q.

76
 7 8 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
slayer does not eat t h e heart of t h e reptile god , b ut
gets possession of a book of spells and , on reading these, ,

acquires knowledg e o f t h e languages o f all animals ,

1
including fish and birds .

When , however, we investigate t h e dragon beliefs

o f ancient B abylonia , we meet with a reference to the

K u pu as the source o f d ivin e power and wisdom

—
After .

Merodach ( Marduk) t h e dragon slayer kills Tiamat ,

the mother dragon a form of the mother goddess
“ -
,

he divides the flesh o f the K u pu,a n d devises a cunning -

plan As the l ate Mr Leonard W K ing pointed o ut, . .

2

K u pu is a word of uncertain meaning

- It did not .

signify the heart, because it had been previously stated

in the text that Merodach se v ered h er i nw a rd p a rts h e ,

i e rced h er h e art
p .

“
Jensen has suggested that K u pu signifies trunk , -

”
body I t is more probable that the K u pu was the
.
—

seat O f th e soul , mind , and magical power ; the power

that enable d the slain repti l e to come to life again in
another form ’
.

It may be t h at a c l ue is a fforded in this conn ection

by the Polynesian idea o f K upua Mr Westerve l t who . .
,

has carefully recorded what h e has found , writes regard

ing t h e Mo o (dragons) of the Hawaiians : -

Mi gh ty ls i m m s s a t u t l s l g fish o f t h e o e n
ee , en e e r e , ar e c a
,
fi c e sh k w r ll c lle d m o T h m o st n c i n t d go s
er ar s , e e a a o- . e a e ra n

o f th H w i i ns
e s p k n o f as li v i n g i
a a
po l
a l k e s T h se
are o e n o s or a . e

1
E gypti a n My th
d L ege nd , pp 3 4 1 , 3 42
an
2
S e v e n T a bl e ts of reat i on C
f f
. . .

3
T h e b e l i e t h at t h e c at h a s n i n e l i v e s m ay b e c i t e d, an d a l so t h e b e l i e t h at i f a n
r
e e l o r a s e pe n t i s c ut i n t w o i t w i l l c o m e t o l i e aga i n Ch i n e s e ago n m a f
y ev i v e A dr r
fr rd r J k
.

a te b e i n g c ut up an d b u i e T h e s t o y i s t o ld i n a pan o f a m an w h o k i l l e d a s n a e
dr r r r r r
.

a o n , c ut i t i n t o t h e e
g pi e c e s, a n d b u i e d t h e m , b ut t h i t e e n y e a s l at e , o n t h e s am e
r
d ay o f t h e y e a o n w h i c h h e s l e w t h e ago n , h e c i e o ut
“ dr
I d i n w at e , c h o e ,rd r k r kd
an d iedd d
H i s e at h w as c aus e by t h e d
ago n h e h ad e n d e av o u e to dr i ll (d e rd k V r
i ss e ,
Dr C D k
.

”
T he a
g on in h i na an d
f p a a n,
p T he e at h l e ss S n a e in an an c i e n t

r f rd r br r
.

E gypt i an st o to li un t i l t h e u ied at e l
y co m e s e se v e e
pa ts are se
pa y .
 D RAGON FOL K STORIES -
79

d ra g o ns w e re kn ow n a so l as K upuas , or m yst e ri o us c h a rac t e s , r

who cou ld appe a r as n i m ls h um n a a ,o
r a be i n g s , a c c o rd in g to th e i r
w i sh . T he sayin g w as K upuas h ,
av e a s tra n g e d o ubl e

The Po l ynesia n beliefs connected with the K upuas

are high l y suggestiv e M r Westervelt continues . .

“
It w s s o m t i m es t h o ug h t t h t
a e t b irt h n o t h n t u al a a a er a r

f m w
or dd d s u h as
as a gg e of
,
f w l c r b i d o t
an eh s d of a o o a r , r e ee

a pl n ta t h
,o rem b y f s m e n i m l w h i c h w h n fully d
r o o o l o pe d
e a a , e eve ,

m d a e f m w h i c h c o ul d b us d s
a or d ily s t h h um n b o dy e e a re a a e a .

T h K upu s w e lw ys gi n so m g t m g i po w e r Th y
e se a er a a ve e re a a c . e

w e w n d fully s t n g n d w i s
er o er d s k i l ful
ro ,a e , an .

U su lly t h b i t h o f a K up
a el i k t h bi t h o f a h i gh c h i e f
r n a, e e r ,

w as t t e d d w i t h st
a n n g e d i st u b n c s i n t h h e a ns suc h as
e ra r a e e ve ,

e b
r v e r e ra t i g t h u d r fl s hi n g l i g h t n i g a d s
n n e , ast m s w h i ch n ,
n e v e re or

se nt th bu d n t
e a d i l f t h i l n ds d wn t h m u t i s i d s
n a re so o e s a o e o n a n- e

i bl d
n oo d t o r t s k n w n as k u ko ko (t h bl o o d rai n ) T h
-
re r en , o a— a— e . e

n am w as als g i e n t o m i s ty, fi
e o i n w h n s h o t t h o ug h by t h
v n e ra e r e
”
red w es of t h
av su e n.

All the dragons of Hawa i i were descended fi o m '

MO o i n an e a (t h e self re l iant dragon ) , a mot h er goddess

- - - -
.

She had a dual nature, sometimes appearing as a dragon ,

sometimes as a woman Hawaiian dragons a l so assumed
t h e forms of large stones , som e o f which were associated

with groves of hau trees ; on these stones ferns and flowers

” 1
were laid and referred to as k upuas
I n China the dragon s k upua (to use the Po l ynesian ’

term ) figures in various stori e s We meet with the .

Re d Cloud herb , or the Dragon Cloud herb , whic h

” ”

cures diseases It is the gift of the dragon , and apparentl y

.

a dragon k upua Other curative h erbs are the dragon .

’ ” ”
whisker s h erb and the dragon s liver , a species ’

o f gentian , whic h is in Japan a badge of the M inamoto

fami ly The dragon s spit tl e had curative q ualities ,

“
.
’

1 L egend s qf G od s an d G h os ts ( H aw ai i an My th ol ogy ), pp . 2 5 6— 7 .
80 MYTHS O F CHINA AND JAPAN
the essence of life being in t h e body moisture o f a deity .

The pearl , whic h t h e dragon spits out, h as or is , sou l ,

”
substance The plum tree was in China connected
.

with the dragon A story tells that once a dragon was

.

punished by having its ears cut o ff Its b l ood fell on .

the ground , and a plum tree sprang up ; it bore fleshy

fruit without kernels When in an ancient Egyptian
.
l

story the blood of the B ata bull falls to t h e ground two

trees containing his soul forms grow in a night -
.
2

”
A Chinese Boy B lue story deals with the search
“

m ade by Wang Shuh , a h erbalist , for the Red Cloud

h e rb He follow e d th e course of a mountain stream on

.

a hot summer d ay , and at noon sat down to rest and eat

rice below s hady trees beside the deep pool o f a waterfal l .

As he lay o n the bank gazing into the water h e was , ,

astonish e d to s e e i n i t s d epths a blue boy, about a foot in

height, with a blue rush in his hand , riding on the back
of a red carp without disturbing t h e fish which darted
, ,

h ither and th ith e r I n time the pair cam e to the surface,

.

and , rising into th e air, turned toward s the east Then .

they went swiftly in the direction o f a bank of cl oud

that was creeping across the blue sky, and vanished fro m
sight .

The herbalist continued to ascend the mountain , “

searching for the herb , and when he reached the summit

was surprised to find th at the sky had become completely
overcast Great m asses o f black and yellow clouds had
.

risen over the Eastern Sea , and a thunder storm was -

threatening W ang Shuh then realized that the bl ue

.
'

boy he h ad se e n riding on the back of t h e red carp

was no other than th e thunder d ragon He peered at -
.

1 T he Dr
gon i n
a C
h i n a a nd p
a a n,
pJ . 1 27. S ee a l so t he E gy pt i an B at a st o r
y
E gy pti a n My th a nd L ege nd , pp 49 — 5 6 . .

2
E gypti a n My th a n d L ege nd , p 5 5 . .
 DRAGON FOLK STORIES -
81

the cl ouds , and perceived that the boy and the carp 1

h ad been transform e d into a black h i a o (scale d d ragon ) .

He was greatly alarmed, and concealed hims e lf in a

hollow tree .

Soon the storm burst forth in all its fury Th e .

herbalist trembled to hear the voice o f t h e black th under

dragon and to catch glimpses o f his fiery tongue as h e
spat o ut flashes o f lightning Rain fell in torrents , and .

the mountain stream was h eavily swollen and roared ,

down the steep valley Wang Shuh feared t h at each

.

moment would be his last .

I n time howev e r th e storm ceas e d and t h e sky

, ,

cleared Wang Shuh th e n cr e pt forth fro m his hiding

.

place thankful to be still alive a l tho ugh he had seen

, ,

the dragon He at once set o ut to return by t h e way

.

h e had come When he dre w n ear t o the waterfall

.

he was greatly astonis h ed to hear the sound o f sweet

humming music Peering through t h e branches o f the
.

trees , he b e held the littl e blue boy riding on the back

o f the re d carp r e turning from the east and settling
,

down on the surfac e o f th e pool Soon the boy was .

carried into the d epths and past the playful fish again .

Struck wit h fear, th e herbalist w as for a tim e unable

to move Wh e n at length he had summoned s ufli c i e n t
.

strength and courage to go forward h e found that the ,

b o y and the carp had vanishe d compl e tely Then he .

perceive d that the Red Cloud herb , for which he had

been searching had sprung up o n the very edge of the
,

swirling water Stooping he plucked it greedily As

.
, .

soo n as he had done so , h e went scampering down the

side o f t h e mountain On reaching the village , Wang
.

told his friends the wonderful story o f h i s adventure

and d iscovery .

1 T he Dr ago n s
’
K upuas .

( D 71 )
82 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
Nit happened that the E m peror s daug h ter
ow
’

a very b e autiful girl w as lying ill in the royal palace —

.

The Court physicians had en d eavoured in vain to restore

her t o health Hearing of W ang S h uh s d iscovery o f
.
’

the Red Cloud herb the Emp e ror sent o ut tor him , .

On r e aching the palace the herbalist was addressed by ,

“
the E m peror himself w h o sai d : I s it t ru e as men , ,

tell , that you h ave s e en the black hi a o i n the form o f

a little blu e b o y riding on a re d carp ?
“ ”
I t is ind e e d tru e Wang Shuh made answer , .

And is it tru e that you have found the dragon herb

t h at sprang up during th e t h under storm ? -
”

“
I h ave brought the herb wit h me , Your Maj esty .

“ ”
Mayhap the Emperor said , it will give healing
,

to my daughter .

Wang Shuh at once made o ffer o f t h e herb and ,

t h e Emperor led him to the room in which the sick

princess lay The herb had a sweet O dour and W ang
.
,
1

Shu h plucked a l eaf and gav e it to the la d y to sme ll .

She at o n ce showed signs o f reviving and this was ,

regarded as a good omen Wang Shu h then made a .

m edicine from the herb and when the princess had ,

p artaken of it ,
she grew well an d strong again .

The Emperor rewarded Wang Shuh by appointing

h im his chief physician Thus the herbalist became a .

great and influential man .

To few mortals comes the privi l ege o f setting ey e s o n

a dragon , and to fewer is t h e vision fol l owe d by goo d
fortune .

I n this quaint story the Red C l oud herb is evidently

1 T he o d r
ou of r
h e b w as t h e b o y
th e d d r o ou of th e dr a
go n r r
It h e l pe d t o e s to e

r d fr d r r
.

v i t al i t y , as d i d i n c e n s e , w h e n bu n e be o e an E gy pt i an m um m y Go s we e sim i l a ly
r N r d
.

fe d by of
fe i n gs o f i n ce nse T h e B aby l o n i a n o ah bu ne d i n c e n s e, an d t h e go s s m e l t
r d rd k r rfi
.

th e sw e e t s av o u . T h e go sgat h e e li e fli e s ab o ut him t h at o ff e e d t h e s ac i c e .

-
K 1 n g, B a by l on i a n Re l i g i on
,p
1
3
. 6 .
84 M YTHS OF CH INA AND JAPAN
fire goddess It is to l d regarding a B uddhist priest w h o
-
.

l ived b e side a dragon hole o n Mount Murob u One .

d ay as he w as about to cross a river a lady w e aring rich

, ,

and dazzling attire came up to him and made re quest for

a magic charm he possessed She spo k e with averte d .

face telling who s h e w as T h e priest repeated t h e c h arm

, .

to her and then said : Permit me to look upon your fac e

“
Sai d the d ragon woman : It 1 8 very terrible t o behold .

No man d are gaze on my face B ut I cannot r e fuse your .

”
request .

Th e priest had his curiosity satisfied , but apparentl y

wit h out coming to harm Priestly prestige was main .

tamed b y stories of t h is kind .

As soon as t h e priest looked in her face the dragon

woman rose in the air, and stretched o ut th e small fing e r
o f her rig h t hand I t w as not, how e ver of h uman sha pe,
.
,

but a claw that su d d enly extended a gre at lengt h and

flas h ed l ights o f five colours The five colours
“
.

in d icate that the Woman was a d e ity K wan C h ung in .

,

his work Kw a ntsz e says : A dragon In t h e water covers

,

h imself with five colours T h erefore h e i s a god .

,
“
Th e fire nai l figures prominently in Polynesian
mythology I n the legend o f Mau i , t h at hero god goes
.
-

to the o l d woman (the goddess) , h is gra n dmother to ,

o b tain fire for mankind “

Then the age d woman pulled
.

o ut her nai l ; a n d as she pulled it out fire flowed from it ,

and she gave it to him And when M aui s aw she had .

d rawn out her nail to pro d uce fire for him , he thoug h t it
”2
a most wonderful thing .

The reference in the Japanese story to the averted

face of the dragon woman may be connected with t h e
ancient b e lief that t h e mortal who looked in t h e face o f;
1
De V r
i s se T he Dr C
gon i n h i n a a n d 7 apa n, p 6 3
a K w an C h un g d d
ie i n 64 5 B C
,
r r
. . . .

2
Poly nesi a n My t h ol ogy, S i r G e o ge G e y, p 3 3 . .
 D RA G O N F OL K S T OR IE S -
s5

a deity w as either s h rivel l ed up o r transformed into stone ,

as happened in t h e case o f t h ose w h o fixed their eyes

upon th e face of Medusa Goddesses like the Egyptian .

N e it h wer e veiled
“
A Japanese legend tells of a ”
.

dragon woman who appeared as a woman with a malicious

Wh ite face She laughed loud ly, displaying black teeth
. .

S h e was often seen on a bridge binding up her hair ,

.
1

Apparent ly she was a variety o f the mermaid fami l y, and

”
this may explain the reference to her b e ing o n e legged .

T h e people scared h er away by form ing a torch light —

procession and advancing towards her Dragons were .

S ometimes expelled by means o f fire I n Europe bon .

,
”
“
fires were lit when certain ceremonies of riddance
were performed .

British mermaids are credited , in t h e folk tales , with —

providing cures for various dis e ases , and especially herbs , 2

and in this connection they link with the dragon wives o f

China and Japan Some dragon women lived for a time .

among human beings as do swan maidens , ner e ids , mer -

maids , and fairies in t h e stories o f various lands .

A Japanese lege n d tells of an elderly and mysterious

Woman w h o had the power to cure any i ll that flesh is
h eir to When a patient called, s h e list e ned attentively
.

t o w h at was told her T h en s h e retired to a secret .

chamber, sat down and placed a rush mat on h er head 3

.

1
gD e V r
i s se , T he Dr a C
gon i n h i na a n d j apan, p 1 7 4
r r r r r
. .

3
A G all o w ay h e b al i s t w h o w as s e a c h i n g fo r h e bs t o cu e -
a c o n s um pt i v e gi l,
n am e d M a r r
y , s aw a m e m ai d i si ng i n th e s e a. A c co rd i ng t o t he fk rol -s
to y , t h e
m e r r
m ai d dd r ( r d)
e co m m e n e m ugw o t so ut he nwoo as a cu er by s i n gi n g

W d M o ul y ou l e t bo nni e a
y d i e i n y o u h an r d
r r A n d t h e m ugw o t flo w e i n g i n t h e l an ? d ,

Jd d k d r
3 a e is r
s, r r
e c o at e d w i th th e us h pat t e n, we e i n Ch i n a i m age s o f H e av e n a n d
d r k
b a ge s o f an r dr f r rr
T he ai n — ago n i n h um an o m ca r
i e s i n h i s i gh t h an a b l ue ush d r
r r r r
. .

T h e us h w as co n n e c t e d w i t h w at e —
t h e w at e b e l o w t h e firm am e n t an d t h e w at e
a b o v e t h e firm d r k am e n t . Re e s we e li i
e w s e c o n ne ct e d w i th t h e d i
e i t es. In B aby l o n i a,
r r d
p i e s t s h ad v i s i o n s i nd d r ee h ut s an d th e ea l ay on eed m at s T he r d r r
ee an d ive
r M rd k r d r r d
.

m ud w e e use d by a u when he c e at e m an . A ppa e n t ly , th e ee w as an

80 MYT H S OF CHI NA AND JAP A N
After sitting alone for a time (apparently e ngag e d in
working a magic spell) s h e left the chamb e r and r e turned
“ ”
to the patient She recommended t h e faith cure
. .

Making t h e pretence that she was handing ov e r a medicine ,

s h e said : Believe that I have given y o u medicin e N o w, .

go away Each day you must S i t down and imagine that

.

you are taking my medicine Come back to me in seven .

”
days time ’
Those who faithful ly carried out her
.

instructions are said to have been cured Larg e numbers .

visite d h er daily .

I t was suspected that this woman was possessed by

t h e spirit of a water demon A watch was set upon her, -
.

and one night s h e was seen going from her house to a

well in which , during the day, s h e often was h ed her h ead
while being consulted by patients Those w h o watched .

her told that she remained in human shape for a little

time Then sh e transformed herself into a white mist
.

and enter e d the well Prot e ctive charms w e re recited, .

and she never returned F o r many years afterwards , .

however her house w as haunted

, .

D e Groot relates a story about o n e of the wives of an

Emp e ror o f China w h o practised magic by means of
reptiles and insects Her O bj ect was to h ave her son .

selected as crown prince S h e w as detected, and she and .

h er son were i mprisoned Both became dragons before .

they died .

Dragons sometimes appear in t h e stories in the rOl e

o f demon lovers A Japanese legend tel l s of t w o boys
.

who were the children of a man and a dragon woman .

I n time they C hanged into dragons and fle w away The .

av at a r of th e rdw at e e i ty : it c o n t ai n e d
“
s o ul b
s u s t an c e
n L i ne n d fr
m a e om flax
w as rd
s ac e an d ri n s pi i n g It w as w appe r dr d d d o un th e e a i n st e a d o f an i m al s k i n s, i n
D
,

d r k r
.

“ ”
y n as t i c T h e l i n e n e ph o w as i n spi i n g ; l i th e het it
’

pre
- E gy pt e
p op s m an t l e

rr r fr
.

gav e th e w e a e
po w e to o e te l l e v e nts.
88 MYTHS OF C HINA AND JAPAN
One day the king in his en d eavours to break the
,

spe l l o f sadness that bound h is beautiful que e n arranged ,

that his lords shoul d enter t h e palac e and d ecl are that
an enemy army was at hand and t h at the life o f t h e king
,

was in peril .

This they d i d The king was at t h e time making

.

merry when his lords entered sudd e nly and said : Your
Maj esty, t h e e nemy have co m e , whil e you s i t maki n g
”
merry and th ey are resolved to slay you
, .

The king s sudden chang e of countenance made t h e

’

dragon woman laugh His Maj e s ty w as well pleased

. .

Then , as it chanced t h e enemy came ind e ed B ut

, .

when the alarm was raised , the lords thought it was a

false one T h e army took possession of the ci t y, entered
.

the palace and slew the king

,
Pao Sze w as taken
.

prison e r, because of her fatal beauty ; but she brought no

j oy to her captor and transformed hers e lf into a dragon ,
departing suddenly and causing a thunder storm to -

ra e
g .

To thos e w h o win th e ir favour, the dragons are pre

serv e rs e ven when they come forth as d estroyers The .

story is told of h o w Wu the son of a farmer named Yin ,

,

won th e favour of a dragon and rose to be a great man in

China When he was a boy of thirteen , h e was sitting
.

o n e day at t h e garden gate , looking across the plai n whic h

is watered by a winding river that flows from t h e moun

tains . H e was a silent, dreamy boy, who had been
brought up by his grandmother , his mother having died
when he was very young an d it was his habit thus to s i t
,

in S ilence thinking an d obs e rving things

,
A long the
.

h ighway came a handsome yout h riding a white horse .

H e was clad in yellow garm ents and s e emed to be o f

high birt h Four man s e rvants accompanied him and
.
-
,

one he l d an umbrella t o shield h im from t h e sun s bright ’

C N E SE
H I P O RC E L A IN V S D O T D WT FV C W D
A E E C RA E I H I E -
LA E

D RA G ON N F OM W V S
S RIS I G R A E

( Vi ct ori a an d A l be r t M us e um )
9 0 MYTHS OF C HI NA AN D JAP A N
Said Wu : I watched them as t h ey went westward “
.

Rain clouds were gathering o n the horizon and when

—
,

th e y were a gr e at distance O ff they all rose in the air and

1 ”
vanished in the clouds .

“
Yin w as gr e atly alarmed to hear this and said : I ,

must ask your grandmother W h at she thinks o f this

”
strange happening .

The old woman w as fast asleep , and as s h e had grown

very d e af it w as d i fli c ul t to awaken her When at length .

S he w as thoroughly roused, and s at up with h ead an d

hands trembling with palsy Yin repeated to her in a ,
2

loud voice all that Wu h ad told h im .

“
Said the woman : The horse spotted with five ,

co l ours, and with scaly armour instead of hair, is a dragon

horse Wh en spirits appear before h uman beings they
.

wear magic garments That is why t h e clothing of your .

visitors had no seams Spirits tread o n air As these . .

spirits went westward , they rose higher and hig h er in t h e

air, going towards the rain clouds T h e youth was the -
.

Yellow Dragon H e is to raise a storm and as h e had .

,

four followers the storm will be a great one May no , .

evi l befall us .
”

Then Yin told t h e O l d woman that o n e of t h e

strangers had turned the umbrella upside d own before
“
passing through the garden gate That is a good .

omen , s h e said Th en s h e lay down and closed h er .

eyes “
I have need o f s l eep , she murmured ; I am
.
“ ”

”
very O l d 3
.

1 T he ppe a a n c e
a r off r r ou s e v an t s
(t h e go d s of th e f r r r)
ou
q ua t e s w i th t h e dr ago n

go d, i n d i c at e s t h at t h e com r i ng sto m i s to be o ne o f e x c e pt i o n al v i o l e n c e

d rr f k d rk
.

2 “
T he ee
p s l um be e in a ol -
t al e is us ual l y e n gage wo i ng a s
pe ll A s w i ll
b e ga t h e r d fr
e om th e st o r
y , t h e boyr e ce iv e dh i s k n o w l e ge d an d r fr
po w e om his g r d
an

m o th e r r
She es e m bl e s t h e Nr Vo se al a an d t h e W
i t ch o f E n dr
o

Nr V r Od k
. .
_

3
T he o se al a m ak e s si m ila com
pl ai n t w h e n a w ak e n e d b y in It l o o s

C r d r
.

i f th i s h i n e se “w ”
as s to y i s b as e o n o ne ab o ut c o n s ul t i n g a s pi i t o f a ise wo m an

who s l e e ps i n h e r tom b .
 D RAGON F OL K STORIES —
9 1

Heavy masses of clouds were by this time gat h ering

in the sky, and Yin decid e d to S i t up all night Wu .

asked to be perm itted to do the same , and h is father

consented T h en the boy lit a yellow l anter n , put o n
.

a yellow robe that his grandmother had made for him ,

burned incense , and s at down reading charms from an old
1
yellow book .

Th e storm burst fort h in fury j ust when dawn was

breaking dim l y Wu then closed his yellow book and
.

went to a W indow T h e thunder bellowed the lightning

.
,

flamed and t h e rain fe ll in torrents , and swollen streams

,

poured down from t h e mountains Soon t h e river rose .

in flood and swept across t h e fields Cattle gat h ered in .

groups on shrinking mounds that h ad become islands

surrounded by raging water .

Yin feared great l y t h at t h e house would be swept

away, and wished h e h ad fled to the mountains .

At night t h e cottage was entirely surrounded by t h e

flood Trees were cast down and S wept away
.
“
We .

cannot escape now, groaned Yin .

Wu sat in si l ence, displayi n g no signs o f emotion .

What do you thin k of it al l ? h is father asked ”

.

Wu reminded him that o n e of the strangers h ad

turned the umbre l la upside down and added : Before“
,

the dragon yout h went away he spoke and said : I s h al l

‘

come again to morrow -

He has come indeed , Yin groaned, and covered h is

face wit h his hands .

Said Wu : I h ave j ust seen the dragon As I l ooked

“
.

towards the sky he spread out h is great h ood above our

h ome He is protecting us n o w
. .
”

“
Alas ! my son you are dr e aming , .

1
A n i nt e r e sti ng gl i m pse of th e c o n n e c ti o n be tw e e n colou r s
y m bo l i s m an d m agi c .
r
E v e y t h i n g i s y e ll o w b e c aus e a
y e llo w d r ago n i s be i ng i n v o k e d.
9 2 MYTHS OF CHINA AND J AP A N
Listen father no rain falls o n t h e roof
, , .

Yin listened int e ntly Then h e said : Y o u speak

“
.

tru l y, my s o n This i s ind e e d a great marvel

. .

“ “
I t was well said Wu, that you w e lcome d the ,
”
dragon yest e rday .

H e spoke to you first my s o n ; and y o u answered , ,

‘
Ent e r Ah , you have much wisdom Y o u will b e
’
. .

”
com e a great man .

The storm began to subside an d W u prevailed upon

his fath e r to lie down and S le e p .

M uch damage had been don e by storm and flood, and

large numbers O f h uman beings and domesticated animals
h ad perished In the village w h ich was situate d at the
.
,

mouth of th e valley, only a fe w houses were left stand

Ih
g
rain ceased to fall at midday T h en t h e s un
T he .

came out and shone brightly, whil e the wat e rs began to

retreat .

Wu went outsid e and s at at the garden gate , as was

h is custom I n time he s aw the ye llow youth returning
.

from t h e west accompanied by his four attendants , .

Wh en h e cam e nigh , Wu bowed and the youth drew

up his h orse and spoke, saying : I said I should return
“

to d ay
-
.

Wu bowed .

“
B ut this time I shal l n o t enter the courtyard , t h e
youth add e d .

“
As you will, Wu said reverently .

T h e dragon youth t h en handed the boy a S ingle scal e

wh ich he had taken from t h e horse s neck, and said : ’

“ ”
K eep this and I shall remember you .

Then he rode away and vanished from S ight .

The b o y re ent e red th e house He awoke his father

-
.

1 T h i s s l e e p a ppe a r s to be as n e ce ss a r y as th at of th e r d
g an m o th e r .
94 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
the kingdom He found t h at great miracles co ul d be
.

work e d with the scale o f the dragon h orse I t cured

.

d is e ase , and it caused the Emperor s army to w i n vic

’

tori e s W ithal Wu was able to foretell events , and h e

.
,

became a renowned prophet and magician .

The farm er s s o n grew to be very rich and powerful

’
.

A great house was erected for h im close to t h e royal

palace , an d he took his grandmoth er and father to it, and
there they lived happily until the end o f their days .

Th us did W u son of Yin , b ecome a great man

, ,

beca us e of th e favour shown to h im by the t h under

dragon , who had wrought great destruction in t h e river
valley and taken toll o f many lives .

It will be gathered from this story that t h e C h inese

“
dragon is not always a b e n e fice n t deity as some
writers put it Lik e certain other gods , he is a destroyer
.

an d preserv er in one .
 C HA P T E R VI I I
T h e K in gd o m u nde r th e Sea
T heV an i s h i n g I
sl an d o f F ar E as t e n -
r Dr
ago n go d — S t o y o f P i e s t w h o
-
r r
r
v i s i t e d U n d e rw o l d — F ar E as t e n - r Dr
ago n as
“
r r
P e a l P i n ce ss — H e r H um an
r I
L o v e — A h n d i a n Pa all e l— r ago n Dr I
s l an d i n A n c i e n t E gy t i an S t o ry — T h e
p
r r r
O si i a n U n d e w o l d — V
an i s h i n g I
s l an d i n S c o t l an d an d F
i j i — B ab y l o n i a n
G em t ee- r Gr r
a d e n — F ar E as t e n Q ue s t o f t h e
-
Magi c S w o d — P a al l els o f r r
T e ut o ni c an d C e l t i c L e ge n d — “
K usanagi S w o d th er a an ese
p
“
EJx c al i b u
”
r
— Ci t
y o f th e F r
ar E as t e n S e a go d —
-
a an e se
-
p J i V
si o n o f G e m t e e a d en -
r Gr
W ea o n
p D e m o ns — S ta S p r
i i t r
s o f M agi c S w o ds — S wr r
o d s t h at b e co m e

Dr ago n s— Dr ago n J
ew e ls — Dr
ago n T ran fo rm at i o n s .

T H E pal ace o f
the dragon king is situated in the Under
worl d , which can be entered throug h a deep mountain
cave o r a dragon g uarded we l l I n some of the C h inese
-
.

stories t h e dragon palace is l ocated rig h t below a remote

island in th e Eastern Sea This island i s not e asi l y .

approached for o n the calmest o f days great bil l ows das h

,

against its shelving crags Wh en the tide is h igh , it is .

entirely covered by water and h idden from sight Ju n ks .

may then pass it o r even sail over it without their crews ,

being aware that th ey are nigh to the palace of the sea

od
g .

Sometimes a red l ig h t burns above t h e is l and at night .

It is seen many miles distant, and its vivid rays may be

reflected in the h eavens .

I n a Japanese story the island is referred to as a

gl owing red mass resemb l ing t h e risin g sun No ”
.

mariner dares to approach it .

There was once a C h inese priest w h o , on a memorab l e

95
9 6 MYTHS OF CHINA A ND JAPAN
night reac h ed the dragon king s palace by entering a deep
,
’

cav e o n a mountain S ide I t was his pious desire to w o r

-
.

ship t h e dragon , and he went onward in the darkness ,

reciting religious texts that gave him protection T h e .

way was long and dark and di ffi cult, but at length , after
travell ing far, h e saw a light in front of him He walked .

towards this light and emerged from the cavern to find

that he was i n the Und e rworld Above him was a clear .

blue firm am e n t l it by the n ight sun H e beheld a beau .

tiful palace in the midst o f a garden that glittered wit h

gems and flowe rs , and d irected his steps towards it H e .

reached a window th e curtain o f whic h r ustled in the

wind He perceived that it was a mass O f gleaming
.

pearls Peering behind it as it moved he be h eld a table

.
, ,

formed of j ewels On t h is tab l e l ay a book o f B udd h ist

.

prayers (sutras) .

A s h e gazed wit h wonder and reverence the priest ,

heard a voice that spake and said : Who hat h come nigh
and why hat h he come ? ”

The priest answered in a l o w voice giving his name, ,

and expressing his desire to behold the dragon king,

whom h e desired to worship .

Then the voice made answer : Here no human eye

can l ook upon me Retur n by the way t h ou hast come,
.

and I shall appear before thee at a distance from th e

cavern mouth .

The priest made obeisance, and returned to the world

of men by the way he had come He went to the spot .

that the voice had indicated and there he waited , reading ,

sacred texts Soon the earth yawned and the dragon king
.

arose in human shape wearing a red hat and garment

, .

The priest worshipped him and then th e dragon vanished,

from sight On that sacred S pot a tem ple was afterwards

.

erected .
 THE K INGDO M UNDER THE SEA 97
Once upon a time the daughter of t h e dragon king,
who was named Abundant Pear l Princess fel l in love
“

with a comely yout h of Japan He was sitting on a calm

.
,

summer day, beneath a h o l y tree an d h i s image was ,

reflected in a dragon well T h e princess appeared before

.

him and cast a love spell ove r h is heart The youth was .

enc h anted by h er beauty , and s h e led h im towards the

palace o f th e dragon king, the Abundant P e arl Prince
There she married h im , and th e y lived together for t h ree
years Then t h e youth was possessed by a d e sire to
.

return to the world of men I n vain the princess pleaded

.

wit h him to remain in the palace When , h owever, she .

found that his h eart was set on l eaving the kingdom of the
Underworld s h e reso l v e d to accompany him He w as
, .

convey e d across the sea on the back of a w a ni (a dragon

in crocodile shape) The princess accompanied him and
.
,

h e built a house for h er on the seas h ore .

The Abundant Pearl Princess was about to b e

“ ”

come a mother and s h e made t h e you t h promise not to

,

look upon her until after h e r chi l d was born But he .

broke h is v o w Overcome wit h curiosity he peered into

.
,

her chamber and s aw that h is wife had assumed t h e s h ape

o f a dragon As soon as the child was born the princess
.
,

departe d in a n ger and was never again beheld by h er

h usband .

T h is story, it will be noted is another Far Eastern

,
-

version o f t h e Melusina l e g e nd .

A n I ndian version o f th e ta l e re l ates that the h ero

was a sailor , th e s o l e survivor from a wreck , who swam
to a small island i n the m idst of the s e a W h en he .

reache d the shore, he s e t o ut to look for food, but found

t h at the trees and shrubs wh ich dazzled him with t h eir
,

beauty bore beautiful gems instead of fruit At le n gth

, .
,

however , he found a fruit bearing tree He ate and was

—
.

(D 71 ) 8
98 MYTHS OF CH I NA AN D JAPAN
we l l cont e nt Then h e sat down beside a w e ll A s he
. .

stooped to drink of its waters h e had a vision of the ,

Underworld in all its beauty At the bottom of the we l l .

s at a fair s e a maid who looked upwards with eyes o f

—
,

love and b e ckon e d him towards her He plunged into .

the well and found himself in the radiant K ingdom o f

Ocean T h e maid was the queen and sh e took h im as
.
,

h er consort She promised him great wealth , but forba d e

.

him to touch the statue o f an A ps ara , which was of gold l

and ador n ed with gems But o n e day h e placed his .

hand on the right foot of th e image Th e foot darted .

forth an d struck him with such force that he was driven

through t h e sea and wash ed ashore o n his native coast .
2

The oldest version o f this type of story comes fro m

Egypt . I t has been preserv e d i n a papyrus in th e
Hermitage collection at Petrograd , and is usua l ly referre d
to as O f Twelfth Dynasty origin (c 2 0 0 0 A sai l or .

relates that he was the sole survivor from a wreck He .

had seized a piece of wood and swam to an island After .

he recovered from exhaustion h e s e t o ut to search for ,

food .
“
I foun d there figs and grapes , all manner of
good h erbs berries and grain , melons of all kinds , fish es
,
”
and birds I n time, h e heard a nois e as o f thunder
.

while the trees shook and the earth was moved The
ruler of the island drew nigh H e was a human h eaded .
—

S erpent thirty cubits long and his beard greate r than

“
,

two cubits ; h i s body w as as overlaid with gol d and h is ,

colour as that o f tr ue lapis lazuli -

Th e story proceeds to tell that the sailor becomes the

guest o f the serpent who makes spe e ches to him an d,

introduces h im to h is family I t is stated that the island .

has risen from the wav e s and wil l sin k again A fter
1 d fr r T r
In i an a i y gi l he e are apsa a s r i n th e P a rd a ise of In dr a.

r ( d
.

1
Ind i a n F ai ry S to i es L on o n, pp 47
. e t se
q .
1 0 0 MYTHS O F CHI NA AND JAPAN
gamesh entered t h e cave of the Mountain o f Mas h i (Sun
s e t Hill , and after passing through its night black d ept h s
) -
,

reach e d the seaside garden in which , as o n th e island in

the I ndian story, the trees bore instead of fr uit and ,

flowers , clusters of precious stones He beheld in the .

midst o f this garden of d azzling splendour the palace o f

S abi t u the go d dess w h o instructed h im how to reach the
, ,

island on which lived h is ancestor Pir n aph i s h t um (U t -

n a i s h ti m
p ) Gilgamesh was .originally a god ,
the earlier
G i s h b il gam e s o f Sumerian texts .
1

Th e I ndian Hanuman (the m onkey god) simi l arly -

enters a d eep cave w h en he goes forth as a spy to Lanka ,

the dwelling place o f Ravana th e demon who carried

-
,

away Sita wife of Rama the hero of the Ra m dy a na A

, , .

similar story is told in the mythical h istory o f A lexander

the Great There are also western European legends o f
.

like character Hercules searches fo r the golden apples

.

that grow i n the Hesperian gardens I n some Far .

2

Eastern stori e s the hero searches for a sword instead o f

“
an h erb . Every weapon , d eclares an o l d Gaelic
“
saying has its demon
,
The same belief prevailed in.

China, where dragons sometimes appear e d in the form o f

weapons and in India where the spirits o f celestial weapons
, ,

appeared before heroes lik e Arj una an d Rama I n the .

3

Teutonic B alder story as related by Saxo G ram m at i cus

, ,
4

the hero is slain by a swor d taken from th e Underworld ,

where it was kept by Miming (Mimer) the go d in an , ,

Un d erworld cave H o t h e r who gains possession o f it,

.
,
“ ”
goes by a road har d for mortal man to travel
_
.

I n the Nors e version the sword becomes an herb the —

m istl etoe, a cure al l like the Chinese dragon h erb and

-

1 L W K i n g, L egen ds q a h l oni a a n d E
y gy pt ( L o n o n , d p 1 46
r fr
. . . .

e e n c e s i n M th s
2
S ee e
y of B a hy l on i a a nd fl ssy rt a, pp 1 8 4 e t s e q
. .

3
1 nd t a n My th a nd L ege nd, p 2 5 6 a nd p 3 8 1
. . .
4
B o o k III .
 TH E K INGDO M UNDER THE SEA 1 0 1

t h e Babyl onian Plant of Life

“
E x ca l i hur th e swor d ,

o f K ing Arthur was obtained from t h e la k e goddess (a

,
—

B ritis h Naga and was flung back into the lake before
he died
S o fl as h d d f ll t h b n d E
e an al i bu
e e ra xc r

B ut e re h e d i ppe d t h e s urfac e , ro s e a n arm

C lo t h e d i n w h i t e s am i t e , m ys t i c , w o n d e rful ,
A n d c augh t h i m by t h e h il t , an d b ran d i s h e d h i m
T h re e t i m es, a d d w
n re h i m u n d e r i n t h e m e re 1 .

The Japanese story o f the famous K us an agi sword is

a Far Eastern link b e tween the Celestial h e rb and weapon
—

legends o f Asia and Europe It tells that this magic .

sword was o n e o f the three treasur e s possessed by the

imperial family of Japa n and that the warrior who wie l ded
,

it could put to flig h t an entire army At a naval battl e .

the sword was worn by the boy Emperor, A n t o k u Tenno —

.

He was unable to make us e o f it, and when the enemy

were seen to be victorious , the boy s grandmother, Nu ’

no ama clutched h i m in her ar m s and leapt into t h e

—
,

sea.

Many l ong years afterwards , when the Emperor Go

Shirakawa sat on the imperial throne, his barbarian
enemies declared war against him The Emperor arose .

in his wrath and called fo r the K us an agi sword Search .

was made fo r it in the temple of K amo where it was s up ,

posed to be in safe k e eping T h e Emperor was to l d ,

—
.

h owever that it had been lost, and h e gave orders that

,

cer e monies shou l d be performed wit h purpose to discover

wher e the sword was and h o w it might be restored One
, .

night, soon afterwards , the Emperor dreamed a dream , in

w h ich a roya l l ady , w h o had been dead for centuries ,

appeared before h im and told that t h e K us anagi sword

1 T
’
e n ny s o n s
fA
T h e P as si ng o r th ur.
1 0 2 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
was in the keeping o f the dragon king in h is pal ace at t h e
bottom o f the s e a .

Next m orning the Emperor re l ated h i s dream to his

c h ief minister, and bade him hasten to the t w o female
divers O i m at s u and her daughter Wakamatsu , who
,

resided at Dan no ura, s o that they migh t dive to t h e

— —

bottom of the s e a and obtain the sword .

The divers undertook the task , and were conveyed in

a boat to that part o f the ocean where t h e boy Emperor, -

A nto k u had been drowned A religious ceremony .

‘

was performed , and the mother and daughter then dived

into t h e s e a A whole day passed before they appeared
.

again Th ey tol d , as soon as t h ey were taken into th e

.

boat, that they had visited a wonderful city at the bottom

o f t h e sea It s gates wer e guarded by silent sentinels who
.

drew flashing swords when they (the d ivers) attempt e d to

enter They were consequently compelled to wait for
.

several h ours , until a holy man appeared and asked them

what they sought ; When they had informed him that
they were searching for the K us anagi S word, he said that
the city could not b e entere d without the aid of Buddha .

Said the Emperor s chief minister : T h e city is t h a t

“ ’

”
of the go d o f th e s e a .

“
I t is very beautiful O i m at s u told him ; the wall s
,

are o f gold and the gates o f pearl A bove the ci t y walls

, .

are seen many coloured towers t h at gleam like to precious

-

stones . When one o f th e gates was opened , w e per

c e i v e d that t h e streets were of si l ver and th e houses of
”
moth e r o f pearl
— —
.

Said the Emperor s c h ief m inister : Fain woul d I

“ ’

visit that city .

“
He looked over the S ide of the boat and sighed , I
”
s e e naught but darkness .

“
When we dived and reac h ed t h e sea bottom , —
1 0 4 MYTHS OF CH INA AN D JAPA N
"
by a h e ro of Japan This hero carried O H the sword and
.
1

presented it to the Emp e ror Aft e r many years had gone .

past a s e a dragon took the form of a princess S h e became

—
.

the bride of a prince of Japan , and w as the gran d mot h er

of the boy Emperor with whom she leapt into the sea
-

during the battle of Dan no ura This boy n o w lies - -

.

”
asleep in my coils .

T h e Emperor o f Japan sorrowed greatl y when he w as

informed regarding the dragon king s m essage Alas I ’
.

he sai d , if the K usan agi sword cannot be obtained, the

“

barbarians will defeat my army in battle .

Then a magician told the Emperor that h e knew of a

powerful spell that wo ul d compel t h e dragon to give up
“ “ ”
the sword I f it is successful, the Emperor said I
.
,
”
shall elevate you to the rank o f a princ e .

The spell was worked and when next the female ,

divers went to the K ingdom under t h e Sea, they obtained

t h e sword , with w h ich th ey returned to the Emperor .

He used it in battle and won a gr e at victory .

T h e sword was afterwards placed in a b o x and de

posited i n the temple o f Atsuta, and there it remained for
many years , until a K orean priest carried it away Wh e n .
,

h owever, the K orean was crossing t h e ocean to h is own

l and, a great storm arose T h e captain of the vessel .

kn e w it w as no ordinary storm , but one that h ad been

raised by a go d , and he spoke and sai d , W ho on board
“

”
this ship has o ff ended the dragon king of Ocean ?
Then said t h e K orean priest “
I S hal l throw my ,

sword into the s e a as a peace o ffe ring —

.

He did as he said he would, and immediately the

s torm passed away .

1 L i k e t h e E gy pt i an h e r o who s l ay s th e r r r
iv e se rd
pe n t w h i c h gua s t h e b o x c o n
t ai n i n g m agi c s pe ll s S i gu rd fr d
S ieg i e an d r dr
o th e ago n s l a i n g h e o e s
-
y r
m ay b e

r r
,

r ,
.

c om p a ed w i t h t h i s F ar- E as t e n he o.
 C H A P TE R IX

T h e Is l an d s o f t h e Ble s t
S o ul s on Il s an d s— W e ll s o f L i fe an d T r i n C h i n a,
ee s or P l an t s of Li f
e

I
A n c i e n t E gy pt, B ab y l o n i a, Sz e — H o w sl an d s w e e A n c h o e d — T h e O ce an r r
F F I
.

r
T o t o i se — A G
i a n t s i s h i n g— T h e My s t e y o f u—s an g—
’
rs l an d o f o m en W
r F I J
S e a c h fo r abl e d sl e s— C h i n e se an d apan e se S t o i e s - H o w N av i gat i o n w as r
S t i m ul at e d — C o l um b us an d E d e n — at e W r
o f L i fe i n C e l o n , P o l n e s i a,
y y
r
A m e i ca, an d S co tl an d — e l o s, a D F I
l o at i n g s l and — A t l a n t i s an d t h e o t unat e Fr
Il
s e s— Celti c Il
s an d Pa rd
a i se — A ppl es a n d N ut s as o o d o f L i fe — A m F e ri c a as

Pa r ad i s e — I
T h e n di an L o t us o f L i fe — B ud d hi s t P a ad i s e w i t h G e m r - r
t ee s
Di am o n d Val l e
y L e ge n d i n C h i n a an d Gr e e ce — L uc kG e m s an d I r
m m o t al i t
y .

The Chinese and Japanese , like the Egyptians,

Indians, Fij ians and others , believed, as has be e n shown ,
,
-

in the existence o f a floating and vanishing island as

s o c i at e d with the s e rpent god or d ragon od of ocean —
g
-
.

They believed , too that somew h ere in the Eastern Sea

,

lay a group o f islands that were d i fli c ul t to locate or '

reach ; which resemble d cl osely in essential partic ul ars , ,

“ ”
the Islands of the Bl e st , o r Fortunate Isles
“
of

ancient Gre e k writers Vague beliefs regarding fabulous .

countri e s far across the ocean were likewise prevalent .

I n som e native accounts these C h inese Islands o f t h e

Blest are said to be fiv e in nu m ber, and na m ed Tai Y u ,

Y i l an C hiao , Fang H u Ying Chou and P eng lai ; in , ,

’
-

ot h ers t h e number is nine , or ten or only thre e A , .

single island is sometimes re ferred to ; it may be l ocated

in the ocean or in the Y e l l ow River, or in t h e riv e r o f
,

the M ilky Way, the C elestial Ho .

1 O6
 TH E I SLANDS O F THE BLE ST 1 9 7
T h e is l ands are, in Chinese legend, reputed to be
in h abited by those who have won immortal ity, or by
t h ose who hav e been transported to their Paradise to
dwe ll there in bliss for a prolo n ged period so that they
may be reborn o n earth , or pass to a higher state of
existence .

It is o f special i nterest to note in connection with

these islands that they have Wells of Life and Trees or
Herbs of Life The souls drink the wat e r and eat the
.

herb o r fruit o f the tree to prolong their existence One .

Chinese plant of l ife is li ch i h , the hangus of i m

“ “

m ortality It appears o n Chinese jade ornaments as a

symbol of l ongevity “
This fungus , writes Laufer,
.
”

“
is a sp e cies of Aga ri c and consi d ered a felicitous p l ant ,
because it absorbs the vapours of the earth I n the L i .

Ki (ed Couvreur , Vol I , p 643 ) it is mentione d as an

. . .

edible plant As a marve l lous p l ant foreboding good

.

l uck, it first appeared under the Han Dynasty, in 1 0 9 B C , . .

when it sprouted in the imp e rial palace K an ts uan The -

’
.

emperor issued an edict announcing this phenomenon ,

and proclaime d an amnesty i n t h e empire except for
relapsing criminals A hymn in honour of t h is divin e
.

” 1
plant was composed in the same year .

Lik e the Re d Cloud h erb the li ch i h had evidentl y

a clos e connection with the dragon god -
.

The question aris e s whet h er the idea of an island of

“ ”
paradise was of spontaneous origin in China , or
whether the ancient Chinese borrowed the belief from
intruders, o r from peoples with whom t h ey h ad constant
trading relations There is evidence that as far back as
.

the fourth century, B C , a C h inese e xp l orer set o ut on an

. .

expedition to search for the island or isla n ds of Paradise

1
Jd
a e : A S tudy i n
—
C h i n ese A r ch er ol o y
g a nd r
Re l igi on, B e t h o ld L au fr
e
(Ch i cago ,
pp . 20 9 1 0 .
1 0 8 M YTHS O F CHI NA AN D JAPAN
i n the East e rn Sea B ut it is n o t known at what precise
.

period b e lief in the island aros e and became pr e val ent .

T h e evidence a ff or d e d by t h e ancient Egyptian Pyra

mid T e xts is o f S p e cial inter e st and importance in con
n e c t i o n w ith the problem o f origin As far back as .

“
e. 2 50 0 B C . . t h e departed Pharaoh hoped to draw his
sust e nanc e in th e realm o f Re (Paradise ) from the “

tree o f life in t h e mysterious isl e in t h e midst of the

Field of O fferings Th e soul o f the Pharaoh , accord
ing to the Pyrami d Texts s e t out soon after death , in search , ,

o f this island
“
in company with t h e Morning Star The .

Morning Star is a gorgeous gr e en falcon a solar d ivini t y , ,

”
identified with Horus o f D ew at The Egyptian story .

O f the soul s quest goes o n to tell that this K ing Pepi

’ “

went to th e gr e at isle in the m idst o f t h e Fi e ld o f

O fferings over which the go d s make the swallows fly .

T h e swallows are the I m perishabl e Stars Th ey give to .

this K ing Pepi the tree o f life whereof they live that ye , ,

( Pepi and the Morning Star ) may at the sam e time l ive
”
thereof .
(Pyramid Texts 1 20
9 Sinister enemies
,
“
may contrive to depriv e the k ing o f the sustenance
provid e d fo r h im Charms were provided to pro
.

t e c t t h e fruit o f immortality The enemy against whic h .

these are most often directed in the Pyramid Te xts is

serpents . I n the Japanes e story o f the K us an agi sword ,
the gem trees o f the Otherworld are protected by dragons
-
.

T h e Pyramid Texts devoted to th e ancient E gyptian

K ing Unis tell that a divine voice cri e s to t h e gods Re
an d Thoth
( s un and moon
) saying ,
“
Ta k e ye this K ing
,

Unis with y o u that he may eat o f that which ye eat an d ,

t h at he m ay drink o f that which ye drink The magic .

”

“
well is r e fe rred t o as the pool o f K ing Unis T he
so ul O f the Pharaoh also sails with the unwearied stars in
1
B r e as t e d , Rel i gi on a nd T h ough t i n E gy pt, pp . 1
33 7
—
.
1 1 0 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
named P en g lai Fang Chang and Ying C h ou T h e y
’ '

-
, , .

are located i n t h e Gulf o f Chihli , but are d i ffi cult to

reach because contrary winds spring up and drive vessels
away i n the sam e manner as the vessel of Odysseus was
driven away from It h aca It is tol d , how e ver, that i n .

days o f o l d certain fortunate heroes contrived to reach

and visit the fabled isles They told that they s aw th e re .

palaces of gold and silver, that the white men and

women , the whit e beasts and the wh ite birds ate the
Herb o f Life and drank the waters o f the Fountain o f
Life On the island o f Ying Chou are great precipices
.

O f j ade A brook the waters o f which are as s t i m ul at

.
,

ing as wine flows out of a j ade rock T h ose who can

,
.

reach the island and drink of this water wil l increase t h e

length of their lives When t h e jade water is mixed .

”
with pounded fungus of immortality a food is provided
w h ich ensures a thousand years of existence in the body .

Chinese legends tell that the lucky mariners who .

come within view o f t h e Isles of the Blest behold them ,

but dimly, as they seem to be enve l oped in luminous

clo uds When vessels approach too closely, t h e islands
.

vanish by sinking below t h e waves , as do the fab l ed

islands of Gaelic stories .

Lieh Tze, alleged to be an earl y Taoist writer, but 1

whose writings, or those writings attributed to h im , were

forged in the first or second century A D , has l ocated the . .

islands to the east of the gulf of Chihli in that fathomless

abyss into which flo w all the streams o f the earth and t h e
riv e r o f t h e M ilky Way Apparently this abyss is the .

Myt h ical Sea which was located beyond the eastern hori
zon a part of the s e a that surrounds the world I nto
—
.

this sea o r lake , according to t h e anci e nt Egyptian texts ,

1
H e fi r r r(
gu e s as a c h a a c t e n ot a r e al o n e ) r
i n t h e w i t i n gs of K w an g t z
-
e, w h o w as
bo r n i n th e f r o u th c e nt ur y B C
. .
 THE I SLANDS OF THE BLEST 1 1 1

pours the celestia l river, a l ong whic h sail s t h e barque o f

the sun god T h e Nile was supposed by the Ancient
-
.

Egyptians t o be fed by the waters above the firm am e n t

and the waters below the earth The Pyramid Texts .

w h en referring to the birth of Osiris as new water “

( t h e inundation ) ,
sa
y

T h w t s f l i f t h t r in t h sk y c m e ;
e a er o e a a e e o

T h w t s o f li f t h t
e a er in t h e rt h m e a are ea co e.

T h s k y b u n s fo t h
e r r ee,

m bl s f
1
T h th t
e e ar th e re e or e .

I n India the Ganges was likewise fed by the celestial

Ganges that poured down from the s k y .

Lieh T z e s I slands o f the Blest are five in number,

’

and are i n habited by th e wh ite souls of saintly sages who

have Wo n immortality by havi ng t h eir bodies rendered
transparent o r after casting O ff their bodies as snakes
,

cast O ff their skins All t h e anima l s on these islands are

.

likewise white and therefore pure and holy The spirit .

d wellings are o f gold and j ade , and in the groves and

gard ens the trees and plants bear pearls and precious
stones Those who eat o f the fungus or o f perfumed
.
,

fruit , renew their youth and acquire the power of floating

like down through t h e air from island to island .

At o n e time the islands drifted about on the tides of

ocean but the Lord o f Al l who controls the Universe ,
,

having been appealed to by the Taoist sages w h o dwelt

o n the isles , caused three great A tlas t urtles t o s upport -

each island wit h their heads S O that they might remain

steadfast Th ese turtles are relieve d by O th e rs at the
.

end of S ixty thousand years I n l ike manner, in India n .

mythology, t h e tortoise K urma an avatar of the god ,

Vishnu , supports Mount M eru when it is p l aced in the

1
B r e as t e d , Re li gi on a nd T h ough t in A nci e n t E gy pt, p . 1 45 .
1 1 2 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
Sea of M ilk The Japanese Creator has a tortoise form
.

that supports t h e world tree , o n the summit o f w h ich -

sits a four armed go d I n China the tortoise h ad divine

-
.

attributes Tortoise shell is a symbol o f unc h angeability,

.

and a symbol of rank when used for court girdles The .

tortoise was also used fo r purposes of divination .

1

A gigantic mythical tortoise i s supposed in the Far ,

East, to live i n t h e depths o f ocean It has o n e eye .

situated in the m id dl e of its body Once every three :

t h ousand years it rises to the surface and turns over on

its back s o t h at it may see the sun .

Once upon a time , a legend tells the Atlas turt l es ,

-

that support the Islands of the B l est suff ered from a raid
by a wandering giant As the I ndian go d Vis h nu and .

the Greek Poseidon could cross the Un iverse at three

strides , so coul d this giant pass quickly from country to
country and ocean to ocean One or t w o strides were .

s ufl i ci e n t for him to reach the mythical ocean from the

Lung po mountains He s at on t h e mountain summit
-
.

o f o n e o f the Islands o f the B l est and cast his fis h i n line

g
-
,

into the deep waters T h e Atlas turtles were unab l e to .

2 —

resist the l ure O f his bait and, having hooked and cap
t ure d s i x o f them he threw them over his back and ,

returned h ome in triumph These turtles had been sup .

porting t h e t w o islan d s , Tai Y n and Y uan C h iao , w h ich ,

having been s e t free , were carried by powerful tides
towards the north , where they stranded among the ice
fie l d s The white beings that inhabited these islands
were thus separated from their fellow saints on the oth e r
three islands , Fang H u Ying Chou , and P eng lai W e ,
’
—
.

are left to imagine h o w lonely they felt in isolation No .

1
Dr J L e gge , C h i ne s e C r
lassi cs, V o l III, P a t I, p 2 40 , an d P a t II, p 5 5 4 r
r k r
. . . . . .

gi an t s s i t o n m o un t ai n s i n l i e m an n e an d fis h fo r w h al e s ,
9
In S c o t t i s h gi an t l o -
e

us m g t r e e s as fis h i ng- rd o s.
 THE I SLAND S OF THE BLEST 1 1 3

doubt, they su ffe red from t h e evils associated with the

nort h the airt of drought an d darkness The giant
—
“ ”
.

and h is tribesmen were punished by the Lord O f the

Universe for this act by having t h eir stature and t h eir
kingdom greatly reduced .

On the fabled is l ands , the white saints cultivate and

gat h er t h e fungus o f immortality as the sou l s in t h e
“ ”
,

Para d ise o f Osiris cultivate and harvest crops of barley

and wheat and dat e s Like the Osirian corn the island
.
,

fungus sprouts in great profusion This fungus h as not .

only t h e power to renew youth but even to restore the

“
dead to life The Herodotus of China has recorded
.

that once upon a time leaves o f the fu n gus were carried

by rave n s to t h e mainland from o n e o f the islan d s , and
dropped on the faces o f warriors slain in battle T h e .

warriors immediately came to l ife, a l thoug h they had lain

dead for three days The water of life h ad simi l arl y
“
.
”

reanimating properties .

T h e famous magician Tung fang Shuo, who l ived in,

-

second century B C , tel l s t h at the sacred islands are ten i n

. .

number, t h ere being t w o distinct groups of five One o f .

the distant is l ands is named F u sang, and it has been -

identified by di fferent western writers with California,

“
M exico , Japan , and Formosa Its name signifies the .

Land o f the Leaning Mu l berry The mulberries are

said to grow in pairs and to be of gr e at height Once .

every nine thousand years th ey bear fruit which the

saints partake of T h is fruit adds to their saint l y
.

qualities and gives t h em power to soar S kywar d like

, .

celestia l birds .

Beyond F u sang is a country o f white women w h o

—

h ave hairy bodies I n t h e spring season t h ey e nter t h e

.

river to bathe and becom e pregnant, and their c h i l dren

are born in the autumn Th e hair of t h eir heads i s s o
.

( D 71 ) 9
1 1 4 MYTHS OF C HI NA A ND JAPAN
long that it trails on the ground behind them I nstead .

of breasts, they have white l ocks or hairy organs at the

back O f t h eir necks from which comes a liquor t h at
nourishes their children These women according to
.
,

so m e accounts , have no husbands , and ta k e flight when

they s e e a man A h istorian who, by t h e way gives
.
,

them husbands , has recorded that a Chinese vess e l was

once driven by a tempest to this wonderful island T h e .

crew landed and found that t h e women resembled t h ose

o f China, but that the m e n had h e ads like dogs and voices

t h at sounded like the barking of dogs Evidentl y the .

legends about th e fabled islands b e came mixed up with

accounts of t h e distant islands o f a bearded race reached
by seafarers .

Ther e are records of severa l attempts that were m ade

by pious Chinese Emperors to discover the Is l an d s o f
the Blest, with purpose to obtain t h e fungus o f i m m o r
”
tality One mariner named H s u F u, who was sent to
.

explore the E astern Sea s o that the fungus might be

brought to the royal palace, returne d with a wonderful
story He said that a god had risen out of the sea and
.

“
inquired if he was the Emperor s representative ’
I .

”
am, the mariner made answer .

”
Wh at seek ye ? asked the sea god —
.

I am searching for the plant that has the power to

prolong human life , Hsu F u answered .

The god then informed the Emperor s m essenger ’

that the o fferings he brought were not su ffi cient to be

regarded as payment for this magic plant H e was .

willing, however , that Hsu F u should s e e th e fungus

'

for himself so that, apparently, the Emperor might be

convinced it really existed .

The vessel w as then pilote d in a south easterly d i re c -

tion until the Islands o f t h e B l est were reache d H s u .

1 1 6 M YTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
d
o
g , who had apparently come wit h the intention of
preventing t h e s hips going any farther A fierce battle .

ensue d Tho usan d s o f poisoned arrows were discharged

.

against the go d , who was S O grievously wounded that h is

bloo d tinged the s e a over an area o f miles But .

despit e this victory ac h ieved by mortals the famous ,

islan d o n which grew the h erb of immortality w as never

reache d On the same night the Emperor had to engag e
.

in single combat with the dragon go d w h o came against -

,

him in a dream This was a co m bat of souls , for in

.

sleep, as was beli e ved t h e soul leaves the body T h e

,
.

soul o f the Emperor fared badly On th e day that fol .

lowed his maj esty was unable to rise from his couch and ,

h e died withi n t h e space of seven days .

I n Japanes e stories the island of P eng lai is referred ’

-

to as H o rai z an It has thre e h igh mountains o n the

.
,

chief of which called Horai , grows the Tree of Life

,
.

This tre e has a trun k and branc h es of go l d, roots o f

S ilv e r, and gem l e av e s and fruit
-
I n some stories there
.

are thre e trees t h e peach , the plum , an d the pine T h e

,
.

fungus of immortality is also referred to It grows i n .

t h e shade o f one or another of the holy trees , usually

the pin e There is evidence , t o o o f the belief that a
.
,
“ ”
grass of immortality grew o n th e sacred island as well
as the famous fungus T h e life giving fountain was as
.
—

well known to the Japanese as it was to the Chinese and

others .

A story is told of a Japanese Gilgamesh , named S e n t aro ,

w h o , being afraid o f d e ath , summoned to h is aid an i m
mortal saint s o that he might be enabled to obtain the
“ ”
grass o f immortali t y The saint handed him a crane
.

mad e of paper which , when mounted came to life and ,

carried S e n t aro across the ocean to Mount Horai There .

h e found and ate t h e life giving grass -

W hen , however .
,
 THE I SLAND S OF THE B L EST 1 1 7

he had lived for a time o n the island he becam e discon

tented The other in h abitants h ad already grown weary
.

o f immortality and wishe d they cou l d die S e n t aro him .

self began to pin e fo r Japan and , in the e n d , resolved to

mount his paper crane and fly ov e r t h e s e a B ut after h e .

l e ft t h e island h e d oubted the wisdom of h i s impulsive

resolution The resu l t was that the crane , which moved
.

according to his will , began to crumple up and drop

through th e air S e n t aro was greatly scared , and once
.

again y e arned s o deeply for h is native land that the cran e ,

straightene d and strengt h ened by his yearning rose into ,

the air an d continued its fligh t unt il Japan w as reach e d .

Another Japanese hero named W as o b i o y e the story

, ,

o f whose wanderings is retold by Professor Chamberlain ,

1

once s e t o ut in a boat to e scap e troublesome visitors .

T h e d ay w as t h e eighth O f the eight h month and t h e

moon was ful l Suddenly a storm came o n , w h ich tore the
.

sail to shreds and brought down t h e mast W as o b i o y e .

w as unable to return h ome , and his boat was driven about

o n the wide ocean for the space O f three months T h en .

he reached the Sea o f Mud , o n whic h he could n o t catch

any fish . He was soon reduced to sore straits and
fe ared h e would die o f hunger but, i n time, h e caught ,

sight o f land and was greatl y cheered His boat drift e d .

S l owly towards a beautifu l island o n which there were

three great mountains As he drew near to t h e shore,

.

he found to h is gr e at j oy that t h e air was laden with

, ,

most exquisite perfumes that came from the flow e rs and

tree blossoms of that wonderful isle He landed and
-
.

found a sparkling well W h e n he had drunk of th e

.

water his strength was revived and a feeling o f int e nse ,

pleasure tingled in his veins He rose up refres h ed and .

h appy and, walking in l and, soon m e t with Jo fuk u the

1 T r a nsacti ons o
f th e
f y apan
A s i a ti c S oci e g» o .
1 1 8 MYTH S OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
sage known in China as H s u F it , who had been sent to
,

th e Island o f the B lest (P eng lai ) by the Emperor S h e ’

—

Wang T i to O btain the fungus o f immortality wit h the ”

,

youths and virgins but had never returned , .

W as o b i o y e w as ta k e n by the friendly sage to the C ity

o f the immortals w h o spent their lives in the pursuit of
,

pleasure He found however that thes e people had

.
, ,

grown to dislike their monotonous exist e nce , and w e re

constantly striving to discover some means whereby their
days would be shortened They re fused to partake o f .

mermaid flesh because this was a food that prolonged life ;

they favoure d instead goldfish and soot , a mixture which
was supposed to be poisonous The m anners o f t h e .

peop l e were curious Instead of wishing one another

.

good health and lo n g life they wished for sickness and ,

a speedy death Congratulations were showered on any

.

individual who seeme d to be indisposed, and h e was

sympathiz e d with when he showed S ig n s of recovering .

W as o b i o y e live d on t h e island fo r nearly a quarter of

a century Then having grown weary o f the monoto
.
,

nous life he endeavoured to commit suicide by partaking

,

of poisonous fr uit fis h and fl e sh But all his attempts

, ,
.

were i n vain I t w as impossibl e for anyone to die o n

.

that islan d I n ti m e he came to know that he could die

.

if he left it but h e h ad heard of other wonderful l ands

,

and wished to visit t h em before his days came to an end .

T h en , inst e a d o f eating poisonous food, he began to fe ast

on mermai d fl esh so that h is life mig h t be prolonged for
many years b e yond the allotte d span Ther e after h e .

visited the Lan d o f Shams , the Land of Plenty, Se c .

His last visit w as pai d to the Lan d of Giants Waso .

“
b i o y e is usually r e ferred to as th e Japanese Gulliver
“
Th e search for the mythical islands with their wells
” ”
o f life
“
and trees or plants of life is referred to i n the
 1 20 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D J A PAN
the inhabitants enj oyed perpetual health an d y o ut h fial
beauty wh e re the w a i ora (life giving fountain ) removed
,
-

ev e ry internal malady and every external deformity o r ,

paralyse d d ecre pitud e from all those who were p l unged ,

”
ben e ath its salutary wat e rs Ellis anticipates the views .

o f modern ethnologists when dealing with the existence

o f the sam e b e liefs among widely separated p e oples He -

.

says : A tabular vi e w o f a number o f word s in th e

“

Malayan Asiatic, o r the Madagasse the A merican and

, , ,

the Polynesian languages would p robab l y S how that, ,

at some remote period , eith e r the inhabitants O f these

distant parts o f the world maintained frequent intercourse
with each ot h er or that colonies from some o n e of them
,
”
originally people d in part or altogether, the others
, .

He adds Either part o f the present inhabitants o f the

“
,

South Sea Islands cam e originally from A merica o r tribes ,

O f the Polynesians have, at some re m ote period, found

the i r way to the (A m e rican ) continent 1 ”
.

W D W e stervelt in his L ege nd s of Old H onol ulu

. .
, ,

h e ads his o l d Hawaiian story The Wat e r o f Life o f

“

Ka n e which he hi m self has collected with the follow

—
,

ing extract from t h e Maori legend o f N e w Z ealand :

Wh n t h e e m oo n di e s, s h e g o es t o th e li in g
v w at e r of Ka -
ne , to

the w at e r wh i ch c a n res t o e al l r li f e, ev e n th e m o o n to th e pat h i n

th e Sky .

I n the Hawaiian form o f the l e gend the h ero w h o found ,

the water s o that his sick father t h e king m ight be , ,

cure d met with a dwarf who instructed him wh ere to go

,

an d what to do .

A russet dwarf similarly figures in the Gaelic story of

D i arm ai d s s earch for th e cup and t h e water o f life so
’

that t h e daughter o f the K ing o f Land under W aves - -

1 W i ll i am E l l i s , P oly nesi a n Rese a r ch es ( 1 st e d i t i o n, L o n d o n, V o l II, pp 47

. . e t se
q
.
 THE ISLANDS OF THE B LEST 1 21

might be cured of her sickness This dwarf takes the .

Gaelic hero across a ferry and instructs him h o w to find

the cup and the water .
1

The Polynesians ghosts went westward In their

’
.

“
Paradise w as a bread fruit tree This tree had t w o -
.

branc h es o n e towards t h e east and one towards the west,

,

both o f whic h were used by t h e ghosts One was for .

leaping into eternal d arkness into P o pau o l e the other — -

,

was a m e e ting place with th e h elpfu l gods

-
Turn e r .
” 2

tel l s that some of the South Sea Islanders have a tradi

“

tion of a river in their imaginary worl d of spirits , called

‘
the water o f life It was suppos e d that if the aged ,
’

when they d ied w e nt and bathed there, they became

,

young and returned to eart h to live another li fe over

”3
again Y ud hi s h t h i ra, o n e o f the heroes of the A ry O Indian
.
-

epi c the Mah d hh d ra ta becomes immortal after bat h ing in ,

the celestial Ganges I n the E nei d the hero sees souls

.
4
,

in Paradise drinking of the water o f Lethe so that they

may forget the past and be reborn among m en .

Sir Jo h n de Mandeville, the fourteent h century -

traveller and compiler of trav e ller s stories , located the ’

fountain o f life at the base of a great mountain in Ceylon .

This fay r well

“
bat h e odour and savour o f all
spices ; and at every hour of the day he Ch aunge th e his ,

O dour and his savour d y v e rs e l y A nd whoso d ri n k e t h e .

times fasting o f that w at re of t h at wel l e , h e is hoo l

3
whole o f alle maner (of) s y k e n e s s e that he b athe And
( ) .

they that duel l en (dwell) there an d d ry n k e n often of that

welle, t h ei n e v e re h au (h ave) s y k e n e s s e , and thei semen
1
C am pb e l l, P opul ar T a l es of th e Wes t H igh land s, V o l III, al e L X V I T X X
r
. .

2 3
od s a nd G h os ts, p 2 46
L egen ds o f G N ly
i ne te en T ea s i n P o ne s i a,
p 3 53
r f
. . . .

S w a rga ro h a ni ha Pa rv a, S e c t i o n III (Ro y s t an s l at i o n ), p 9 T h e ch i e o f t h e

’
- '

r r r
. .

“
go d s s ay s t o Y ud h i sh th i ra : H e e i s th e c e l e s t i al ive P l un gi n g i n t o i t, t h o u
r rd d r
.

w i l t go t o t h i n e ow n e gi o n s (P a a i se ) H av m g bat h e ,th e he o c as t o ff h i s h um an

d fr
.

b o dy an d a ss um e a c e l e s t i al o m
1 22 MYTH S OF CH INA A ND J A PAN
( seem ) a ll e weys yonge
. John says that h e drank of
Sir
the water o n three o r four occasions and fared the better
for it Some men called it the Welle O f Y o ut h e
.
“ ”

T h ey had often d runk from it an d seemed alle weys y o n gl y

“

“
( youthful ) and lived without sickness And. men
s e n that that welle c o m e t h e out o f Para d ys , and ther e
y
fore i t is s o vertuous T h e tree oflife is always S i tuate d
.
“

“
near t h e well of life In me d i ae val literature At H e lio .

polis in Egypt a well an d tree are connected by Coptic

C h ristians and Mohamm e d ans with Christ When Joseph.

and Mary fled to Egypt they rested und e r this tree ,

according to Egyptian belief, and the cloth e s o f the h oly
C hi l d were washed in the well Heliopolis , the Biblical
.

On , is the C ity of t h e s un and the Arabs sti ll cal l t h e

wel l the spring o f t h e s un
“ ”
According to ancient
Egyptian belief the sun god Ra washed his face i n it
-

every morning The tree, a sycamore, was the mot h er

.

goddess .

That European ideas regarding a floating is l and or

islands were o f Egyptian origin and closely connecte d
with the solar cult, is suggeste d by the classical l egend
regarding De l os , o n e of the Cyclades I t was fabled to
.

have been raised to the surface of the sea at the command

of Posei d on, s o that t h e persecuted godd e ss Latona, who
was pursued from land to land by a python , as the
Egyptian I sis was pursued by Set, m ight give birth there
to Apollo On D elos t h e image of Apollo was in t h e
.

S hape of a dragon, and delive red oracles It was unlawful

.

for any person to die o n De l os , and those of its i n h abi

tants w h o fell sick were transported to anot h er island .

Delos was a fl oating is l and like the floating is l and o f

the N il e , the green bed o f Ho us on which t h at s o n
“
r

of Osiris and Isis hid from Set . The m ost ancient

Apollo w as th e s o n O f cripple Hephaistos Cripple .
1 24 MYTH S OF CH IN A AN D J A P A N
E m ai nAblac h (E m ai n rich in apples ) I n one de
”
.

scription a yout h named Con l a and h i s bride Ve n i us a are

“
referr e d t o N o w th e youth was s o that in h is hand
.

he held a fragrant apple having the hue o f gold ; a third

part o f it h e woul d eat, and still , fo r all he consume d ,

never a whit wo uld it be diminished T h e fruit it w as .

t h at supported t h e pair o f them and w h en once they had

partaken o f it nor age nor dim ness could a ffect t h em
,
.

A part o f this Paradise w as reserved for monarchs , “

T e i gue, a Ce l tic Gilgamesh

”
kings , and tribal chiefs .

w h o visited the island saw there a thickly furnished

“
,

wide spreading apple tree t h at bore blossom an d ripe

-

fruit at the same time He ask e d regarding the great .

tree an d was inform ed t h at its fruit was meat intended

“ ”
to serv e the congregation which was to inhabit the
mansion The rowan berry and hazel nut were also to
.
1

the Gaels fruits of immortality There once came to .

St Patrick from the sout h a youth w e aring a crimson

.

mantle fixed by a fibula o f gold over a yellow shirt H e .

broug h t a doub l e armful o f round yellow headed nuts

“ -

an d o f beautiful golden yellow apples T h e Gae l ic -

” ?

Islands of the B lest are pictured in gl owing colours

S pl e n d o urs o f e v e ry c o lo ur glis t e n
Th ro ugh o ut t h e e nt le v o ice d plai n s g -
.

k
Jo y i s n o w n , ran e d aro un d m usi c k
In t h e so ut h e rn S ilv e r c lo ud Plai n -
.

k
U n n o wn i s w ail i n o r t re ac h e ry g
Th e re i s n o t h in ro u h o r h o ars e g g
W i t h o ut gri e f, w i t h o ut so rro w, i t h o ut W
W k
i t h o ut s i c n e ss, w i t h o ut d e b ili ty
Al ov e ly lan d
On wh i ch the m a ny blo sso m s d ro p ?

1 S H O G rad y , S i l ‘v G ad el i ca, V o l II, pp 3 9 3 — 4

’
a

V r
. . . . .

9 3 T he
Ibi d .
,V ol. II, p . 1 1 3 . oy age o f B an .
S H OU SH A N (i . e.
“
H IL L S OF ON V TY L GE I T H E T O ST
A I P A RA DS
I E

Fl om a w as e n si l k pi c tur e i n th e Vi c t o r i a an d A l be r t l l f us e um
1 26 M YTH S O F CHI N A AND JAPAN
The Well of Life is referred to in the K oran Co m .

m e n t at o rs explain a reference to a vanis h ing fis h by tell

ing that Moses or Joshua carried a fried fish wh en they

reac h ed the Wel l of Life Some drops o f the water fel l .

on the fis h , which at once leapt out o f the basket into the

s e a and swam away .

In th e A ry o I ndian epic, the Mahd bh d ra ta, t h e hero

-

Bhima sets o ut in searc h o f th e Lake o f Life and the

Lotus o f Life He overcomes the Yaks h a guardians O f
.
-

the lak e , and when he bathes in the lake h is wounds

are healed .
1

There are glowing descriptions in Buddhist literature

o f the Para d ise reac h ed by those who are to qua l ify for

Bud d hahood A proportion o f the Ch inese Taoist in

.

h abitants of the Islands of t h e Blest similarly wait fo r t h e

time when they will pass into another stat e of existence .

A S im ilar beli e f prevailed in the West Certain Celtic .

heroes, like Arthur, Ossian Fionn (Finn ) Brian B o ro i m h e , , ,

and Tho m as the R h ymer, live in Paradise for long periods

awaiting the time when they are to return to the world
o f men , as do Charlemagne , Frederick O f Barbarossa ,

William Te l l, and others o n t h e Continent .

In the Buddhist Paradise the pure beings have faces

”
bright and yellowish yellow being the sacred colour ,

o f t h e Buddhist as it is the colour o f the chief dr agon

o f China .I n this Paradise is th e Ce l estial Ganges and

“ ”
the gr e at Bodhi tree , a hundred y o gan as in h eight
-

which prolongs life and increases t h eir stock o f merit

“

“ ”
Their merit may grow in the following shapes viz , .

either in gold , in silver in j ewels , in b e ryls , in S hells in

, ,

stones in corals in amber, in red pearls in diamonds & c ,

, , , , .

or in any o n e o f the other j ewels ; or in all kin d s o f per

fumes i n flowers , in garlands in O intment, in incense
, ,
1 “ V an s P a r va of Mah é bhé r a ta
, an d In d i a n My th and Le
g d , pp
en . 1 0 5 9
—
.
 THE I SLANDS OF THE BLEST 1 27

powder, in cloaks , in umbre ll as in flags , in banners , ,

or in lamps ; or i n all kinds o f dancing, singing and ,

music 1

The gem trees abound in t h is Paradise

-
“
Of som e .

trees , one account runs , the trun k s are of coral the

” “
,

branches of red pearls , the smal l branch es of diamonds ,

t h e l eaves o f gold , the flowers of si lver, and the fruits
of beryl In the
.
”2
e astern quarter there are Buddha
countries equal t o the sand of the River Ganga (Ganges)
Th e purified beings in the l ands surpass the light of the
sun and moon , by the light of wisdom , and by the white
ness , bri ll iancy, purity, and beauty of their know l edge 3

There are references to the king of j ewels that fulfi l s

“

every wish It h as go l den coloured rays excessively

“ ”
.
-

b e autiful t h e radiance of whic h transforms itself into

,

birds possessing the colours o f a h undred j ewels, which

sing out harmonio us notes The purified may become
like Buddha w ith bodi e s bright as go l d and b l ue eyes
for t h e eyes o f Buddha are like the water of t h e four
“

great oceans ; the blue and the w h ite are quite distinct 5

The i maginations of the Bud d hists run riot in their

descriptions o f the Land of B liss, and the stream o f
glowing narrative carries with It many pre Buddhist beliefs —

about metals and precious stones , red pearl s , blue

“

pearl s and so on , and nets o f gold adorned wit h the

“

emb l ems of the do l phin , the svastika (s was h t i k a) , t h e

n an d av art a, and the moon
y I n t h eir Paradise even
the river mud is o f gold Th e religious ideas o f the .

“ ”
early searchers fo r soul substance in the form o f
metal s and gems are thus foun d to be quaintl y blended
with Buddhist conceptions of t h e Earth l y Paradise .

1 D r esc i pt i o n of S uk h av iz t i , t h e L an d
'
of B l i ss, i n B udd hi s t Mahay am a T ex ts (S a c r e d
B ooks
2 Ibi
f
o the E as t, V o l .
3
X X)
LI pp, . 1 6, 1 7
4 Ib
.

5 0
Ibi d , i d, Ibi d
d .
,p.
35 .
p 56. .
p . 1 74
. .
,p . 1 80 . Ibi d , p.
.
50 .
1 28 MYTHS OF C HI NA AND J A PAN
I n some Chinese and Japanese stories t h e sou l s of th e
dead are carried to Paradise by birds and especially by the ,

crane o r stork which ta k es the place of the I ndian man

,

eagle Garuda (Japanese Gario the woman bird with ,

-

crane s legs) and o f the Babylonian eagle that carried

’

the hero Etana to heaven The saints who reac h the

.

In d ian Paradise o f Uttara K uru situated at the sources

,

o f the River Indus among t h e Himalayan mountains and

, ,

originally the homeland o f the K uru tribe of Aryans , are

supposed to have their lives prolonged fo r centuries .

W h en they die their bodies are carried away by gigantic

birds and dropp e d into mountain r e c e sses The belief .

enshrined in stories O f this kind m ay be traced to the

wide spread legend of the Diamond Valley Laufer notes
—
.

that a version of it occurs in t h e L i a ng se h ung hi , one o f

the most curious books of Ch in e se literature A prince
is infor m ed by scholars r e garding the wonders of distant
“ ”
lands . In the west arriving at the Mediterranean
, ,
“
o n e Chi nese story runs , there is in th e s e a an island o f
two hundred square miles On this island is a large
.

forest, abun d ant in trees with precious stones , and i n

habit e d by over ten t h ousand families These men show .

great ability in cleverly working gems which are named ,

fo r the country F u lin (Syria) -

I n a north westerly
.
—

direction from t h e is land is a ravine , hollowe d o ut like

a bowl , more than a thousand fe et d eep T h ey throw .

flesh into this valley Birds take it up in their beaks

.
,

whereupon they d rop the pr e cious stones Here F u l in , .

”
-

in the Mediterranean area is referred to as early as the

,

beginning o f the S ixth ce n tury .

The Chin e s e Diamond Valley story is an abridged

form o f a well k nown W estern legend
—
I n a version ”
.

O f it in the writ i ngs o f E pi ph an i us B ishop o f Constantia

,
“
in Cyprus (e 3 1 5 . the vall e y is situat ed in a
1 3 0 M YTHS OF CHINA A ND JAPAN
Paradise was a land in which life giving water and
-

fruit, and innumerable gems were t o be found , and

those w h o reache d it became wise as magicians and
prophets , and live d for thousands of years free from
sickness and pain It was the land o f eternal youth and
.

unlimited happiness .
 C HA P T E R X

M o t h e r go dd e ss O f C h i n a
T he —

an d Japan
F d f h D d Mi l k B r d d B r i P r d i T h W r
oo or t e ea —
, ea , an ee n a a se— e e ste n

T r f if i
ee o
yp L T r f i f i Gr
e n E g t— r i i d P ly i T h ee o L e n e e ce, B ta n, an o n e s a— e

Un d r rl P re wo T dW rf l R G rd C h i C l f
a ad i s e — he “
o nd e u o se a en — n e se ut o th e
W bl
e st — l T r BiP r bl C i
i ca P h r f L iy T
ee a a e — h n e se e ac T ee o o n ge v t — he
“
R y lM h r f W
o a otVi f C h E p r r F
e o th e r
e st
”
— si t o th e i n e se m e o — A ar- E as t e n

El Kh d r
-
i rd C y— T h e S ac h C i T r
e C l C l i l
hr s an t h e m um — T e ass a ee u t— e est a

Y ll R i r M
e ow My h ve — r l ir Ch I d d d
oon t s— L un a E i x in i n a, n i a, a n S can i n av i a
— C i S r M id
h ne s e T ta rq Il d f l i Cl i l
a e n— he S un B a ue s an o B e st
”
n e e st a

Ri r M ve i rl
— ry T h M k r i C h i d J p T C i
o o n —g S to — e a a a
”
n n a an a an — he h n es e

Ih r Dl
s ta —
g d T re S p ri
uge S ry
L f e i l P
en h li
— l ee i ts — to o L tt e e ac ng Sou
S b u i Dr B T r
s t an c e
”
n d P rl ago n o n e s, e e s, a n ea s .

T h e quest of the e l ixir f life the water O f life o

“

”
or the food o f life is as prominent a feature o f ancient
“

religious literature as is the quest of the Holy Grail in the

Arthurian romances As has been shown in the last .

c h apter , the belief that prompted t h e quest was widely

preval ent and o f great antiquity The Babyl onian hero
, .
,

Gilgamesh whose story is to l d in the oldest epic i n t h e

,

world , undertook his long and perilous j ourney to the

Otherworl d in quest o f the Plant of Life because the
, ,

t h ought o f deat h was sorrowful to him W hen his friend , .

E a bani , h ad expired,
-

Gilg am e s h w e pt b i t t ly
er ,an d h e l ay s t re t c h e d o ut upo n th e gro u nd .

H e c r e d, i L e t m e not di e li k e E a— b a ni .

”1
I fe ar d e at h .

1 L . W . K i ng, B a by l on i a n Re li gi on (L o n d o n, p . 1 71 .

1 31
1
3 2 M YTH S OF CH INA AND JAPAN
In the Babylonian myth O f A dapa reference is made
to t h e water of life and t h e food of life which give
”

wisdom and immortality to th e go d s and t o th e souls o f

those mortals w h o win their favour T h e sacre d tree in .

Babylonian art is evidently the Tr e e of Life .

1

W e see m to m e e t with the history o f the immemorial

quest in the Pyramid Texts o f Ancient Egypt The .

ancient pri e sts appear to h ave con cerned themselves greatl y

regar d ing the problem how th e dead were to be nourished
“
in the celestial Paradise The chief dread felt by the .

“
Egyptian fo r the hereafter, says Breaste d , was fear of
2 ”
hunger I n Egypt, as in other lands o fferings of food
.
,

were mad e at the tombs and these were supposed to be ,

conveyed to the souls by certain of the gods But those .

who hoped to liv e for e ver knew well that the time wo ul d
come when grave O ff erings would cease to be ma d e, and
-

their own names would be forgotten on earth Some .

Pharao h s endowed their chapel tombs fo r al l time, but -

revolutions ultimately caused endowments to be appro

ri at e d
p .

Th e Babylonians believed t h at if the dead were not

fed their ghosts woul d prowl through the str e ets and
,

enter houses searching for food and wat e r I n Polynesia

,
?

t h e homel e ss and desolate ghosts were those of poor

“
peopl e who d uring their residence in the body had
,
” 4
no friends and no property The custom of including .

food vessels and drinking cups in the funerary fiI rn i t ure

- -

o f pr e historic graves in di f
f erent countries was no doubt
conn e cte d with the fear o f hunger in the h e r e after The .

custom was widespread of giving the dead food o fferings

1

2
L . W . K i n g, L ege nd s q a by l on a nd E gy pt ( L on d o n,
p . 1 36 .

Re li gi on d Th ough t i n A ncre n t E gypt, p 1 3 0

an

r
. .

3 My th s of B a by lon i a a n d A ssy i a, p 7 1
W r
. .

1
‘
e s t e v e l t , L e end s o
g f G od s a nd G h os ts (H a w ai i an My th ol ogy ), p . 2 45 .
1 34 MYTHS OF CH I NA AN D J A PAN
the idea that food such as is found in Egypt might , ,

be provided in the regions above o r beyond the s k y T h e .

sun go d was appeal e d to : Give thou bread to this K ing

—

” 1
Pepi from this thy eternal bread , thy everlasting beer
,
.

But the chief source o f nourishmen t in the celestial

Paradise was the Tree of Life (a form o f the mother
goddess) on the great isle in the mythical lake o r sea
?
beyond the East e rn horizon Egyptian artists depicted
this tree as a palm , o r sycamore , wit h a goddess rising
from insid e it, pouring water from a vessel on the hands
of the P h araoh s soul , whic h m ig h t appear in h uman
’

form , o r in the man bird form called the ba I n t h e -

.

funeral ritual the ceremony o f pouring out a l ibation

was performed wit h the obj ect O f r e storing the body
moistur e (the water o f life) to the mummy A Biblical ?

reference to the ceremony is found in 2 K ings , iii , 1 1 , in

“
which it is said o f Elisha that he poured water o n the
hands o f Elij ah No doubt the Egyp tian soul rec e ived
water as nourishment, as well as to ensure its immortality ,
from the tree goddess —
.

I n the B oo k of the Dead (Chapter LI X) , the Tree of

“
Life is referred to as th e sycamore of Nut (the sky
goddess) Ot h er texts call the tree the Western Tree
.
”

of Nut o r Hathor I t may be that the so l ar cul t o f.

the East took over t h e tree from the Osirian cult of

the W est .

This mythical tree figures in many ancient mytho l ogies .

T h e goddess Europa was worshipped at G o rty n a, in

Crete d uring the Hel l e nic period, as a sacred tree
,
The .
4

tree may be traced from th e B ritish Isles to I ndia and ,

there are numerous legends o f spirits entering o r leaving

1
B r e as t e d , Re l i gi on and T h ough t in A nci e n t E gypt, pp 1 2 0 e t se q
r
. .

1 3
Ibi d ,p 1 34 G E l l i o t S m i t h , T h e E v ol uti on of th e D g p
a
p 2 3 e t s eq
on,

Fr C k
. . . . . .

1 ul ts
of the G re eh S tates, V o l III, pp 4, 3 0 ; Co o
‘
a n e l l, . . 1 , Ze us, V o l I, p 5 3 7
. . .
 THE MOTHER GODDESS — 1 35

it The Po l ynesians h ave stories of this kind Their

.
.

Tree of Life was the l ocal bread fruit tree whic h became —

a god , or, as some h ad it a goddess

” “
Out of t h is
,
.

magic bread fruit tree a l egend says a great goddess

—
,
“
,
”1
was made .

I t may be that the is l and Paradise with its Tree of

Life was special l y favoured after maritime enterprise
made strong appeal to t h e imagination of the Egyptians .

N o doubt the Ol d sai l ors who searched fo r “

soul sub -

stance i n t h e S hap e o f pearls precious stones , and

”
,

metal s h ad much to do wit h disseminating the idea of

the Is l es o f t h e Blest At any rate , it became , as we
.

have seen , a tradition among seafarers to searc h for

the distant land in whic h was situated the water of “

life Th e home dw e l l ing O s i ri an s clung to their idea

-

o f an Underwor l d Paradise , and belief in it became fused

with that of t h e floating is l and o r Islands o f the Blest ,

.

Those who dwe l t in inland p l ains and val l eys , and t h ose
accustomed to cross th e great mysterious deserts o n
whic h the oasis mirage frequentl y appeared and vanis h ed
-

like the mythical floating island conceived of a Paradise ,

on eart h There are references in more than one land to

.

a Paradise among the mountains It figures in the fairy .

stori e s of Central Europe, for instance , as the wonderfu l

Rose Garden with its linden Tree o f Immorta l ity, the
”

h iding place o f a fairy l ady its dancing nymphs and

-

its dwarfs ; the king of dwarfs has a c l oak o f invisibility

whic h he wraps round those mortals h e carries away ?

At first only the souls o f kings entered Paradise .

But, in time , the belief became firmly estab l ished that

the souls o f others could reac h it t o o and be fed there , .

The quest of t h e food o f life then became a popular ”

1 W r L ege n d s of Ol d H on ol ul u, pp
e ste v e l t, . 2 2 e t se
q , an d p
. . 29 .
1
T e utoni c My th and L egend, pp 424— 3 2
. .
 1 3 6 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPAN
theme of th e story t e llers , and s o fa m i l iar grew t h e i d ea
-

o f the existence o f this fruit that people believed it could

be obtained during life , and that t h ose who partook of it

might have th e ir d ays prolonge d indefinitely For, as .

W Schooling has written , a fe w simp l e thoughts o n

.
“

a fe w simple subj e cts produce a fe w simple opinions

common to a whole tribe (and even a great part o f
an d are taught with but littl e modification
“
mankind) ,

to successive generations ; hence arises a rigidi t y that

imposes ready made opinions , w h ic h are seldom questio n ed,
-

while s uch questioning as d oes occur is usually met

with excessive severity, as Galileo and others have found

The appl e , as w e have s e e n was to t h e Celts the ,

fruit of immortali ty : the Chinese favoured the peac h

that is it was favoured by the Chinese cult of the
,

W est A S all animals were suppose d to be represented

.

in the Otherworld by gigantic proto types th e fat h ers —

o r mothers o f their kind s o were trees repr e sent e d by —

a gigantic tree This tree was t h e W orld Tre e that

?

supported the Univers e In Egypt the World Tree was .

the sycamore o f the S ky goddess w h o was the Great —

,

Mother o f d e iti e s and man k ind The sun dropped into .

the sycamore at eventide ; when darkness fell the swallows

( star gods ) —
p e rched in i t s branches In Norse mythology .

t h e tre e is th e ash , called Yg d rasi l and from the well ,

at its roots soul s receive the Hades dri n k o f immortality , -

drinking from a horn embell is h ed with s e rpent symbols .

The Tree figures prominently in Iranian mytholo gy : the

A ry o Indian I n d ra constructs the World ho use round
- -

1 W es tm i ns te r Re v i e w , N ov e m be r , 18 9 2, p 5 2 3
W r rd rd d
. .

2
h e n, s o m e
yea s ago , a n as s w as ac qui e by a t e n an t o n a H eb i e an i s l an ,a

n a t i v e, o n s e e i n g t hi s an i m al fo r t h e fir st ti m e , e x c l ai m e d ,
“
It i s t h e f r at he o f al l th e
ha r es
 T H E MOTHER G O DD ESS -
1 37

it This Tre e is , no doubt , identica l with the sacred tree

.

in Assyrian art, which is sometimes t h e date , t h e vine , the

pomegranate, the fir, the c e d ar, and perhaps the o ak I t .

may be that the Biblical parab l e about the talking trees is a

memory o f the rivalries Of the various Assyrian tree cul ts :
T h t r s w e t f rt h o n t i m t
e ee n n i t a ki ng v r t h m ; d
o a e o a o n o e e an

t h y s id u t
e a th oli t e
n o R i gn t h o u o r us B ut t h e li
e ve r e, e ve . o ve

tre e s i d un t o t h m
a S h ul d I l v m y f t n ss w h
e ,
o w i t h by m ea e a e ,
e re e

t h y h o n o ur go d
e d m a d
g t
an b p r m ot d o v an , th e t
n es ? o o e o e er re

A d t h e t es s i d t o t h fi g t r
n re a C m th u d ei gn o r us e e, o e o ,a
n re ve .

B ut t h fi g t re s i d u t o t h m S h o ul d I fo s k m y sw e t n ss
e e a n e ,
d r a e e e ,a
n

m
y g o d f ui t
o d g rt b p r ,
man t d o r t h
o t r s
o ? T e h n so i d t ho e ve e ee e a e

t s unt t h v i n C o m t h o u, d i gn o us A d t h ine s i d
re e o e e, e an re ver . n e v a

un t o t h m S h o ul d I l
e , m
y i e wh i c h c h r t h
e av eG od d mv n
,
ee e an an ,

an d go t b pro m t d o e r t h t re ? Th n s i d l l t h t re s u t o
o e ov e e es e a a e e n

th eb am bl , C m t h u
r e d o i g n o v r us
e A d t h b r m bl s i d
o ,an re e . n e a e a

unt t h t r s If i
o e t ut h y e n o i t m
ee , Ki g o
n r
y o u t h na co m n e n ver ,
e e

a n d put y ur t ru t i om sh d w : s d i f not l t fi ma o ut f n
y c o an
,
e re o e o

t h e b m bl ra d d e o u th e
e , an d rs o f L e b n n v r ce a a o .

in Assyria, there was in C h ina quite a selection of

AS
life giving trees
—
.

T h e Chinese gigantic Peach Tree, whose f ruit was

partaken of by go d s an d men , grew in the Paradise among
the K wun l un mountains in Tibet and, like the I ndian
—
,
“
Mount Meru ( world supported the Unive rse .

Its fruit took three tho usand years to ripen The tree .

was surrounded by a beautiful garden and was under the ,

care of the fairy like lady Si W ang M u , t h e q ue e n of -

immortals the Mother of t h e Western K ing and

“
,

t h e Roya l Mot h e r o f the West S h e appears to have

”
.

originally been the mother goddess t h e Far Eastern - — -

form o f Hathor I n Japan s h e i s cal l ed S e i o b o Her

. .

Paradise w h ich is called the palace of exalted purity ,

“
,
”

and t h e metropolis of the pear l mountai n , or o f t h e

“ “ ”

j ade mountain , and is entered through t h e golden

”
“
1 38 MYTHS OF C HINA A ND J A PAN
door was originally that o f the cult o f the W est .

Sometimes Si Wang M u i s depicte d as quit e as weird a

deity as t h e Phigalian De m eter, with disordered hair,
tig e r s teeth , and a panther s tail Her voice i s harsh , and
’ ’
.

s h e sends and cures diseases Three blue birds bring food .

t o her .

Chinese emperors and magicians were as anxious to

obtain a p e ach from th e Royal Mother s tree in the ’

W estern Paradise, as they w e re to import the fungus “

O f i m mortality from the Islands o f t h e Blest in the

”

Eastern Sea .

There once live d in China a magician named Tung

Fang So w h o figures in Japanese legend as T o b o sak u,
,

and is represented in Japanese art as a j olly o l d man ,

Clasping a peac h to h i s breast and p e rforming a d ance or ,

as a dreamy sage carrying t w o o r three peaches and

, ,

accompanie d by a d e er ah ani m a l which symboliz e d —

longevity Various l e g e nds have gathered round h i s

.

name One is that he had several successive rebirths

.

in various reigns and that originally he was an avatar

,

o f the planet Venus He may therefore represent the

.

Far East e rn Tammuz, the s o n O f t h e mother goddess

- -
.

Another l e gen d tells that he fil c h e d three peaches from

the Tree O f Life which had b e en p l ucked by t h e Royal
,
”
Mother of the West
Tung Fang S o was a councillor in the court o f Wu
Ti , the fourt h emperor o f t h e Han Dynasty who reigned ,

for over half a century and die d aft e r fasting for seven ,

days in 8 7 B C I n Japanese stories W u Ti is called

. .

K an no B uti He w as gr e atly con cerned about finding

.

” ”
th e
“
wat e r o f life o r the fruit o f life , s o that h i s days
might be prolong e d I n h i s palac e gar d en h e caused to
.

be erected a tower over 1 0 0 feet high which appears to ,

1 Dr J . o s e ph E dk i n s , Re l i gi on i n C h i n a, p
. 1 51 .
 1 49 MYTHS OF C H I NA A N D JAP A N
Cloud lan d followed by t h e white souls of good wo m en
—
,

o f the Taoist cult H e r atten d ants include t h e Blue

.

Stork t h e W hite Tiger t h e Stag and the gigantic

, , ,

Tortoise which are all gods an d sy m bols of longevity

,

in China .

A mong the many stori e s tol d about Tung Fang S o i s

o n e regarding a visit he once paid to the mythical Purpl e

Sea He returned after the absence o f a year , an d on

.

being remonstrat e d with by his brother for de s e rting his

home fo r s o long a period , he contended that he had been
away for only a single day His garm ents had b e en dis .

coloured by the waters o f the Purple Sea, and he had

gone to another sea to cleanse them I n like m anner .

heroes who visit Fairyland find that time slips past ve ry

quickly .

The Purple Sea id e a may hav e been d e riv e d from t h e

ancient Well of Life story about El K h idr, whose bo d y 1

and clothing turne d gr e en after h e had bathed in it .

Purple supplante d green and blue as the colour o f i m

mortality and royalty aft e r murex d y e beca m e t h e gr e at
commercial asset o f s e a trad e rs Tung Fang So may
-
.

have had attached to h i s memory a late and imported

version o f the El K hi d r story .

T h e r e fere nce to W u Ti s d e w d rinking habit recalls

’
-

the story O f t h e youthful K e u Tze Tung a court ,

favourite w h o unwittingly o ffended the emperor, Mu h

,

Wang and was banished As t h e Egyptian B ata, w h o

,
.

S imilarly fell into disgrace in consequence o f a false .

“
charge b e ing mad e against h im fled to t h e Valley of ,

the A cacia ”
K e u T z e Tung fle d to the
,
“
Vall e y of
”
the C hrysanthemum Th e re h e drank the d e w that
.

dropped fro m th e petals o f C hrysanthemums and became ,

an immortal The B ud d hists took over t h is story, and

.

1 My th s of B a by l oni a a nd A ssy ri a, pp . 1 85 e t se
q
.
1 42 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
point is that the ancient texts maintain silence as to
cinnamon ; that is, t h e product from the bark of the tree .

Ci nna m oi n uin ca ssi a is a nativ e of K wan si , K wan

tun , and I ndo C hina ; and the C hinese made its first
-

acquaintance under t h e Han , when th e y began to colonize

”
an d to absorb southern C hina Th e first description .

of this tree goes no farther back than the third century .

“
It was not the C hinese , but non C h inese peoples of -

I ndo China who first broug h t the tree into civilization ,

-

which like all ot h er southern cultivations was simp l y

, ,
”
adopted by the conquering Chinese 1
I t has been .

suggested that the cinnamon bark was imported into

Egypt from C h ina as far back as the Empire period
(c .1
5 0 0 by Ph oe nician s e a traders
2
Laufer rej ects —
.

this theory Apparently the ancient Egyptians imported

?

a fragrant bark from their Pun t (Somaliland , or B ritish

East Africa) At a very much later period cinnamon
.

bark was carrie d across the Indian Ocean from Ceylon .

Th e Egyptians imported incense bearing trees from -

”
Punt to restore the odours of the body o f the d ead ,
“

and poured o ut libations to restore its lost moisture ?

“
When writes Professor Elliot Smit h , the be l ief
”
,
“

became we ll established that the burning of incense was

potent as an animating force , and e specially a giver of
life to t h e dead , it naturally came to be regarded as a
divine substance i n the sense t h at it had the power o f
resurrection As the grains o f inc e nse consisted o f the
.

exudation of trees, o r as th e ancient texts express it, ,

‘
their sweat , t h e divin e power of animation in course
’

of time became transferred to trees They were no .

1 L au e fr S i no- I r a n i ca ,
p 5 43
r ,
XX
. .

11 P h i l A ss oci ati on, V o l III, 8 9 2, p

T ansa cti ons Am 1 1 1 5
r
. . . . .

3 C
I 54 2 —
no- an i ca, pp 3
Dr
. .

1
G . E ll i o t S m i t h , T he E v o l uti on of th e gon, pp 3 6
a . e t se
q .
 T H E M OTHER GODDESS -
1 43

longer mere l y the source o f the life giving incense , but -

were t h emselves animate d by the deity, whose drops

of S we at were the means of conveying life to t h e
mummy . The s ap o f trees was bro ught into
relationship with life giving water T h e sap was
-
.

also regarde d as t h e blood of trees and t h e incense that

“
exuded as sweat As D e Groot reminds us , tales
o f trees t h at shed blood , and that cry o ut when h urt
are common in Chin e se literature (as also in Southern
Arabia notes Elliot Smith ) ; also o f trees that lodge
,

or can change into maidens o f transcendant beauty .

Apparently the ancient seafare rs w h o search e d for

incense bearing trees carrie d their beliefs to distant coun
-

tri e s T h e goddess tree o f t h e peach cult was evidently

.
—

the e arliest in China It bore the fruit of life The . .

influence that led to the foundation of this cult probably

came by an over l and route The cassia tr e e cult was .
—

later and beliefs connected wit h it came from So uthern

,

China ; these, too , bear the imprint o f id e as that were

well developed before they reached China .

Ther e are refe rences in Chinese lore to a gigantic

cassia tree which was feet high Those who ate .

o f its fruit became immortal The earlier beli e f con .

n e c t e d with t h e peach tree was that the soul w h o at e o n e

o f its peaches lived fo r 3 0 0 0 years .

T h is cassia world tree app e ars first to h ave tak e n-

the place of t h e peach tree o f the Roya l Mother o f

“

the West It w as reached by sailing up the ho l iest

”

river in China , the Hoang H o (Yellow River) , the -

sources o f which are in the K oko Nor territory to t h e —

north of Tibet I t wriggl es like a serpent between

.

mountain barriers before it flows northward ; then it

fC
1
Re l i gi ous Sy s tem E ll i o t S m i t h, T h e E l uti on f
6
o h i na, V o l IV , pp 2 7 2— : an d v o o

Dr
. .

th e
g , pp 3 8 9
a on -
. .
1 44 MY TH S OF C HINA AN D J A PAN
flows southward for 2 0 0 miles o n t h e eastern bord e r
o f Shensi province the hin e se homeland and th en
( C ) ,

eastward for 2 0 0 miles , afterward s d iverging in a north

easterly direction towards the Gulf o f C hihli in which ,

the Islan d s o f the B lest were supposed to be situate d .

It w as believed that t h e Hoang H o h ad like the

-
,

Ganges o f I ndia an d the Nil e o f Egypt a celestia l ,

origin . Those sages who desired to O btain a glimps e

of Paradis e sailed up the river to its fountain head .

Some reach e d the tree and the garden of Para d ise .

Oth e rs foun d themselves sailing across the heavens .

T h e West e rn Paradise w as evidently suppos e d by some

to be situated in the middle of the world , and by others
to h ave been S ituated beyond the horizon .

Chang K i en , one o f the famous men attached to

’

th e court of Wu Ti the r e viver of many anci e nt beli e fs

,

and m yths , was credit e d with havi n g followe d t h e course

o f the sacred river unti l he reached t h e spot where the

cassia tree gr e w . B eside the tree wer e the i m m ortal

animals that haunt t h e gar d en of the Royal Moth er o f
the West I n addition Chang K i e n s aw the moon rabbit
,
’
-

o r moon hare , which is adored as a rice giver

-
In the Far
-
.

East, as in the N ear East and in the West the moon is ,

supposed to ripen crops The lunar rabbit or hare is

.

associated with wat e r ; in the moon grow plants and

a tree of i m mortality Th ere is also accor d ing to C h inese
.
,

belief a frog in t h e moon I t was originally a woman ,

, .

the wife of a renowned archer, who rescu e d t h e moon

from imprisonm ent in mass e s o f black rain clou d s The -
.

Royal Mother O f the West was so grateful to the arch e r

”

for the service he h ad ren d ered that S he gave h i m a j a d e

cup filled with t h e d e w o f i m mortali ty His wife stole .

the cup and drank the d e w For this O ffence the Ro y al

.

Mother o f the W est transformed her into a frog and

”
,
1 46 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAP A N
some unknown plant T h ere are a l so references in Indian
.

“ ”
mythology to the Amrita , which was partaken o f by
the gods I t was the s ap of sacred trees that grew in
.

Paradise Trees and plants derived th e ir life and suste u

.

ance from water T h e Far Eastern beliefs in the

.
“ -

d e w o f immortality , t h e fungus of immortality

”
and
”
“
the fruit o f immortality have an intimate connection
with the belief that the mother goddess was conn e cted -

with the moon, which exercised an influence over

water T h e mother goddess w as also t h e love goddess ,
.
- -

the Is h tar of B abylonia , the H athor o f Egypt, the

Aphrodite O f Greece Her son , or husband, w as in one
.
,

o f his phases , the love god -

.

The sage of the Chinese Emperor Wu Ti , who

followed the co urse o f the Y e l l ow River so as to reach
the celestial Paradis e s aw in addition to t h e moon
, ,

rabbit, o r h are , the O l d Man o f the Moon , the

“ ”

C h inese Wu K ang and Japanese G e k k awo the go d ,

of love and marriage He i s supposed to unite lovers

.

by binding their feet with i nvisible red S ilk cords The .

”
Old Man in th e Moon i s , i n C hinese legend , engaged
in chopping branch e s from the cassia tree o f immortality .

N e w branches imme d iately sprout forth to replace those

“
thus remove d , b ut the Old Man has to go o n cutting
t i ll the end o f ti m e having committed a sin for which
,

his i ncr e asing labour IS the appropriate punishment .

A Bud d hist legen d makes Indra the O l d m an He .

asked fo r food from t h e hare, the ape and th e fo x The , .

hare lit a fire and l e apt into it so that the god might be
fed Indra w as s o much impressed by this supreme act
.

of friendship and charity that he placed the ex e mp l ary

hare in the moon A version o f t h is story is given in
.

t h e Ma hd bh d ra ta
.

“
I n European folk lore the Old Man is either a
-
 THE M OTHER GODDESS — 1 47

t h ief who sto l e a bund l e o f faggots , or a '

broke t h e Sabbat h by cutting sticks on that

S e e t h e rust i c i n t h e Mo o n,
H o w h i s b un d le w e i gh s h i m d o wn ;
k
Th us h is st i c s t h e t rut h re v e al
fi
It n e v e r pro t s m an t o s t e al .

Various versions o f the Man in the Moon myt h are

given by S Baring Gould, w h o draws attention to a
.
—
1

curious seal app e nded t o a deed preserved in the Record

O ffice , dated th e 9 t h year o f Edward the T h ird ( 1 3 3
I t s h ows the Man in the Moon carrying h is sticks
“ ”

and accompanied by his d o g Two stars are added . .

The inscription o n th e seal i s “

Te W al t e re d o ce b o cur
,

spinas ph e b o gero (I w i ll t e ach thee Walter, why I ,

carry thorns in the The deed is one of convey

ance o f property from a man whose Christian name was
Walter .

W u T i s sage travelled through t h e c e lestial region s

’

until he reached the Milky Way the source o f t h e Yellow ,

Riv e r . He s aw the Spinning Maiden , whose radiant

garment is adorned with silver stars She h ad a lover, .

from whom she was separated but once a year s h e was ,

allowe d to visit him and passe d across th e heavens as

,

a meteor This Spinning Maiden who weaves the n e t

.
,

o f th e constellations , is reminiscent of the Egyptian

sk
y
-
goddess Hathor (o r Nut
, ) whose body is covered ,

with stars and whose legs and arms as she bends over
, ,

t h e earth represent t h e four pillars o n which the sky

“
,
”
w as supposed to rest and mark the four cardinal points .

Her lover from whom she was separated , was S e b

,
?

I n China certain groups o f stars are referred to as the

1 Cr u i ous My th s of th e M i ddle A ges, pp 1 9 0 e t seq
d
. .

2 Bu ge , G od s if th e E gy pti a ns, V o l II, p 1 0 4

. . .
1 48 M YTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
“
Celestial Door the H all of Heaven S ec Taoist .

saints dwell i n stellar abodes, as well as o n the Islands

“

”
of the B lest ; some were during their life on earth
, ,

incarnations o f star gods -

Th e lower ranks o f t h e
.

w e stern cult immortals remain in the garden of th e

“
Royal Mother ; those O f the highest ran k ascend
”

to the stars .

Wu Ti s sage, according to one form o f the legend

’

never returne d to earth His boat whic h sailed up

.
,
“ ”
the Yellow River and th e n along the M ilky Way ,
was believed to have reached the C e lestial River that
flows round the Universe , and along which sails the
s un barque o f th e Egyptian o d Ra or Re One day
—
g ( ) .

the Chinese sage s oar apparent l y his steering oar

’
—

was deposited in the Royal Palace grounds by a ce l estial

spirit, who d escend e d from the s k y Here we have, .

perhaps , a fai n t m emory o f the visits paid to earth

from the cel e stial barque by the Egyptian go d Thot h ,
i n his captivity as envoy o f the sun go d Ra -
.

There is evidence in Far Eastern folk tales that

- -

at a very remote period the beliefs of the cul t of the

Sk god d ess which placed the tree o f immortality in
y
-
,

the
“
m oon island and the b e liefs o f the peac h cu l t
of
“
th e W e sterners were fused , as were those of the
Osirian and solar cults in Egypt .

A curious story t e lls that once upon a time a man

went to fish on t h e Yellow River A storm arose, and .

his boat was driven into a tributary th e banks of which ,

were fringed wit h in n umerable peach trees i n ful l blossom .

He reac h ed an islan d , on which he landed There h e .

w as kindly treated by t h e inhabitants , who told that they

had fled from China because o f the oppressio n of t h e
e m peror This surprised the fisherman greatly
. He .

asked fo r particulars , and w as given the name o f an

1 50 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JA PAN
I n an Egyptian legend it is to l d that Osiris was th e
s o n of the Mother C o w who h ad conceived him wh en
,

a fertilizing ray o f light fell from the moon I n like .

manner a m o o n gi rl came into being in Japan

~
She .

was discovered by a wood cutter O n e d ay , when collect

-
.

ing bamboo, he foun d inside a cane a little baby whose ,

body shone as does a gem in darkness He took her .

home to his wife, and s h e grew up to be a very beautiful

“ ”
girl .She was calle d Moon Ray , and after living
for a time o n t h e e arth returned to the moon She .

had maintained her yout h ful appearan c e by drinking,

from a smal l vessel she possessed , the fluid o f i m
mortality .

As the dragon was connected with the moon , and

the moon with t h e ba m boo , it mig h t be e xpected that
t h e dragon and bamboo would be closely linked On e .

of the holy men is credit e d with having reached t h e

“

lunar heaven by cutting down a bamboo , w h ich he after

wards transformed into a d ragon He rode heavenwards .

o n the d ragon s back

’
.

Saintly women , as a rule rise t o heaven i n the form

,

of birds o r in th e ir o w n form without wings , o n account

, ,

of t h e soul like lightn e ss of their bodies which have

-
,

become purified by performing r e ligious rites and e n gag

ing in prayer and meditation T h eir husbands h ave
.

either to climb trees o r great mountains Some h oly .

women , aft e r reac h ing h eaven ride along the clouds on

,

t h e back of the K ilin , the bisexual monster that t h e

’

soul of Confucius is suppose d to ride It is a form .

of the d ragon but more like the m aha ra o f the Indian

,

god Varuna than t h e typical wonder beast o f China

“

and Japan Some o f these monsters resemble lions

.
,

dogs , deer walr uses , or unicorns They are all , however,

, .

varieties of the m aha ra .

 THE M OTHER GODDESS —
I5 1

Sometimes we find that the attributes o f the Great

Mother who like Ap h rodite was a Postponer of Old
, , ,
“

”
Age (Am bol ogera ) , being the provider o f the fruit o f
immortality and 1 personification o f the World Tree,
h ave been attached to t h e memory o f some famous
l ady and especially an empress As t h e Egyptian
,
.

Pharaoh , according to t h e beliefs o f th e so l ar cult,

b e came Ra (t h e s un god) after deat h s o did t h e Chinese
—
,
“ ”
e mpress become the Roya l Lady of the West .

Nu K w a, a mythical empress of China, was reputed

t o have become a goddess after s h e h ad passed to the
celestial regions . She figures in the Chin e se Deluge
Myth Like the Babylonian Ishtar, S he was opposed
.

to the policy o f destroying man kind She did n o t

.
,

how e ver , lik e Ishtar, cont e nt h erself by expressing regret .

Wh en the demons o f water and fire, aided by rebe l

generals o f her empire , s e t out to destroy the world Nu ,

K w a waged war against them . Her campaign was success

ful but not until a gigantic warrior had partly destroyed
,

the h eavens by upsetting o n e of its pillars and the flood

had covered a great portion o f the earth The empress .

stemmed the rising waters by m eans o f charred reeds

( a Babylonian touch ) ,
and afterwards rebui l t the broken
pil l ar, under w h ich was placed an Atlas tortoise Like —
.

Marduk ( M e ro d ach) , s h e then s e t the Universe in or d er,

and formed t h e C hannel fo r the Celestial River There .

after s h e created the guardians o f the four quarters ,

p l acing th e Black Tortoise in the nort h and giving it ,

control over winter ; the B lue Dragon in the east w h o ,

w as given contro l over spring ; the White Tiger in the

west, who was given control over autumn ; and the Red
Bird in the south , w h o w as given control over summ e r,
with t h e Go l den Dragon whose special duty was to
,

guard t h e s un , t h e moon being protected by t h e White

1
5 2 MYTHS OF C HI NA AND J A PAN
D e ity o f the west The brok e n pillar o f h e av e n w as
.

built up with stones colour e d like the fiv e go d s .

Among t h e gifts conferr e d o n mankind by this

Empress Goddess w as j ad e which s h e create d s o that
—
,

they might be protect e d against e vil influence and decay .

In this D e luge Myth whic h i s e vid e ntly o f B abylonian

,

origin th e gods figure as reb e ls and d e m ons The

,
.

Moth e r God d e ss is the protector of t h e Unive rse an d ,

t h e friend O f m an Evid e ntl y the cult O f the Mother

.

Godd e ss was at o n e time very pow e rful in Ch ina I n .

Japan the Empr e ss Nu K w a i s rem e mbere d as Jokwa .

The Tr e e O f Immortality , as has be e n see n is closel y ,

associated with the Far Eastern Mother Goddess who ,

may appear before favour e d mortals either as a beautiful

woman as a d ragon , o r as a woman riding o n a dragon,
,

o r as half woman a n d half fish o r half woman and half ,

serp e nt It i s from the goddess that t h e tr e e r e ceives

.

its soul substance ; in a sens e s h e is t h e tree as s h e

“ ”
, ,

is t h e moon and the po t o f life wat e r o r the mead in -

,

t h e moon T h e fruits o f t h e tr e e are symbols o f her as

.

t h e mother and th e s ap o f the tre e is her blood

, .

Refe rence h as b e e n mad e t o Far Eastern stories about

dragons transforming th e mselves into tre e s and trees
“ ”
becoming d ragons The tr e e was a
. k upua o f the

dragon The mother o f Adonis was a tree Myrrha

.
—

the daughter o f K ing Cinyras of Cyprus who w as trans ,

for m e d i nto a m yrrh tre e A Japan e s e l e gend relates

.

that a hero named Manko once s aw a beautiful woman

, ,

sitting o n a tr e e trunk that floate d o n the s e a

-
Sh e .

vanish e d sudd e nly Manko h ad the tre e ta k e n into

.

his boat, and found that the wo m an w as hi d den insi d e

t h e trunk S h e w as a daught e r O f the Dragon K ing
.

o f Ocean .

A b e tter known Japanese tr e e hero is Mo m o t aro

-
 THE M OTHE R GODDESS 1
53

(m om o, peac h ,
t a ro, eldest son
) w h ose
, name is usually
“
rendered in English as Little P e ac h l i n g H e is
known i n folk stories as a slayer of d emons a veritabl e
- —

Jack the Giant K iller —

.

T h e legend runs t h at o n e day an o l d wood c utt e r

-

we n t out to gather firewood , while his wife washe d

dirty clothes in a river A fter t h e woman had finis h ed
.

her work, s h e s aw a gigantic peach drifting past Seizing.

a po l e she brought it into shallow water, an d t h us secured

,

it The size of the peach astonished h e r great ly, and sh e

.

carried it home, and, having wash e d it , placed it before her

husband when h e returned h ome for his evening meal .

No sooner did the wood cutter b e gin to cut open t h e

-

peach than a baby boy em e rged from the kernel The .

couple, b e ing childless wer e gr e atly delight e d , and

,

looked upon the child as a gift from the Celestials and ,

they b e l ieved he had been sent so as to becom e t h eir

comfort and he l per when th ey grew too o l d to work .

Mo m o t ara, the elder son o f the peac h , as th e y

“ ”

called him , grew up to be a strong and valiant young

man , who performed feats o f strength that caused every
o n e to won d er at h im .

There came a day when , to the sorrow o f h is foster

parents , he announced that h e h ad reso l ved to leave
home and go to the Isle o f D e mons , wit h purpose to
S ecure a portion o f t h eir treasure This seemed to be
.

a perilous undertaking and the o l d couple attempt e d

,

to make him change his m ind Mo m o tara, however,

.

l aughed at th e ir fears, and said : Pl e ase m ake some

“

millet dump l ings for me I shal l need food for my

.

j ourney .

His foster mother prepared t h e d umpl ings and m uttered

-

good wish e s over them Th en Mo m o t ara bade the o l d

.

couple an affectionate farewell , and went o n h is way .

1
54 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D J A PAN
The young hero had n o t travelled far wh e n h e m et
a d o g whic h barke d o ut
,
“
B o w w o w ! wher e are you
°
-

going Peach s o n
,
-

“
I am going to the Isle of Demons to obtain
”
treasure th e lad answered
,
.

“
B o w w o w ! what are y o u carrying ?
—

I am carrying millet dumplings that my mother

made for me N O one in Japa n can make better
.

dumplings t h an these .
”

“
B o w w o w ! give me one and I shall go with y o u to
-

”
the Isle o f D emons .

The lad gave the dog a d umpling, and it fol l owed at

h is heels .

Mo m o t ara had not gone much farther when a monkey,

perched o n a tree call e d out to him , saying : K i a ! K i a !
,

where are you going , S o n of a Peach ?

Mo m o t ara answer e d t h e monkey as he h ad answere d
the d o g The monkey aske d for a dumpling, pro m ising
.

to j oin the par ty and when h e received on e h e s e t o ff

,

with the lad and the d o g .

The next a n ima l that hailed the lad was a pheasant ,

who called o ut : K e n ! K e n ! w h ere are you going, Son

”
of a Peach ?
Mo m o t ara told h im , and the bird , having received t h e
dumpling he asked fo r accompanied the lad , the dog , ,

and t h e monkey o n the quest o f treasure .

When t h e Island of Demons w as reached t h ey all

went togeth e r to wards the fortress in which the d e mon
king resided The pheasant fle w insid e to act as a
.

s
py . Th en the monkey climbed over t h e wall and
opened the gate s o that Mo m o t ara and the d o g w e re abl e
,

to enter t h e fortress without d i fli cul t y The demons , .

however soon caught sight of the intruders , and att e m pt e d

,

to kill them Mo m o t ara fought fiercely, assisted by the

.
1
5 6 MYTHS OF CHINA AND J A PAN
and was afterwards raised to t h e kingship by the goddess
Ishtar K arna the A ry o Indian Hector , the s o n of
.
,
-

Surya, the s un go d , and the virgin princess P ri t h a, was

— -

similarly s e t adrift i n an ark , an d was rescued from t h e

Ganges by a chil d less woman whose husband w as a
c h arioteer T h e poor couple reared t h e futur e hero
.

1
as their o w n s o n .

Adonis t h e s o n o f t h e myrrh tree was a Syrian

, ,

form o f Tammuz Horus was the s o n o f Osiris whose

.
,

body was e nclosed by a tree aft e r Set caused h is death

by setting him adrift in a chest When Isis found the .

tre e which had been cut down for a pillar, the pos
,

t h um o us conc e ption o f t h e son o f Osiris took place

?

The Mo m o tara l e g e nd has thus a l ong h istory .

T h e friendly animals figure in t h e fo l k tales o f many -

lands Mo m o t ara s fight fo r the treasure inclu d ing the

.
’

c l oak of invisibi l ity bears a close rese m blance to Sieg

,

fried s fight for the treasure o f the Nibelungs

’
In ?

western European , as in Far Eastern lore the treasure ,

is guarded by dragons as well as by dwarfs and giants

and oth e r d e mons W h en the dragon slayer is not
.
—

accompanied by friendly animals , h e receives help and

advice from birds w h ose language he acquires by e ating
a part o f the dragon or, as in the Egyptian tale after , ,

getting possession o f the book of sp e lls , guarded by

the D e athless Snake
“
When the Egyptian h er o
r e ads the spells he understands the language o f birds ,
beasts an d fishes The treasur e guarding dragon appears ,
, .
-

as has been suggested , to have had origin i n the belief

that sharks were the guardians of pearl b e ds and preyed —

upon the divers who stole their treasure .

1 In d i anMy th a nd L egend, pp 1 .
73 et s e
q .
, an d 1 2
9 9 4.
—

2
E gypti a n My t h an d L ege nd , p . 1 9 e t se
q .

1
T e uton i c My th an d L egend, pp .
3 52 3 7 6, 3 8 3 , 3 8 9 , 39 1 , 446 .
 TH E MOTHER GODDESS —
1
57
Th e beliefs connected with t h e life giving vi rtues o f -

the tree of the Moth er Goddess were attached to shells ,

pearls go l d , and j ad e The goddess was the sourc e of
, .

all life , and one of h er forms was the dragon As .

the dragon mother she created or gave birth to th e

-

dragon gods Dragon bones were gro und down fo r

-
.
-

medicinal purposes ; dragon h e rbs cured diseases ; the -

sa o f dragon trees like th e fruit promote d longevity

p
-
, , ,

as did the j ade whic h the god d ess had created for man
kind .

The beliefs connected with j ade were simi l ar to t h ose

conn e cted with p e arls which were at a remote period ,

emblems o f the moon in Egypt I n China the moon .

was the pearl o f heaven

“
One curious and wide
spread belief was that pearls were formed by rain
drops, O r by drops of dew from the moon , the source
of moisture and especially of nectar o r soma Pearls
,
.

and pearl shells wer e used for medicinal purposes They

—
.

were like the sap o f tr e es the very essence o f l ife

, ,

the so ul substance O f the Great Mother

-
.
1

That the complex ideas regarding shells , pearl s dew , ,

tre e s , the moon , the s un , the stars and the Great Moth e r ,
“ ”
were of spontaneous generation in m any separated
countries is di ffi cult to believe It is more probable that .

the culture complexes enshrined in folk tales and religious

— —

t e xts had a definite area o f origin i n wh ich their history

can be traced The searchers fo r precious stones and .

m e tals and incense bearing trees must have scatter e d —

their b e liefs far and wide when they exploite d l ocally

unappreciated forms of wealth .

1
F or be l i e f s c o n n e cte d r
w i t h pe a l s an d s h e l l s , s e e S h el l s as E v i d e nce qf th e Mig r a ti on s

qf E a rly C r
ul tu e, I . W fr J k ( d
il id ac son L on o n,
 C HA P TE R X I

T re e H e rb an d St o ne -
l o re
S o ul S ub s t a n ce i n Me d i c i n al P l an t s— L i fe fire i n
”
at e a n d P l an t s -
W r
”
r r
T h e B l o o d w h i c h i s L i fe — C o l o u S y m b o l i s m i n E as t an d e s t— Ch a m W
G
S y m b o l i sm — Fr J
e m s as V
ui t — a d e an d r r
e ge t at i o n — F ar E as t e n E l i x i s o f L i fe

—Li k b n Pi s C pr M dr k
etw ee n d Mne, r ry f T r r
y e ss, an a e , an ugw o t— S to o e as u e

fin
di ng r r i H M r
D o g— T h e F ar E d Fr i
as t e n A t e m s— er ugw o t , L o t us, an ut
k rb d P rl h l l G d W rb C i ’
B as et — H e s an ea —s
e d
— o a ts an o m en s H e — h ne se an

T r r F h f M rk T
a ta
’
s ig t or li i r an d a r Ri p e— ea as an E x — F ar E as t e n V an
Wi kl P r bl
n e s— f h D T r
o T r
em To r t e T r
at e ee ee ea s an d
“
S to n e ea s
”

W pi D i i G
ee ng d h d r
e t es —d G o at s anS p b ST un e -
go s— o at s a n d h ee eco m e to ne s

G rb
e m s an d i HM e Gr d d rb D
s c o n n e ct e d d w th o on — a e H e s, e i t i e s, a n S t o n es
—F r Ido e i gn Chi e as in na .

I n the ancient medical l ore of China as i n the medica l ,

lores f
oth e r lands , there are laudatory references to
o
”
“
All heal -
plants an d plants r e puted to b e specific
remedi e s fo r various diseases N o t a fe w o f thes e medicina l .

plants have been found to be e ither quite useless or

positively harmful , but some are included in modern
pharmacop oe ias , after h aving be e n submitted to the closest
investigations o f physio l ogical sci e nce .

The O ld herbalists , witch doctors and hereditary —

,

curers who made som e genuine discoveries t h at h ave

since been elaborated , were certainly not scientists in
”
the modern sense o f the term “
Th eir cures were .

a quaint mixture o f magic and r e ligion They searched .

for those plants and substances that appeared, eit h er

by their S hape o r colour, to contain in more concentrat e d
form than others the essenc e o f life , th e
“ “
sou l ”

”
substance that restored health and promoted longevi t y .
1 60 MYTHS OF C HINA A ND JAPAN
during a t h un d e r storm , like the Re d C loud h erb
-
T he
l atter required a heavy d e luge to bring it into existence .

”
I t was a special gift o f the dragon go d o r an avatar “ — —

o f that deity and had concentrated in it the essence

—

o f much rain , and in addition t h e esse n ce o f lightning

, ,
“ ”
the fire o f heaven , ej ected by th e rain dragon .

The lightning was t h e dragon s to ngue , and had

“ ’ ”

there fore substanc e moisture and h e at as wel l as

, , ,

brilliance. To th e early t h inkers the life fluid was

not only bl ood but warm blood b l ood pulsating with
,
—

the vital spark t h e fire o f life These men would

hav e accept e d in t h e l iteral sense t h e imagery of the
modern Irish poet, who wrote
O , t h e re w as li gh ti g in m y b
n n l o o d,

Re d l i gh t n i n g Ii gh t e n d t h ro u h
’
g m
y b lo o d ,
My D ar kR l n
o sa e e .

T h e fire of life might be l ocked up in vegetation ,

“

i n stone, o r in re d e arth , and be made manifest by its

colour alone .

T h e genesis of this idea can be traced at a very early

period in the h istory o f modern man (H om o sap i ens) .

I n Aurignacian times in western Europe (that is from ,

ten till tw e nty thousand years ago ) blood was identified

“
with life and consciousness The red substance in the .

”
blood which is life w as apparently regarded as th e
V italizing agency and w as supposed to be the same as red
,

earth (red och re ) It is found from the evidence a fforded

.
,

by burial customs that the Aurignacian race originated

,

o r perpetuate d the habit o f sm e aring the bodies of th e ir

dead with red ochr e A fter the flesh had decayed , the
.

red ochre fell on and coloured the bon e s and the pebbl e s
aroun d t h e bones Wh e ther o r not the red ochre was
.

supposed to be impregnated with the essence o f fire ,

 S Q U A RE B RI K C OF T H E H AN D Y N STY W T A , I H MYT O O C H L G I AL
F IG U R E S AN D N SC T ON S
I R IP I

T he r fi d r r p rr d d
e nclo s e r rd r
i n th er pr e c t a n g ul a anel S u by ge o m e t i ca l b o e s e nt

f r dr
o un
gu e

th e
W rr r T r
ou r
es

q ua
S p p a nt s

Nr
r
of

d th e C h i n e s e u
S a no sco e

f
. b e in g
e

: 1 .
a

T h e B l ue D a g o n
T h e Re d B i r
e

o f th e E as t .

T h e B la c k io to i s e a nd ent o th e th f th e o ut h

T r W
er o

fi
o
2

r a

r r s, o

r .
3 .
. .

W T he h i te i ge f th e t T he gh t c h a ic Ch a a c te ll i n g t h e i n t e v a ls
r d C
es ei a
4
d o

r d r s i n
. .

' ' '

h ch z u wan S tu c h a ng lo w e t y a ng F o r a t h o us a n a ut um n s a n d a m
ea :

ri en .

e v e l a s t i n g Jo y W i t h o ut e n d
y ia
y ea s
 1 62 M YTHS OF C HI NA AND J A PAN
as a shell , wholly or partly red , or as a red o r yel l ow
pearl inside a shell I t migh t likewise b e found c o n
.

c e n t rat e d in the red feathers o f a bird A bird with .

re d feathers was usually recognized as a thunder bird

“

”
—
Robin Red br e ast is a Europ e an thunder bird
— 1
and —

“
the red berry as a thunder berry a berry containing —

the
“
soul substance o f the god of lightning and fire .

Fire was obtain e d by friction from trees associated with

th e divine Thunderer ; h i s spirit dwelt in the tree One .

”
o f the
“
fire sticks was invariably taken from a red
berried tr e e .

The red V ital substance might likewise be disp l ayed

by a sacred fis h the thunder fish
—
“
In the Chin e se
“
Boy Blue story th e thunder dragon in h uman form —

rides o n the bac k of a re d carp .

Yellow is , like re d , rep ute d to be vital colour .

Lig h tning i s ye ll ow ; the flames of wood fires are yellow,

while th e embers are red Early man appears to have .

recognized the Close association o f yellow and red i n

fire Gol d is yellow, and it was connect e d, as a substitute
.

for red and yellow shells wit h the sun , which at morning
,

and evening sends fort h red and yel l ow rays The fire .

which is in t h e s un warms the blood and promotes

“ ”

th e growth of plants as does the moisture in t h e moon

,

th e moon which controls the flo w of s ap and b l ood .

The combination of s un fire , lunar fire and moisture - -

, ,

o r o f fire red earth and rain

-
constituted, according to ,

early man s way of thinking , the mystery call e d life

’
.

Yellow berries and yellow flowers were as sacr e d to him ,

and had as gre at life prolonging and curative qualities,
—

as red berries red flowers red feath e rs and th e S kins

, , ,

a n d scales of red fish Yellow gems and yellow metals

.

were consequently valued as highly as were re d gems

1
S om e d r rd
t h un e bi s are dr
a k as t h un dr
e -c lo u d s.
 TREE HER B AND STONE LORE -
1 63

and red metal s I n C h ina yellow is the earth colour

. .

In Ceylon , B urmah Tibet, and Chin a it is the sacred

,

colour o f the B uddhists .

B lue the sky colour and ther e fore the colour of

, ,

the s k y deity w as likewis e holy T o rq uo i s e and lapis

-
, .

lazuli w e re connected with t h e Great Mother Th e .

sacre d ness o f green has a more complex history It .

w as n o t reverenced simply becaus e o f the gr e enness O f

vegetation T h e m yst e rious substance that ma k es plants
.

green w as derived from the supr e me source o f life

the green form o f the water godd e ss o r god and was — —

t o be found in concentrated form in green gems and

stones including gre e n j ade W h ite was the colour of
, .

day the stars , an d the moon and black t h e colo ur o f

, ,

night and o f d e ath and th erefore th e colour of deities

,

associated with darkn e ss and t h e Oth erworld I n China .

black is the colour of the north o f winter and o f drought , , .

T h e combination o f the fiv e colours (black , wh ite red , ,

yellow and blue o r green ) w as d isp l ayed by al l deities

, .

This conception is enshrined in th e religious text w h ic h

De Visser gives without comm e nt
Ad g ra o n in t h e w at e r c o v e rs
” 1
him se lf w i t h fiv e l
c o o urs ;

T h eriyb re h e i s a
god .

I n China, as in sev e ral oth e r countries the co l our ,

o f an animal , plant , o r stone was beli e v e d to reveal its

character and attributes A re d be rry was r e gard e d with .

favour b e cause it displayed the l ife colour A red stone

, .

was favoured fo r t h e sam e reason When it is nowadays .

foun d that some particular berry o r h e rb favoured of ,

old as an A ll heal i s really an e ffi cacio us medicine ,

“ —
”
,

an enthusiast may inclin e t o regard it as a won d erful

t h ing that modern me d ical sci e nc e h as n o t achiev e d , in
1 De V r i s se , The Dr a
gon in C hi na an d
y apan, p . 63 .
1 64 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D JAPAN
some lines , greater triumphs than w e re achi e ved by the
“
simple observers of ancient times . B ut it may be
that the real cur e s were o f accidental discovery, an d that
the e ffe ctive berry o r h e rb woul d , o n account of its colour
alone have continu ed in use whether it h ad cure d or not
,
.

I n C hina not only t h e berry with a good colour

“

“
was used by curers but even the stone with a
“
goo d colour Th e physicians , for instance , some
times prescribed ground j ade , and we read of men who
died, because, as it was thought, t h e quantities of j ade
m e dicine taken were much too large Some ancient .

writers assert, i n t h is connection , that alt h ough a dose

o f ground j ade may bring this life to a spee d y end , it

wi l l ensure pro l onged life in the next world .

The berries and stones wh ich were r e puted to be

”
All heals were not always d evour e d Th ey could be
-
.

“
used si m ply as charms .The vital e ssence or soul
substance in berry o r stone was supposed to be s o
powerful that it warded o ff the attacks of the d e mons
of d isease, or expelle d t h e demons aft e r they had taken
possession of a pati e nt M edicines might be pr e pared
.

by simply dipping the c h arms into pure well water .

Th e s e charms were O ften worn as body ornaments Al l

-
.

th e ancient personal ornaments were magic charms that

gave protection o r regulated the functions o f body
organs When symbols were carved o n j ade the orna
.
,

ments w e r e believed to acquire increas e d e ff ectiveness .

Gold ornaments were invariab l y given symbolic shape .

Like the horse sho e , which in western Europe is nailed

-

o n a d oor fo r
“
luck ”
—
that i s to ward o ff evil t h ese
,
—

symbolic ornaments were cr e dited with luck bringing —

virtues The most ancient gold ornaments in t h e world

.

are found in Egypt and these are models of shells ,

,

which had been worn as l uck brin gers l ong before

“ —
1 66 MYTHS OF C HIN A AN D JAPAN
water above and beyond the firm am e n t, as well as the
rivers and t h e s e a .

“ ”
Good health i n the Otherworld was immortality
o r great longevity A soul which ate o f a peach from
.

the Worl d Tree was assured o f 3 0 0 0 years o f good

h ealth H e r e newe d his youth , and never gre w o l d ,
.

s o long as the supply o f peaches was ass ured

?

I n C hina men l e ngth ene d their days by partaking

of
“
soul substance in various forms The pine tree .
-

cul t m ade decoctions of pin e ne e dles an d cones, o r o f

“
the fungus found at th e roots of pines The j uice .

o f the pine
“
says one C hines e sage when consumed ,

for a long time renders the body light preve nts man, ,

from growing O ld , and le n gthens h i s life I ts leaves .

preserve the int e rior o f t h e body ; th e y cause a man

never to feel hung e r an d increase t h e y e ars o f his
'
,
”
life T h e c y pre s s w as also favour e d Cypress seeds .
,
“
the same writer asserts , if consum ed for a long p e riod ,

render a man h al e and h e althy They endow h i m with .

a good colour S harpen h is ears and ey e s cause h im

, ,

never to e xp e ri e nce the feeling o f hunger n o r to grow ,

”
o ld .The ca m phor tree comes next to the pine and
cypress as “
a dispenser and depository of vita l
” ?
power
Apparen tl y the fact that pines and cypresses are
evergreens recommended t h em to the C h inese alth ough ,

it was n o t for that reason only the belief arose about

their richness o f soul substance
“
An ancient Chin e s e
“
sage h as decl ared : Pin e s and cypresses alone o n this
eart h are endowed with l ife, in the midst of winter as
1 T he N o se r go d r
s r
g e w o l d w h e n th e appl e s o f i m m o t al i t y , k e pt b y t h e go dd e s s I un ,d
we r rr d
e ca ie aw ay . fr r r r
A t e t h e appl e s w e e e s t o e d, t h e y at e o f t h e m an d g e w y o un g r
agai n —
T e uton i c My th d L ege n d, p 5 7
an

r C
. . .

2
De G o o t, Th e Re li gi ous Sy s tem of h i n a, V o l I, p 3 0 0
. . .
 TRE E ,
HERB AN D STO N E -
LORE 1 67

w e ll as in summer th e y are e vergreen Pines 1 0 0 0 .

years Ol d resemble a blue o x , a blue d o g o r a blue ,

human b e ing Cypresses 1 0 0 0 y e ars o l d have deep

.

roots sh ap ed li he m en i n a si tti ng p ost ure W h en .

t h ey are cut they l ose blood Branches o f .

pines which are 3 0 0 0 years O ld h ave underneath the

bark accumulations o f resin in the shape of dragons ,

which , if pounded and consumed i n a quantity of full

ten pounds will e nab l e a man to live 5 0 0 years
,
.

H ere we have t h e tree con nected wit h the b l ue

dragon A S has been stated, anci e nt pines were trans
.

formed into dragons T h e assertion that the pines

.

“
and cypresses were the only trees possessed o f v i t al
”
pow e r does not accord with the evidence regarding
the peac h tree cult T h e peach , al though not an ever
-
.

green was credited with being possessed of m uc h sou l

,
“

substance
No doubt the ideas connected wit h evergreens h ad
a close association with t h e doctrines o f colour symbo l ism .

“ ”
The Chinese Tree o f H eaven (Ai la nth us gla nd ul osa)
appears to hav e attracted special attention , becaus e in
spring its leaves are coloured reddish vio l et o r reddish -

brown before they turn green The wal nut , cherry .

,

and p e ony similarly S how reddis h young leaves and ,

t h ese trees have m uc h l ore connected wit h t h em .

One seems to detect traces o f the beliefs connected

with the mandrake in the r e ference to t h e h uman shap e d .
-

roots o f th e 1 0 0 0 year o l d cypress tree The mandrake

- -
.

was the plant o f Aphrodit e , and its root, which res e mbles
t h e h uman form , w as used medicinally ; it h as narcotic
properti e s , and was b e lieved also to be a medicine w h ich
promoted fertility, assisted birth and caused youths and ,

girl s to fall in love with o n e another According to .

1 De G r o ot, T h e Rel i gi ous Sy stem qf C h i na, V o l I, p

. . 2
95 .
1 68 MYTHS OF CH INA AND JAP A N
mandrake l ore , the plant s h rieks when taken from the
-

eart h , and causes the death o f the o n e who p l ucks it ?

Dogs were consequently employed to drag it o ut o f

th e ground, and they expired immediately T h e man “
.

drake apple is b elieved by Dr Rende l Harris to h ave

”
.

”
been the original love apple ?
I n like manner the mugwort th e plant of Artemis , ,

was connected i n C h ina and Japan with the pin e whic h

had virtues S imilar to those of the herb Althoug h the .

mandrake dog is not associated with t h e cypress it is

-
,

found connected in a Japanese folk story with t h e pine —

.

The hero O f the tale, an O l d man called Hana Saka Jij i i ,

acquired the secret h o w to make withered trees b l ossom .

He possessed a wonderful dog, na m ed Shiro whic h o n e ,

day attracted his atten t ion by s n i fli ng, barking , and

wagging his t ai l at a certain spot in the cottage garden .

The old m an was puzzled to know what curious thing i n

the ground attracted the d o g and began to dig After , .

turning up a fe w S padefuls of earth he found a hoard o f

go l d and silver pieces .

A j ealous neighbour, having observed what had

happened, borrowed Shiro and set t h e animal to search
for treasure in his o wn garden The d o g began to sni ff .

and bark at a certain spot , but when the man turned over
the soil , h e found only dirt and o ffa l that emitted an
o ff ensive smell Angry at b e ing deceived by the d o g,
.

he killed it and buried the body be l ow the roots o f a

pine tree Hana Saka Jij i i was muc h distressed o n
.

account o f the loss of Shiro H e burned incense below .

t h e pine tree, laid flowers on the dog s grave, and shed ’

1 Sr k k
h ie s li rk r
e m an d a es to n o ut o f th e ea r th —
Rom eo a nd
7 ul z et, i v , 3 .

G iv e dr k
m e to in m an dr r ago a

T h at I m ay s l e e p o ut t h e r g e at gap of ti m e

2
My A n t h o ny i s a w ay . — A n th ony an d C l e opat r a.

The A scen t qf Oly mpus , pp . 1 0 7 e t se

q .
 TREE HER E ,
AN D STONE LORE
-
1 69

tears That nig h t h e dreamed a wonderful dream Th e

. .

ghost of S h iro appeared before him , and, addressing him ,

said : Cut down t h e pine tree above my grave and make
a rice mortar of it W h en you us e the mortar think
.

”
of me .

T h e Ol d man did as the dog advised , and discovered

to his great j o y that w h en he used t h e pine tree mortar -

each grain o f rice was transformed into pure go l d He .

soon became rich .

The envious neighbour discovered what was going on

and borrowed t h e mortar In his h ands , h owever, it
.

turned rice into dirt T h is enraged him so greatly that

.

he broke t h e mortar and burned it .

That nig h t the ghost o f Sh iro appeared once again in

a dream , and advised Hana Saka Jij i i to col l ect t h e ashes
of the burnt mortar and scatter them on withered trees .

Next morning h e did as the d o g advised him To his .

aston ishment he found t h at th e as h es caused withered

trees to come to life and send forth fres h and beautiful
b l ossoms He then went about the country and employed
.

himse l f reviving dead p l um and c h erry trees , and soon

became so renowned that a prince s e nt for him , asking
that he Sh ould bring back to life t h e wit h ered trees in h is
garden The o l d man received a ric h reward w h en h e
.

accomplis h ed t h e feat .

Th e j e alous neig h bour came to know h ow Hani Saka

revived dead trees s o h e co l lected w h at remained of
Jji i i ,

the ashes of the pine tree mortar Then h e s e t forth to

-
.

proclai m to the in h abitants of a roya l town t h at h e coul d

work the sam e miracle as Hani Saka Jij ii T h e prince .

sent for h im and the man climbed into the branches

,

o f a withered tree .But when h e scattered the ashes

no bud o r blossom appeared, and th e wind b l ew the dust
into t h e ey es of t h e prince and nearl y blinded him The .
 1 79 MYTH S O F CHIN A AND J APAN
impostor was seized and soundly beaten ; and the dog
Shiro was in this manner w e l l avenged
, , .

In this story t h e dog is a search e r fo r and giver o f

treas ure I t is o f S pecial interest therefore, to find that
.
,

A rtemis , the mugwort goddess o f the West , w as not “ -

only the opener o f tr e asure houses but s h e also possessed -

,

t h e s e cret of the Philosopher s Stone ; s h e could transmute

’

”
base substances into gold She could therefore grant .

rich e s to those whom Sh e favoured D r Rende l Harris , . .

quoting from an o l d English w riter records t h e belief ,

“
that upon St John s eve there are coals (whic h turn
.
’

to gold) to be found at midday under the roots of

mug wort, which aft e r or before that time are very smal l,
or none at al l ”
The gold cures S ickness ?
.

A similar belief was attached to the mandrake A .

French story te l ls o f a peasant wh o regularly fed a

man d rake that grew b e low a mistletoe bearing o ak The —
.

“
mandrake , when fed , would, it was believe d m ake you ,

rich by returning twic e as much as you spent upon it .

T h e plant had become an an ima l

”2
.

If S h iro s prototype was the mandrake dog w h ic h

’
-

sacrificed itself for the sake o f l overs , and was itself an

“
avatar of the deity, we S hould expect to find the pine
”

tree connect e d with the love goddess Joly, in his —

?

L ege nd i n Jap a ne se A rt (p tel l s that at Taka

“
.

sago there is a very old pin e tree, t h e trunk o f whic h

.

i s bifurcated ; in it dwells the spirit of the Maid e n o f

Takasago , w h o was seen once by the son of Izanagi who ,

fell in lov e and wedded her Both liv e d to a very great .

age, d ying at the same hour on the same day and since ,

1 E l l i o t S m i th , T h e E l uti on of th e
v o
2
Dr a
gon, p . 1 8 4 ; Re n d el H a rr i s, T h e A s cen t qf
Oly m pus, p 7 3 T h e A sce n t of Oly m p us, p 1 2 6
r r dfr r r
. . . .

3 A t e m i s as o dd e ss o f b i th w a s a s e c i al i z e
g p o m o f t h e G e at Mo t h e ,w h o w as
r f ,
dd ,
r r r
h e s e l t h e go e ss o f l o v e an d bi th , o f t e as u e , & c — th e A ll - m o t h e
. r .
1 72 MYTH S OF C HINA AN D JAPAN
basket of loquat fruits which s h e gathered for her S ick
mother She was a woman who h aving been promised
.
,

immortali ty in a dream fed on mother O f pearl and ,

- -
,

t h ereafter moved as swiftly as a bird The Mexican .

” 1

god Tlaloc s wife was similarly a mugwort goddess

’
.

I n the pine tree story the Japanese r e presentative

-

of the tree and lunar goddess of love appears with her -

S pouse on moonlig h t nights The moon was the .

Pearl o f Heaven I t will be noted t h at t h e mugwort

”
.

is connected with pearl Sh e ll the lady Ho Sien K u - —

having acquired the right to wear mugwort, in her

character as an immortal by eating mother o f pearl ,
- —
.

Th is con nection o f pear l shell with a medicinal plant i s -

a more arbitrary o n e than that O f the mugwort wit h

the pine , or the mandrake with the cypress .

The lotus was a form of the ancient l ove goddess -

,

as was also the cowry I n Egy pt the solar go d Horus .

-

emerges at birt h from t h e lotus form o f Hathor as i t -

floats o n t h e breast o f the Nile H o Sien K u s basket of .

’

“ ”
fruit is also symbolic A basket of sycamore figs .

was in Ancient Egypt originally the hierog l yp h ic sig n

“

for a woman a goddess , o r a mot h er

, I t had thus t h e ”
.

sam e significance as t h e P o t the lotus, t h e mandrake apple ,

—
,

and th e pomegranate The l atter symbo l supp l anted t h e .

?
Egyptian lotus in the IE ge an area
Mugwort as already stated was a medicine and
, , ,

ch iefly a woman s m edicine “

Th e p l ant
’
.

says Dr Rendel Harris , is Art e mis , and Artem is is the

.
“

’
plant Artemis is a woman s goddess and a maid s goddess
.
’

,
’
because s h e w as a woman s medicine and a mai d s ’

medicine ?
The mugwort promoted Ch i l d birth , and con -

1 J o ly , L egen d in
j a
pa nese A r t, p 1 65
Dr
. .

2 l uti on of t he 8 3, 1 99
E ll i o t S m i t h, T h e E v o a
gon, pp . 1 e t se
q .

3 Th e A s cen t qf ly p
O m us , 7 — 8 0
9 .
 1 74 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
Pliny, in his twenty eighth book, having as D r R e ndel
-

, .

”
Harris notes exhausted the herbals
, shows that a “
,

larg e r medicine is to be found in animal s and in

man
In C h ina the stag o r d e e r the stor k , and the tortoise
,

are associated with the Tr e e o f Life as emb l ems o f

”
longevity One is remind e d in this connection o f th e
.

Western , Eastern and Far Eastern legends about birds

,

that pluck and carry to hu m an beings l e aves o f th e “

” ”
plant o f life o r fungus o f immortality
“
and o f ,

My k e n m an and Ancient Egyptian repre sentations of

bulls , goats , deer Sz e , browsing o n vines and oth e r trees
, .

or bus h es that w e re suppos e d to contain the e l ixir o f

l ife , being sacred to the god d e ss an d shown as symbols
of her o r o f the god with whom she was associated
as mother o r spouse .

7 Another famous Far East e rn curative wort is the

i Like the fungus o f immortality , it grew o n
g ns en
g .

o n e o f the Islands of t h e B l e st Taken wit h m e r m aid s ’

.

flesh , it was supposed to l engthen the life o f man fo r

several centuries .

As described by F at h e rtJart o ux says t h e eighte e nth

“
century English wri t er , alre a d y quot e d , it has a white 2

root somewhat knotty, about half as thick as on e s little

,
’

fing e r ; and as it frequently parts into t w o branches n o t

,
,

unlike the forked parts o f a man , it is said from thence

to have O btained the name o f gi nse ng whic h implies a ,

resemblance of the human for m though indeed it has ,

no more o f such a lik e ness t h an is us ual among other

roots . From the root arises a perfectly smoot h and
roun d ish stem o f a pretty deep red colour , exc e pt towards
,
—

the surfac e o f the groun d wh e re it is so m e what w h iter

, .

A t the top of the stem is a sort o f j oint or knot, formed by

1
T h e A sce nt of Oly m pus, p 8 2
. .
2
T he C hi nese T r a v e l l e r, V o l . I, p . 2 39.
 TRE E , HER E , AN D STONE LORE
-
1 75

t h e shooting o ut of four branches , sometimes more, some

times less which sprea d as from a centr e The colour o f
, .

the branches undern e ath is gree n , wit h a whitish mixture ,

and the upper part is of a deep red like the stem .

Each branc h has fiv e leaves and the leaves make ,

“

a circular figure nearly parallel to the surface o f the

earth ”
. The berries are O f a beautifu l red colour ”

Here we hav e hints of the mandrake wit h out a doubt .

As a matter o f fact, the gi nseng has been identified with

the mandrake The plant evid e ntly attracted attention
.

because o f its colours and form A S it has a red stem .

“
and re d berries it is not surprising to learn that it
,

strengthens t h e vital spirits , is good against dizziness

in t h e head and dimness o f S ight, and prolongs life to
“
extrem e o l d age an d that those who are in health
often us e it to render themselves mor e strong and
vigorous The four leaved gi nse ng like the four leaved
-
,
-

clov e r, was apparently a symbol of th e four car d inal

points Its fiv e leaves and t h e circular figure formed
.
”

by th e m must have attracted those who selected five

colours for their go d s and adore d the sun .

T h e gi nseng is found on th e declivities o f mountains

covered with thick forests , upon the banks O f torr e nts o r
about the roots of tr e es and amidst a t h ousand other
,

di fferent forms of veg e tables

Conflicts took plac e betwe e n Tartars and Chinese for
possession o f t h e gi nseng, and o n e Tartar king had th e
“

whol e province where the gi nseng grows encompassed by

”
wooden palisades Guards patrolled about to hinder
.
“

t h e C hinese from searching fo r it

Tea first came into us e in China as a l ife pro l onger -
.

The S hrub is an evergreen and appears to have attract e d

,

the att e ntion o f the C hinese herbalists on t h at account .

Our eighteent h century writer says : A S to the properties

-
“
1 76 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
o are very much controverted by o ur p h ysicians ;
f tea , they
b ut the C h inese reckon it an e xcellent di l uter and
purifi e r o f the bloo d a great strengthener o f the brain
,

and stomach a promoter o f digestion , perspiration , and

,
”
cleanser o f th e veins and urethra Large quantities of .

“
tea were in China given in fevers and some sorts o f
colics ”
Our author adds : That t h e gout an d stone
.
“

are unknown in C h ina is ascribed to the use of this

” ?
plant
Apparently we o we not only some valuab l e medicines ,
but even the familiar cup o f tea, to the ancient searchers
for the e l ixir o f l ife and curative herbs Intoxicating .

liquors (a qua v i ta , i e “
water o f life ) h ave a similar
. .
”

h istory They were supposed to impart vigour to the

.

body and prolong life Withal , like the intoxicating

.

”
soma , drunk by A ry O l n d i an priests , they had a -

religious value as t h ey produced prophetic states

“ ”
.

Even the opium habit had a religious origin A qua v i t e .

‘
t

“ ”
was impregnated with soul substance , as was the j uice
o f grapes , o r, as the Hebr e ws put it,
“
t h e blood of ‘

” ?
grapes
A S Far Eastern be l iefs associated wit h curative p l ants
and curative stones (like j ade) have filtered westward , so
did Western beliefs fil ter eastward Dr Rende l Harris . .

has shown that myt h s and beliefs connected with the i v y

and mugwort, whic h were so prevalent in Ancient Greece,
can be traced across Siberia to K am s c h at k a The A inus .

”
of Japan regard the mistletoe as an All heal , as did the -

“
ancient Europeans T h e discovery of th e primitive
.

sanctity of i v y , mugwort, and mist l etoe , says Dr Harris , ”

.

mak e s a strong link between the early Gre e ks and other

early peoples both East and West, and it is probable
that we S hal l find many more contacts between peoples
1 2
T h e Ch i nes e T rav el l e r, V o l I, pp
. . 2 3 7 e t se
q . G e ne s i s , x l i x , 1 1 .
1 7 8 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
sustained by the h ueh u herb I n this m anner, accor d in g
.

to Chinese tradition , the discovery was made that th e

“
herb prolongs life, cures baldn e ss , turns grey hair black
again and tends to renew one s yout h
,
’
Great quantities ”
.

of h uch u tea must be dru n k for a considerable time, and

no other food taken if t h e desired results are to be fully
,

achi e v e d .

Other Rip Van Winkl e stories te l l of men who have

lived for centuries while conversing with immortals met
by chance , o r while taking part i n t h eir amuseme n ts like
the men in W e stern E uropean stories who enter fairy ,

knol l s and dance with fairy women , and t h ink they have
danced for a S ingle hour, but find , when they come o ut ,
t hat a w h o l e year has gone past .

One day a Taoist priest, named Wang Ch ih entered ,

a mountain forest to gather firewood He came to a .

cave in which sat t w o aged m e n playing chess , while

O thers looked on .The game fascinated Wang Chih ,
s o h e entered the cav e laid asi d e his chopper , and l ooked
,

on When he began to fe el hungry and thirsty he moved

.

as if to rise up and go away, although th e game had not

come to an end One of the spectators however, divining

.
,

h is intention , h and e d him a kernel, which l ooked like

”
“
a date stone , saying, Suck that .

Wang Chi h put the kernel in his mout h and found

that it r e fres h ed him s o that he experienced no further
desire fo r food o r drink .

Th e chess playing continued in S ilence and severa l

—
,

h ours, as it seemed, fle w past Then o n e o f the O ld

.

“
men spok e to Wang Chih , saying : I t is n o w a long
ti m e S ince you came to j oin o ur company I t h ink you .

shoul d return home .

Wang Chih rose to h is feet When h e grasped h is.

ch o er he w as astonished to find that the handle crumbled

pp
 TRE E , HER E , AN D STONE LORE -
1 79

to d ust On reac h ing h ome , h e discovered , like the

.

man who fe d o n the h uch u herb , t h at he had been missing

for one or tw o centuries Th e Ol d men with whom .

he h ad mingled in t h e cave were the immortals known ,

to t h e Chinese as S ten N ung, to the Japanese as S enni n,

and to t h e I ndians as Ri sh i s a class of demi gods who — -

once l ived on earth and achieved great merit, in the

spiritual sense by practising austerities in so l itude and
,

for l ong periods .

The reference to the d ate stone is O f special interest .

I n Babylonia and Assyria t h e date palm was one o f the

holy trees It w as cultivated in southern Persia and
.
,

may h ave been introduced into C h ina from t h at quarter .

A nother possibility is that the seeds we re go t from dates

carried by Arab traders to China, o r obtained from Arabs
by Chinese traders One O f the Chinese names for t h e
.

date resembles the Ancient Egyptian designation bunnu , .

Laufer, who discusses this problem , refe rs to ear l y

1

Chinese texts that mak e mention o f Mo l in , a distant -

country in which dark comp l exion e d natives subsist on-

“
dates Mo lin , earlier Mwa lin , is, Laufer thinks , i h
.
- -

tended for the Malindi o f Edri si o r Mulanda of Y aqi i t, ‘

now Malindi south of t h e Equator in S e y i d i e h Province

, ,

o f British East Africa The lore connected wit h other

”

Trees o f Life in China appears to h ave been transferred

“
t o t h e imported date palm One o f its names is j uj ube .

of a thousand years , o r j uj ube o f ten t h ousand years

“ ” ”
.

Laufer quotes a Chinese descriptio n o f the date pal m

whic h e mphasizes the fact that it remains ever green ,
“ ”

and te l ls that when t h e kerne l ripens the seeds are ,

black I n their appearance they resemb l e dried j uj ubes

. .

” 2
They are good to eat, and as sweet as candy .

Another Chinese Rip Van Winkle story re l ates t h a t

1
S i no I
-
r a ni ca
(Ch i cago, pp 3 8 5
. e t se
q
.
2
Ibi d .
, p. 3 8 6,
1 80 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
t wo men who wandered among the mountains met t w o
pretty girls They were entertained by t h em and fed
.
,

o n a concoction prepared from hemp Seven gen e rations .

went past while they enj oyed the company of the girls .

The hemp (o l d Persian and Sanskrit ba ngh a ) w as

cultivated at a re m ot e period in C hina and I ran A .

dr ug prepared from the seed is suppose d to prolong life

and to inspire those who partak e of it to proph e sy, aft e r
”
seeing visions and dreaming dreams The bang habit .

is as bad as the opium habit .

In the tree lore o f China there are interesting l inks

-

betwe e n tre e s and stones It has b e en S hown that j ade

.

“
was an avatar of the mother goddess w h o cre ated -
,

it for the benefit o f mankind ; that tre e foliage was i d e n t i

fie d with j ade ; that dragons were born from stones ;
“ ”
certain coloured stones wer e dragon e ggs , the eggs
”
of the Dragon Mother , t h e moth er goddess herself,
“ —

“ ”
who had many forms and many colours Sacred .

S tones were supposed to have dropped from the S k ,

y
or t o have grown in the earth Pliny refers to a stone .

that fell from the s un .

In Anci e nt Egypt it was believed that the creative

o r fertilizing t e ars o f the b e n e fic e n t deities , like those

of Osiris and Isis, caused good shrubs to spring up ,

and that th e tears o f a deity like Set, who became the

personification o f evil, produced poisonous plants T h e .

we e ping Praj apati o f the A e I n d ians resembl e s the -

weeping s un go d Ra o f Egypt
-
At the beginning .
,

Praj apati s tears fell into t h e water and became the air
’

“
an d the tears he wipe d away, upwar d s, became the
Sk
y
is evident that the idea o f the weeping deity
It
reached C h ina, fo r there are refer e nces to tree tears
“

1 In d i a n My th an d L egend , p . 1 00 .
1 82 MYTHS OF C HINA AND JAPAN
first plac e The l atter was employed as a remedy for
.

toothach e .

I n Babyl onia toothac h e was supposed to be caused

by the marsh worm d emon which devours the b l ood
-
“

o f the teet h
” ”
an d
“
destroys the strength o f the gums .

The go d Ea smites the worm , wh ich is a form of t h e

dragon Tiamat ?

The antique conception enshrined i n the weeping

tree is that the mother godd e ss o f the S k y S heds tears —
,

whic h cause the tree t o grow, and that as the tree , s h e ,

sh e ds tears that become stones , while t h e stones Sh ed

tears that p rovide soul substance to cure disease by
removing pain an d pro m oting h ealth In Egypt the .

stone specially sacre d to th e s k y god d ess Hathor was —

the turquoise in which w as apparently concentrate d

, , ,

the vital e ssence o r soul substance o f t h e S ky T h e

“ ”
.

goddess spra ng from water, and her tears were drops

of t h e primeval wat e r from which all things that are
issu e d forth Thos e stones that contained wat e r were
.

“ ”
in China dragon stones or dragon eggs I n various
countries there are legen d s about d e iti e s and men and ,

women have sprung from moisture S hedding stones -

.

The mother goddess o f Scotlan d , who presides over t h e

-

winter s e ason , transforms h ers e lf at the beginning of

summer into a ston e that is often s e en t o be cover e d
with moisture I n Nors e mythology the earliest gods
.

spring from stones that hav e been licked by the primeval

mother c o w -
Mithra o f Persia sprang from a rock
. .

I ndonesian beliefs regardi n g moist ston e s , fro m whic h

issue water and h uman beings , are fairly common ?

The K ayan o f Sumatra are familiar with the beliefs

that connect stones an d vegetables with the s k y and water .

1 r
S i no-I a n i ca, pp 3 39
—
42
2 My ths of B a by l oni a an d A ss
y ri a
pp 2 34- 5
rr C r
. .
, . .

y , M ega l i th i c
3
ul t u e
Pe of nd ones i a, p 6 8
I . .
 TRE E , HER E , AN D STONE LORE -
1 83

They say that in the beginning t h ere was a rock On

“
.

this rain fell and gave rise to moss , and th e worms , aided
by the dung beetl e s , made soi l by their castings Then .

a S word h andle came down from the s un and became

a large tree From the moon came a creeper which ,
.

h anging from the tree, mated through the action o f the

wind .
”
From t h is union of tree and creeper, i e sun . .

“ ” 1
and moon, the fir st men were produced
The connection between sky, plant, and ani m al s is
found in th e l ore regarding t h e C h inese sa nt si mountain
herb which is eaten by goats This herb, like other .

h erbs, is produced from t h e body moisture o f th e goddess ; -

it is the goddess herself t h e goddess who sprang from

—

water The plant is guarded by the mountain goat as

.

the pearls are guard e d by the s hark and the goat, w h ich ,

browses on the plant, is , like the shark, an avatar o f the

goddess Goat s b l ood is therefore as e ffi cacious as t h e
.
’

sa
p of the herb .

Th e goat or ram is t h e ve h icle o f t h e Indian fire

and lightning god Agni ; the Norse god T h or has a car
drawn by goats Dionysos , as Bromios (t h e Thunderer) ,
.

“ ”
has a goat avatar , too, and he is the god o f w ine
”
( Bacchus ) the
—
wine , the “
blood o f grapes , being th e
elixir of life Osiris , w h o h ad a ram form was to th e
.
,

Ancient Egyptians Lord o f t h e O v e rflo w i ng Wine

“ ”
.

European witc h es ride naked on goats o r on brooms ;

the devi l had a goat form .

I n C h ina, as has been S hown , t h e dragon h erb peach -

, ,

vine, pine, fungus o f immortality, gi nseng, SI C , received

“
their sap o r blood, or soul substance from rai n
,

released by dragon gods , who thundered l ike Bromios

Dionysos T h e inexhaustible po t from which life giving
.
-

water came was in the moon T h is Pot was t h e mot h er .

1 Megal i th i c r
Cul tu e
qf Ind on esi a ,.
p 92 .
1 84 MYTHS OF CH INA AND JAPAN
go d dess w h o h ad a star form A fertilizing tear from
, .

”
the godd e ss star, which falls o n the Night o f the Drop ,
-

is still suppose d i n Egypt t o caus e t h e Nile to rise in

flood .

We should exp e ct to find the Chinese mythological

cycle complete d by an arbitrary connection betw e en the
goat o r ram and sacred stones .

There are t o begin with c e lestial goats Some of

, , .

t h e Far Eastern dem i gods , already referred to , ride

‘
—

throug h Cloud land o n the backs of goats o r sheep

“ —
”
.

One of th e eight d emi gods w h o personify the eight—

,

points o f the compass , is called b y the Chinese Hwang

C h u P ing and by the Japanese K o s h o h e i He is said
’ ’
—
, .

”
t o be an incarnation o f the
“
rain priest , Ch ih Sung -
’

Tze , who has fo r his wife a daught e r o f the Royal Mother

of the West, th e mother goddess of t h e Peach Tree -

o f Life .

The Japanese version o f the l eg e nd o f t h e famous

“
K o s h o h e i is given by Joly as follows : K o s h o h e i when ,

fifteen years o ld l ed his herd of goats to the K i n H w a

,

mountains , an d , having found a grotto , stayed there for

forty years in meditation His broth er, Shoki , was a
.

priest and he vowed to find the missing shepherd Once

,
.

he walked n e ar the mountain and he was told o f the

recluse by a sage named Z e nj u, and s e t o ut to find him .

He recognized h is brother, but expressed his astonishment

at t h e absence o f sh eep o r goats K o s h o h e i t h ereupon .

touched with his sta ff the white stones with which the
ground w as strewn , an d as h e touched th em they became
alive in the shape o f goats .

Goats might becom e ston es The Great Mother was .

a stone rock o r mountain , having the power t o assume

, ,

ma ny forms, because s h e was the life of all things and the

1 L egend i n Jp
a anese A rt, p . 1 95 .
 TRE E ,
HERB AN D STONE LORE -
1 85

substanc e of all things The godd e ss was t h e Mountain

.

of Dawn in labour that brought forth the mous e form —

o f the s un Sminth eus Apollo the ant e lop e form o f

( ), o r

the s un , o r th e hawk o r eagle form , o r the human

form o r the egg containing t h e s un go d She was also
,
—
.

the s un boat the dragon ship o f th e s un

- —
The five
-
.

holy mountains o f China appear to have b e en originally

connected with the goddess and h e r sons the gods o f —

the four quart e rs .

I n C h ina deities might o n occasion take t h e form o f

stones o r reptiles D uring the C hou Dynasty (7 5 6
.

“ “
one o f the feudal dukes says Giles s aw a vision ,

o f a yellow serp e nt w h ich descended from heaven , and

laid its head o n the s l o pe o f a mountain The duke ,

.

spoke of this to his astrologer, w h o said It is a manifesta ,

tion o f God ; sacrifice to it In B C another duke ’

. . .

found o n a mountain a being in the se m blance of a stone .

Sacrifices were at once o ffe re d , and the stone w as deifi e d

1 ”
and received regular worship from that time forward .

Gil e s states further in connection with Chinese god

stones : Under 5 3 2 B C we have t h e record o f a stone
“
. .

speaking Th e Marquis Lu inquired o f h is chi e f

.

m usician if t h is was a fact, and received the following

answer : “
Stones cannot speak Perhaps t h is o n e was .

poss e ssed by a spirit If not, the people m ust have h eard

.

wrong And yet it is said that when things are don e

.

o ut o f season and discontents and complaints are stirring

”2
among the people, then speechl e ss things do speak .

Precious stones were, like boul ders or mountains ,

l inked wit h the Great Mother I n Egypt the red j aspar .

amulet , cal l ed the girdle o f Isis , was suppos e d to be

“ ”

a precious d rop of the life blood o f that goddess Herbs -

.

were con nected wit h precious stones, and were credited

1 2
Rel i gi ons qf A nci en t Obi na, pp . 2 4- 5 . Ibi d , pp 3 8 — 9
. .
1 86 MYTHS OF C HI NA A ND JAPAN
with the attributes and characteristics o f these stones .

There are many refe rences in Chinese , I n d ian , and other

texts and folk lores t o gems that gleam in darkness No
-
.

gems d o The man d rake w as similarly beli e ved t o shine

.

at night B oth gem and herb were associated with th e

.

moon a form of the mother goddess and wer e supposed

,
-
,

t o give forth lig h t like the moon j ust as ston e s associated

1
,

with t h e rain mother were supposed to become moist

—
,

o r to send forth a stream of water o r to sh e d tears li k e ,

”
the weeping tre e s , and lik e the s k y from whic h drop
“

rain an d d e w The attributes o f the goddess were shared

.

by h er avatars
The amount o r str e ngth o f t h e soul substance in
“ -

tre e s h e rbs well water ston e s and animals vari e d greatl y

, ,
-

, ,
.

”
Some elixirs derived from o n e or other o f these avatars
might prolo n g life by a fe w years ; other elixirs might
ensur e m any years o f health .

The di ff er e nce b e t we e n a m edicinal herb and the herb

of immortali t y w as o n e o f degre e in pot e ncy T h e .

“
form er w as imbue d with su ffi cient soul substance to —

cure a patient s ufie ri n g from a d isease or to give good ,

health fo r months o r eve n years ; t h e latter gave ex t re m e ly

,

good health and those w h o partook of it lived for l ong

,

periods in the Ot h erworld .

Even the spiritual b e ings (Zing) o f C h ina were

“

graded Th e four Zing, as De Visser states, are th e

.
“

”
unicorn the ph oe nix the tortoise and the dragon
, ,
The , .

dragon is credit e d wit h being possessed of most ! i ng of

“

” 2
all cr e atures
Stones were likewise graded Precious stones had .

more Zing than ordinary stones Precious stones are .

sometimes referred to as p i si One Chin e se writer says -

.

1
S e e Ch a pt e rX III re s h i n i n g ge m s, ja d e, co r al , &c
Dr Jp
.

2 l e
gon i n Clz i na
a a nd a a n,
pp 3 9
. an d 64 .
 1 88 MYTHS OF C H INA AND JAPA N
may be found the history of complex beliefs that travelled
far and wide Even those peopl e s who did n o t adopt
.
1
,

or at any rate perp e t uate the custom o f m um m i fic at i o n

, , ,

adopte d the belief that it was necessary t o preserve th e

corpse This belief is still prevalent in China , as will
.

b e shown , but magic takes th e place o f surgery .

In t h e next chapter evi d e nce will be provide d to

“
in d icat e h o w the overland drift o f culture towards
China was impelled by th e forces at work in B abylonia
and Egypt .

1
E l l i o t S m i t h , T he M i grati on of E ar ly C ul ture (L o n d o n, an d T he E l uti on
v o

of th e Dr a
gon (L o n d o n,
 C HA P TE R XI I
H ow C o ppe r l r r e a c h e d C h ina
—
c u tu e

Me t al s c o n n e c te d i h D i i
w t I r d i f C pp r S r g l
e t e s— nt o uc t on o o e — t u g es fo r
th e Fi r st
“
Mi n e -
L an d
”
E rly M
— l ark i g i C A i
e ta -
wo n n auc as us , rm e n a, an d

Pe r s i a— C i v i l i z at i o ns o f T r C pi C
ans - B by l
asi Ifl ian ase s— a o n an n ue n c e n Mi d
A s i a— r
B o n z e a n d ad e J ca rr i ed i n to E u rp
o e— A n ci e n t “
G ld o Ru h s es to

r r
S i b e i a— D i s co v e i e s i n C h i n e se T u rk e s t an — J ad e ca rri d e to B ab y l o n i a— L i n k s

b e t w e e n C h i n a, an , an Ir d S i b ri Bre a— o nz e - l k
b e t w e e n h i n a an d E u o pe
in s C r
r
E v i d e n ce o f O n am e n t s a n d r
My t h s— E a ly Me t al w o n g— F ar E as t e n an d
-
rki r
E u rp o e an F r u n ace s I d e n t i c al— C h i n e s e C i v i l i z a t i o n d at e s om 1 70 0 B C fr . .

l r
C u tu e- m i xi ng i n A n ci e n t T im es .

The persistent and enterprising searc h for wealt h

in ancient times , w h ich , as will be shown in t h is chapter ,

had s o muc h to do with t h e spread o f civilization , may

seem quite a natural thing to mod e rn man But it is .

really as remarkable when we consider the circumstances , ,

to find the early peoples possessed o f th e greed of gold

as it woul d be to find hungry men w h o have been ship
wrec k e d on a lonely island more conc e rned about its
mi n eral resourc e s than the food and water t h ey were
absolutel y in ne e d o f What was t h e good o f gol d in .

an ancient civilizatio n that had n o coinage ? What

attraction coul d it possibly hold fo r desert nomads ?
Th e value attache d to gold which is a comparative l y ,

usel ess metal , has always be e n a fictitious value As .

we have seen , it became precious in ancient times n o t ,

b e cause o f its purchasing power , but fo r t h e reason that

it had religious associations The early peoples regarded .

the
precious m eta l as an “
avatar o f the l ife giving and —

1 89
1 9 0 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
life sustaining Great Mother go d dess th e Go l den
- — “

Hat h or , th e Golden Aphro d ite

“ ” ”
.

I n Egypt Baby l onia , Greece I ndia and C h ina t h e

, , ,

c o w an d s k
y goddess the source of
—
fertilizing water , was , ,

in the literal sense a goddess o f gold I n India o n e , .

of the five Sanskrit nam e s for gol d is C h andra ( the “ 1

“
moon and the Indus was called Golden Stream
not merely because gold was found in its sand but
because o f its connection with the ce l estials Gold .

is th e obj ect of the wishes of the Vedic singer and golden ,

treasures are mentioned as given by patrons along with ,

cows and horses Gol d was used for ornaments for neck
.

and breast , for ear rings and even for cups Gold is —
,
.

always associated with the go d s All that is connected .

‘
with them is o f gold ; the horses o f the s un are gold
skinned and so on ’

,
This summary by t w o dis .

t i n gui s h e d Sanskrit scholars emphasizes the close connec

tion that exist e d in I ndia between gold and gold ornaments
and religious beliefs .
2

”
“
Gold , a reader may contend , is , o f course , a
“

beautiful metal , and th e ancients may wel l have been

attracted by its beau ty when they b e gan to utilize it
fo r ornaments But is there any proof t h at ornaments
.

were adopt e d because, in the first place they made

, ,

appeal to the ae sthetic sense which , after all is a cultivated , ,

sense , and not to be entirely d ivorced from certain m ental

leanings produce d by the e xperiences and customs
of many g e n e rations ? Do ornaments really beautify
those w h o wear them ? Was it the aesthetic sense t h at
prompted the early peop l es to pierce their noses and
ears ; and to extend th e lobes o f their ears s o as to
1 T he o th e r n am e s are J at a- rfi pa, S u-v a r n a, H at i t a, an d H i ran y a
d d
.

2 Mac o n e l l an d K e i t h, Ve d i c In d ex q anz es a nd S ubj ec ts

(L o n o n, V o l II,
d
.

p 50 4
. . S ee al s o fo r m o o n an d go l , V o l I, 2 5 4
. .
1
9 2 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
these as Washington Irving says t h e natives woul d ,
1 “

skilfully separate and give to the Spaniards, without

expect i ng a recompense
No doubt the ear l y searchers for gold in Africa and
Asia met with m any peop l es w h o were as much amused
and interested, and as h e lpfu l, as w e re t h e natives of the
N e w W or l d , who welcomed the Spaniards as visitors
from t h e s k y .

Gold w as the earliest metal worked by man I t was .

first used in Egypt to fashion imitation s e a shells, and the -

magical and r e ligious value attached to the shells was

transferr e d to the gold which , in consequence, became
“ “ ”
precious or holy
Copp e r was the next meta l to be worked It was .

similarly used for the manufactur e of personal ornaments

and other sacred obj ects being regarded apparent l y,,

to begin with as a variety o f gold But in time some

, .
—

centuries it would appear, after copper was first extracted

,

from malac h ite some pioneer o f a n e w era began to

—

util ize it as a substitute for flint and copper knives and ,

oth e r impl e m ents were introduced This d iscovery o f .

the usefulness of copp e r had far reaching e ffects , and —

greatly increased the demand for t h e magical metal .

Increasing numbers o f miners were employed , and search

was mad e for new copper mines by enterprising prosp e ctors
-

who , in Egypt, were employed, or, at any rate protected , ,

by the Stat e This s e arch had much to do with pro m o t

.

ing race movements, an d introducing not only n e w modes

o f life but n e w modes of t h ought into lands situated

at great distanc e s from the areas i n which these m odes

o f life and thought had origin Th e m etal workers wer e
.
-

the missionaries o f a New Age I n this chapter it will be .

shown h o w they reached China .

1
s e and
y g of
Vo a es Ch r i s t o h e r Col um bus
p ( L o n d o n, 1 70 3 E d i t i o n ), p . 24
3 .
 COPPER CULTURE REACHES C H I NA
—
1
93

Arch aeo l ogists are not agreed as to w h ere copper was

first used for the man ufacture of weapons and implements .

Some favour Egypt, and oth ers M esopotamia I n th e .

former country t h e useful metal was worked in pre

Dynastic times t h at is, before 3 5 0 0 B C or 4 5 0 0 B C
,
. . . .

Copper ornaments and obj ects , fo und in graves earlier

than the middle pre Dynastic period wrote the l ate -

Mr Leonard W K ing, are small and o f littl e practical

.
“
.

utility as compared with the beautifully flaked flint knives,

daggers , and lances At a rather l ater stage i n the
.

pre Dynastic period, copper dagger blades and adzes were

— —

produced in imitation of flint and stone forms , and t h ese

mark the transition to the h eavy weapons and tools of
copper which , i n the early Dynastic period , largely ousted
flint and stone implements fo r practical use The gradua l .

attainment of skill in the working of copper ore on

the part of t h e early Egyptians had a marked e ffect
o n the whole status of their culture Their improved .

weapons enab l ed them by conquest t o draw their raw

material s from a far more extended area 1
.
”

Copper was found in the wadis o f Upper Egypt and

o n t h e Red Sea coast i n those very areas i n whic h go l d
—

was worked for generations before copper was extracted

from malachite At a l at e r period t h e Pharaohs sent
.

gangs of min e rs to work the copper m ines in the Sinaitic —

peninsu l a K ing S e m e rk e t, o f th e early Dynastic age,

.

had men extracting copper i n the Wadi Maghara His .

expedition was exposed to the depredations o f the wild

tribes of Beduin and he recorded h i s punishment
o f them i n a re l ief on t h e rocks of t h e Wadi
”
There .

is evidence that at th is remote period the P h araohs

.

“
maintained foreign relations with far remote peop l es 2 ”
.

A record of a l ater age (e 2 0 0 0 R C ) aflo rd s us a vivid

‘

. .

1 H i s to r
y f
o S um e r and A kkad , pp 3 2 6— 7
. .
2
B r e as t e d ,A H i s t o y on r ypt, p 4 8
. .

( D 71 ) 1 4
1 94 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
glimpse o f life in t h e Mine Land “
An o fli ci al re -

corded i n an inscription that he had been sent t h ere in

“
what he calls the Evil summer season He comp l ained ,
“
I t is not the season for going t o this M ine Land -
.

The h ighlands are hot in summer , and the mountains

brand the skin Yet h e could boast that h e extracted
.
”
:

more copper than h e had been ordered to obtain 1 ”

Th e transition from stone to copper cannot be traced

in ancient Babylonia Sum e rian history begins at the
.

seaport Eridu , when that centre of civilization was situated

at the head o f the P ersian Gulf a fact that suggests the —

settlement there of seafaring colonists At the dawn of .

Sumerian culture, copper too l s and weapons had come

into use No metals cou l d be found i n t h e al l uvia l
.

“ ”
plain o f Shinar
Th e early B abylonians (Sumerians) had to obtain their
suppli e s o f copper from Sinai , Armenia, the Caucasus
area , and Persia It may be that their earliest supplies
.

“
ca m e from Sinai , and that t h e battles in that M ine
Land record e d in early Egyptian inscriptions, were
foug h t betwe e n riva l claimants of the ore from t h e Nile
valley and the valley o f the Tigris and Euphrates One .

“
ancient Pharaoh refers in an inscription to his first
occurrenc e of smiting t h e Easter n ers in Sinai “
This ”
.

”
designation , comments Breasted, o f the event as th e
“

first occurr e nce would in d icate t h at it was a customary

‘ ’

thing for the kings of th e time (First Dynas t y, 5 3 5 0 0 .

to c h astise the barbarians But were they really .

” 2

“ ”
barbarians ? Is it lik e ly that barbarians woul d be
found in such a region , especially in summer ? I t is
“ ”
more probable that the Easterners came from an area
in which the demand for copper was as great as it was in
Egypt
1
B r e as t e d , A H i s to y
r
n
o y p t, p. 1 90 .
3 Ibi d, p 43
. .
1
9 6 M YTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPAN
t h e Bull o f Heaven the s k y god , whose moth e r or
“ -

spouse was the C o w o f Heaven

“ “
are inlaid wit h ”
—

mother o f pearl an d lapis lazuli

- —
A very similar method —

is met with in the copper head of a goat which was found

” 1
at Fara Here we find fused in early Sumerian religious
.

o bj ects complex re l igious beliefs connected with d o m e s t i

c a t e d animals s e a shells and metals ,

-
, .

The opinion , suggested here by t h e writer, that the

battles between rival miners in Sinai compe ll ed the
Sumerians to search for copper elsew h ere and to discover
means whereby the softer copper coul d be hardened ,
appears to accord with the V iew that bronze was first
manufactured in Babylonia, or in some area co l onized by
Babylonia I n his able summary of the arch aeological evi
.

dence regarding the introduction of bronze, Sir Hercules

Read shows that the attribution o f the discovery to
“

” 2
Babylonia is preferred as o ff ering fewest d i fficul t i e s .

Recent arch ae ological finds make o ut a goo d case

“
for Russian Turkestan as the cradle of the bronze
”
industry .

I n Troy and Crete bronze supplanted flint and o b

sidian There w as no Copper Age in eit h er o f these
.

culture centres T h e copper art i fract s found in Crete are

.

simply smal l and useless votive axes and ot h er re l igious

obj ects .

Whence did the Babylonians receive , after the dis

c o v e r was made h o w to manufacture bronze , the necessary
y
”
supplies of tin ? Armenia and the Caucasus appear , as
“

Read says to be devoid of stanniferous ores

,
A ppar ”
.

ently the early m e tal searchers had gone as far as K h o ras

-

san i n Persia before their fellows had ceased to wage

“ ”
battles with Egyptians in the Sinaitic Mine Land Tin —
.

1
L W r
K i n g, A H i s t o y q am e r andA hka d, pp 74, 7 5
r r
. . . .

2
B i ti s h Muse um G ui d e t o t he A n ti qui ti e s of th e B on z e A ge, p . 1 0 .
 COPPER CULTURE REACHES CHI NA -
1 97

h as been located at K horassan and in other parts of “

Persia, near Ast e rabad and Tabriz From such areas .

1

as these Reid says , t h e tin used in casting the earliest

bronze may have been derived We are n o w fairly on
our way al ong the highway l eading to China “
I n Eastern .

Asia, beyond the radius of t h e ancient civi l izations of

“
Mesopotamia Read continues , there woul d seem to
be no region likely to have witnessed t h e discovery (of
h o w to work bronze) nearer t h an Sout h ern China ; for
India whic h has copper imp l ements of a very primitive
,

typ e is poor i n tin

, w h i l e the Malay penins ul a, an e x
t re m e l y rich stanniferous r e gion does not appear to h ave ,
”
been mined in v e ry ancient times I t is unlikely that .
2

bronze was first man ufactured in C h ina considering the ,

period o f its introduction into Babylonia w h ich antedates ,

by several centuries the earliest traces o f civilization i n the

Far East .

T h e history of the deve l opment of the industries and

commerce of early Babylonia is t h e h istory of the growt h
and dissemination of civi l ization , not on l y in western
Asia, but in the Mid East and the Far East
Babylonia, t h e Asiatic granary o f the ancient worl d ,
lay across th e trade routes Bo t h its si t uation and its .

agricultural resources gave it great commercial importance .

It h ad abundant supplies of s urp l u s food to stimul ate

trade and its industria l activity created a demand for
,

materials t h at cou l d not be obtained i n t h e ric h al l uvia l

plain .
“
Over the Persian Gu l f , says Professor Good ”

3 “ ”
speed, teak wood found in Eridu (the seaside cradle
-
,

o f Sumerian c ulture as broug h t from India Cotton

) w , .

al so made its way from the same source to t h e sout h ern

cities Over Arabia, by way o f Ur, wh ich stood at the
.

1
r
B i ti sh M use um G ui d e r
A nt i qui ti es of th e B on z e A ge, p 9
to the

r
. .

y i a ns, p 74~
2 Ibi d 3
.
,p
.
9 .
y of th e B a by l on i ans a nd A ss
A H i stor .
 1
9 8 M YTHS OF CHIN A AND JAPAN
foot of a natural op e ning from t h e desert were led the
caravans l aden with stone, spices , copper, and go l d from 1

Sinai , Yemen and Egypt Door sockets o f Sinaitic stone

, .
-

”
found at Nippur attest this t rafli c C edar wood was i m .

ported from the Syrian mountains for the adornment of

pal aces and temples From the east, down the pass of .

H o l wan, came the marble and precious metal of the moun

tains Muc h o f t h is raw material was worked over by
.

Babyl onian artisans and s h ipped back to less favoured -

l ands, al ong with the grain , dates and fish , t h e rugs and ,

cl oths of native production Al l this traffi c was in th e .

hands of Babylonian traders, who fearl essly ventured into

t h e borders of distant countries , and m ust h a v e ca rri ed w i th
th em th i th er th e now l ed e of th e c i v i l i z a ti on a nd w ea l th o
k g f
th ei r ow n h om e, for only th us ca n th e w i d esp re a d i nfluence f
o
”
B a by l oni a n cult ure i n th e e arl i est p eri od s be ex
p l a i n ed .

It was evidently d ue to the influence o f the searchers

fo r metals and the trad e rs that the culture o f early Sumeria
spread across t h e Iranian plateau As Laufer has shown .
,
2

the Iranians were the great mediators between th e W est

”
and the East The Chinese were positive utilitarians,
and always interested in matters of reality ; they have
beq ueat h ed to us a great amount of useful information on
Irania n p l ants , products , anima l s , m inerals , customs and ,
”
institutions Not only plants but also Western ideas
.

were conveyed to C h ina by th e Iranians 3

.

T h e discoveries o f arch aeological relics made by the

De Morgan Expedition in Elam (western Persia) and ,

by th e P um pe l ly Expedition in Russian Turkestan have ,

provid e d further evidence that Sumero Babylonian civiliza -

1 In t h e T r
e l l- e l - A m a n a l e t te r W r
s, e s t e n — A s i an r
m o n a ch s are el o
que n t i n t h e i r
r e
que s ts fo r go l d fr om E gy pt In o n e a B ab y l o n i an k i ng “
as k s fo r m uch go l d an d

r
.

”
c om pl ai ns t h at t h e l as t s uppl y w as b a s e, an d t h at t h e e w as m uc h l o ss i n m e l t i ng

r C C r
.

i buti ons y of Ci v i li z
2 H i s tor i i n A nci e n t Iran
S i no I a ni ca :
-
hi nese on t to th e a t on .

3 Ibi d
C h i cago , 1
9 9 1 . .
, p. 1 85 .
20 0 MYTH S OF C HINA AND JAPAN
N e w trad e routes were opened up and connections estab
only with Elam and B abylonia in t h e sout h ,
l i s h e d , not
but with Egypt, through Palestine , and with Crete and
with the whol e JE ge an area Troy became the c l earing “
.

house o f this earl y trade flowing from western Asia

into Europe The enterprising sea kings of Crete appear
.
-

to have penetrated the Dardanelles and reached the

eastern s h ores of t h e B l ack Sea, w h ere they tapped the
overland trade routes 1
Dr Hubert Sc h midt who ac . .
,

companied the P um pe ll y expedition to Russian Turk

estan in 1 9 0 3 4, found Cretan Vasi l iki pottery in one
—

o f the excavated mounds , and , in another,

“
t h ree sid e d —

s eal stones o f Mid d le Minoan type

-

(c 20 0 0 eu .

graved with Minoan designs T h ere is evidence which 2

suggests that this trade in metals between western Asia

and t h e n ean area was in existence l ong before 2 5 0 0
B C , and not long after 3 0 0 0 B C
. . . .

One o f t h e great c e ntres of Mesopotamian culture in

t h e sout h eastern Caspian area was Anau, near Askabad , on
-

the M erve Caspian railway route Another was Meshed ,

—
.

which l ies to the south east of Anau i n a ric h meta ll iferous -

“ ”
mountain region One of th e K urgans
.
(mounds )
excavated at Anau yielded arch wo l o gi cal relics that indi
c at e d an early con nection bet w een Turkestan and E l am i n

south western Persia I n anot h er K urgan were found

-
.
”

traces o f a copper cu l ture The ear l y searchers for metal s

-
.

were evidently the originators or introducers o f this cu l

ture, and as t h e stratum contained baked clay figurines
o f the Sumerian mother goddess , the protot pe o f Is h tar,
y
-

l ittle doubt can remain whence came the earli e st miners .

This r e gion o f deso l ate sand dunes was in ancient times -

irrigate d by the Mesopotamian colonists who sowed not

only th e seeds of barley, wheat , and millet, but al so t h e
1
Mrs . H aw e s, G ou r ni a,
p 33
. .
2 The D aw n
of Med i te r r a ne an Ci v i l i z a ti on, pp. 62 - 3 .
C o py ri gh t H G F o urm e , F R G S

AN O FF NG
E RI TO T HE G ODS , NG
PE K I
20 2 MYTH S OF C HINA AND JAPAN
wards the east Gold can still b e easi l y found ev e ry
.
“

where and in every form in Siberia The Al tai m e ans .

“ ”
gold mountains , and these yield silver and copper as
well as gold Indeed , eastern Siberia is a much richer
.

m etal l iferous area than western Siberia, and this fact

appears to have been ascertained at a very remote period .

The searchers for metals not only col l ected go l d , copper,

and silver on the Altai Mountains and the area of the
upper reac h es o f the Y e n e s e i River but a l so penetrated ,

into Chinese Turkestan , where , as i n Russian Turkestan ,

trading colonies were founded , the metal s were worked ,

and the agric ultural mode of life , including the system o f

irrigation , adopted with undoubted success Important .
1

arch aeological excavations , conducted by Dr Stein in .

“
Chinese Turkestan , on b e half o f the I ndian Govern
”
ment , have revealed trac e s o f the far reaching influences -

exercised by Mesopotamian culture in a region n o w

covered by the vast an d confusing sand dunes o f the —

Taklamakan Desert At K h otan the discoveries made .

were of similar character to those at Anau .

K hotan is the ancient trading centre whic h connected

central Asia and India, and India and C h ina One of .

the m ost important products of K hotan is j ade that is , —

important from the historical point o f V iew It is un .

certain at what period the importation of j ade into China

from the K hotan area was inaugurated But there can .

be no doubt about the antiquity of t h e j ade trade between

Chinese Turkestan and Babylonia Some of the Baby .

“
lonian cylinder seals were o f j ade, others being of marbl e
-
,

j asper rock crystal, emerald amethyst, topaz chalcedony,

,
-
, ,

onyx, agate, lapis lazuli , h ae matite, and steatite

-
all ” 2
—

1 It se e m s rd
i i c ul o us t o s ugge s t th at i rr i gat i o n h ad o r i gi n i n m i d -A s i a an d not in
r
a e as lik e the de l t as of E gy pt an d S um e r ia
r r
.

9
B i ti s h Museum G ui d e to th e B a by l oni a n an d A ssy i an A n ti qui ti es, p . 1 57 .
 COPPER CU LTURE REA C HES C H I NA -
20 3

rel ics o f ancient trade and mining activity Turquoise .

was imported into B abyl onia from K h otan and K ashgar .

The arch ae ological finds made o n t h e site o f the anci e nt

Sumerian city at N i ppur include cobal t, presumably from
” 1
China At Nippur was found too, Persian marbl e ,
.
,

lapis lazu l i from B actria, and cedar and cypress from

-

Z agro s .

When it is borne in mind that t h e c h ief incentive

behind the search for precious metals and precious stones
was a religious one we s h ou l d not express surprise to
,

find that not only the products of centre s o f ancient c ivi

l i z at i o n were carried across Asia to outlying parts , but
a l so myths , legends , and religious beliefs o f comp l ex
c h aracter These were given a local colouring in dif
.

fe re n t areas In northern Siberia, for instance, the l oca l

.

fauna displaced the fauna of t h e southern re l igious cu l ts ,

t h e reindeer or the goat taking the place of the gazel l e or
the antelope Mythological monsters received n e w parts ,
.

j ust as the dolp h in god of Cretan and other seafaring

-

peoples received an e l ep h ant s head in northern India ’

and became the m aha ra ; and the seafarers shark god ’

—

received i n China the h ead o f a lion , althoug h t h e lion

is not found i n China No doubt the lion was intro .

d uce d into China as a religious art m otif by some intr a d

ing cu l t Touch ing on this phase o f the problem o f
.

early cultural contact, El l is H M inns suggests a number .

2

o f possibilities to account for t h e similarities between

Sib e rian and C h inese art One is t h at t h e resemb l ance .

may be due to both (Siberians and Chinese) having b o r

rowed from Iranian o r som e other Central Asian art .

In each case, h e a d ds , w e seem to h ave an intrusion

“ ”

of monsters ultimately derived from M esopotamia the ,

g reat breeding ground of monsters -

The data sum .
”

1 P ete r
, N ippur II, p . 1 34
.
2
S cy th i ans an d G r eeks p
. 2 80 .
20 4 MYTHS OF C HIN A AN D J A PAN
m ari z e d in a previous chapt e r dealing with the Chinese 1

dragon a ffords confirmation of this view .

Dr Josep h Edkins writing i n the seventies o f l ast

.
,

century as a C hristian missionary who made an intensive

study o f Chinese rel igious be l iefs at first han d had muc h ,
“
to s ay about th e grafting process o r culture mixing -
.

“
Every impartial investigator he wrote will prob ,

ably admit that the ceremonies and i d e as o f t h e Chin e se

sacrifices link th em with W est e rn antiquity The infer .

e nce to be d rawn is this that the Chinese primeval ,

religion was of common origin with the religions o f the

W e st But if the religion was o n e , then t h e po l itical
.

ideas the m enta l habits the sociology t h e early arts and

, ,
-

knowle d ge o f nature s h o uld have been o f common , ,

origin also with t h ose of the West .

”2

No doubt the stories broug h t from Sib e ria by the

early e xplorers tended to stimulate the imaginations o f
the myth makers o f M esopotamia, I ndia and China
-
, .

The m ineral and h o t springs in the col d regions may

have be e n regar d ed as proof that the wel l s o f life had
real existence Some o f these wells are so greatly sat u
.

rated wit h carbonic acid gas that they burst skin and
stone bottl es Here is l iving water in d eed ! the early
.
”

exp l orer may have exc l aimed when he att e mpted to carry
“
away a sample The fe athers i n the air
. as Her o
d o t us puts it when referring to the snow and t h e aurora ,

borealis must have greatly impressed t h e early miners

i n the mysterious Altai region a region poss e ssing —

so much mineral wealth that it must have been re

garded as a veritable won d er l and of the gods by the ear l y
prospectors Who knows b ut that the story o f G ilga
.

mesh s pilgrimage through the dark mountain to the land

’

in which trees bore gems instead of fruit owes somet h ing

1 Ch apt e rV .
2
Re li gi on i n C h i na (L o n d on 1 8 7 8, 2 n d p 38
. .
20 6 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
obj ects may indeed be simpler in design than ot h ers ,
but cannot be described as q uite primitive ; nor as yet
”
within the limits of China 1
.

The evidence a fforded by ancient re l igious beliefs and

customs tends to show that the cultural centre in Asia,
which stimulated the growth o f civilization , was B abylonia,
while Egyptian influence flowed northwar d through
Palestine and into Syria I n time t h e influence of Cretan .

civilization made itself felt on the eastern shores o f the

Black Sea The ebb and flo w of cultural infl uences along
.

t h e trade routes at various periods renders the problem

of highly complex character But one leading fact appears .

to emerge The demand for metals and precious stones

.

in the earliest seats of civilization that is in Babylonia —

,

and Egy pt stimulat e d exploration and the spread o f

—

a culture based o n th e agricult ural mode o f l ife Not .

only was the system of irrigation first introduced in the ,

Nilotic and Ti gro Euphratean vall e ys adopted by colonies

—
,

o f miners and traders who settled in mid Asia and -

founded sub cu l tural centres that radiated westward and

—

eastward ; the re l igious ideas and customs that had grown

up with the agricultural mode o f life in t h e cradles of
ancient civilization were adopted too N e w experiences .

and n e w inventions imparted l ocal colour to colonial

“ ”

culture, but the l eading religious principles that vei ned

that cultur e underwent l ittl e cha n ge T h e immemorial .

quest for the elixir of l ife was never forgotten It was

. .

not to purchase their daily bread alone that men l ived

laborious days wash ing gold dust from river sands crush ,

ing quartz among the Al tai Mountains , o r quarrying and

fishing j ade in Chinese Turkestan ; th e y were ch iefly
concerned about purchasing t h e foo d o f life s o as
“ “

to secure immortality The fe ar o f death , whic h sent

.

1 B r i ti s h Muse um G ui d e to t h e A n ti qui ti es of th e B r onz e A ge, p . 1 0

7 .
 COPPER CULTURE REACHES CHI NA
-
20 7
Gilgames h on his long j ourney, caused many a man
i n ancient times to wander far and wide in searc h of
life giving metals , precious stones pearl s , and p l ants
—
, .

And so we find i n China as in Egypt, in Baby l onia

as in western Europe , that t h e quest of immortality
w as the chief i ncentive t h at stimulated research dis ,

co v e r
y and
,
the spread of civilization T h e dema n d for .

the wood o f sacred trees, incens e bearing trees and p l ants, -

precious metals and precious stones in t h e temples of

Egypt and Baby l onia, h ad muc h to do wit h t h e develop
ment o f early trade The P h araohs of Egypt and
.

the P at e s i e s of Sumeria fitted out expeditions to obtain

tre asure for their holy places and to keep open the trade
,

routes along which the treasure w as carried .

That the system o f metal working had anciently an -

area of origin is emphasized by t h e inve stigations con

ducted by Professor Gowland 1
H e dea l s first with th e
.

Japanese evidence .
“
T h e met h od which was practise d ,
and t h e furnace emp l oyed by t h e early workers , stil l
he writes , survive i n use at severa l m ines in Japan
“

at t h e presen t time A h o l e in the ground forms the

.

furnace , and a bellows is used to introduce the blast from

the top After the copper is sme l ted it is all owed to coo l
.

o ff
,
and when it is n early so l i d ified it is take n out and
broken up .
“
T h e copper thus produced in Japan is
never cast direct from t h e smelting furn ac e s into usefu l
forms, but is a l ways resmelted in crucib l es, a mode
o f proc e dure which undoubtedly prevailed i n Europe
during the early Metal and the B ronze Ages Th e .

Japanese c l ay crucibles are anal ogous to those found

“

in t h e pi l e dwel l ings of t h e Swiss and Upper Austrian

—

l akes ”
.

D ea l in g wit h iron furnaces the Professor shows that

—
,

1
A rch a ol ogi a, p
’
. 2 7 6.
20 8 MYTH S OF CHI N A AND JAPAN
“
the Ancient Egyptian furnac e resembled the Japanese
”
furnace fo r copp e r tin and lead , Th e Etruscan furnace
, .

also resembled the Egyptian o n e “

From metallurgical .

consi d erations only Gowland adds , we would certainly

be led to the infe rence that the Etruscans had obtain ed
their knowledge of th e m e thod o f extracting metal from
that (t h e Egyptian ) source B ritis h evi d enc e sugg e sts
.

that the methods obtaining in ancient times were intro

“
d uc e d from the Me d it e rranean region o f Europe .

The actual process for t h e extraction o f iron from its

ores in Europe, i n fa ct i n a ll countri es i n ea rly ti m es was ,

practically t h e sam e .
”

Elsewhere, Professor Gowl and has written : “

I t is
important to note that t h e type of furnace w h ich
survives in India among th e hill tribes o f the G h ats
is closely analogous to the prehistoric furnace o f the
”
Danube and of th e Jura district in Europe
,
1
.

Culture drifts can thus b e fo l lowed in their results

-
.

Bac k ward communities that adopted inventions in early

tim e s continue to us e th em in precisely the same mann e r
as did those ancient peoples by whom they were first
introduced In li k e manner are early beliefs and customs
.

still p e rpetuated in isolated areas B ut it does not follow .

that all these beliefs had origin among the peoples who
“ ”
still cling to them Some s o called primitive beliefs
.
-

are really o f h ighly complex character, with as long a

history o f development as has t h e primitive type of
fis rn ace utilized by the hil l tribes o f India .

I n the next chapter it will be shown that in the

j ad e beli e fs o f China traces survive o f ideas not n e cessarily
o f C hinese origin i d e as that in fact, grew up and passed
—
,

t h rough process e s o f d evelopm e nt in countries in whic h

j ade w as never foun d F o r, as the Chinese bronze
.

1 J r
ou n a l o
f th e
q a l A n th rp
o ol o
gi cal In s ti tute , V o l . X L II, p . 27 9.
 COPPER CULTURE REACHES CH I NA
- 20 9

imp l ements are n o t of primitive forms and therefore

not indigenous neit h er are all Chinese bel iefs and customs
,
“
primitive in t h e same sense , or, in the real sense ,
”

indigeno us eit h er A s the stimu l us to work metals i n

.

C h ina came from an outside source , so apparently did

, ,
“
the stimulus to search for such a life giving and -

“
luck conferring materia l as j ade com e from other
-
”

countries , an d from races unrelated to t h ose that occupied

Ch ina in early times .

The beliefs associated with j ade were deve l oped in

China, a l though they did not originate t h ere ; and these
b e li e fs were similar to those attached to the pearl s , t h e
precious stones , and t h e precious metals searched for by
the ancient prosp e ctors who discovered and first worked
j ade in Chinese Turkestan and on the borders of China .

To sum up , it wou l d appear that the elements o f

a rel igious culture, closely associated wit h the agricu l tura l
mode o f life, and common to Sumeria and Egypt, passed
across Asia towards China, reaching t h e Shensi province
about 1 7 0 0 B C At a much l ater period the comp l ex
. .

culture of the Egyptian Empire period gradually drifted

along t h e s e a route and l eft its impress on the C h inese
coast . Iranian cu l ture, wh ich was impregnated with
Baby l onian and Egyptian ideas , l ikewise exercised a per
sisting influence and w as renewed again and again
, .

On e of t h e u l timate results of the rise o f Persia as a

world power, and o f t h e invasion of Asia by A l exander,
—

w as to bring China into direct touch with the He ll enistic

worl d .

Indian influence is represented chiefly by Budd h ism .

I n nort h ern I ndia Budd h ism had been b l ended wit h Naga
(serpent ) worship and when , it reac h ed China ,
t h e l oca l
beliefs regarding dragons were given a Budd h istic colour
ing Th e C h inese Buddhists mixed t h e newly imported
.
-

( D 71 ) 1 5
21 0 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
religious culture wit h their o w n T h e Islands o f the .
“

B lest were retained by the cult of the East, and the

Western Paradise by t h e cult o f the West Th e latter .

para d ise is unknown to t h e B uddhists in Burmah and

C e ylon , but h as never been forgotten by the B uddhists o f
northern China A Buddha cal led B ound l e ss Age
.
“ ”

w as place d in the garden o f the Royal Lady o f the West,

but that goddess still ling e red beside t h e Peac h Tree o f
Immortali ty, while th e s k y godd e ss continued to weave
—

the web of the constellations and t h e pio us men and ,

women of the Taoist faith w e re supposed to reac h h er

stel l ar Paradise by sai l i n g along the Ce l estial River in
dragon boats or riding o n the back o f d ragons The
-
.

C h inese Budd h ists found ideas regarding Nirvana less

satisfying than those associated with the Paradise of t h e
P e aceful Land o f the West and th e higher Paradise of
”
th e Palaces o f the Stars , in which dwelt the gods and
the d e mi gods of t h e older faiths
-
.

Writing in this connection , Dr Josep h Edkins says .

A mighty branch o f foreign origin h as been grafted in

the o l d stock The m e taphysical religion o f Shakyamuni
.

was added to the moral doctrines of Confucius Another .

process may then be witness e d A native twig was grafted

.

in the I ndian branc h Modern Taoism has grown up on

.

the model supplied by B uddhism That it is possible to .

observe t h e m od us op e ra nd i of this repeated grafting, and to

estimate the amount o f gain and loss to the people o f
China resulting from the varied religious teaching whic h
,

th e y have thus r e ceiv e d is a circumstanc e o f the greates t

,
1 ”
interest to t h e investigator of the world s religions ’
.

1 Re li gi on i n C
h i na, P' 6 .
21 2 MYTH S OF C HI NA AND JAPAN
o rank , and even fo r musical instruments possessing, as
f ,

it does , wonderful resonant qualities T h e latter include .

“ ”
j ade flutes and j ade luck gongs which have religious ,

as so m at 1 0 n s .

Native artisans acquired great skil l in working this

tenacious mineral , and the finest art products in C hina are
those exquisite j ade ornaments , symbols , and vessels that
survive from various periods of its history Not only did .

the accomplis h ed and patient workers , especially of the

Han period (2 0 0 B C 2 0 0 achieve a high degree of . .
—

excellence in carving and engraving j ade, and in producing

beautifu l forms ; they also dealt with their hard mineral
s o as to utilize its various colours and shades and thus ,

increase t h e ae sthetic qualities of t h eir art products The .

artistic genius , as well as the religious beliefs , of the

Chines e has been ens h rined in n e phrite .

When t h e prehistoric C hinese settled in Shensi , they

“
found j ade in that area All the Chinese questioned by .

m e, experts in antiquaria n matters agree Laufer writes, ,

“
in stating that t h e j ades o f the Chou and Han Dynasties
are made o f indigenous material once dug on the very soi l
o f Shensi Province , that t h ese quarries h ave been l ong ago

exhausted , no j ade w h atever being found t h ere nowadays .

My i nformant pointed to Lan t ien and F é n g siang fu as -

’
- —

1 ”
the chief ancient min e s .

But although t h e early C h inese made use of indigenous

j ade, it does not follow, as h as been noted, t h at t h e earl y
beliefs connected with this famous mineral were of indigen
o us origin It cannot be overlooked that the symbolism
.

r
n o s u v i v i n g s pe c i m e n s . In I r d r
e l an b r r
o n z e sh o e s we e r wo n in an c i e n t ti m es— pe h aps
in c on n e c t i o n w i th r e l i gi o us r
ce e m o n i e s. O d rr r r d M
bs i i an m i o s we e us e in e x i c o fo r

r
pu po se s of d i v i n at i o n , a n d t h e r r
e we e sto n e m rr r r
i o s in Pe u .

1
Jd a e : A S tudy i n C h i nese A rch a’ o o r d f r (F d M
l gy an d Re l i gi on, B e th o l L au e iel use um
of N at u a lr r
H i s t o y , P ub l i c at i o n 1 r r X
5 4, A n t h o po l o gi c al S e i e s, V o l , C h i cago , 1 9 1 2 ,
.

p 23 )
 OT M R U AR Y FS I H IN J D OF
A E ,
H AN P E RI OD
L frr f r r d
au e e e s to th is as a m a rv e l l o u s

fi rd
c a rv m dg
d o f e xc e e i ng l y fin e w o rk m
r
fo r
p a ns

ain
hi In t h e

H an Pe io sacr i ces e re o ff e e to a fis h i n j a e i n p ra ) e rs

F IG U RE OF BU TT F YE R L IN W T H I E AN D BR OWN S Y OW I H -
E LL
J D T
A E ,
’
S I N OR H AN P E RI OD
A p p
A un i q ue s ecim e n a m o n

l um -b l o s s o m
r r
g m o
p r dp d r t ua y o dr
ff e i n g s o f c o n s i e a b l e a g e a n d un us ua l w o k m
r p r p ans hi .

a t te n is e i c te b e t w e e n t h e a n t e n n a: o f t h e b ut t e fly ( s e e a g e

B o th pi c tu r es by cour te s y f
a B L . a
f
u er u h r
, a t o of
“
? a de F M C
ie ld us e um , h i cago
21 4 MYTHS O F CHINA AN D JAPA N
consider it necessary t o practise the science o f m um m i fica
tion In the L i K i (chapter 5 6) th e orthodox treatment
.

of the bodies o f the Emperor and oth e rs i s s e t forth as

fo l lows
The mout h o f the S o n o f Heaven is stu ffe d with nine
cowries that o f a feudal lord w ith seven that o f a great
, ,

o ffi cer with fiv e , and that o f an ordinary o ffi cial with

” 1
three .

Gold and j ade were used in lik e manner Laufer .

“
quot e s from K o Hung the significant statement : I f there
is gold and j ade in the nin e apertures o f the corpse it wi l l ,
”
preserve the body from putrefaction A fift h century .
—

Chines e writer says : W h en o n O p e n ing an ancient grave

the corpse looks li k e alive then th e re i s inside and o utside
,

of the body a large quantity o f gold and j ad e According .

to the r e gulations o f the Han Dynas ty, princes and lords

were buri e d in clothes adorned with pearls and with boxes
of j ade for the purpose o f preserving the body from
” 2
decay .

A ccording to D e Groot pearls were introduced into ,

the mouth o f th e d e ad during the Han Dynasty “

At .

least he says it is stated that th eir mouths were fill ed

“
,

with rice and pear l s and j ade stone were put therein i n
, ,
”
accor d ance with the establish e d ceremonial usages And .

P oh h u th ung i , a well known work , professedly written i n

-

the first century, says : On s t ufli n g the mouth o f the

“

Son o f Heaven with rice they put j ade ther e in ; in the ,

case o f a feudal lord they introduce pearls ; in that o f a

great o ffi cer and s o downwards as also in that o f ordinary ,

o ffi cials cowries are used to this end

,
“
De Groot commenting o n t h e evidence writes : Th e
, ,

same r e asons why gold and j ade were used fo r s t ufli n g the
mouth o f th e d e ad hold good for the us e o f pearls in this
1 De G r o o t, Th e Rel i gi ous Sy s te m qf C
h i na, B o o k I, pp
. 2 7 5 e t se
q
.
2
j ad e,
p
. 2 99 .
 THE SYMBOLI SM OF JAD E 21 5
connection He notes t h at i n Chinese literature pearls
were regarded as depositori e s o f Yang matter that
“

medical works declar e they can further and faci l itate the
procreation of C hi l dren and can be useful for recalling
to life t h ose wh o h ave expired, o r are at the point of
” 1
dyi n g .

I n India as a Bengal i friend M r Ji m ut Ba h an Sen ,

, , .

M A , informs me a native medicine administered to t h ose

. .
,

w h o are believed to be at th e point o f deat h is a mixture

o f pound e d gold and mercury It is named Ma ha ra .

d h w aj a Th e m a ha ra is in India depicted in a variety o f

.
2

forms As a composite l ion legged and fis h tailed

.
- -

wonder beast resembling t h e Chines e dragon , it is the

vehicle of the god Varuna as the Babylonian s e a goat ,

or ant e lope fis h is t h e vehicle o f t h e god Ea o r o f t h e

o d Marduk Merodach Th e a ha ra of the northern
g ( ) m .

Buddhists is likewise a combination of land and s e a animals

o r reptiles , including the dolp h in wit h t h e head of an

elephant , goat ram , lion , d o g or alligator

,
3
,
.

I n C h ina th e lion h eaded s h ark a form of t h e s e a go d

-
,
—
,

is likewis e a m a ha ra or s e a dragon Go l d and nig h t -

.

shining pearls are connected with the m a h a ra as with the

dragon The C h inese dragon , as we h ave seen , is born
.

from gold, while curative h e rbs like the Red Cloud h erb ”

and the dragon s wh iskers h e rb are emanations of the

“ ’ ”

“ ”
dragon Gold lik e the herb , contains soul substance
.
,

in concentrated form Pounded gold, t h e chief ingredient .

in the m aha ra d h w aj a m e dicin e , is believed in I ndia to

-

renew yout h and promote l ongevity l ike pounded j ade

and gold in C h ina .

“
I n Yung cheu , whic h is situated in t h e Eastern
-

Ocean , rocks exist , wrote a C h inese sage in the earl y ”

1 T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s tem of Ch i n a, B o o k I, pp 2 7 4 e t seq 2 r

P o n o un c e m uh a a d ''
r
r rf r D
. . .

3 S e e i l l us t at i o n s i n P o e s s o E l l i o t S m i t h s T h e E v ol uti on of th e g , pp 8 8 , 8 9
’
r a on . .
21 6 MYTHS OF C HI NA A N D JAPAN
part o f the Christian era From t h ese rocks t h ere .
“

issues a brook like sw e et wine ; it is call e d th e Brook

o f Jade Must I f after drinking some pints o ut o f it,
.
,

o n e su d denly feels intoxicated , it will prolong li e

f .

Gr e ase o f j ade , we are further to l d , is forme d inside

“

t h e mountains whic h contain j ade It is always to be .

found in st e e p and dangerous spots T h e j ade j uice , .

1

aft e r issuing from t h ose mountains , coagulates into such

grease after more than ten thousand years T h is grease .

is fresh and limpid , like c rystal I f you find it, pulverize .

it and m i x it with th e j uice o f herbs that h ave no pith ; it

immediately l i que fie s ; drink o n e pint of it then and you
will live a thousand years He who swal l ows go l d .

wil l exist as long as gold ; h e who swallows j ade wi l l exist

as l ong as j ade Those who swallow the rea l essence
.

o f the dark s phere heavens will enj oy an everlasting

( )
existence ; t h e r e al essence o f t h e dark sphere i s anot h e r
name fo r j ad e B its o f j ade when swallowed or taken wit h
.
,
”2
water, can in both these cas e s render man immortal .

A S we have seen , t h e beli e f prevailed in China t h at

pearls shon e by night T h e mandrak e root was believed .

elsewhere to shine in like manner The view is co n se .

quently urged by the writ e r that t h e myths regarding

precious stones , j ade , pearls , and herbs o f nocturn al
luminosi t y o w e their origin to t h e arbitrary connection of
these obj ects wit h the moon , and the lunar goddess or s k y -

“ “ ” ”
goddess In China 1 e K ua ng ( light of the night ) is ,
.
’

” 3
Laufer notes , an ancient t e rm t o d esignat e the moon .

The intimate connection between the Mother deity

and precious metals and stones is brought out by Lucian
i n h is D e D ea Sy ri a He refers to the go d dess Hera
.

1
L i k e t h e gi nse ng (m an dr ak e ) i n t h e K an g—ge m o un t ai n s in no r r
t h e n K o e a.r (S e e
C h apt e r XV
II )
r C k
.

2
De G o o t, T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s te m qf h i n a, B o o I, V o l I, pp 2 7 2- 3
D
. . .

3 T he i a m on d ,
pp 5 5 , 5 6, n
. .
21 8 MYTHS OF C HI N A A ND J A PAN
o scientific e ffort, but as folk lore connecting t h e Orient
f -

with the Occi d ent, Ch ines e society with t h e Hellenistic

world As Laufer shows, the Chinese imported legends
.

r e gard ing magical gems from E u lin the forest o f —

an island in the M editerranean Sea which was known to ,

“ ”
them as the Western Sea (S i h a i ) At a very much .
1

earlier period they imported other legends an d beliefs

regarding metal s and min e ral s .

Pearls and go l d having been connected with th e

m a ha ra or dragon , it is n o t surprising to find that their

lunar attribut e s were imparted to j ade Laufe r quotes .

“
Chinese references to the moonlight pearl and th e
m oon re fle c t i n
g gem
-
while De Groot deals wit h
Chinese legends about e ff ulgent pearls about pearl s “ ”
,
”
shining during the night , flam i n g o r fiery pearls and w

“
pearls lighting like the moon D e Groot adds,
Similar legends have always been current in th e empire
o f China about j ade stone and he notes in this regard
( )
that at the time o f the Emperor Shen nung (twenty
“ -

”
fifth century B C ) there existed , according to Chinese. .

“
records , j ade which was obtained from agate rocks ,
under t h e name of Light shining at nig h t
‘
If cast ’
.

into t h e waters in the dark it floated o n the surface, with

out its light being extinguis h ed .
”3

The wishing j ewel Jewe l that grants all desires

o f I ndia , Japan , and C h ina is said to be the pup il o f
“

a fis h eye
. I n India it was known in Sanskrit as the
ci nti m a n i , and was b e lieved to h ave originated from t h e

h
m a a ra The Chinesef
records have references to moon
lig h t pearls from t h e eyes of female whales , and from
the eyes o f dolphins I t does not follow t h at this beli e f .
6

1 T he D d, p 7
i a m on L esse r
F u li n w as S y i a, a n d G re a te
-
r r F u-l i n t h e B y z an t i n e

r
. .

2
E m p i e Ibi d , pp 5 5 , n 2 , 5 6
C k
. . . . .

3 T h e Rel i i ous S s tem

of h i na B o o I V l I 77 8
2 —
o
g y , pp

fr D , , . . .

4 5
L au e , T h e i am on d , p 2 2 an d n 3 , an d p 6 9 an d n 7
. . . . . Ibi d .
, pp.6 8 —
9 .
 TH E SYM BOLI S M OF JADE 21 9

about t h e origin o f shining pearls had a connection with

obs e rva tio n s made o f the phosphorescing o f parts of
marine animals because the C hines e writers refer t o o for
, ,

instance , t o the nocturnal luminosity of rhinoceros horn 1

.

Even coral which , like j ade w as connected with t h e

, ,

l unar o r s k y goddess , was supposed to shine by nig h t

-
.

Laufer quot e s from the work S i K i ng tsa (Mi scell a neous ,

Record s of th e Western Cap i ta l, i e Si ngan fu) , in this con . .

— -

n e cti o n

In t h e po n d T si -
’
t s ui t h e re are c o ra
fe e t h gh l t re e s t w e v e l i .

E ac h t run k S
pro duc e s t h re e t e m s, h i c h s e d fo rt h 42 6 b r c h e s w n an .

T h e se h av e b e e n
pre s e t e d b y C h ao T o , K i
’
n o f N an Y IIe ng ’

An
( n am
), a n d e re t ed w
b e ac o fire t re e sS yl
’
At n ight t h ey n -
.

”2
em i tt ed a bri lli a nt l igh t as t hough t hey w ould go up i n fla m es .

The coral tree h ere l inks with the pine peach ,

“
,

and cassia trees , and the shining m andrake, as w e ll as

with j ade, gold , precious stones and pearls I n Persia , .

the pearl and coral are cal l ed m a rga n w h ich signifies ,

“ “
life giver o r life owner
—
”
Lapis l azu l i was called —
”
.
—

“ ”
K i n tsi n ( essence o f gold ) during the Tia n g period
in C h ina .
3

As the metal associated wit h the moon was usuall y

si l ver, gold being c h iefly although n o t always , the s un ,

metal , we Sh ould expect to find S ilver connected with j ade

and pearls .

De Groot who is frankl y puzzled over Chines e b e liefs

,

regarding pearls and has to plead incompetency to

“
,

solve the problem w h y they were considered as deposi

“

tories and dis t ributors o f vita l force provid e s t h e trans ” 4

,

lation of a passage in t h e T a T s i ng th ung li that connects ’

1 L au fr C
e , h i nese C F r
l ay i
gu es,
pp 3 8, 1 5 1
1 2 T he D i a m ond
p 71
S Dr fr r
. .
, . .

3 E lli o t m i th , T h e E v ol uti on
f th e
o a on, 1 5 7, 1 L au e S i n o- I
g p . n. .
, a ni ca,

pp.
5 20 an d 525 .

4 T h e Rel i gi ous Sy ste m f Ch i na, B o o

q k II, V o l IV , p 3 3
. . 1 .
2 20 MYTH S OF C HI NA A N D JAPAN
S ilver with pearls It states in reference to burial customs
.

that in the case o f an o fficial o f the first second , o r

“
,

third degree fiv e small pearls and pieces o f j ade shall be

,

used fo r stu ffi ng the mouth ; in that o f o n e o f the fourth ,

fifth S ixth , o r seventh rank, fiv e smal l pieces o f gold and
,

of j ade The gentry shall use three bits o f broken gold

.

o r silver ; among ordinary people the mouth shall be

stu ffe d with thre e pieces of silver .

De Groot insists t h at the principa l obj ect of the

practice o f stuffi ng t h e mouths o f the dead was to save
“

” 1
the body fro m a speedy d ecay
It is significant th e refore to find references in Chinese
”
literature to Pearls o f Jade to Fire Jade that sheds
“

“
light or even boils a po t and to find S ilver being
regarded as a substitute for j ade Shells , pearls gol d , .
,
”
silve r and j a d e contained soul substance derived from
,

th e Great Mother A S we have s e en , Nu K w a, th e

.

mythical Chin e s e Empress (t h e sister o f E u Hi , the

“
Chinese w h o stopped the D e luge took the ,

place o f t h e ancient goddess in popular legend Sh e .

was credited, as h as b e en indicat e d, with planning t h e

course of the Celestial River, with creating dragons with ,

re erecting o n e o f the four pillars that supported the

-

firm am e n t , and with creati ng j ade for the benefit of

mankind I n Japan Nu K wa is rem embered as Jokwa
. .

The Japanese beliefs connected wit h j ade are cl early

traceable to China A Tama may be a piece o f j ade,
.

a crystal , a tapering pearl, o r the pearl carried on the

“ ”
head o f a Japanese dragon The Tama , says Joly,
.

is associated not only wit h t h e B o s at s u and other

B ud d h ist deities o r saints , but also with the gods of
l uck .
2 ”
T h ere are a number o f h e roic legends in whic h
1 C k
T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s tem of hi na, B o o I, pp 2 7 8- 9
J
. .

2 L egen d i n apa nese A r t, pp 3 5 4, 3 5 5

. .
 THE SY MBOLI SM OF JADE 22 1

the Tama figures In a story, relegated to the eight h

.

“
century B C a famous j ade stone is called the Tama
. .
,

It tells that Pien Ho (t h e Japan ese Benwa) s aw an e agl e

standing on a large block of j ade which h e took possession
o f and carried to h is king T h e roya l magician s though t .

it value l ess and B e n w a s right foot was cut o ff

,
He ’
.

made h is way to the mountains and replace d the j ade ,

and soon afterwards observed that t h e sam e eagl e re
turned and perched upon it again When a n e w king .

came to the throne Benwa carried the j ade to t h e court,

but only to have h i s l eft foot cut o ff A t h ird king .

came to the throne, and o n seeing Benwa weeping by the

gate of the palace he inquired into the caus e of h is grief,
and h ad the stone tested, when it was found to be a perfect
em This Tama w as afterwards regarded s o va l uab l e
g .

” 1
that it was demanded as a ransom for fifteen cities .

Here the eagle is associated with the gems c o n t a1 n 1 n g

sou l substance ”
Joly notes that foxes are also shown
.

h olding the Tama an d he wonders if the gl obe held “

under their talons by the heraldic l ions has a similar

meaning 2”
Foxes and wo l ves were, like dragons, capab l e
.

o f ass uming human form and figure among the were

animals of t h e Far East A S these were animals inc l ude .

-

the tiger, which is a god in China it is possible that they ,

were ancient deities Th e lion is associated with the B aby

.

l onian goddess Ishtar, with the Cretan mother goddess, -

while the Egyptian T e fn ut has a l ion e ss form Tammuz .

o f Babylon is , as N in gi rs u of Lagash , a lion headed - -

eagl e T h e Indian Vishnu has a lion headed avatar

.
-
.

T h e connection of the pr e cious j ewel and of go l d

wi t h the supreme deity is traceable to the ancient beliefs
regarding the shark guardian o f pearls As the be l iefs
-
.

associated with pear l s were transferred to j ade it need ,

1 L egen d i n Jp a a nes e A rt
, pp 3 5 5 6
.
— .
2
Ibi d .
, p. 3 55 .
222 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
not surprise us to find the sacred fis h a form o f the —

Great Moth e r connecte d wit h j a d e A S ignificant text

—
.

is quote d by Laufer without comment, which brings o ut ,

this connection He says that L u P u wei who died i n

.
-
,

B C 2 3 5 , r e ports in his book L u sh i h Ch un T s i u

. .
‘
Pearl s -
’ ’

are placed in the mout h o f the dead, and fis h scales are -

a d d e d ; these are n o w utilized for interm ent with the

d e ad The Commentary to t h is passage explains : To
.
’ ‘

place pearls in the mout h o f the d e ad (h a n ch u) means

to fill the mout h with them ; the addition o f fis h scales -

means , to enclose these in a j ade casket which is p l aced

o n the body o f the d eceased , as if it should be covered

with fis h scales 1-
Ja d e fis h symbols figure among t h e
.
’ ”
-

Chinese mortuary amul e ts .

Light is thrown o n Chinese beliefs regarding re s urre c

tion by t h e cicada mortuary amulet which was made o f
j ade It w as placed on t h e tong ue o f the d e ad and seems
.

therefore to have be e n like the Egyptian scarab amulet, a

guarantee of immortality .

O ne of the important cer e monies in connection with

the process o f reanimating an Egyptian corpse was t h e “

”
opening o f the mouth I t was necessary that t h e re .

animated corpse shoul d speak with t h e true voice and

j ustify itse l f in the court o f Osiris j udg e of the dead , ,

when the heart was weighed in the balance .

Tong ue and h eart were clos e ly connected According .

to the beli e fs associated with t h e cult o f Ptah , wh ich w as

”
fused with the cult of Osiris the heart was the mind , ,

and the source o f all power and al l l ife The tongue .

expressed the thoughts of the mind .

P t h t h g at i s t h m in d a d to n gu
a
, e re f t h go ds
,
e n e o e .

Pt h , f m w h m p c e e d d t h p we r
a ro o ro e e o

O f th m i nd e ,
1 Jd a e, p
. 21 ,n .
4
.
2 24 MYTHS OF C HI NA AND JAPAN
means o f the prayers recited during the performance o f
appropriate ceremonies emerged from its old body in a
,

n e w form e ither in the realm o f Osiris o r i n the boat o f

”
Ra (the sun go d ) 1
—

This Egyptian doctrine was symbolized by the beetle

which rolls a bit of dung in t h e dust into the form of a
ball, and t h en having d ug a ho l e in the ground , pushes
,

it in and buries it Thereafter the beetle enters the sub

.

terranean chamber to devour th e bal l T h is beet l e als o .

collects du n g to feed the larvae w h ich ultimate l y emerge

from t h e ground in beetle form .

As the Chinese substituted j ade for pearl s, s o did they

substitute the cicada for t h e dung beetl e -
.

The cica d a belongs to t h at class o f insect which feeds

on the j uices o f plants I t is l arge and broad wit h
.

brightly coloured wings The male has o n each side of

-
.

the body a sort of drum whic h enables it to make that

chirping noise cal l ed th e song of the cicada , referred to
“ ”

by th e ancient classical poets W hen t h e female lays her .

eggs she bores a hole i n a tree an d d e posits them in it .

Wingless larva are hatched , and they bore their way into
the ground to feed o n the j uices of roots After a time .

i n some cases after the lapse of several years the cicada —

emerges from t h e ground the skin breaks open , and t h e ,

winged insect rises in the air T h e most remarkable .

species of the cicada is found in t h e United States , w h ere

it passes t h rough a l ife h istory o f seventeen years , the
-

greater part of that time being spent underground t h e —

larva l stage I n China t h e newly hatched l arva sometimes

.
-

bores down into the earth to a depth of about twenty feet .

“
Th e observation of this wonderfu l process of nature ,
says Laufer , seems to be the basic idea o f this (cicada)
am ulet T h e dead will awaken to a n e w life from h is
.

1
d
B u ge , T h e G od s qf the E gypti ans, V o l I, pp 3 5 7 8
. .
-
.
 THE SYMBOLI SM OF JADE 225

grave as t h e chirping cicada rises from th e pupa buried in

t h e ground T h is amu l et , accordingly, was an emblem of
.

resurrection Laufer quotes i n t h is connection from th e

.

C h inese ph i l osopher Wang Ch ung w h o wrote “

Prior t o ’

casting o ff the exuvi ae, a cicada is a Ch rysalis When it .

casts them o ff, it l eaves t h e pupa state and is transformed ,

into a cicada The V ita l spirit of a dead man l eaving the

.

body may be compared to t h e cicada emerging from t h e

C hrysa l is
1 ”
.

T h e fact that t h e cicada feeds on t h e j uices o f p l ants

apparently connected it wit h the idea of t h e Tree of Li fe ,
the source of soul substance
Another insect symbo l of resurrection was t h e butterfly,
w h ich was connected wit h t h e Plum Tree of Life Laufer .

n o tes t h at some butterflies carved from j ade which were ,

used as mortuary amu l ets , have a p l um b l ossom pattern -

between t h e anten n ae and p l um blossoms carved ci j our

“ —
’

in t h e wings
He notes t h at in modern times t h e combination of
“

butterfly and p l um b l ossom is used to express a rebu s

-

with the meaning A l ways great age

“
T h is am ul et i s ”
. .

of great antiquity .

Th e butterfly symbo l of resurrection is found in Mexico .

The Codex Re m e n s i s s h ows an ant h ropomorphic butterfly

from whose mouth a human face emerges F re yj a, the .

Scandinavian goddess , is connected with t h e butterfly, and

i n Greece and Ital y t h e same insect was associated wit h t h e
idea of res urrection Psyc h e (a name signifying sou l
.
“

h as butterfly wings Apparent ly th e butterfly, l ike t h e

.

cicada, was supposed to derive its vital ity from t h e mot h er

g oddess s Tree of Life
’
.

Another important C h inese mortuary j ade obj ect was

t h e frog o r toad amu l et As we have seen , t h e frog was .

1 ‘ 2
7 a d e, p. 30 1 an d n . 1 Ibi d
. .
, p. 31 0 .

( D 71 )
226 MYTHS OF CHIN A AN D JAPAN
connecte d with the moon and the lunar goddess , and in
C h ina as in ancient Egypt, w as a symbol of resurrection
, .

Among the interesting j ade amulets S hown by Laufer

are t w o that roughly resemble in S hape the Egyptian
”
scarabs “
. The t wo pieces , he writes , show traces o f
“

gilding, and resemble h elm e ts in t h eir shape and are ,

moulded into the figures of a curious monster which it is

di ffi cul t to name It seems to me that it is possibly som e
.

fabulous giant bird for on the sides , two wings , eac h ,

marked by fiv e pinions are brought out a long , curved , ,

neck rises from below though the two triangular ears do ,

”1
not fit the conce ption o f a bird The figure apparently .

represents a composite wonder beast Fishes and com

o s i te uad ra e d s were also depicted in j ade and placed i n
p q p
graves Human figures are rare
. .

Stone c o fli n s were used in ancient times The books .

of the later H an Dynasty (at the beginning o f o ur era) tel l

abo ut a pious governor, W ang K hiao who receives a j ade ,

co ffi n from heaven It was placed by uns e e n hands in his

.

hall His servants end e avoured to take it away, but found

.

it co uld not be moved .

De Groot, w h o translates the story, continues : K h iao

2 “

said, Can this mean that the Emperor o f Heaven call s

‘

me towards him ? He bathed himsel f, put on h is o ffi cial

’

attire with its o rnaments , and lay down in the co ffi n, the

lid being immediately closed over him When the night .

had passed, they b uried him on the east S ide of the ci ty,
and the eart h h e aped itself over him i n t h e shape a
tumulus All the cows in t h e district on that e vening
.

were wet wit h perspiration and got o ut of breath , and

nobody kn ew whence t h is came The peop l e thereupon .

erected a temp l e fo r him .

”

De Groot quotes from another work written in the

1
Jd a , pp
e .
30 6— 7 .
2
T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s te m f
o C h i n a, B o o k I, p
. 2 8 4.
228 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPAN
“
wat e r There are references in the texts to the Four
.

” “
Seas and to what the Egyptians called the Great
,

Circle (O k e an o s ) .

T h e B abylo n ians believed the worl d was a mountain ,

and their t e mples were models of their world Thus the .

temple o f Enlil, as the worl d go d , was called E K ur, - —

”
which signifies mountain h ouse
“
H is consort Ninlil .

“ ”
was also called Nin K h ars ag, the lady of the mountain
-
1
.

The B abylonian an d Egyptian temples were not only

places of worship , but seats o f learning, and they h ad
workshops in which the d yers , metal workers , & c , p l ied -
.

their sacred trades .

C h inese pal aces and universities were in ancient times

models of the world One of the odes says of K ing Wu .

In the c api t al of H ao h e bui lt h is h a ll w i t h i ts rl

ci c et of

w at e r. Fro m t h e w e st t o t h e e as t , fro m t h e s o ut h t o t he no rt h
,
t h e re w as n o t a t h o u gh t but did h i m h o m a g e .
”2

This h all was a royal college, built says Legge, in “

the m iddl e of a circle of water Colleges m ig h t also have ”

.

semicircular pools in front o f them , as may now be seen

in front of the temples of Confucius in t h e metropolitan
cities of the provinces Ceremonies were studied in these
instit utions There were also grave pools In Singapore
.
-
.

these grave pools have had to be abolished because they

—

were utilized for hatching purposes by mosquito e s .

M uch attention was paid by the Chinese to th e shape

an d situation o f a temple , col l ege palace o r grave Eac h , , .

was subj ected to good and bad influences and as seafarers ,

set their sails to take full advantage of a favourable

breeze so did t h e C hinese construct edifices and graves to
,

take fu ll advantage of favourable influences emanating

1 My ths o
f B a by l oni a an d A ssy r i a,
p 3
.
3 2.
2 L e gge, T h e S h i h K i ng, p 3 9 5 . .

Ibi d .
, p. 338 0
C o py ri g h t H G P o n t m g, F R C 5

T H E T E MP L E OF H E A V NE N , PE K I G

T r C f p d p r
h i s g e a t e s t o f o n uc i a n t e m l e s , w i t h i t s t il e s o f e e c o b al t b l ue s h i n i n g i n t h e s un s h in e

rfi p
i s t h e m o s t c o n s i c uo us o bj e c t i n t h e c i t y
t h e s a c i c i al ut e n s d s a re o f b l ue p rr d d r
D uri n g t h e c e e m o n i e s i n s i e e v e y t h i n g i s b l ue :
.

r pp r r d r d
.

o c e la i n th e w o s h i obe i n b l ue e v e n t h e a t m o s
p h e re i s b l ue , i
v e ne t a ns m a d e of th i n
. e s a re

f b l ue g l a s s t ru n g t o g e t h e by co r
.

s b e i n g h un g
d r r o s o

r d . s .

own o v e t h e t ra c e y o f th e d o o s a nd win o ws ( B us h e l l ) .
23 0 MYTHS OF CH INA AND J A PAN
The gods o f t h e four quarters of C h ina, fro m whom
influences flowed , were : Th e B lue (o r Gre e n) Dragon
east
( ), the Red B ird (south ) , th e W hite Tiger (w e st
) and ,

the B lack Tortois e (north ) The east is t h e left S ide, and .

the w e st is the right side ; a worshipper therefore faces the

south In Irish and Scottish Gae l ic lore the south is the
.

right S ide , and the north is th e left S ide ; a worshipp e r

therefore faces the east .

Accor d ing to K w ang tz e , the Taoist, it was believed —

in China that the breat h (or influence) o f the east is

“

wind, and win d creates woo d that the breat h o f t h e

“ ”
south is Yang which creates fire ; that the centre is
,

ear th that the breath o f the west is Yin , w h ich gives

birt h to m e tal and that the breath o f the north is co l d ,
“

by which water is produced Another native pre C h ris -

“
tian writer says that the east appertains to wood, the
”
south to fire the west to m e tal an d the north to water
, ,
1

Thus taking in the seasons we have the following com

b i n at i o n s , S howing the organs of the body influenced by
the gods o f the airts
E as t t h B l u D g n S p i n g W d
— e e ra Pl a t Jupi t ; li e r
o ,
r
, oo ne , er v

a d g ll
n a .

S o ut h t h R d B i d S um m r, F ir t h S u ; Plan e t M s ;
— e e r
, e e
, e n
,
ar

h t
e ar d l g in t s t i s
an ar e e ne .

W est t h W h i t T i g r, Aut um n, W in d M t l ; Pl n t,
— e e e , e a a e

Ve n us ; l u gs n d s m ll i n t s t in
n a a e e .

N o rt h t h
— Bl c k T t i
e W i n t C o ld Wat r ; Plan t,
a o r o se , e r, , e e

M rcu y ; k i d n ys n d bl dd r
e r e a a e .

The good influence (o r br e ath) was summed up in the

term Yang, and bad influence in the term Yin Yang .

refers to what is bright, warm , active , and life giving ; and -

Yin to what is inactive , co l d, an d o f the eart h e art h y .

”
When , says a Chinese writer, we speak of the Yin
1
De G r o o t, o
p . ci t ,
. Bo o k I, V o l III, p 9 8 3
. . .
H RE E S AG E S ST D Y N S Y M
U I G BO L OF T IN AN D T A N K?
23 2 M YTHS O F C HI NA A ND JAPAN
( Part I I ook I the Great ear is refe rred to as the “
B , ) B
pearl adorn e d turning sphere with i t s transverse tube o f
-

j ade ” 1
The Polar Star is t h e Pivot of the S k y whic h
.
“

“
revolves in its place , carrying round with it all the other
”
heavenly bodies I n like manner th e Taoists taught that
.

”
“
the body of man is carried ro und his spirit an d by it .

The S pirit is thus the Pivot o f Jade

“
That is why the ”

Pivot o f Jade is used in the rit ual services o f Taoism .

2

I n Norse I celandic myt h ology t h e W orld M ill contro l s

-

the season s and the movements o f the heavenly bodies .

T h e heavens revolve round the Polar Star, Ve ra l d a r N agli

“
( the world Nine giant maids turn the world
3
mill .

The B abylonians , who were t h e pioneer astronomers

and astrologers of Asia, identifie d the stab l e and control
l ing spirit of the night S k y with the Polar Star, whic h
“ “ ” ”
Was ca ll ed l l u Sar ( the g od Shar ) or
“
Anshar
Star o f the H eig h t o r Star o f the Most
I saiah (x i v , 4 1 4) refers to the s uprem e star go d
— -

w h en he makes Lucifer declare : “

I will ascend unto
heaven , I wil l exalt my throne above the stars o f God ;
I will sit also upon the mount o f th e congr e gation in ,

t h e sid e s o f t h e north ; I will ascen d above the heights of

t h e cl ouds ; I will be t h e most High
Chinese astronomy and the Chinese cal e ndar are
undoubtedly o f Babylonian origin T h e Babyl onian .

od o f th e Pol e Star has not been forgotten D r

g . .

Edkins once asked a Chinese schoolmaster : W ho is the

”
Lord o f h eav e n and earth ? H e replied that he knew
none but the Po l e Star, cal l ed in t h e C hinese language
5
Teen hwang ta te th e grea t i mp eri a l rul er of h ea v en
- - —
,
.

2
qf T a oi s m , V o l II, p 26
g pp 3 8 , 3 9
e ge , T h e S h u K i n ,
1 L e gge , T L
ex ts 5 g
r
. . . . .

2 T e uton i c My t h a n d L ege n d , p 5 4
My t h s of B a by l oni a a n d A ssy i a, pp 3 3 0 , 3 3 1
C
. .

d
. .

5
Rel i gi on i n hi na (L o n o n,
p
. 1 0 9 .
 S Y M BOLIS M O F JA D E
THE 233

T h ere is a god and a goddess in the Great Bear .

Among the liturgical works used by t h e priests of Tao ,

”

“
says Edkins, o n e o f the commonest consists of prayers
to T o w m o o a femal e divinity supposed to reside in t h e
,

G reat Bear A part o f t h e sam e constell ation is wor

.

shipped under t h e name K wei sing A small temp l e is -

.

erected to t h is deity o n t h e east side o f t h e entrance

to Confucian temples , and h e is regarded as being favour
able to l iterature But t h e chief god o f literature is
.
”

“
Wen Ch ang who is identified wit h a constel l ation near
-
,

the Great Bear w h ich bears his name He is prayed .

to by scholars to assist t h em i n t h eir examination s .

Temples were erected to him on elevated earthen terraces .

Wen C hang , says Edkins, is said to h ave come down

-
”“

to our world during ma n y generations at irregul ar

intervals Virtuous and high l y gifted m e n were chosen
.
-

from h istory as like l y to have been incarnations of t h is

1 ”
divinity .

The five e l ements contro ll ed by t h e G reat Bear as it

swings round t h e Po l ar Star are i n China ( 1 ) water,
( )
2 fire , ( )
3 wood , ( )
4 m etal , and (5 ) earth T h ese .

e l ements compose w h at we ca ll Nature As we h ave .

seen they were placed under the guardians h ip o f anima l

,

g ods T h e W h ite Tiger of the West, for instance , is

.

associated with metal W h en , therefore, meta l is p l aced

.

in a grave , a ceremonial connection with the tiger god —

is e ffe cted According to t h e Annals o f Wu and Yue h ,

.

t h ree days after t h e buria l o f the king, t h e essence o f

t h e e l ement metal assumed the s h ape o f a white tiger
and crouc h ed down on t h e top o f the grave 2
H ere .
”

t h e tiger is a protector a preserver —

.

Jade being strongl y imbued wit h Yang o r sou l

1
C
Re l igi on i n h i na, p 1 0 7
r C k
. .

2
Q uo t e d by D e G o o t, T h e Re li gi ous Sy s te m of h i n a, B o o I, V o l III, p 9 8 3
. . .
23 4 M YT H S or CHI NA AN D JAPA N
substance w as intimately associat e d with all the gods ,
and the various colours of j ade were connected wit h t h e
co l ours of the airts and of the heavens and earth
“ ”
.

Laufer quotes from the eig h teenth chapter of Ch ou l i ,

which deal s with the functions of the Master o f Religious
Ceremonies
“
H e m k s o f j d t h S i x o bj t s t d h o m g t H
a e a e en
e ec o o a e o e av ,

to E th ar n d to t h
, a F ur P in t s o f t h c m pass
e W i th t h
o o e o . e

r o un d t bl t pi o f b l ui h
a e
( gr nish ) c l ur h d o s h m g s or ee o o , e e o a e

t o H e av n W i t h t h y ll w j d t ub t u g h d s h o m g t o
e . e e o a e e s
’
n
, e oe a e

E thar .W i t h t h e g n t bl t K u i h n d rs h o m ag t o t h e
re e
1
a e e
, e re e e

re gi n o f t h e E ast W i t h t h d t bl t h g h re n de s h o m age
o . e re a e c an , e r

to th gi o n o f t h e S o ut h W i th t h e w h i t t bl t i t h sh p f
e re . e a e n e a e o

a t i g r (h u) h e re n d e rs h o m ag e t o t h
e , gi o n o f t h e W s t Wi t h e re e .

th e bl c k j d e pi e c
a o f s m i c i rc ul
a h p (hu g) h
e re d s e ar s a e an , e n er

h o m g t o t h r g i o n f t h N o rt h
a e e e T h c o lo ur o f t h e i c t i m s
o e . e v

a d of th
n
pi e c s f s il k f
e th s e a i us s pi i t s c o
o s po d t o t h t
or e e v r o r rre n a

o f th e j d
”2
t ble t
a e a .

The S hape, as well as the colours o f the j ade symbols ,

was o f rit ual istic importanc e .

W h at woul d appear to be the most ancient Chinese

doctrine regarding the influences or breaths t h at
“ ”

emanated from Nature , and a ff ected t h e l iving and the

dead, is summed up in the term Fung s h ui “
Fung -
.
”

m eans wind , and

“
s h ui means the water from the
“

cl ouds wh ic h t h e wind distributes over the worl d ”

.

Certain winds are good, and certai n winds are bad .

The importance attach e d to wind and water appears

to be connected with t h e anci e nt beli e f, found in B aby
lonia and Egypt, that wind is the br e ath of life the
“

soul, and t h at water is the source of all l ife the water

”
o f life
“ “
Fun g shui s aY 3 De Groot denot e s th e atmos
—
a 1

1
G r e e n an d bl ue are i nt e r c h an ge ab l e i n Ch i n a
d fr
.

2
B i o t, V o l I, pp 43 4, 4 3 5 , quo t e
. . b y L au e in j ad e ,
p. 1 20 .
23 6 M Y THS O F CHI N A AN D JAPAN
as to secure t h e requisit e bal ance between the forces o f
Nature De Groot notes that Amoy is reput e d by
.

Chinese be l ievers o f the Fung shui system to o w e its -

prosperity to two knolls flanking the inner harbour, called

Tiger head Hil l and Dragon head Hill
-
“ ”
Canton -
”
.

is influenced by the W h ite clouds , a c h ain of hills

“ ”

representing the Dragon o n one side o f its river and ,

by undulating groun d opposite representing th e Tiger .

“ ”
Similarly , h e says , Peking is prot e cted on the north
west by the Ki n shan o r Golden Hills , whic h represent
—

the Tiger and ensure its prosperity toget h er with that o f ,

the whole empire and the reigning dynasty T h ese hills .

contain t h e sources o f a felicitous watercourse cal led ,

Y u h o o r Jade River , which enters Peking on t h e

‘ ’
-

nort h west, and flows t h roug h th e grounds at t h e back o f

—

t h e Imperial Palace then accumulates its beneficial i n

,

flue n c e s in three large reservoirs o r lakes dug o n the

west side and finally flows past the entire front o f the
,

inner pa l ace, wh ere it bears t h e name of th e Go l den

”1
Water .

Here we find j ade and go l d cl osely associated in t h e

Fung s h ui system
-
.

A s we have see n white j ade was used when t h e Tiger

,

god o f t h e West was worshipped ; it is known as tiger “

”
j ade ; a tiger was depicted o n the j ade symbol To the .

Chinese the tiger was the king of all animals and l ord “

of the mountains , and t h e tiger j ade ornament was

”
-

specially reserved for commanders o f arm ies T h e male .

tiger w as among ot h e r things the god of war, and in this

, ,

capaci t y it not only assisted t h e armies of t h e emperors ,

but fought the demons that threatened the dea d i n their
graves .

There are trac e s in C h ina o f a tigress s h ape o f th e

1 T he Re l igi ous Sy s tem of C h i n a, B o o k I, V o l III, pp 9 49 , 9 5 0
. . .
 THE SYMBO L I S M O F JADE 23 7
goddess of the West Laufer refers to an ancient l egend .

of the country of C h u , whic h tells o f a prince who i n the

eighth century B C married a princess o f Y un A son . . .

was born to them and named Tou P o pi T h e father -

.

died and the widow returned to Y un, where T o u P o pi , -

in his youth , had an intrigue with a princess who bore

him a son “
T h e grandmother ordered t h e infant to be
.

carried away and deserted o n a marsh , but a tigress came

to suck l e the c h i l d One day when t h e prince o f Y un .

was o ut h unting , h e discovered t h is circumstance, and

w h en he ret urned home terror stricken , h is wife unvei l ed -

to h im the a ffair Touched by t h is marve ll ous incident . .

they sent m essengers after the chi l d , and h ad it cared for .

The peop l e of Ch u , w h o spoke a l anguage di ffering from ’

C h in e se, ca ll ed suckling nou, and a tiger they called

y
‘

i t-
t u; h
’
ence t h e boy was named Nou Y u t u Suckled -
’

by a He subsequent l y became m inister of

Ch u ’ 1
.
”

This Far Eastern l egend recal l s t h at of Romu l us and

Remus, who were thrown into t h e Tiber but were pre
served and rescued ; t h ey were afterwards suckl ed by a
s h e wol f The Cretan Z eus was suck l ed, according to
-
.

one l egend , by a s o w, and to another by a goat A .

K nossian sea l depicts a c h i l d suckled by a horned sheep .

Sir Arthur Evans refers , in t h is connection , to t h e legends

o f t h e grandson of M inos who was suck l ed by a bitch ; o f

Mi l e t o s , t h e mythical founder o f t h e city of that name , ”

being n ursed by wo l ves 2

Vultures guarded the I ndian .

h eroine S h akuntal a, the Assyrian Semiramis was protected

by doves , whi l e the Babyl onian Gi l gamesh and the Persia n
patriarch A k h am an i sh were protected and rescued at birt h
by eagles Horus o f Egypt was nouris h ed and concealed
.

by the serpent goddess U az i t, and i n h is boy h ood made

1
Jd a e
, pp . 1 8 2— 3 .
2 J ur
o na l f
o H e ll en i c S t udi e s, V o l XXI, pp
. . 1 2 8-
9 .
23 8 MYTHS OF CHI NA A ND JAPA N
friends o f wild animal s as d i d also Bharata, t h e s o n o f ,

the I ndian v ulture guarde d Shakuntala Horus figur e s in -

.

the constellation of A rgo as a chi l d floating in a chest o r

boat like th e abandone d Moses the abandoned I ndian ,

K arna t h e abandoned Sargon of Akkad and , as it wo uld

, ,

appear Tammuz who in c h ildhood lay i n a sunken

,
“
”
boat Horus o f the older Egyptian legends was con
.

c e al e d on a green floating islan d on t h e Nile the green

“ —

” 1
bed o f Horus .

The oldest known form of the suckling l egend is found

in the Pyramid Texts o f Ancient Egypt When the sou l .

of the P h arao h went to the Otherworld he was suckl ed

by a goddess or by the goddesses o f the north and sout h .

The latter are referre d to in the Texts as the two vu l tures

wit h long hair and hanging breasts Here the vu l tures
take the place of t h e c o w goddess Hathor In Troy the —
.

c o w mot h er covered with stars becomes the star adorned

-
, ,
—

s o w mot h er Demeter had a s o w form and Athene a

3
-
.

goat form , and ot h er goddesses had dov e e agle wolf, , ,

bitc h & c , forms Th e Chinese tigress go d d e ss is evi

, . .
—

d e n tl y a Far Eastern animal form o f the Great Mot h er

w h o suckles t h e souls o f the dead an d the abandoned
chi ldren who are d e stined to become notab l es Thus .

behind t h e wind god , in t h e Ch inese Fung s h ui system ,

- —

we meet with comp l e x id e as regarding the source o f t h e

“
air of l ife and the so urce of t h e food supp l y T h e -
.

B l ue Dragon of the East is the Naga form o f t h e Ary o

I ndian I ndra , the rain contro l ler, the ferti l izer, w h o is
‘ -

c l ose l y associated wit h Vayu , the wind god ; the dragon -

1
S e e E gypti a n My th a nd L egen d , My th s qf B a by l oni a a nd r
A ssy i a, My ths ofC r e te a nd
r
P re-H e ll en i c E u ope, an d In d i a n My th and L egend
r d
.

2 B e as t e i l
, Re i g on a
nd T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gyp t, p 1 3 0
rr rk d r
. .

3 w i t h s t a s i n S ch l i e m T r qy a nd
’
S ee te a-c o tta im age o f pi g m a e an n s i ts
Re m a i n s (t r ans l at i o n d
by S m i th, L o n o n , p 2 3 2.

Dr
.

1 E lli o t S m f
i t h , T h e E v ol uti on o th e a
g on, p 96. .
2 40 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
and tribal beliefs and beliefs imported at d i fferent periods
from di fferent culture centres were evidently fus e d i n
C h ina , and we consequen tl y m eet with a variety of ideas
“ ”
regarding the destiny o f the sh en Departe d souls .
,
“
says De Groot, are sometimes popularly represented
as repairing to the regions o f bliss o n t h e back o f a
crane 1 ”
Th e sou l may sail to the Western Paradise in
a boat . Thou hast departed to t h e West, from whence
”
there is no returning in the barge o f mercy , runs an
address to the corpse Here we have the Ra boat of
.
1 —

Egypt conveying t h e sou l to the Osirian Paradise A s .

h as been shown , sou l s sometimes departed on the backs

o f dragons , o r rose in the air towards c l oudland , there to

sai l in boats o r ride on t h e backs o f birds or k i ri n s , o r

reached t h e moon o r star land by climbing a giganti c -
.

tree Belief in transmigration o f souls can also be traced

.

in C h ina, t h e resu l t apparentl y o f the importation of pre

Buddhist as well as Buddhist beliefs from India .

T h e living performed ceremo n ies to assist the sou l of

the dead o n its last j ourney Priests chanted : .

I s lut e Y e C e l e st ial Jud g s f t h e t h e s ph s o nst i tut in g t h e

a , e o re e re c

h i gh e r m i dd l
,
d l o w e r d i i si ns o f t h e U n i
e
,
an s d Y
v o v e r e , an e,

h o s t o f K i n gs d b l s o f t h e d e part m n t s o f l d
an no e d w t r d e an an a e an

of th wo ld o f m e ! R m m b e r t h e s o ul o f t h d e ad d h lp
e r n e e e ,
an e

i t fo w a d i g o in g t o t h P rad i s e o f t h e W s t
r r n e a e .
2

Egyptian , Babylonian and Indian ideas regardin g t h e

,

Western Paradise are h ere significantly m ingled .

D uring life t h e so ul might l eave the body for a

p eriod ,
either during s l eep o r w h en one fainted su d d e nly .

This be l ief is widespread The so ul in fo l k stories, .

,
-

is sometimes seen as in Scotland, as a bee, or bird o r ser

, ,

pent , as i n Norway as an insect or mouse, as in I ndonesia

1 C
T h e Rel i gi ous Sy s tem of h i na, B o o k I, V o l I, p 2 2 6, n 2.

r
. . .

2 D e G o o t , o p c i t , B o o k I, p 7 2
. . . .
 THE SY MBOLI SM OF JADE 24 1

and elsewhere as a worm , snake, butterfly o r mouse, ,

and even , as in di fferent countries , as deer cats, pigs, ,

crocodiles, & c Chinese beliefs regarding souls as butter

.

flies, cicadas, & c , have already been referred to

. .

T h e wandering soul coul d be called back by

“

repeating the individua l s name I n China, even t h e ’

.

dead were cal l ed back, and the ceremony of recall ing t h e

sou l is prom inent i n funeral rites , as D e Groot S hows .
1

Peop l es as far separated as t h e Mongolian Buriats and

the inhabitants o f England, Scotland , and Ire l and be l ieved
t h at ghosts co ul d be enticed to return to t h e body T h e ?

“
death howl i n China and Egypt, and e l sew h ere, is
-
”

evidentl y connected wit h this ancient belie f .

Of special interest is th e evidence regarding K orean

customs and beliefs Mrs Bishop writes : Man is sup
. .

posed to have three sou l s After death o n e occ upies the .

tab l et, one the grave and one t h e unknown , During .

t h e passing of t h e spirit t h ere is comp l ete S ilence The .

under garments o f t h e dead are taken out by a servant,

—

w h o waves them in t h e air, and calls h im by name , t h e

relations and friends meantime wai l ing loudly After a .

time the clothes are thrown upon the roof W h en a .

man dies, o n e of his sou l s is supposed to be seized and

carried to t h e unknown and placed o n trial before th e
Ten Judges , w h o sentenc e it eit h er to a good place
“ ‘ ’

o r to o n e o f the ma n ifold h e l ls
3 ”
.

Profe ssor Elliot Smith , reviewing t h e C h inese ideas

regarding t h e t w o sou l s , comes to the conc l usion t h at
“
the early Chinese co n ceptions of t h e sou l and i t s functions
are essential l y identical wit h t h e Egyptian , and must h ave
4 ”
been derive d from the same source As the Chinese .

1 C k
f hi na, B o o I, V o l I, pp 2 4 1 e t seq
T h e Re l i gi ous Sy s te m o
r fr r
. . .

2
S e e e e e n c e s i n My th s if B a by l oni a a n d A s sy i a, pp 6 9 , 7 0 , a n d 7 0 n.

r r
.

3
Mrs B i s h o p, K o e a a nd H e r N e i gh bou s, V o l II, pp 8 4— 5
Dr
. . . .

‘
1 T he E l uti on
v o
f
o th e gon , p 5 0
a . .

D 71 )
2 42 MYTH S OF CHINA AND JAPAN
have the sh en and the K w ei s o had the Egyptians t h e ,

K a and the ba The Ka was t h e S pirit of the p l acenta,

.

“
which was accredited with the attributes of t h e life
giving and birt h promoting Great Mot h er and intimately
-

re l ated to the moon and the earliest totem In China

t h e beliefs and customs con nected wit h the placenta and
?
the moon are quite Egyptian i n character
Even in the worship o f ancestors in China one can
trace th e influence o f Ancient Egyptian ideas W h en .

the Pharaoh died , he was identified with the god K ing .

Unis, in the Pyramid Texts, becomes Osiris , who controls

the Ni l e “
.
“
I t is Unis , we read, who inundates the ”

land . Pepi I , in l ike manner supp l anted t h e god, and ,

h e is addressed as Osiris , as is a l so K ing Me rn e re Ho

t h is Osiris , K i n g Me rn e re ! runs a Pyramid Text 3
Th e ”
.

sun god Ra was simi l arly supplanted by his son, t h e dead

-

Pharaoh .

The sou l s o f C h inese ancestors , who passed to the

Ot h erwor l d, became identified with the deities w h o
protected househo l ds Emperors became, after death ,
.

emperors in heaven and their souls were t h e deified

preservers of their dynasties Clan and tribal ancestors .

wer e protectors o f their cl ans and tribes , and fam il ies

were ever under t h e care of the souls o f their founders .

T h e belief became deeply rooted in China t h at the an c e s

tral soul exercised from generation to generation a ben
e fic e n t influence over a home It is not surprising to .

find, t h erefore that gods are exceedingly numerous in

,

C h ina, and that it is sometimes di fficult to distinguish

an ancestor from a god and a god from an ancestor
The State religion was somet h ing apart from domestic
1 The E v o l uti on f
i th e
g Dr a on, pp. 5 1 — 2.

2
r
D e G o o t , o p c i t , p 3 9 6, an d E l l i o t S m i t h, o p c i t , p 48 , an d n. 1

r d
. . . . . . .

3 B e as t e , Re li gi on a nd T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gy pt, p 1 9 . .
2 44 MYTHS O F CHI NA AN D JAPAN
l ife . I n 1 6 3 B C a j ade cup o f this kind w as discovered
“
. .

o n whic h the words were engraved M ay the sovereign

of men have his longevity prolonged Immortality was
secured by eating from j ade bowls o r, as we have seen ,
by drinking dew from a j ade bowl .

A s has been shown , th e Great Mother cr e ated j ade fo r

t h e benefit of mankind , and t h e spirit o f j ade is l ike a
beautiful woman Jade was al so the essence o f the
purity o f the m ale principle
A pparently the go d who was h usband and s o n o f t h e
Great Mother was connected with j ade The Mother was .

“
th e life giv e r and the son as Osiris , was the imperishable
—
, ,

principle o f life wherev e r found If men die d the seed 4

,

o f life in the body w as preserved by j ade amulets ; the

plants might S hed their leav e s but the life of the plants ,
“
was perpetuated by the spirit o f j ade I n the second .

month , says T h e Ill ustra ted Mi rror of Ja d e the plants in

” “
,

the mountains receiv e a brig h ter l ustre W hen their .

l eaves fall , t h ey c h ange into j ade T h e mountain plants .

” 5

in question appear t o be the c urative herbs that contained,

lik e j ade the e lixir o f life , and the chief of these plants was
,

t h e gi nseng (mandrake) an avatar o f t h e Great Mot h er , .

The plant o r ground j ade , o r food o r m oisture from the

,

j ade v e ssel renewed youth and pro l onged life A ll the .

elixirs were concentrated in j ade ; th e vita l principle in

human beings and p l ants was derived from and preserved
by j ade .

I t is of special interest to find that the Chinese N u

K w a w h o caused th e flood to retr e at was t h e creator of
th e j ade which protected mankind and ensured l ongevity
by pres e rving the seed o r sh en o f life, b e ing impregnated
with T a ng th e male principle, I n Babylonia the seed o f .
,

1
L au fre ,
f a d e,
pp 2 9 6 e t se
q
2
Ibi d ,p 1
3
Ibi d p 2 9 6.

Br d fr ,
. . . . . . .

5
e as t e
, Re l i i on a nd
g T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gy pt, p . 2 3. L au e ,
7 a d e, p
. 1 .
 SYMBOLI SM O F JADE
TH E 245

mankind w as preserved during t h e flood by the nig gi l m a - —

.

I n the Sumerian version o f the C reation l egend, the

three great gods Anu, Enli l , and Enki , assisted by t h e
Great Mother goddess N i n k h aras agga first created man ,

kind , then the ni ggi l m a, and l astly the four l e gged animal s
- - —

of the fiel d Th e mysterious niggi l m a is referred to in

.
— —

the story o f the Deluge as Preserver o f the seed o f

“

” ”
mankind while th e S hip o r ark is Preserver o f Life ,
,
“

l iterally She t h at preserves life A l ater magical text ”

.

refers to t h e creation after t h at o f mankind and animal s of

t w o sma ll creatures o n e white and o n e black
“ ”
Man, .

and animals w e re saved from t h e flood and the m ggi l m a — —

“ ”
played its o r their part in ensuring their survival .

Leonard W K ing who has gathered toget h er the sur

.
,

v iv in evidence regarding the mysterious l a points

1
g ni
ggi m - -

o ut that t h e name is sometimes preceded by the d e ter

m i n at i v e for
‘
pot , j ar or bowl and is identical wit h
’ ’

,
’

the S e mitic word m ash hh alu I n the Tell e l Amarna letters .

— —

there are refe rences to a m ash hh al u o f silv e r and a m ash

hh a l u o f stone (a si lver vesse l and a stone vessel ) The
“ ” ”
ni i l m a may be simply a j ar or bowl But
gg
— —
, .

says Mr L K ing t h e accompanying references to t h e

“
. .
,

ground to its production from the ground , and to its

,

springing up suggest rather some kind o f plant ; and

this from its employment in magical rites , may also h ave
,

given its name to a bow l o r vessel which held it A very .

simi l ar plant was that found and l ost by Gilgamesh , after

h is soj ourn with U t n api s h t i m it t o o h ad potent magical
-
2

power, and bore a title descriptive o f its pecul iar virtue

”
of transforming old age to youth Th e nig gi l m a may .
— —

r
1

d
t u e s ) , L o n o n , 1 9 1 8 , pp 5 6 e t se an d pp 8 8 e t se
r r
L egend s of B a by l on i a and E gypt i n e la ti on to H e b e w T rad i ti on (T h e S c h w e i c h L e c
q q
N r d
. . .

2 “
T h e B aby l o n i an o ah, w h o b e c am e an i m m o t al a n d l i v e o n an Is l an d o f t h e
Bl e st an d n e a r t h e i s l an d on w h i ch w e r e the P l an t of Li f
e an d th e W e ll o f Li f
e.
 2 46 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
therefore b e a plant , a ship , a stone bowl o r j ar, o r a vess e l
o f si l ver t h e moon meta I f we regard it as a symbo l
( l ) .

o r avatar o f the mother goddess it was any of t h e se things

-

a n d all o f these things th e Mother P o t, the inexha ustible

—

womb o f N ature , t h e Plant o f Life containing s o ul

”
substance the red clay, the moon S ilver, o r as in China,
,
-
,

t h e j ade o f w h i c h the sacred vesse l was made The G r e at

’

Mother s herb avatar was the gi nseng (m andrake) as i n

’
-
,

the Egyptian Deluge story it was the red earth d i d i from

E l e phantine placed in the beer prepared for the s l aughter
ing goddess Hathor S e khet as a surrogate o f b l ood and a
-

o f l ife , th e
”
s o o ri fic drink ; the mixture was the giver
p
red a qua v i ta e, like the red wine and the j uice o f red
berries i n di ffe rent areas 1
The mandrake was t h e d i d i of
.

southern Europe and o f China Dr R e n d e l Harris s h ows . .

that the early Greek magicians and doctors referred to th e

male mandrake, whic h was white, and the fe mal e mandrake,
w h ich was black T h e b l ack mandrake was person ified as
.

?
the Black Aphrodite
The Babylonian refere nce in a magical text to t h e
nig gi l m a as
- —
t w o small creatures , o n e white and o n e

black is t h erefore highly significant Apparently, l ike

”
.

j ade, the nig gi l m a symbolized t h e m al e princip l e and

— —

the spirit o f a beautifu l woman

“
Thus mandrake ”
.

(g i nsen
g) , the P l ant o f Life red earth j ade , t h
, e pear l and ,

the pot or j ar or bowl , and t h e De l uge S h ip , and t h e s h ip

o f the sun god , were forms avatars , o r manifestations o f
-
,

the Great Mother who preserved the seed o f m ankind

and the elixir o f life i n the Pot it grew t h e Plant o f
—

Life, and from it could be drunk the d e w o f life t h e ,

water o f life pla n t and water being impregnated with t h e

,

spirit of j ade Jad e lore is o f highly complex c h aracter

.
-

2
E l h o t S m i t h, T h e E v o l uti on of th e Dr a
g on,
p
. 20 5 .

T h e A s ce nt qf Oly m pus, pp . 1 20 -
1 .
248 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
which w as worked up into armour had contributed ,
” 1
to its final d e struction T h e rhinoceros horn cups were .
-

used , like j ade cups chiefly fo r religious purposes Rice , .

wine was drunk from them when vows were made , and
from t h em were poured l ibations to ancestors Th e .

animal s S kin was used not only fo r armour , because of its

’

toughness and d urability but because t h e rhinoc e ros was ,

a longevity animal , and a form o f t h e go d o f l ongevity

( shou S ing )
-
I t was use d t oo .for the co f
f i n o f th e Son , ,

of Heaven (the Emperor) T h e innermost c o fli n was .

formed by hi d e o f water bu ffalo and r h inoceros T h is .

”

case was enclosed in w h ite poplar timber and t h e t w o

outer cases were o f catalpa wood Th e jade c o fli n was .
2

simi l arly a protecting life giver -

.

A S there were black and white nig gi l m a , and b l ack — —

and white deities , so were there blac k and white r h ino

ce ro s e s and black an d white e lephants Gautama Budd h a .

entered his mot h er s righ t S ide in the form o f a superb

“ ’

white elephant 3

The water r h inoceros had pearl l ike armour (a s i g

- -

n i fican t comparison when it is remembered that pearl lore -

and j ade lore are s o S imilar) , but not the mountain r h ino
-

ceros I t was the h orn o f t h e male anima l that h ad

.

special virtues The markings o n it includ e d a red l ine,

.

which was a result o f his habit o f gazing at the moon ;

t h e spots were stars As the animal was connected with .

the material s k y , the h orn was impr e gnated with the ”

“
Yang principle A horn that communicated w ith the .

sky was o f the first quality Laufe r quotes t h e state

ment “
I f the h orn o f t h e rhinoceros communicating
‘

with t h e s k y emits light, so that it can be seen by nig h t,

1 it 61
Op . c .
, p. 1 .

2 L e gge, S ac r ed B ooks o
f th e E as t, V o l XXVII p 1 5 8 , an d L au e fr C hi nese C lay Im ages,
D d , ,
. .

2 Rh y s
p. 1 7 2. av i d, B ud d h i s m (L o n o n,
p
. 1 83 .
 THE SYM B OLI S M OF JADE 249

it is called horn s h ining at night (y e m i ng s i ) : hence it

can communicate wit h the spirits and open a way throug h
th e water A man who carried in his mout h a piece o f
”
.

rhinoceros horn found , it was alleged, on diving into t h e

sea , that the water gave way s o as t o i al l o w a space for
breat h ing 1
T h e pearl fis h e rs may t h e refore h ave used
.
—

the magic h orn , believing that it protected and assisted

them .

I t is r e corded o f a horn presented to an emperor o f

t h e T ang Dynasty t h at at night it emitted light so th at
’

a space o f a hundr e d paces was il l um inated Manifo l d .

S ilk wrappers laid around it could not hide its l uminous

pow e r The emperor ordered it to be cut into S lic e s and

.

worked up into a gird le ; an d w h e n ever he went o ut o n

a hunting expeditio n , h e saved candl e lig h t at night .
”

With t h e aid o f the horn it was possibl e to s e e super

natura l monsters i n water
There w as warm rhinoceros h orn and cold r h inoceros
h or n , as there was warm j ade and cold j ade A Chinese .

work o f t h e eighth century mentions cold dispelling

“ —

r h inoceros horn (p i h a n s i ), whose col our is golden 3

.

During th e winter month s it spreads war m t h wh ic h

imparts a genial feeling to man Another work speaks .

of
“
h eat dispel ling rhinoceros horn (pi sh u si )
-
Duri n g
the summer months it can coo l o ff the h o t temperature .

Girdles o f wrath dispe l li n g horn caused men -

to
abandon their anger hair pins, combs & c , were made -
, .

from dust dispelling h orn R h inoceros horn had, l ike .

j ade healing properties A fourth century Chinese writer

,
.
—

tells t h at the horn can neutralize poison because the

“

animal devours al l sorts of vegetabl e poisons with its food ”

.

C h inese drug stock s h avings o f th e h orn to

1 L au fr
e , o p. c it ,p 1 38
2
Chi nese C l ay Im ages, pp 1
50 e t se
q
k
. . . . .

2 “ ”
Li e th e go ld e n s un .
2 50 MYTHS OF CHIN A AND JAPAN
cure fev e r smallpox O phthalmia & c
,
A ccording to , ,
?

S W W illiams
. .
“
a decoction o f the horn shavings is
2

given t o women j ust befor e parturition and also to frighten

”
chil d ren A medicine is prepare d from rhinoceros skin ,
.

too Laufer states that t h e skin as well as the h orn

.
“
, ,

the b l ood , and the teeth were medicinall y employed in ,

Cambodj a, notably against h eart diseas e s I n Japan .

rh inoceros horn is powdered and used as a specific in fever

cases o f all kind Dragon bones were us e d in l ike .

manner in China I t is of importance to note t h at the .

rhinoceros horn derived its healing qualities because the

anima l fed o n plants and trees provided with t h orns .
3

Like the dragon the rhinoceros h ad an intimate connection

,

wit h certain plants ; like the ginseng d evouring goat , it —

carried in its b l ood t h e virtu e o f t h e plants and herbs it

devoured I n Tibet and China the rhinoceros became
.

confused wit h t h e stag antelope , and goat with one horn , .

I t was t h e prototype of the unico rn I n India and Iran .

it was confused with the horse Th e re is in C hinese lore .

a spiritual rhinoceros (li ng si ) with t h e body o f an o x ,

t h e hump o f a z e bu , cloven feet t h e snout of a pig, and a ,

horn in front It may be that in ancient times t h e l ore

.
4

connected with the h ippopotamus was transferred by t h e

s e arc h e rs for pearls precious stones and m etals to the , ,

C h inese water r h inoceros Like the composite wonder

—

beast in the Osirian hall of j udgment , whic h tore t h e

unworthy soul to pieces , t h e rhinoceros had its place in
j udicial proceedings in C h ina I n its goat form it so l ved .

a di ffi cult case w h en K as Y as administered j ustice by butt

ing the guilty party and sparing t h e innocent .
5

1 C C hi ne sel ay Im ages, pp 1 5 2- 3 an d p 1 5 3 n 2
C C r
. . . .

2
T h e h i nese om m e ci al G ui d e, p 9 5 (H o n g K o n g, -

C C
.

3 h i ne se l ay Im ages, p 1 3 9 1
‘
Ibi d , p 1 0 8
f rr rW rk
. . . . .

5 Re by t h e ph i l o s o ph e g C h ung i n h i s w o L hé ng (A 82
’
e ed to an un D. or

d fr
.

quo t e b y L au , o p ci t , p
e . . 1 71 n 3 . . .
2 52 MYTHS O F CHIN A A ND J A PAN
easy task for pri m itive man t o hunt up th e se hidden
”
places Laufe r thinks that in undertaking to overcome
.

the d i ffi culties experienced in discov e ring jade in Europe ,

“
early man must have been prompt e d by a motive pre
existing and acting in his min d ; the impetus of s e arching
fo r j ade he m ust hav e received somehow from somewh e re .

Nothing , he says could induce me to bel iev e t h at

” “
,

primitive man o f Central Europe incidentally an d spon

t an e o us l y embarked o n th e laborious task of quarrying
and working j ade The psychological m otive for this
.

act must be s upplied From the stan d point o f t h e

general development of cu l ture in the O l d World t h ere is
abso l utely no vestige o f originality i n the prehistoric
cultures o f E urope w h ic h appear as an appendix to
”1
Asia .

“
Apparently the psychological motiv e for searching
for j ade in C h ina and Europe came from the K hotan area
in Chinese Turkestan , wh e nce j ade was carried t o Baby
lonia during the Sumerian period I t i s probable that .

bronze was first manufactured in the j ade bearing area of -

Asia and that the people who carried the knowledge of

,
”
bronze making into E urope as Profe ssor Elliot Smith
-
,
“
sugg e sts , also introduc e d the appreciation of j ade
Laufer comments in this connection : Original ity is cer
t ai n l y t h e rarest t h ing in the wor l d , and in t h e h istory of

mankind t h e original thoughts are appall ingly sparse .

There i s i n the l ight o f h istorical facts and experience , no

,

r e ason to credit the prehistoric and early populatio ns o f

”
Europe with any spontaneous ideas relative to j ade .

After receiving j ade and adopting the beliefs attached to

it, they s e t out to search for it , and found it in Europe .

The polished axe pendants of j ade found in Ma l ta

were evidentl y charms Among the Greeks j ade w as
.

1 Jd
a , pp
e .
—
4 5 .
 TH E SY MBOLI SM OF JADE 2 53

“
the kidney ston e it cured diseases o f the kidneys .

The Spaniards brought j ade or j ad e ite from M exico and ,

called it the l oin stone (p i ed ra d e h ga d a ) Sir Wa l ter

'

R al eigh introduced it into England and used t h e Spanis h ,

name from w h ic h j ade is derived

“
.

Red green b l ue, white , grey, and b l ack j ade were

, ,

used , by reason o f their colo urs , for various deities i n

“
China and to indicate the rank of o fli ci al s
,
White j ade, .

considered t h e most precious , was the privileged ornament

o f t h e emperor ; j ade green like t h e mountains was t e

serve d for the princes o f t h e first and second ranks water

b l ue j ad e was fo r the great prefects ; t h e heir apparent h ad
”1
a special kind o f j ade M ottled j ades some resembling
.
—

gran ite — were likewise favoured for a variety of pur

poses.

Jade p l ayed an important part i n Chinese rain getting -

ceremonies Dragon j ade symbo l s , decorated wit h fis h

.

scales , were placed on t h e a l tar as o fferi n gs and for t h e

purpose o f invoking t h e rain contro l ling composite “ -

wonder beast and god Sometimes bronze and S i l ver

”
.

dragon symbols were used According to Laufer, t h e “

.

j ade image o f t h e dragon remained restricted to the Han

period and was substituted at later ages by prayers i n
,

scribed o u j ade o r meta l tab l ets A survival of the ancient .

” “
custom , h e adds , may be seen i n th e large pap e r or
papier m é ch é figures o f dragons carried around in th e
streets by festival processions i n times o f drought to ensure
t h e benefit of rain ”2
I n front of these d ragons are carried
.

t h e red bal l , which symbo l izes the moon , the source o f

ferti l izing moisture o f d e w, o f rain , and th erefore o f t h e
—

streams and rivers that flow to the sea .

Jade l inks with pearl s in the ocean surrounding the

world in whic h l ies a gigantic oyster t h at gapes after rain
,

1
L au e fr ’
s J
ad e ,
p . 1
96 .
2
Ibi d .
,p p
. 1 86 9 —
.
 54 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPA N
fal l s and sends fort h the gleaming rainbow The Greek
, .

historian , Isidorus o f C h arac e (c 3 0 0 referring to .

th e p e arl fis h i n g i n the Persian Gulf, relates a story about

-

1
the bree d ing of pearls being influenc e d by thunder storms -
.

The j ade ceremonia l obj ect, w h ich roused the dragon , had
thus indirectly a s h are in pearl production Pearls were, .

as we have seen , likewise produced by dragons , who spat

t h em o ut during storms As certain pearls were supposed
.

to be formed by d e w that dropped from the moon , it may

be that the Chines e gigantic oyster was , when it gaped to
send forth t h e rainbow receiving the substance of a ,

gigantic pearl from the celestial regions T h e life pro .

-

“ ”
longi n g and youth renewing Red Cloud herb came
-

into existence during a t h under and rain storm -

.

A S we have seen j ade contains according to Far Eastern

, ,

be l ief, the essence o f heat as well as o f moisture It con .

tains t o o , th e essence o f col d not t h e cold o f winter but

,
—

the coo l ness desired in h ot weather I n the T u y a ng tsa ?

i en, a C hines e work o f the nint h century it is recorded

p ,

that t h e Emperor of China received from Japan an e n “

graved gobang board of warm j ade o n which the game ,

co ul d be played in winter without getting cold , and that

it was most highly prized I t is to l d in t h is connection
”

that thirty thousand l i (l eagues) east of Japan is the

“

is l and of T si m o, and upon this island the N i n gh i a Terrace,

-

o n wh ich terrace is t h e Gobang P l ayer s Lake T h is ’

.

lake produces the chess men w h ic h need no carving, -

and are naturall y divided into black and white T h ey .

are warm in winter, coo l in summer, and known as

coo l and warm j ade I t also produces t h e catalpa j ade,
.
-

i n structure like the wood of t h e catalpa tree which ,

1
A th e nasus D eip n os, B o o k
III, c h ap xlv i ; an d J ac k s o n , S h el ls as E v i d en ce
f
o th e

r C r
.

Mi g a ti ons q a rly ul tu e , p 7 7
k r r
. .

2
L i e h i n o c e o s h o rn,
 C HA PTER XIV
My t h s an d t h e G o d
C re at i o n
an d G o dd e ss C ul t s
A i B li f Pr i
re A n i m i st
i id c f M
e
y i p r d
e s m it ve ? — E v e n ce o a um m -
m o te

l r i
C u tu Pri e n i i Cr
m i ti v e
C i M h C
Co m T r
m un t e s — h n e se e at i o n
yt
— h ao s an s

for i K
m ed P
nto K W rl d r i
o sm o s —
C i
’
W rld
an n as th e o -
a t s an — h n e se o

M
gi a n t T b Vr P
y th
— i d e t an
yp i P h H
e si o n—
’
an Ku an the E g t an ta — am m e r

G P ods — h
’
di
an Ku Y r ir
an d t W rl d i
e S can F i n av i a n m i — Os i s as a o -
g an t— us o n
of ypE g b l
t i an M h an d C I
B a y o n i an
h r T h G dd f yt s— T e h i n e se s h t a s— e o e ss o

the Dl e uge — Vi r M r Dr B C r i T h
T h e C h i n e se gi n o t h e — ago n o at e e m o n e s— e

M G d Ci
o un t a i n odY e ss i in M h r
h n a— i K i an g uan as t h e D vi n e ot e — A nc ent

My C i
th s d
in i h
T h n e se G
Bu dh f M r y C
sm — e P o o sa as o d d e ss o e c — As on

r l l r f i Vi i f k y d I l d S f G d d W h i p
t o e o T d e s— s on o S -
go d e ss— s an e at o o e ss o rs

T h C i e I drh n e se n a .

so m e exponents o f the stratification theory

Al though
incline to regard Chinese r e ligion as a stunted outcrop of
animistic ideas a n d chiefly because o f the remar k able,

persistence throug h the ages of t h e worship o f ancestors

the worship of ghost gods and g h osts identified with
— -

go d s there i s really littl e trace of what is usually referred

—

“ ”
to as the primitive state of mind Und e r the term .

“
animism have been included ideas that are less primi
tive than w as supposed to be the case about a generation
ago The beli e f for instance that there are spirits in
.
, ,

stones o r that the soul of t h e dead enters a megalit h ic

,

monument, or a statue placed in the tomb may not, after ,

all belong to a pri m itive stag e of thought ; nor does it

,

follow that because it is found to b e prevalent among

savag e tribes isolate d o n l onely islan d s it is a product
256
 CREATI ON MYTHS 2
57
m e re l y of t h e early workings o f t h e human m ind
“

“
when man , as if by instinct, framed his first crude
phi l osop h y of h u m an thought Th e fact that savages
reac h ed isolated islands , such as for instance , East e rn
,

Is l and wh ere stone idols were erected in d icates clearly

, ,

that they h ad acquired a knowledg e of shipbuilding and

n avigation directly o r in d irectly from a centre of ancient

civilization .I t may b e therefore that th e y likewise

, ,

acquired from t h e same source ideas regarding the so ul

an d t h e origin o f things , and that these , instead o f being
“
si m ple and primitive are r e ally of complex c h aracter ,
and have remained in a state of arrested developmen t,
simply b e cause t h ey h ave been detache d from t h e parent
ste m to be preserved like flow e r p e tals pressed in a book
, ,

that still retain a degree of their original brightness and

characteristic odour .

In outlying areas , l ike Australia and Oceania are found ,

n o t only
“
primitive b e l iefs , b ut definite b urial customs
”

that h ave a long history elsewh e re , incl uding cremation

and even m um m i fic at i o n You get the whole bag of
.

”
tricks in Australia th e late Andrew Lang once d e clared
,

to the writer when contend i ng that certain beliefs and

customs found in Egypt B ab y l o m a India and Europe
, , ,

were natura l products o f the primitive m ind

“
B ut is
”
.

it likely that such a custom as m um m i ficat i o n s h o ul d have

“
arisen independently in Austral asia ? Let us take, for
”

instance t h e case o f th e m ummy from t h e Torres Straits ,

,

whic h is preserved in t h e Mackay M useum in the

University o f Sydney I t w as examined by Professor
.

G Elliot Smith , w h o during his ten y e ars occupancy of

.
,
’

the Chair of Anatomy in the Government Schoo l of

Medicine in Cairo h ad unique opportunities o f studying
,

Ancient Egyptian surgery as revealed by t h e mummies

preserved in Gizeh m useum When he examined t h e .

(D 71 ) 1 8
258 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
Papuan mummy at Sydney h e found that undeniab l e
Egyptian methods of a definite period in Egyptian history
had been employed He communicated his discovery to
.

th e Anthropological Section o f t h e B ritish Association in

Melbourn e in 1 9 1 4 and as an anatomist, was astonish e d
, ,

to h ear Professor Myres contending that it seeme d to him

n atural that p e ople shou l d want to p reserve their dead !

If , Professor E ll iot Smith has written , Professor

” “

Myers had known anyt h ing o f the h isto ry of anatomy h e

would have realized that the problem of preserving the
body was o n e of extreme di ffi culty w h ic h for long ages
had exercised the most civi l ized peop l es , n o t only of
antiquity but a l so o f modern times I n Egypt, w h ere
,
.

t h e natural conditions favouring the successful issue of

att e mpts to preserve the body were largely responsible
for the possibility o f such embalming it took more than ,

seventeen centuries of constant practice and e xp e rimenta

tion to r e ach the stage and to acquire the met h ods
” 1
exemplified in the Torres Straits mummies Arm chair .
-

theories vanish like m ist when the lig h t of scientific

evidenc e i s released .

I n like manner may be found in t h e folk lore and -

re l igious literature o f C h ina mummies of imported

“ ”

myths as well as ear l y myths o f l ocal i nvention t h at,

,
”
ancient as they may be , cannot be regarded as primitive
in the real sense o f t h e term T h e fo ll owing m yth.
,

found in the literature o f Taois m , may be more archaic

than th e writings o f K wang tze , w h o gives it
-
.

At t h e beginning o f time there were t w o oceans one —

in the south and o n e in t h e north , and ther e w as land in

the centre The Ruler o f the sout h ern ocean was Shu
.

( Heedless ) ,
and the Ruler of the nort h ern ocean was H u

1
T he r r C r
Mi g a ti on of E a ly ul t u e A S tudy of th e S ignyfca nce of th e r
G eog aph i cal
D r
i s tri buti on qf th e P acti ce of M um m ifica ti on, &c , pp 2 0 e t s e q
. . .
2 60 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JA PAN
would have us suppose Considerable progress was.

achieved before mankin d began to theorize regar d ing the

origin o f things Even the widespread an d s o called
.
-

primitive myth about the egg from which the Universe ,

o r the first god , w as hatc h ed by the
“ ”
Primeval Goose
may belong to a much later stage o f human development
than is supposed by some of those writers who speculate
with so m uch confidence regarding the workings o f the
“

h uman mind ”
.Even the m etaphysicians of Brahmanic
I ndia were prone to speak in parables and fables .

“
At the beginning there was nothing the C h inese
philosophers taught their pupils Long ages pass e d by
. .

T h en nothing became something Th e something h ad

.

unity Long ages passed by, and the something divided

.

itself into two parts a male part and a female part

—
.

These t w o somethings produce d two lesser somethi ngs ,

and the t w o pairs , working togeth e r, produced the first

being who was nam e d P an K u Another version o f th e
,
’
.

myth is that P an K u emerged from the cosmic egg

’
.

It is n o t di ffi cult to recognize in P an K u a giant god ’

o r world god —
. He was furnished with an a d ze, o r, as
is found in some Chinese prints with a hammer and ,

a chisel With his implement or implements P an K u

.
’

m oves th rough the univ e rse as the Divine Artisan , who

S hapes th e mountai ns and hammers or C his e ls out the sky,

accompanied by the primeval Tortois e , and the Ph oe nix,
and a d ragon like being who may represent t h e primeva l
-

“
somet h ings the symbols o f water earth and air
—
, , .

The sun , moon , and stars have already appeared .

Another ve rsion of the P an K u myth r e presents him

’

as the Prim e val World giant who is destroye d so that

-
,

the m aterial universe may be form e d From his fl e s h .

co m e s the soil , from his bones the roc k s ; his blood is the
waters o f rivers and th e oc e an ; his hair is v e getation ;
 CREATION MYTHS 261

w h ile t h e win d is his breath the thund e r his voice , th e

,

rain h is S w e at, the d e w his tears th e firm am e n t hi s S kull ,

,

his rig h t eye the moon , and his left e y e the s un P an .

’

K u s body was covered wit h vermin , and the vermin

’

became the races o f mankind .

A somew h at similar myt h is found i n Tibet W h en .

M Huc soj ourned in that country, h e had a conversation

.

wit h an aged no m ad, who said

Th e re are on the earth three great fami l ies and we ,

are a ll of t h e gr e at Tibetan family T h is is what I have

.

h eard the Lamas s ay , who have studi e d the things of

antiquity At the beginning there was on the earth only
.

a single man ; h e had n either ho use nor tent for at t h at

,

time the winter was not cold and the summ e r was not h o t ;
,

t h e wind did not blow so violently, and there fe ll neither

snow nor rain ; t h e tea grew of itself o n the mountains ,
and t h e flocks had nothi n g to fear from beasts of prey .

This man h ad t h ree chi l dren , who l ived a l ong time wit h
him , nourishing t h emse l ves on milk and fruits After .

h aving attained to a great age, t h is man died . T h e thr e e

children deliberated what t h ey should do wit h t h e body o f
their fathe r, and they could not agree about it ; o n e wis h ed
to put him i n a co ffin , the other wanted to burn him , the
third thought it would be best to expose the body on t h e
summit o f a m ountain Th ey resol v ed then to divide it
.

into t h ree parts The e l dest had the body and arm s ; h e
.

was the ancestor o f the great C h ines e family, and that is

w h y his descendants have become c e l ebrated i n arts and
industry, and are remarkable for t h eir tricks and strata
gems The second son had the breast ; he w as the fat h er
.

o f the Tib e tan family, and they are ful l o f heart and cour

age, and do not fear deat h From t h e third , who had

.

inferior parts o f the body are descended t h e Tartars , who

,

are simple and timid , without h ead o r heart, and who

2 62 MYTHS OF C HI NA A ND J A PAN
know nothing but how to keep their t h emselves firm in
”1
sad d les .

P an K u, with his implements , links with the Egyptian

’

art i fic e r god Ptah o f Memphis , who used his hammer to

“
b e at o ut the metal fIrm am e n t P t ah s name means to .
’

“
open in the sense of to e ngrave , to carv e to chisel ,
“
the sun and moon were his e yes ; he was the great
art i fic e r in m etals and he was at once smelter and caster ,
, ,

and sculptor as well as the master architect and designer

,
”
of e veryth ing that exists in the world I n th e B ook of .

th e D ea d h e (or Shu ) is said to have performed the cere

mony of opening the mouth o f the gods with an iron
knife as Has ty and Heedless open e d the mouth ,
eyes ears , and nostrils of Chaos in the Chinese myth
, .

The high priest of Memph is was called U r Kh ei p h em ,

“ ”
the great chief of the hammer As we have seen h e .
,

was closely associated with the Egyptian potter s wheel ’

which reac h e d China at an early period Lik e Ptah , P an .

’

K u is sometimes depicted as a dwarf and sometimes as a ,

giant .

Other hammer gods include the A ry o Indian Indra, - -

who builds the world hous e ; the Anatolian Tarku , the

M e sopotamian Ram m o n or A da d t h e northern European ,

Thor The hammer is apparently identica l wit h adze and

.

ax e , and in Egypt the ax e i s an exceedingly ancient symbo l

o f a deity ; in Cret e the double ax e has a similar S i n i fi

g
cance I n Scotland the hammer is carried by the Cailleach
.

( O ld Wife ) in her character as Queen of Winter ; she

S hapes the mountains with it , and causes the ground to

freeze hard when sh e beats it The h ammer go d is in .

-

many countries a thunderer ; to the modern Greeks light

1 Recol le cti ons o
f a
j r
ou ney r
th o u h
g Ta r tary , T i be t, and C h i na, by M H uc (E ngli sh
r d
.

t i
an s l at o n , L on o n, 9 20 pp 21 —

d
. .

ge , G od s of the E gy p ti a ns , V o l I, p 5 0 0
2 Bu ct s e
. .
q .
2 64 M YTHS O F C HIN A A ND J A PAN
The black dwarfs were parasites o n Ymir s body, as human ’

beings were parasites o n the b ody o f P an K u ’

.

I t may be that t h e idea o f a primeval giant like P an ’

K u, o r Ymir, w as d e rived from th e conception o f Osiris

as a world god , whic h obtained i n Egypt as far back as
-

the Empire perio d Erman translates a hymn in which

.

it is said of the god : The soil i s o n t h y arm , its corners

“

are upon thee as far as the four pillars of the s k y W hen .

thou m o v e s t , t h e earth trembles The Ni l e com e s . .

1

from th e sweat o f thy h ands Thou s pe w e s t out t h e wind .

that is in thy throat into the nostrils of men , and that

w h ereon men live is divine I t is ! ali k e in] in thy .
2

nostrils the tree and its verdure, re e ds , plants, barley,

,
”
wheat, and the tree o f life Everything cons t ructed o n .

earth lies o n the bac k of Osiris

“
Thou art t h e”
.

father and mother o f men they live o n thy br e ath they , ,

‘
eat o f the flesh of thy body The P ri m aav al is thy .
’

”
n ame
3
.

The body of Osiris was cut into piec e s by Set A S th e .

bones of P an K u and Ymir are the roc k s s o are the

’

b ones of Set t h e iron found in the earth but no m yt h ,

survives of the cutting up o f Set s body The black soi l ’

.

on the Nil e banks is the body o f Osiris , and vegetation

springs from it .

I t may be , howev e r, that it w as in consequence of the

fusion in some cultural centre o f the Babylonian myth
regarding the cutting up of the dragon Tiamat an d the
cutting up o f the body of Osiris that the northern
Europeans came t o hear o f an Ymir and the Chinese
o f a P an K u from t h e e arly tra d ers in amber, j ade , and
’

metals .

1 In N r
o se m y t h o l o gy t h e ea r r
th t e m ble s w h e n L ok i m ov es

r
.

2
T he b e at h w h i ch i s s o ul s ub s t an c e

3
Q uo t e d r by B e as te d , Re l igi on an d T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gyp t, pp . 21 —
2 .
 CREATION MYTHS 2 65

When Tiamat was slain , Marduk smashed h er skul l

H c ut t h
e h l s f h bl d
e c an n e o er oo ,
H m d t h e N t h W i d b r i t w y i n t o s r t pl c s
e a e or n ea a a ec e a e .

H e sp li t h up li k
er e a fla t fish
i n to tw o ha lv e s,

One h alf o f h e h r e se t in p l ac e as a c o v e r in g fo r t h e h e av e ns .

With the ot h er part of Tiamat s body Mard uk mad e the ’

earth T h en he fashioned the abode of t h e god Ea in

.

the deep t h e abod e o f the god Anu in h igh heaven , and

,

the abode of Enlil in the air .

1

I n India i s found another myth t h at appears to have

contributed to the Chinese mosaic At the beginning the .

“ ”
Universal Soul assumed the shape o f a man Th is
was Pur usha .

H ed i d n o t fe e l d e l i h t g
T h e re fo re n o bo dy, w h e n al o n e ,
.

fe e ls d e l i h tg H e w as d e s i ro us o f a s e c o n d
. H e w as i n t h e sam e .

s ta t e as h us ban d (Pat i) an d w i fe (P at ni ) H e d i v i d e d t h is s e lf .

t w o fo l d .H e n c e w e re h us ban d an d w ife pro d uce d T h e re fo re .

w as t h i s o nly a h al f o f h i m s e l f, as a pl i t pe a i s o f t h e w h o le
” 2
S .

T h e v o i d w as c o m pl e t e d by w o m an .

I t may be that I ndia and China derived the god splitting -

idea from a common source in Central Asia, where such

”
culture mixing appears to have taken place
-
.

I n China itse l f there are many traces of blended ideas .

In the T ex ts of Confuci a ni sm , for instance, the symbo l of t h e

Kh i en stands for heaven and t h at of the K h w a n for earth
, .

In one of th e native tr e atises it is stated

gg
Khi e n s u e s t s t h e i d e a o f h e av e n ; o f a c i rc l e ; o f a rul e r ; o f
a fat h e r ; o f ad e ; o f m e t al ; o f c o l d ; o f i c e ; o f d e e p re d ; o f a
j ood g
h o rs e ; o f an o l d h o rs e ; o f a t h i n h o rs e ; o f a pi e bal d h o rs e ; an d o f
t h e frui t o f t re e s .

gg
K h w a n s u es t s t h e i d e a o f t h e e art h ; o f a m o t h e r ; o f c l o t h ;
1 B a by l oni an My th a nd L ege nd , pp . 1 6—
4 7 .
2 In d i a n My t h a nd L ege n d , p 9 5
. .
2 66 MYTH S OF CH INA AND JAPAN
o f a ca ld n ;
ro of pars m o ni y; o f a t urn n i
y gl g at h e
h e fe r ;
; of a o un i
of a l g
ar e w ag g on ; of w h at i s i
v ar e at e d g
; o f a m u t i t ud e ; an d o f l
a h an d l e a n d s uppo rt . A m o ng i
s o ls i t d e o t e s w h at i s b a cn ” 1
l k .

H e r e w e have the Great Fath er, the god of heaven ,

who is red and is a circle (the sun) ; and the Great
Mot h er the goddess o f Earth w h o is black
, , .

The S ky god is connected with j ade and metal As

-
.

we hav e seen the cult of the west attributed t h e creation

,

of j a d e to the Chin e s e Ishtar Precious metals were in .

several countries associate d with sun, moon and stars , .

The horse is o n e o f the animals associated with S ky gods ; -

it was , of course lat e r than the bull stag, antelope goat,

, , ,

ram & c Cold as well as warmth was sent by t h e s k y

, .

god who controls the seasons

, .

The mother goddess is the Caldron t h e Pot

-
“ — '

w h ich as has already b e en noted , w as in Ancient Egypt

,

the symbol of the inexhaustible womb o f nature personified

by deiti e s like Hathor Rhea Aphro d ite Hera, Ishtar , , , ,
“ ”
&c . T he young h e ifer has a similar connection ,
w h ile the waggon se e ms to be another form o f the
“ ”

“
Pot C l oth was woven by men and women , but the
production of thread was always the work of women
in Ancient Egypt and elsewhere Apparently the turn ing .

lath e was female because th e chisel was male ; it may be

,

that it was because the potter s whe e l was female that it ’

“
had to be operated by a man A multitude may .

refer to the reproductivity o f the Great Mother of al l

mankind The goddess was perhaps , parsimonious
.
,

becaus e during a period of the year the earth gives fort h

naught, and stores all it re ceiv e s .

The egg from which P an K u emerged appears to ’

have been a symbo l o f the Mother Godd e ss o f t h e sacred

1 J am e s L e gge , T h e T e x ts qf C f
o
n uci a ni s m , P a t r II, p 4 3 0
. r
(S ac e d B ooks of the E as t
) .
2 68 MYTHS OF CHI N A A ND JAP A N
of the mythical E m peror F uh h i , sometimes r e fe rred to as -

“
the Chinese Adam Three rebels h ad conspired wit h ”
.

the demons or go d s of water and fire to destroy the worl d ,

and a great floo d came o n N u K w a caused t h e waters to .

retreat by making use o f charred reeds (quite a Babylonian

t o uc h l) Then s h e re erected o n e of t h e four pi l lars
.
-

of the sky against which on e of the r e bels a huge giant,,

,

had bumped h is head causing it to topple over , .

According to Chinese chronology this world flo o d ,

-

occurred earl y in th e Patriarchal Perio d between

2 9 43 B C
. . an d 2 8 68 B C . .

Another reference to the mother goddess crops up -

in a poem by t h e statesman poet C h u Yuan , 3 3 2

“
,

295 B C w h o drowned h imself , Professor Gi l es writes ,

. .
,
” 1

“
in despair at his country s outlook, and whose body ’

”
is still searched for annually at the Dragon boat Festival —

”
The poem in question is entitled God Questions , and
one question is :
”
As N u- C h i h ad no h us b an d , h o w cou ld She b e ar i
n n e so n s ?

Professor Giles adds : The Co m mentary tel l s us that

Nu C h i was a divine maiden , but nothing more se e ms
‘ ’

”
to be known about h e r I t is evident that she was .

a virgi n goddess , who , like the Egyptian Nut, was the

spirit of the cosmic waters ? It i s of interest to find
the memory of t h e poet associated with t h e Dragon boat -

Festival, whic h according to Chinese belief h ad origin

, ,

beca use h e drowned himself in the N i ro River There —

.

is evidence , however t h at the festival h ad quite another ,

origin Dragon boats were used in China on th e fift h

.
—

day of th e fifth month at water festivals T h ey were .

1
Re l i gi ons of A nci e nt Ch i n a, pp 4 3 — 44
r T r rf r
. .

“
2 F o r a d Is c us s i o n o n E a l y B i o l o gi c al heo ie s i n th i s c o n n e ct i o n s e e P o e ss o

G . E l l i o t S m i th
’
s T he E v o l uti on qf t h e Dr a
g on, pp. 2 6 e t se
q
.
,
an d
pp . 1 78 e t se
q
.
 CREATI ON MYTH S 2 69

big ships adorned with carved d ragon ornaments the

yih bird being painted on the prow ? De Visser says
that these boats were used by emperors for pl e asure trips ,
and music was played o n board t h e m “
Th e bird .

was painted, not to denote their swift sailing, but to

” 2
suppress the water gods According to D e Groot,-
.

“
dragon boat races were intended to represent fighting
—

dragons in ord er to cause a real dragon fight, which is

always accompani e d by heavy rains The dragon boats .
-

carried t h rough the streets may also serve to cause rain ,

alt h ough they are at the sam e time considered to be
” 2
substitutes .

Having drowned himself the poet became associated ,

with t h e river dragon “

O ff erings of rice in bamboo , .
”

says Gi l es, were cast into t h e river as a sacrifice to

“

the spiri t of t h eir great hero In like manner, o fferings

were m ade to dragons in connection with rain getting -

ceremonies l ong before t h e poet was born I t is evident .

that he took the place o f the dragon god as the m ythica l -

Empress Nu K wa of the P at ri arc h i al Period took the

place of the Ch inese I shtar and as Ishtar took the place ,

of the earlier Sumerian goddess N i n k h aras agga who , wit h ,

“
Anu En l il, and Enki
,
“
created the black headed ”
,
-

”
e mankind
5
( i . .
)
T h e same Chinese poet sings o f t h e mother goddess —

“ ”
i n his poem The Genius of the Mountain , which
,

Professor Giles h as translated :

M t h in ks t h e i s a G n i us o f t h H ills c l d i w ist i
e re e e a n ar a ,

gi dl d wit h i y w i t h s m ilin g li ps f Wi t c h i g m i e i d in g o t h e
r e v
, ,o n n
,r n

r e d p rd w i l d t s g 1 1 0 pin g i t h
a , rca l i ing in a c h i o t
a n e re a , re c n ar ,

1
W W e l ls i l l i am s, C hi nese E ngli s h
-
D
i ct i ona
y,p r 1 0
92
Dr C J
. .

2 T he a
gon i n hi na a n d apan, pp 8 3 - 4
r C V r Dr
. .

2 De G T h e Re li gi ous Sy s te m of h i na ; an d D e
o o t, i ss e T he gon i n Chi na
a a nd

Jp
a a n,

2
p 85 . .
4
C r
hi ne s e L i te ra tu e, p 5 2 . .
,

K i n g, L ege nd s of B a by l on i a and E gypt p 56. .

2 70 MYTH S OF CH INA AND JAPAN
i
w t h b an n e rs o f c ass a, c o a i l k e d w it h t h e o rc h id , gi t wi t h l ar az a e ,

c ul l i n g th e
”
pe rfum e o f sw e e t fl o w e rs t o l e av e be hi d m em
n yi a or n

the h e art .

Like Ishtar, who lam e nts for her lost Tammuz, this
”
goddess laments for her Prince .

D k is th g o ar wh in I d w ll N o li gh t o f d ay c h d
e r ve e re e . re a e

it ever T h pat h t h i t h
. i s d nge u d d i ff c ul t t o c l i m b er a e ro s an i .

Alo n e I t n d o h ill t o p w h i l t h l uds fl o t b e n t h m y f t

s a n -
,
1
e e c o a ea ee ,

d al l a o u d i s w app d i gl m
”
an r n r e n oo .

This goddess is not only associated with i v y , t h e

cassia tree, & c , but with the pine “
. I s h ade myself , .
”

s h e S ings ,
“
beneath the spreading pine T h e poem .

concludes
N w b o o m s t h t h un d ug h t h e d ri lin g i
“
o th e T he er ro z z ra n .

gi b bo s h o wl ro und m ll t h l n g n i gh t T h g l rush s fit
n a e a e o . e a e e

fully t h ro ugh t h w h i s p in g t r s A d I m t h in k in g o f m y
e er ee . n a

P i c b ut i
r n e, i ; fo I nno t l y m y g i f
n va n r ca a r e .
” 2

The goddess laments for h er prince, as does I shtar

for Tammuz .

“
The mother goddess is found also in the Book -

o f Odes She figures as the mother

( T h e S hi h
K g)
i n .

o f th e Hau K i and the peop l e o f K au in the o d e

“ ”
-

which begins as fo l lows

T h fi t b i th o f (o u ) pe o pl w as fro m K ian Y u n
e rs r H w
r e a . o

d i d s h g i e b i t h t o ur p o pl ? S h h ad p se n t d
e v r o
pur o ff i g
e e e re e a e er n

an d s c ific d th t h
a r eh il d l ss n ss m i g h t b e t k n w y
,
a er c Sh e e a e a a . e

th n t o d
e r t o p i nt m d
on a by G d e- d w as m o d i t h l rg
r a e o , an ve n e a e

plac w h ee Sh st dre S h b ca m p gnant ; s h d w lt

e re e . ti e d ;
e e e re e e re r

h g
” 2
S e b i rt h t o
av e d n o u i s h e d ( so ) w h o w as H u K i
an r a n , a -
.

Professor Giles r e fers to this birth story -

as an
1
Li k e th e m o un t ai n -go dd e ss o f C r ete .
2 Ch i n ese L i te r r
a tu e, pp. 5 2, 5 3
r
.

2 L e gge , S h u Ki ng, S h i h K i ng, H s i a o K i ng (S ac e d B ooks f

o th e E )
as t , V o l III, pp
. .
 CREATION MYTHS 27 1

instance in Chinese l iterature, which , in the absence of

any known h usband, comes n e ar sugg e sting the much
” 1
vexed question of parthenogenesis
Other Chines e refer e nc e s to miraculous conc e ptions,
given b e low, emphasize how persistent in Chinese leg e nd
are t h e lingering memories of the ancient mot h er goddess -
.

As was the case in Babyl onia and Egypt the rival ,

bio l ogica l theories o f the god cult and the goddess cult
were fused or exi sted side by side in ancient China .

T h e goddess cul t influenced Budd h ism even w h en

it was adopted i n Chi na and fused with local religious ,
“ ”
systems T o the lower classes the P o o s a , who brings
.

l uck that is , success and protection may be either

— —

a Buddha o r a goddess The name is a s h ortened “

.

form of t h e Sanskrit term Bodhisattwa and was originally

“
a designation o f a class o f Buddha s disciples The ’
.

‘
P o o sa
”
fe els more sympathy with the l ower wants
”
of men than the Buddha (Fuh ) does .

One of the holy beings referred to in China as a

”
P o o s a is K wan yin , th e s o call e d -
goddess of mercy -
.

Dr Josep h Edkins says that this divinity is repres e nted

.
2

sometimes as mal e at others as female , S h e is often .

represented with a child in her arms and is then designated ,

the giver of chi l dren E l sewhere s h e is styled the K wan

.

yin who saves from t h e eight forms of su ffering o r of ‘ ’

th e sout h ern sea , o r of the t h ousand arm s , & c She

‘ ’ ’
.

passes throug h various metamorphoses , whic h give rise to

”
a vari ety In names .

Th e P o o sa of Buddhism o r t h e ancient Ch inese

“ ”

fait h is a powerfu l protector Dr Edkins tells that . .

“
Chinese worshippers will sometimes s ay , fo r exa m ple ,
that they must spend a l ittle money occasionally to obtai n
1
Re li gi ons f
i A nci e n t C h i na, pp 21 3
C d d
. .

2
Re l i gi on i n hi na (L o n d o n , 1 8 7 8, se con e i t i o n ), pp 9 9
. e t se
q .
2 72 M YTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
a favour o f P o o s a, in order to prevent calamities from
assailing t h em I s aw he rel ates , an instance o f this
.
“

at a town o n the s e a coast near Hangchow The tide

—
.

?
here is extremely destructive in the autumn I t often
overflows the embankment made to restrain it, and pro
duces devastation in the adj oining cottages and fields A .

temple was e r e cte d t o the P o o sa K wan yin , and o fferings -

are regularly made t o her and prayers presented for pro

,
”
t e c t i o n against the tide .

A vision o f this C hinese Aphrodite was beheld about

two years before the Britis h forces captured Canton .

Th e governor of the province to which that city

“
belongs says Dr Edkins , was engaged in e x t e rm i
.

nating large bands of roving plunderers that disturbed

t h e region und e r his j uris d iction H e wrote to the .

Emperor on o n e occasion a dispatch i n which h e said t h at,

at a critical j uncture in a recent contest a large figure in ,

white had been seen beckoning to t h e army from the s k y .

I t was K wan yin The soldi e rs were inspired with courage

-
.
,
”
an d w o n an easy victory over the enemy .

Ed k ins notes that the principal seat o f the worship of

“

K wan yin is at the island of Poots

-
Here t h e deity ”
.

takes the place o f Buddha and occupies the chief position

,

in t h e t e mples There are many small caves o n the

“
island de d icate d t o the us e of hermits In s e veral of .

t h em high up o n a hill side Dr Edkins noticed a smal l

-
“
, .

figure o f Buddha Here we have an exc e l l ent instance

”
.

of culture mixing in China in o ur o w n day

-
.

S h ang ti , the personal go d who rules in the s k y is to

-
,

t h e Chinese B uddhists identical wit h Indra , the Hin d u

god o f thunder and rain I n India I ndra was in Vedic.

times the king o f the gods but in the Brahmanic Age ,

became a lesser being than Brahma Shiva, and Vishnu ,

.

1
T he r d
s e as o n c o n t o l l e by th e W h i t e T i ge r -
go d of th e w e st .
 C H A P T E R XV

My t h i c al an d L e ge n d ar y K ings
P
’
an D Ku r T My i l
as t h e G d Ki
i v i n e A n ce s t o — he t h ca A ge — o s as n gs

T h Pr
e f C
o m e t h e us o i D ri f W r ld
h i n a— F u H i as A d am — o ct ne o o
’
s A ge s n

k
C h i n a— L i n by l i sd I w i th
i d r Ki
Ba T h C i
on a an n d a— L e ge n a y n gs— e h n ese

Os i ri R
s— f Y ll
e i gn G o rp t he ilk “
r Cl r
e ow od — E m e ss an d S -
wo m u tu e
R l
oya f r
S o ns Y o fS ta R d Dr
-
go d s — fa o u, Son o the e ago n — S h un , S o n o th e

Ri b
a n o w— Dy y T T he H p r r ea r My n as t d h—
he E m e o Y u— S ta t h s— Y u an t e

Ri r G d
ve Po K—
TY u Fl d M h as
’
dan f T h
u— he oo
yt i n L e ge n s o Y u— e

Dy y f h M
n as t o S M a n g— T W kd W o on an dd E gg y t h s — he ic e u— A H a te

Q ue e n — y f C
T he D C Gl
n as t
y T o Pi K h o u— A h i n e se i ga m e sh — he o us i ng
W en— D by T r i d Gr
i v i n at i o n Ch I dr o ri l
t o se an ass — T he o us as nva e s— H i s to ca

Dy i n as t e s — Ir i r r T r A n ci e n t C i li i
an an
pr by h
T ad e s— ad e a n d iv z at o n o m o te d t e

Dr f D
e ad o e at h .

“
P an K u t h e first man o r go d was the ancestor
’

of t h ree families the rulers of Heaven , Earth , and Man —

kin d I n Tibet as we h ave s e en the first man had three

.
, ,

sons , who divid e d h is body between them , and t h ey were

the ancestors o f the three human races Like the Baby .

lonians , the C hinese had dynastic lists of antediluvian

kings P an K u s descendants r uled the n ine divisions o f
.
’ ’

the prehistoric e mpire or world There were ten dynastic .

”
periods the first being that o f the N ine Heads (kings) ,
,

the secon d that o f the Five Dragons an d s o o n The .

five dragon k ings were con nected with the five plan e ts
Venus , Jupit e r M ercury Mars , and Saturn , and there
, ,

fore with the fiv e e l e m ents fo r Venus was the Star o f ,

Metal Jupiter that o f Wood M e rcury t h at o f W ater

, , ,

Mars t h e Star o f Fire and Saturn the Star o f Earth , .

274
 MYTH ICAL AND LE G ENDARY K INGS 275

Thus every part of t h e terrestria l surface , when identified

with o n e o r more e l ements on account o f its shape is ,

under the influence of the corresponding metals , and al so

under t h at of the constellations t h rough which these
planets move 1
. As w e have seen , the spirits of dragon
swords appeare d in the s k y as stars The star gods , like .
-

the dragons were fathers of some of the famous kings of

,

China .

Towards the end came t h e period Having Nests

w h ich indicates that houses were bui l t Then came t h e .

period of Sui zan, the Fire producer who h as been

-
“ -

referred to as the Prometheus of C h ina

“

A n e w age was ush e red in by F u Hsia or Fu Hi, the

s o call e d
-
“
A dam of Ch ina H e is the first monarch of
China s legendary history, and w as s upposed to reign from
’

2 9 5 3 till 2 8 3 8 B C Some regard him as t h e l eader of a

. .

colony w h ich sett l ed in Shensi But h e is more like a .

mythica l cul ture hero He was t h e o ffspring o f a m i racu

.

lous conception , and had dealings with dragons Like the .

Baby l on ian Ea h e instructed t h e peop l e h o w to l ive civi l ized

lives Before F u h i cam e , they lived like animal s ; t h ey
.
—

knew their mot h ers but not t h eir fathers , and they ate raw
flesh They kept records by means of knotted cords and
.
,

he instructed t hem in t h e mysteries of l ineal figures , whic h

had a mystic significance These were eig h t in number
.

the eig h t k wé or trigrams , w h ich repr e sented : ( 1 ) th e s k y ;

o f lakes and marshes ;
( )
2 water (3 ) fire lightning , and the ,

sun ; (4) thunder ; (5 ) wind and wood ; ( 6) water as in

rain springs streams , cl ouds , and t h e moon ; (7 ) a h i ll ;
, ,

( )
8 the earth .

F u h i a l so instructed the peop l e to wors h ip spirits ,

—

and he instituted sacrifices He kept in a park s i x kinds

.

o f anima l s , and sacrificed twice a year at t h e t w o solstices ,

1
f
Th e Re li gi ous Sy s tem Q C h i na , B o o k I, p 9 5 9
. .
276 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
causing t h e d ays to be regarded as sacred , s o t h at th e
people might S how gratitud e to h eaven .

A ccording to th e Taoists, F u h i d ist urbed the primal —

unity and caused t h e people to begin to det e riorate

, .

H e re we touc h on the doctrine of the World s Ages ’

.

Like th e Indians of the Brahmanic period, the Chinese

Taoists believed t h at the first age w as a p e rfect o n e and ,

that mankind gradually deteriorated I n th e I ndian K ri t a .

Age all men were saintly and therefore they were not ,

required to perform r e ligious ceremonies There were .

no gods in the K ri t a Age , and t h ere were no demons 1

.
”

Lao Tze, who will be dealt with more fu ll y in the next

“
chapter exclaims : I would make people return to the
,

us e of knotted cords His discip l e K wang Tze l amented , ,

that the paradisaical state o f the early ages had been dis
t urb e d by law makers D e cadence s e t in with t h e
—
.

“ ” “
Promethe us and the Adam and continued until
the peop l e became perplexe d an d disord e red and had
“
,

no way by w h ich they might return to their true nature ,

and bring back their original condition

“ “ ”
I t is remarkable says Legge , that at the commence
,

ment o f C h inese history, Chinese tradition placed a period

o f innocence , a season when order and virtue ruled in

men s a ff airs
’
T h is comment is made in connection w ith
.
”

th e fo ll owing passage in the S h u K i ng (B ook XXVII ,

“
The Marquis o f Lu on Pun ishments “
The K ing
‘
said , According to the teachings of ancient times, K h i h
Y u was the first to produce disorder, which spread among
the quiet, orderly people till all became robbers and mur ,

d e re rs , owl like and yet self complacent in their conduct ,

- -

traitors an d vi ll ains , snatching and fil c h i ng diss e m blers ,

and oppressors
1
In d i an My th a nd L ege n d , p 1 0 7 2
f
L e gge , T h e T e x ts o T a oi s m , V o l I,
pp 3 7 0 — 1

r
. . . . .

2
L e gge , T he S h u K i ng (S a c e d B oohs
qf )
th e E a s t , V o l III,
.
p 2 5 5 an d n 1
. . .
278 M Y T H S O F CHINA AN D JAPAN
H er Maj esty became pr e gnant but did not give birt h to
,

h e r s o n until twenty fiv e months later

-
Hwang T 1 was.

a ble to S peak as soon as he w as born When h e ascended

.

th e throne he possessed the power o f summoning spirits

,

to att e nd at the royal palace , and his allies in battle

inclu d e d tigers panthers , an d bears as thos e o f Rama , the
, ,

hero of the I ndian epic, the Ra m dy a na included bears and

,

gigantic monkeys Hwang Ti was a lover o f peace , and

.

because he caus e d peaceful conditions to prevail , ph oe nixes

nest e d in h is garden o r, like swallows , perche d on th e
,

palac e roof and terraces and sang in the cour tyard Other .

spirit birds h a unted the residence o f the Yellow God

-
”

He built a large temple so that he might not be pre

vented by bad weather from o ffering up sacrifices and
performing other religious ceremonies at any season o f the
year a n d he instructed the people i n their duties towards
,

the spirits , their ancestors , and himsel f H e fixed the holy

.

days and introduced music in t e mple wors h ip His wife .

und e rtook the d uty o f nourishing silk worms and produc

-

ing silk An enclosure o n the north S ide o f the temple

.

w as plant e d wit h mulberry trees , and in this grove the

Empress and t h e ladies of her court attended to the silk
worms specially kept fo r the S ilk required for re l igious
ceremoni e s Her Maj esty was t h e goddess as h er h usband
.

was the go d and had therefore to promote reproduction

,

and growth She therefore visited also the encl osure o n

.

the southern side o f the temp l e in whic h grew the cereal s

and fruits o ffered to the d eities .

Hwang Ti was specially favoured by t h e goddess

known as t h e h eavenly lady Pao , who o n o n e occasion
”

stopped the heavy and destructive rains that had been

caus e d by the e nemy .

W h en the Emperor was i n his seventy sevent h year, —

he retired from t h e world, l ike an Indian asc e tic, to prac

 MYTHI C AL AN D LEGENDARY K I NGS 2 79

tise a usterities beside the Jo water He died in his o n e .

h undredt h year Some te ll that w h en h e was ascending

.

to heaven an eart h quake occurred ; oth e rs h old that

he never died but was transformed into a dragon After .

he passed away, e ither as a soul or dragon , to associate

with the immortals , a wooden image of h im was made
and wors h ipped by princes .

H i s successor is said to h ave been the Emperor C h e ,

whose dynastic tit l e was Shao Hao This monarc h was
-
.

the s o n o f a star god One night h is mother be h e l d a

.

star, whic h resemb l ed a rainbow floating o n a stream in

,

the direction of a smal l is l and After retiring to rest s h e

.

dreamed t h at she received the star, and , in due course,

s h e gave birt h to her son P h oe nixes visited t h e royal
.

palace on the day that he ascended the t h rone T h is .

monarc h had som e mysterious association with the west

probably wit h t h e goddess o f t h e west an d is said to —

have commanded an army o f birds .

He was fo ll owed by t h e Emperor C h uen Heug h -

(K ao Yang
-
) . He ,
too , was th e s o n of a star god It -
.

chanced that his mother witnesse d t h e T a o Kw a ng star -

passing t h ro ugh t h e moon like a rainbow She gave birt h .

to h er son in the V icinity o f t h e Jo water There was a .

shie l d and S pear o n h is head at birth , a tradition whic h

recalls that when the I ndian princess P ri t h a gave birth to
K arna, s o n o f Surya , the sun go d h e was fully armed
-
, .

Chu e n Heugh was a great sage

— “
He invented cal en
.

daric ca l culations and delineations of the heavenly bodi e s , ”

an d composed a piece o f music ca ll ed The Answer to t h e

“

C l ouds
N e xt cam e the Emperor K uh ( Kao S i n) w h o l ike -

Richard III , had teet h when he was born He similarl y .

rose from t h e rank o f a Stat e prince to t h e Imperia l t h rone .

The State o f Y e w K ae was con q uered by h im His s o n ,

-
.
2 80 M YTH S OF C HI NA AND JAPAN
named Che , proved to be unworthy, and h is younger s o n ,
Yao was select e d as his successor
, .

The Emp e ror Y ao w as the s o n o f a red dragon , as

wel l as o f t h e Emperor and was n o t born until fourteen
,

months after con ception H e is said to have been t e n

.

cubits in h e ight wh en full grown There wer e tw o pupils

.

i n each o f h i s e yes . He was a great sage and wond e rful

happenings occurr e d during his reign .

A mysterious grass grew o n t h e palace stairs I t bore .

a pod o n each day o f the m onth H e selected as his

.

colleague an d s uccessor the sage Shun , w h o had held an

undistinguished position It is told that this s e l e ction was
.

approved by five star gods whose spirits appeared as five

-

o l d men and walked about among the islands o f the River

Ho On anot h er occasion a bright li ght came from t h e

.

river ; then beautifully colour e d vapours arose and a

-

dragon horse appeared carrying in i t s mouth a scaly cuirass

-
,

for Shun , whose appointment was thus definitely approved

by Heaven Thirty years later a tortoise rose from the
.

w ater and rested o n the altar On its back was an i n

.

scribed order instructi n g Yao to resign in favour of Shun .

This divin e comman d was duly ob e yed .

Shun s mother h ad conc e ived after seeing a rainbow

’
.

As has been stated, a rainbow was believed to emanat e

from the gigantic oyster that lay in mid ocean When the .

c h il d was born his mother and father detested h im because ,

his body w as black and his eyes h ad doubl e p upils and ,

because h e h ad a dragon face and a large mouth W hen .

h e became a youth h e reached th e h e ight o f S i x cubits ,

an d was thus like the Egyptian Horus a n d the Norse hero

Sigurd a v e ritable giant His parents endeavour e d on

, .

more than o n e occasion to cause his death by giving him

di ffi cul t tasks to p e rform , and acting treacherously towards ‘

h im On one occasion they ordered him to plaster a

.
282 MYTHS OF CH I N A A ND JAPAN
L i adai n e (h i s m o t h e r) w as l p
as e e

O n h e r b e d (a s ayi n g not w r n g)
o .

Wh n e s h e t ur e d n h e r fac e to h e av e n
AS t ar l nt
fe l i o her m o ut h .

Th e nce w as b o r n t h e m a rv e ll o us c h i ld ,

Ci n
ara S algir w h o i s pro c l ai m e d t o t h e e
of

A n d t h e n c e (a sayi n g w i t h o ut pri d e )
L ua i gn e (L i adai n e s h us ban d ) sai d h e (C i aran) w as ?
’
not h is so n

Osiris as the son o f t h e c o w goddess was a son o f th e

,
—
,

moon , from w h ich fell a fertilizing ray o f light The .

Egyptian d e ities had star forms As stars , they rose fro m .

m alachite pools an d p e rched in swa ll ow S hape on the -

branches of t h e world tree o f the Gr e at Mother Hathor

-
.

and Isis were personified as the star Sirius , from which fe ll

the tear, o r drop o f d e w that caused the l o w Ni l e to have
,

incr e ase and rise in flood A s the morning star, t h e god.

dess was the mother o f the rising sun Much star lore .
-

surviving from ancient times remains to be gleaned .

When the star deity s s o n the Chinese Emperor Y u,

—
’

was born , he h ad the mouth of a tiger “

His ears had .

three orifices ; his head bore the resemb l ance o f the star
Kow and K ee n On his br e ast seemed a figure in ge m
’
.

of t h e Great Bear Wh e n he grew up h e reached the

.

h eigh t of 9 cubits , 6 inches ?

The Iris h hero , Cuch ull i n was l ikewise a marve l lou s ,

you ngster He h ad seven toes to e ac h foot, an d to

.
“

either h and as many fing e rs ; h is eyes w e re bright, wit h

”
seven pupils apiece , and s o on .

Y u was probably a historical character, to whose

memory many floating myths and legends were attac h e d .

H e figures as the h e ro o f a deluge One night during .

,

his youth , h e dreamt that while bathing i n the Ho (the

1 r r W
T h ree I i s h G l os sa i es, h i t l e y S to k es
(L o n d o n, p l xxi i i
C C r
. .

2
L e gge , T h e h i nese l assi cs , V o l III, P a
. t I, p . 1 1 7 .
 MYTHI CAL AND LEGENDARY K IN GS 283

Ye l low River) h e dra nk up the water H e also be h e l d .

a w h ite fo x wit h nine tails a particularl y good omen — .

T h is was during the reign o f Yau S h un came to know .

about him and s h owed him specia l favour, causing him

to be promoted unti l h e became an influentia l man
in the Empire .

T h e gods were we ll p l eased because h e was l oved

by them One day, as Y u stood on the banks of t h e
.

River Ho gazing at the water, a god appeared as a

,

tall, w h ite faced man , wit h th e body of a fish , l ike t h e

-

“
Babylonian Ea He addressed Y u and said : I am th e
.

S pirit o f the Ho Wan ming shall regulate t h e waters

.
-
.
”

T h e go d then gave Y u a p l an o f the Ho , whic h gave

full details regarding the regulating of t h e waters, and
sank into t h e river .

A good deal of controversy has been engaged in

as to what Y u was supposed to h ave done I n th e .

S h u K i ng ( T h e Tribute o f Y u chapter) it is stated :

“ ”

Y u divided the land , fo l lowing the course o f th e h i ll s ,

h e cut down the trees He determined t h e h igh est .

h i ll s and l argest rivers (i n t h e several regions) Th e .

( waters of t he ) Hang and W e i were brought to their

proper channe l s Oth er rivers were simi l arl y contro ll ed
.
?

I n another section Y u says : W h en t h e floods were

“

l ifted to the h eave ns, spreading far and wide, surrounding

t h e hi l ls and submerging the mounds so t h at t h e ,

common peop l e were bewildered and dismay e d I avai l ed ,

myse l f o f four v e h icl es , and going up the hill s I fe ll e d

2

the tr e es . After that I drained o ff t h e n ine c h anne l s ,

directing them into th e four seas ; I dug o ut ditches and
cana l s and brought t h em into rivers .

1 r
L e gge , T h e S h u K i ng (S ac e d B ooks of th e E as t) , pp 64 e t se
q
rr d kd
. .

2
B o at s , c a i age s, s l e ge s , an d s pi e b o o t s
.

2
W G O ld, T he S h u K i ng (L o n d o n,
. .
pp 3
. 6-
7 .
2 84 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
I n the fourth book o f the S h u Ki ng T h e Great ,
“

P l an , it is said : I have heard that in old time K h wan

” “

dammed up the inundating waters , and thereby threw

into disor d er t h e arrangement o f the fiv e elements God .

was conseq uently roused to anger, and did not give h im

the Great P l an wit h its nine divisions, and thus t h e
unvarying principles (o f Heaven s met h od) were all owed ’

” 1
to go to ruin .

I n one of the Odes it is stated t h at w h en the

“

waters of t h e De l uge spread vast abroad , Y u arran ged

and divided the regions o f t h e l and ” 2

It h as been suggested by some t h at Y u constructed

a great embankment to prevent the Yellow River c h anging
its course a task even greater than constructing t h e
—

Great Wall, and that he formed dams and opened i rri gat
ing channels I t may be that h e did much work in
.

re cl a1 m 1 n
g land and regu l ating the government o f the

Empire But there can be little doubt that the traditions

.

surviving from h is age were m ixed wit h the o l der tradi

tions regarding the Babylonian flood Y u is no mere canal .

cutter He hews the rocks and forms chasms between

.

t h e mountains, like P an K u, the Chinese Pta h or I ndra, ’

he constructs t h e embankments of l akes , and makes

channe l s for t h e great rivers , and h e drains t h e m arshes .

The grounds are made h abitab l e and fit for cu l tivation .

T h e re are even faint ec h oes of the Osirian l egend i n

‘

the stories regarding his achievements , .

After Y u had finished h is work , Heaven presented

h im wit h a dark co l oured mace He was destined to
-
?

become Emperor o f the nine provinces we are to l d , ,

but it is doubtful if the Empire was re all y so large during

h is reign After Shun resigned Y u ascended t h e t h rone
.
,
.

1 2
L e gge , T he S h u K i ng, p 1 39 L e gge , Ibi d , p. 30 9
dr r rfr
. . . .

2 T he “
sk y i s th e a k s
ph e e an d th e m ace i s th e e o e a s k y - m ace .
286 MYTH S OF CHINA AND JAPAN
Thirteen generations later t h e wife of o n e of See s ’

descendants gave birt h to T ang t h e future Emperor ’

, .

S h e had becom e pregnant aft e r s e eing a white vapour

passing through the moon Th e child had whiskers at .

bi rth , an d his arms had four j oints He grew to t h e .

height o f nine cubits .

Wonderful things h appened to prove that T ang ’

was the chosen by Heaven to reign over t h e Empire .

When h e V isited the altar o f Yao h e dropped a j ewe l ,

“
into the wat e r Lo ! yellow fishes leapt up in pairs ;
.

a blackbird followed h i m and stood o n the altar, where ,

”
it changed into a black gem There also appeared .

a b l ack tortoise, whic h had o n its back characters i n t i m at

ing that T ang was to become the Emperor A spirit
’

appeared on M o unt Pei at the same time “

Anot h er .

spirit , dragging a white wolf with a hook in his mouth , ,

entere d t h e co urt o f Shang The V irtue o f metal waxed .

powerful ; si l ver o v e rflo w e d from the hills T ang .

” ’

“
himself dream ed that h e went to the S k y and licked
” 1
it After this he beca m e possessor of the Empire
. .

When the Dynas t y o f Shang b e gan to decline the ,

rulers became weak and pro fli gat e I t is told o f W u .

Yih , who r e igned for only four years ( 1 1 9 8 1 1 9 4 —

h e was wit h o ut any right principle He mad e an

“
.

‘
image o f a m an , and called it the Spirit of Heaven ’
.

Then he gam e d wit h it (played dice, o r at c h ess)

‘ ’

ca using someone to p l ay fo r the imag e ‘

The Spirit .

o f Heaven was unsuccessful, o n whic h h e disgraced

’

it, and made a leather bag whic h he fil l ed with blood, ,

and then placed aloft and S hot at (the image w as probably

in t h e bag as well) calling this s h ooting at H e aven
,
’
.

I n t h e fourt h year o f h is reign w h ile hunting between ,

1
L e gge , T h e A nna ls f
o t he B a m boo B ook, pp 1 2 8, 1 2 T
9 ( eh C h i nese Cl ass i cs, V o l . III,
r
.

Pa t
 M YTH I CAL AND LEGENDARY K INGS 287

the Ho and t h e Wei , W u Yi h sudden l y died Ts ee m -

.
’

says that he was struck dead by lightning ; and people

recognize in t h at event the j ust and appropriate vengeance
o f Heaven w h ich h e had insu l ted
”1
.

T h e K afirs of Africa p l ay at a game o f c h ance before

their idols , and, s h ould c h ance be against them , kick and
b o x their idols ; but if, after this correction , o n p urs uing
their experiments they S hould continue unsuccessful , they
burn t h e hands and feet o ff them in the fire ; S h ould ill
fortune stil l attend th e m , they cast the idols on t h e
ground, tread t h em und e r foot, das h them about with
suc h force as to break them to pieces Some , indeed , .

w h o S how greater veneration fo r t h e images , content

themselves wit h fettering and binding them unti l t h ey
h ave obtained their end ; but S hould this not take place as
early as their impatience looks fo r, they fasten them to a
cord and grad ually l et them down into the water, even to
the bottom thus trusting to force them to be propitious
,
2

It may be that W u Yih (W uh I) was engaged in some — —

such cer e mony w h en he disgraced and tortured h is god .

A successor is remembere d as the first man who used

ivory chop sticks The Viscount o f K e admonis h ed him ,
—
.

saying : Ivory c h op sticks will b e followed by cups of

“ —

gem ; and then you wi ll be wanting to eat bears paws ’

’
and leopards wombs and proceed to other extravagances , .

Your indulgence o f your desires may cost y o u the

”
Empire This was Chou sin an intemperate and
.
,

extravagant tyrant He came under the influence o f .

a beautiful but wicked woman , ca ll ed Ta k e , whom h e —

1
L e gge , T h e S h u K i ng, n 5 , p 2 6 9 ( T h e C C
la ssi cs, V o l III, p
hi nese
rd k r r
. . . .

H e o o t us t e ll s
(B o o II, c h apt e 1 2 2 ) t h at P h a ao h Rh am
ps i n i t us Ram e s e s) of

E gy pt d e sc e n dd d e to H a e s an d
pl ay e dd
i ce w i t h C e e s r ( ) som
Isis ,
“
eti m e s w i nni ng an d

s om e ti m e s s u fr df fe i n g e e at ” r f
A c u i o us e s t i v al c e l e b r d
at e the e v e nt .

kr C
.

2 Pin e t o n, A G ene ra l ll e cti on of

o th e B es t an d Mos t In te r g Vo
es ti n
y ages a nd

T r a v el s
( d
L on o n, XV I, 6 9 6 .
2 88 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
married .The most l icentious songs were composed
“

for her amusement and the vilest dances ex h ibit e d A .

park w as l aid o ut for her amusement There was .

a pond o f wine ; the trees w e re h ung wit h flesh ; men

”
and women chased each other about quite naked .

Drinking bo uts were common in the pal ace, and when

the princes began to rebe l , n e w and terrible tortures were
introduced T h e queen had constructed a copper pillar,
.

w hic h was greased a ll over I t was l aid above a charco al .

fire, and culprits were ordered to walk on it When .

they slipped and fel l into the fire, Ta k e was greatly —

delighted
The Dynas ty of S h ang was overt h rown by K ing Wu ,

the founder o f the Dynasty o f Chou Wu was descended .

from t h e famous lady K ian Y uan , already referred to (S ee

Index) After treading i n t h e t o e print (or foot print)
.
- -

made by God, she gave birth t o her s o n , Hau K i , suffer

ing no pain Like Gilgamesh Sargon , Romulus and
.
,

Remus , K arna and other famous heroes the chi l d was

, ,

exposed after birth , t h e lady s husband, according to one ’

Chinese com m entator having be e n displeased with w h at ,

had taken place I n the S h i h Ki ng th e ode , w h ic h rel ates

.

the legend o f Hau K i , says

H e w as p ac e d al arro w an e , in n l
B ut t h e s h e e p an d o x e pro t e c t e d h i m w t h n i lo v in g care .

H e w as p l ac e d in a wi d e fo re s t ,
Wh r e e h e w as m et by t h e wo o d -
cutt e rs.

H e w as p l ac e d o n the co ld i c e,
And a cr n e d d suppo rt
b i rd s ee an ed h im wi t h i ts wi n g s .

W h n t h bi d w nt w y
e e r e a a ,

H u K i b g n t o w il
a e a a .

H i s cry w s l o g d l ud
a n an o ,

S o t h at h i s i c fill d t h w h l
vo e e e o e w ay 1 .

1
L e gge , T h e S h i h K i ng, p 3 9 7 . .
2 90 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
After W u became t h e Emperor t h e wors h ip o f
ancestors was promoted, and dragons , tortoises , and
ph oenixes made regular appearances , w h ile vegetation
flourished and the mugwort gr e w so p l entifully that a
,

palace cou l d be ere cted from it .

After Wu died spirit birds appeared, and a mysterious

-

bean , whic h was an elixir, grew up The Crown Prince .

was sti l l a minor, and for seven years the Duke o f Chou
acted as regent Accompanied by the young king the
.

d uke visite d the Ho and t h e L O The king dropped a .

gem into t h e water, and after day decl ined rays of gl ory
came o ut and shrouded all th e Ho (Yellow River) and ,

green cl ouds came floating in the sky A green dragon .

came to t h e altar, and went away T h ey did t h e same at .

the L O, and the same t h ing happened A tortoise ap .

”

e are d , and on its shell were writings that told o f the

p
fortunes of the empire till the dynasties o f Ts in and Han ’
?

The tortoise she ll and stalks of a variety of grass were

-

l ong used in China for purposes of divination W h at the .

tortoise and the grass reve al ed was supposed to be the wil l

o f the spirits . Nowadays lots are drawn , spirit writing is -

beli e ved in and revelations are supposed to be made when

,

a bean symbo l is tossed in the air as is a coin in the West ; ,

w h en t h e flat side is uppermost the tosser is supposed to

receive a refusal to h is prayer .

T h e Chou D ynasty was founded , according to Chinese

dating , i n 1 1 2 2 B C , and lasted unti l 2 4 9 B C I t has been
. . . .

suggested that although the C h ous cl aimed to be descended

from o n e o f Shun s ministers , they were really foreigners
’

part l y o r wholly of Tartar origin K ing Wu i ntroduced .

th e sacrifice o f human beings to t h e spirits of ancestors ,

and favoured t h e magicians whom h e appointed to hig h ,

positions in his court His empire consisted o f a con

.

1
T h e A nna ls i
f th e B am boo B ooks, p . 1 47 .
 MYTHI CAL AND LEGENDARY K I NGS 29 1

fe deracy of feudal states and its strength endured so l ong ,

as t h e central state remained s ufli c i e n t l y powerfu l to exact

tribute .

After ho l ding sway fo r about eight h undred years , t h e

Chou Dynasty, and with it t h e Feuda l Age came to an ,

end The State o f Chin or Ts in wh ich had been absorb

.
’

ing rival states became so powerfu l t h at, in 2 2 1 B C , its

,
. .

king Shi h h uang ti became the first Emperor of China

,
— -

,
.

He reso l ved that the future history o f China s h ou l d begin

with h imself, an d issued a decree commanding that all
existing literature should be burned except medical and ,

agricultural books, and those dealing with divination .

Those who disobeyed his or d er and attempted to conceal

the forbidden books were put to d eath Fortunate l y, .

however, some devoted scho l ars succeeded i n pr e serving

fo r posterity a n umber o f the classics which would other
wise have perished T h is extraordinary decree has cast a
.

shadow over t h e fam e o f t h e first emperor, who was un

doubted ly a great man .

D uring the early years o f t h e Chin o r Ts in Dynasty ’

the Great Wal l to the west and north of China was con
struct e d , s o as to protect the empire against the barbarian s
w h o were wont to raid and pillage the ric h pastoral and
a i i c ul t ural lands and impose their sway o n the industrious
g ,
“ ”
Chinese The building o f the Great Wall , says K ro
po rkin was an event fraught with the greatest c o n s e
,

ue n ce s and one may say without exaggeration that it

q ,

contributed powerfully to the p remature downfal l of t h e

Roman Empire The Mongolian and Turki peop l es
.
”

w h o h ad be e n attempting t o subdue C h ina were forced

westward , and tribal and racial movemen ts were set i n
motion that ultimate l y l ed to the invasions of Euro pe by
n omadic fighting pastora l ists fro m Asia
?

1 G r
e og a
ph i c al J r XX
o u n al , II, 1 9 0 4, pp
. 2 4, 1 7 6, 3 3 1 , 772 .
292 MYTHS OF C HI NA AND JAPAN
Th e Great Wall i s said to have been built in ten years
in a straight line o f about 1 2 0 0 mil e s the average width ,

at t h e base being 2 5 feet, and the average height 3 0 feet .

”
Strong block ho use towers were constructed in the
“ -

wall fo r the accommodation o f bodies o f troops .

I t was d uring this Dynasty that China and related

forms o f that n ame, based o n Ts in o r Chin came
“ ’

into us e in the west T h e dynasties that fol l owed the

.

Chin o r Ts in (2 2 1 2 0 0 B C ) are as follows :

’
—
. .

T h H
e D yn as ty
an 20 0 B C 20 0 A D . . . .

T h Min
e D yn as t i s
or 20 0 A D 60 0
e . .

T h T n g D yn as ty 6o o
’
e a
9 0 0

T h S un g D yn as ty
e
90 0 1 20 0 —

T h M n go l D yn as ty
e o 1 20 0 1 3 68 —

T h Mi g D yn s t y
e n 1
3 6 8 a 1 6 44
—

T h M n h u D y as t y
e a c 1 644 1n
90 0
-

Th e evi d ence a fford e d by Chinese arch aeology and ,

C h inese religious beliefs symbo l s , and customs tends to

,

emphasize that t h e early inhabitants of Sh e nsi province

were strongly influenced by culture drifts from the mid —

Asian coloni e s o f the ancient civilizations Hunting and .

pastoral peoples adopt e d the agricultural mode o f life, and

with it the elements o f a compl e x civilization which h ad
origin in those areas where grew wi l d the cereal s first
cultivated by man .

T h e C hin ese are a m ixed race I n the north t h e .

oblique eye d yellow skinned e lement predominates

—
,
- .

Like th e Semit e s , who overran Sumeria and adopted

Sumerian mod e s o f thought and life , s o did the Mongoloid
t ribes overrun northern C hina and became a sedentary

p eople
. Petty kingdoms grew up and in time found it ,

necessary to unite against t h e hordes who invaded and

plundere d their lan d s Th e inva d ers included Siberian
.

nomads , Manchus, Mongolo T urki peoples , t h e Sac ae -

2 94 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND J A P A N
at one tra d ing mart where pearls and precious stones in great
-
,
” 1
number are exchanged fo r gold and musk The early .

traders by s e a and land attache d great importance to m e d icines

and elixirs , and precious S tones an d metals, and pearls .

The overlan d trade routes through I ran bro ught the -

Chinese into direct touch with Lesser F u lin (Syria) and -

,

ultimately with Greater F u lin (the Byzantine Empir e ) -

.

The vine and ot h er plants with ancient religious associa

tions were import e d into China, and the Chinese p e ach
“
tree reached Europe With the peach went S ilk . I t is .

“ ”
not impossibl e says La ufer, that these t w o gifts were
,

transmitted by t h e silk dealers first to Iran (in the second -

o r first century and thence to A rmenia, Greece, and

Rome (in t h e first century
A S the cuckoos h atched in the nests o f hedge sparrows -
,

meadow pipits and wagtails overco m e an d ej ect the o ff

—
,

spring o f th eir foster parents , s o did the V igorous nomadic

—

peoples who absorb e d the elements o f ancient civilizations

overcome and ej ect the o ffspring o f their foster parents
“ -

The Babylonian Empire perishe d and Iran i a which had , ,

been stim ulated by it to a d opt civilized conditions o f life ,

became, in turn the n ursery o f vigorous states Recent

, .

discoveries have brought to light evidence whic h shows

that the Iranian peoples once covered an immense terri
tory, extending all over Chinese Turkestan , migrating into
China, coming into contact with the C h inese and exerting ,

a profound influence o n nations of other stock, notably

Turks and Chinese The Iranians were the great media .

tors between the West and t h e East conveying the h e ritage ,

of Hellenistic ideas to central and eastern Asia, and trans

mitting valuable plants and goods o f China to the Medi
3 ”
terranean area .

1 r
S i n o- I a ni ca,
p 46 9
2
P l i ny, XV , 1 1 , 1 3 , an d S i n o- Ira n i ca , p 5 3 9
r
. . . .

2 Si n o- I a n i ca ,
p
. 1 85 .
 MYTHICAL AN D LEGEND A RY K I NGS 295

The laws of supply and demand operat e d then as n o w

o n the trade routes which brought commun ities of regular
-
,

traders into touch after they had cu l tivated plants or

manufactured articles to o ffer in e xchange fo r w h at they
r e ceiv e d Befor e these routes could , however, have
.

h umme d with comm erce, a considerabl e advance in

C ivilization had to be achieved States had to b e .

organized and laws enforc e d fo r the protection o f pro

perty and property owners .

The Iranians who obtained silk from China were n o t

, ,

the originators o f t h e culture represented by this com

m o d it
y ; they simply sti m ulated th e demand for si l k .

Chin e s e civilization dates back to the time when the early

prospectors an d explorers came into tou c h with backward
p e oples and introduced n e w mod e s and conditions o f life
, .

T hese pioneers did not necessarily move along the routes

t h at were ultimately favoured by merchants n or even ,

those fo l lowed by migrati n g tribes in qu e st o f green

pastures They wandered hither and thith e r search ing
.

fo r gold and gems and herbs sowing as they went the,

seeds of civilization which did not , however , always fal l

,

o n good ground B ut in those places wh ere the seed

.

took root and t h e prospects of d e velopment were favour

able organized communities gradually grew up with an
,

assured food supply This w as the case i n Shensi pro

—
.

vince in w h ich w as settled the l ittle leaven that

,
“ ”

ultimately l eavened the whole lump

“ ”
of northern
C h ina It was after the e mpire becam e united under
.

the Ts in Dynasty that organize d trade with the west

’

assumed great di m ensions , and was regu l arly maintain e d

under assured protection .

Myths as wel l as h erbs and gems and garments were

exchanged by traders W ith the glittering j ewe l was
.

carried the religious lore associated with it ; with the cura

296 MYTHS OF C HI NA AND JAPAN
tive h e rb w e nt many a fable o f antiq uity Laufer h as shown .

in his T h e D i a m ond h o w Hellenistic lore connected with that

gem crept into Chinese writings I t is consequentl y possible .

to trac e in the mosaic of Chinese beliefs and mytho l ogy

certain o f t h e cultural elements that met an d blended and
were dev e lope d o n t h e banks o f t h e Yellow River .

Elixirs and charms were in great dem and in all centres

o f ancient civilizations It can be held, therefore , that
.

beh ind the commerce o f early times , as b e hind t h e early

religious systems lay the haunting dread of death G e ms
, .

ward e d o ff evil an d imparted vitality to t h os e who pos

,

sessed them , an d curativ e h erbs renewed yout h by restor

ing h ealth Even the dead were benefite d by them
. .

Progress was thus in a s e nse increasi n g e ffi ciency in the

, ,

quest of longevity in this worl d and the next .

I n C h ina as els e where, the dread o f death , as expressed

,

in the religious syst e m , promoted the arts and crafts ;

artists , engravers , architects builders,j ewellers , and scribes ,
,

as well as priests and traders were engaged in the unceas ,

ing conflict against the all dreaded enemy of mankind th e -

G o d of Death Th e incentive t h at caus e d men to under

.

take perilous j ourneys by l and and s e a in quest of elixirs to ,

live laborious lives in workshops and temples , an d to grasp

at the mythical straws o f hope drifted along trade routes -

from other l ands was the same as that which sent the Baby
,

l onian Gilgamesh to explore the dark tunnel of the Moun

tain of Mashu and cross the Sea of Death , and it is found
on t h e ninth tablet of the most ancient epic in the world :
G il ga m e sh w e pt b i t t rly
e , an d h e l ay s t re t c h e d o ut upo n th e

gro un d .

H e c ri e d : L et m e not die li k e E a- b a ni l
Gi r e f h at h e nt e re d i n to m
y b o dy , an
d
! f
ea r d ea t h .

1 K i n g, B a by l oni a n Re l i gi on, p . 1 65 .
29 8 MYTH S O F CHINA AN D JAPAN
not understand what t h e Name l ess was before it was
manifested as the Tao .

The Tao is not God ; it is impersonal Taoists must .

m ak e unquestioning submission to the Tao which must ,

be allowe d to have absolut e sway in the individual , in

society, in the world at larg e Taoism does not like
.
,

Buddhism , yearn for extinction, dissolution , or ultimate

loss o f identity and consciousness in the nebulous Nir
vana Nor does it, like B uddhism , teach that life is not
.

worth living that it is sorrowfu l to be doomed to be

—

reborn Rather, it conceives of a perfect state of exist

.

ence in t h is world , and o f prolo n ged l ongevity in the

next A ll human beings can live happily if t h ey become
.

like little children , obeying t h e law (Tao ) as a m atter

“
of course , following in the way (T ao
) without
endeavouring to understand, o r having any desire t o
understand, what t h e T ao i s The obedient, unquestion
.

ing state of m ind is reached by m eans of I naction

mental I naction The Tao drifts the meritorious indi
.

vidual towards perfection , o ut o f darkness into light .

T h ose who submit to the Tao know nothing of et h ica l

ideals ; they are in no need o f definite beliefs I t is .

unnecessary to teach virtue when all are virtuous ; it

i s unnecessary to have rites and ceremonies when al l
are perfect ; it is unnecessary to be concerned about evi l
when evi l ceases to exist T h e same idea prevai l ed
.

among the Brahmanic sages of I ndia, whose K ri t a or

Perfect A ge was wit h o ut gods or devils Being perfect, .

t h e people required no religion .

Confucianism is not co n cerned with metaphysical

abstractions or with that sense o f the Unity of all things
,

and al l beings in the One, whic h is summed up in the

'

“
term Mysticism I t maintains a somew h at agnostic,
but not irreligious frame o f m ind , confessing inability
 M YTH S AN D D OCTRI NES O F TAOI SM 299

to d e a l wit h the spirit worl d, or to understand, o r theorize

’

about, it s mysteries I t recognizes the existence of God .

and o f spirits “
Respect t h e spirits said Confucius ,
.
”

but keep t h em at a distance He al so said .

Wisdom has been imparted to me If God were to .

destroy t h is wisdom (his system o f ethics) t h e generatio n s

to come cou l d not inherit it .

W h et h er or not Confucius ever h eard o f the system

'

o f Lao Tze is uncertain If he did , it certainly made no .

appeal to h im His o w n system of i n struction w as

.

intensely practical I t was concerned mainly with et h ical

.

and po l itica l ideal s with political morality He was no

—
.

believer i n I naction T h e salvation o f mankind , accord .

i ng to h is system could be achieved by strict adherence

,

to t h e ideals o f right living and rig h t thinking and a ,

robust and vigorous application of t h e m in the everyday

l ife o f individual s and th e State .

The reputed founder o r e arliest teac h er of Taoism

was Lao Tze, about whom l ittle or nothing is known .

He is believed t o h ave been born in 60 4 B C , and to have . .

died soon after 5 3 2 B C Confucius was born in 5 5 1 B C . . . .

,

and died in 4 7 9 B C There are Chi nese traditions that. .

t h e t wo sages met on at least one occasion , but t h ese are

not credited by Western or modern native Chinese scholars .

Confucius makes no direct reference to Lao Tze i n h is

writings .

Lao T z e means O l d Boy as Osiris, in h is Libyan

1

form , is said to mean the O l d Man He was given ” ?

this nam e by h is followers , because h is mot h er carried

“

h im in her womb for seventy t wo years , s o that when h e -

was at lengt h cut out o f it his hair w as already w h ite ”

.

Julius C a sar was reputed to have been born in like

1
One o f h i s n am e s r
du i ng h i s l i e ti m f e w as L i P o -Y ang : a fr
te h i s d e ath h e w as L i T an .
2
:7 r
0 u na l f
o E gy pti an A rchf ol ogy .
30 0 MYTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPAN
manner ; s o was the Gaelic hero Gol l Mac Mo rn a, w h o , as ,

we gather from Dunbar, was known in the Lowl ands as

we l l as t h e Highlands ; the poet makes on e of his char
ac t e rs exc l aim ,

My fad e r , m e i kl e G ow m as Mac Mo rn,

O ut of h is m o d e ri s
’

(m o t h e r s) w m a e w as s h o rn .

The sam e legend clings to t h e memory of T h omas

the Rhymer, who is referred to in Gaelic as t h e son of
“

the dead woman (m a c n a m na m a rbh) , beca use h is

”

mother d ied before t h e operation was performed Shake .

speare s Macdu ff was from his mot h er s womb untimely

’ ’

”
ripped ?
It may be that t h is widespread birt h story had its —

origin in Egypt Plutarch i n h is treatise o n the Mystery

.
,

o f Osiris and Isis , tells that Set the ancient o d wh o

( g
“
became a devil) w as born neither at the proper tim e ,
nor by t h e right place , but that he forced his way
“ ”

throug h a wound whic h h e had made in h is mother s ’

side
Di fferent forms of the legend are found in C h ina .

“
According to the traditions preserved in the Bamboo
Books w h ic h are o f uncertain antiquity, the E m peror
”
,

Yao was born fourt e en mont h s after he was conceived,

t h e Emperor Y u em e rged from his mot h er s back , and
’

t h e Emperor Yin from his mother s chest The A ry o ’

.

I ndian hero K arna , a prominent figure in t h e Mdh a bh a ra ta ,

,
'

emerged from o n e of his mother s ears ; h e was a son ’

o f Surya , the sun god -

.

According to Taoist lore (aft e r Budd h ism and Taoism

were partly fused in China) Lao Tze appeared from ,

tim e to time in China during t h e earl y dynasties in

di fferent forms , and with di fferent names He had the .

1
Macbe th , A c t v , s ce ne 7 .
 MYTHS AND DOCTRI N ES OF TAOI S M 3 0 1

personal knowl edge o f t h e decl ine o f the influence o f the

Tao from the Perfect Age After F u h i and other .
-

sovereigns disturbed t he h armonies o f h eaven and e arth ,

the manners o f t h e people from being good and simp l e , ,
”
became bad and mean He came to cleanse the stream .

o f spiritual life at its source , and was ultimately reborn

as Lao T z e , under the P l um Tree o f Longevity, h aving

been conceived under t h e influence o f a star i n the
constellation o f the Great Bear Li (p l um tree) was .

h i s surname .

Lao Tze is said t o have h e l d a position in t h e Roya l

Library o f K au When h e perceived t h at t h e State
.

showed signs of de cadence h e r e solved to l e ave the ,

worl d lik e the I ndian heroes, Y udh i s h t h i ra and h is

,

brothers He went westwards , apparently be l ieving, as

.

did Confucius , t h at the Most Holy w as to be found in

“

”
the West On entering the pass o f Hsien K u (in -

modern Ling pao , H o nan provinc e ) t h e Warden , Yi n

— -

Hsi a Taoist, we l comed the sage and s e t b e fore him

,

a dis h o f tea Lao T z e sat down to drink tea wit h

.

his friend T h is was the beginni n g of t h e tea drinking

.
—

custom b e tween h ost and gu e st in C h ina ?

“
Said the Warden , And s o you are going into retire
ment . I pray you to write me a book before you
l eav e .

Lao Tze consent e d and composed the T a o T eh Ki ng,

,
2

w h ic h is divided into two parts , and contains over 5 0 0 0

wor d s .

W h en h e h ad finished writing h e gave t h e manuscript ,

to the Warden , bade him farewell , and went on h is way .

It is not known where he died .

T h e most prominent o f Lao T z e s discip l es was ’

Kwang Tze , w h o liv e d in the fourth century B C Sze . .

1 A s h as b e e n s t at e d , t e a w as an e l i x i r .
2
K i ng si
gn i fi es c l as s i c
3 0 2 M YTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
ma K hien , the earliest Chinese historian o f note w h o ,

died about 8 5 B C says that K wang Tze wrote with

. .
,

p urpose to calumniate the system o f Confucius and e xalt

t h e mysteries o f Lao Tze But although he wrote
“
much ,
no o n e could give practical application t o h i s
”
teaching Other famous Taoist writ e rs were Han Fei
.

T z e w h o committed suicide in 2 3 3 B C , and Liu An

,
. .
,

prince o f Hwai nan , and grandson o f the founder o f the

-

Han Dynasty, who took his o w n life in 1 2 2 B C , . .

having becom e involved in a treasonable plot .

A nother form o f the legend is t h at t h is prince d i s co v

ered the Water o f Life A s soon as h e d rank o f it, his
.

body became s o light that he ascended t o the Ce l estia l

Regions in broad daylight and was seen by many As h e .

rose he l e t fall th e cup from which he h ad drunk His .

dogs lapped up the water and followed h im T h en his .

poultry drank from the cup an d likewise rose in the air

and vanished from sight A pparentl y it was n o t on l y t h e
.

poor I ndians with untutored m inds w h o thought their

dogs (n o t to sp e ak o f their hens) wo ul d be admitted to
t h e equal s k y there to bear them company .

I t is generally believed by Oriental scho l ars that bot h

Taoism and Confucianism are of greater antiquity than
their reputed founders Confucius insiste d t h at he was
.

”
a transmitter, n o t a maker , and Lao Tze is found to
“ ” ” ”
refer to an ancient , a sage , and a writer o n war ,
as if he h ad been acquainted with writings that have not
come down to us .

There is interna l evidence in the Taoistic texts of Lao

Tze and K wang Tze that the idea o f the Tao had an
intimat e association in early times with the ancient Cul t
of the West the cult o f the mother goddess who had
— —

her origin in water T h e priestly t h eorists instructed t h e

.

worshippers o f t h e Great Moth e r that at th e beginn ing

39 4 MYTHS O F CHINA AN D JAPAN
subtle essence which , according to t h e composers o f the
Up a ni sh a d s, exists in everything that i s , but cannot be
seen The personal Brahma, as Praj apati , arose at the
.

beginni n g, from t h is impersonal Worl d Soul Mind .

( o r Soul , m a na s
), an Indian sage has declared created
“
, w as

from the n o n existent M ind created Praj apati Praj apati

-
. .

cr e ated o ffspring Al l this , whatever exists , rests ab s o

.

”
l ut e l y on min d .

Anoth er Indian sage writes ‘

“
A t fi st t h U i r s w s o t nyt h in g
e Th e w as n e i t h r
n v er e a n a . er e

sk
y , t h
n o r e ari B in g o i ste t
n r a r
, o i t so l d ‘
L et m e
. e n n- e x n , re ve ,
It b am f r F o m t h t f o ur sm k w as pro d u d
’
be . t
ec e e ven . r a e rv o e ce .

It g in b c m
a a f r nt e F o m t h f r o ur fi
a e w as pro d u d
e ve . r e e v re ce .

‘
ays ys c o n d ns d
A ft w d t h fi d th ‘ ’ 1 ’
er ar s bec m e e re a r an e ra e e

i n t o a c l o ud p o d uc i g t h s ,
r A m gi c l fo rm ul (D asah o t i )
n e ea . a a a r

Pr j p t i i s t h D as h t i
”
w as c at e d re . a a a e a o r .

W h en the Re v Dr C halmers o f Canton trans l ated . .

t h e Taoist Texts into English in 1 8 6 8 , h e wrote : I have

“ 2

thought it better to leave t h e word Tao untranslated,

‘ ’

both because it has given the nam e to the sect the —

Taoists and because no English word is its exact equi

—

valent Three terms suggest themse l ves t h e Way ,

.
’

‘ ‘
Reason , and t h e Word ; but they are all liable to
’ ’

‘
obj ection Wer e we guided by e tymology, the Way
.
’

would come nearest to t h e original, and in one or two

passages the idea o f a Way seems to be i n the term ; but
this is t o o materialistic to serve t h e purpose o f a trans l ation .

Reason again seems t o be more like a quali ty o r attribute

’

of some conscious B e ing than Tao i s I would translate .

it by the Word in the sense of the Logos , but this wou l d

‘ ’

b e like settling t h e question which I wis h to leave open ,

viz what amount o f resemblance there is between the
.

1
In E gy pt t h e r a
y s we r e th e r
c e at i v e r
te a s of th e s un -go d .

2
T h e Spe cula ti ons i n Me taphy si cs, P oli gy, a nd M oral i g of i T h e Ol d P h i l os oph e r
 MYTHS AN D DOCTRINES OF TAOIS M 3 0 5
Logos o f the N e w Testament and t h is Tao w h ic h is its ,
”
nearest representative in Chinese .

T h e New Testament doctrine of t h e L ogos may h ere

be reproduced by way o f compariso n, the quotation being
from D r W e y m o ut h s idiomatic translation which may be
.
’

compared with t h e aut h orized versions 1

In the be ginni g w n as t h e W o rd , an d t h e W rd w wit h

o as G o d,
an d th e W o rd w as G o d . H e w as in the be ginnin g wi t h G o d .

A ll th n s g
cam e in t o be i n g t h r ugh H i m n d apart fro m H i m
i o , a

n th in g t h t e is t s cam i nto b e in g In H i m w s L i fe an d th at
o a x e . a ,

L i f w as t h e L igh t o f m
e T h L i g h t sh in e s i n t h e d a k n ess
en . e r ,

a nd th e d kne ss h s o t o v rpo we e d i t
ar a n e r .

T h r w as m n se n t fro m G o d wh s n m e w as Jo h n H
e e a a ,
o e a . e

cam s w i t n ss i o d e r t h t h m i gh t gi e t e t i m o ny c o nce rn
e a a e ,
n r a e v s

i g t h L i gh t s t h t ll m i gh t b li
n e — t h o ugh h i m
o a aH w as n t e eve r . e o

th eL i gh t but h e i st d t h t h e m i gh t gi v e t st i m o ny c o c in g
,
ex e a e n e rn

t h e L igh t T h e t u L i gh t w as t h at wh i c h i llum in s
. r e e ry m e ev an

by i t s c o m i g i n t o t h w l dn H w s i t h e w o ld a d t h e
e or . e a n r , n

wo l d cam i n t o e x ist nc e t h ro ug h H i m , an d t h e w o l d d i d n o t
r e e r

re co gniz H i m e .

The meaning of t h e word Tao says Max Von Brandt, “

”
has never been explained o r understood , and he adds ,
Like the He l lenistic Logos it is at once the e fli ci e n t
and t h e m aterial cause Professor G Foot Moore says, .
” 2
.

“ ‘
Tao is literally way like corresponding words in many ’

‘ ‘ ‘
languages , course method order , 3
Arch ’

deacon Hardwick was disposed to argue t h at the 4

system of Taoism was founded on the i dea of some

power resemb l ing the Nature o f modern spec ul ators .

‘
The indefinite expression Tao was adopted to denominate
an abstract cause, or t h e initia l princip l e o f l ife and order,
1 T he Mod ern S pe e ch N e w T es tam e n t ( L o n d on J o h n, Ch ap. i ,v e r se 1 e t se
q
F fC
,

d r
.

2 2H
Th e A nci e n t a i th s o h i n a, p 49 i s tor
f Re l i gi ons
y o (E i n b u gh , p 49
C r
. . . .

4
h ri s t and Oth e r Ma s te s, V o l II,
p 67
. . .

( D 71
3 0 6 MYTH S O F CHI NA AND JAPAN
to w h ich worshippers were ab l e to assign the attributes of
”
immateriality, eternity, immens i ty invisibility , .

Canon Farrar h as written i n t h is connection : We h ave

“

long personified under the name of Nature the sum total

o f God s l aw as observed in t h e physical world and n o w
’

the notion o f Nature as a distinct, living, independent

entity seems to be ineradicable alike from our literature
and our systems of philosop h y .
” 1

Dr Legge comments on this passage : But it seems

.

to me that this m etap h orical use of the word nature ‘ ’

for t h e Cause and Ruler of it imp l ies the previous notion

o f Him , t h at is , of G o d i n the mind , .

“
Dr Legge notes that in Lao T z e s treatise Tao
.
’

appears as th e spontaneous l y operating cause of al l move

ment in the p h enomena of the universe Tao is a .

”
phenomenon not a positive being but a mode of being
,
3
, .

Ot h ers have rendered Tao as God But t h e o l d ”

.

”
Taoists had no idea of a personal God says Dr Legge , . .

D e Groot r e fe rs to Tao as the Path , the unalter ’

4

“ ”
able course of Nature and adds that th e reverential ,

awe of t h e mysterious influences of Nature is the funda

mental principle o f an ancient religious system usually
”
styled by foreigners Tao ism —
.

The idea of the Chines e Tao resembl es somew h at t h at

o f t h e I ndian Brahma
“
( neuter) Lao Tze says : It (Tao ) .

w as undet e rmined and perfected , existing before t h e heaven

and the e arth Peace ful w as it and incomprehensib l e,
.

al one and unchangeable, filling everything the i n e x h aus ,

tible mot h er of all things I know not its name, and .

therefore I call it Tao I seek after its name and I cal l .

1 L a nguage an d L
g g an ua es, pp 1 J
o w e t t, i n a l e t t e
8 4- 5 r
t o Mrs A s q ui t h i n 1 8 9 3 ,
r r r r
. . .

w o t e , “ I t h i n k al so t h at y o u m i gh t put e l i gi o n i n an o t h e w ay , as abs o l ut e e s i gn at i o n
to th e W rd r N r
i l l o f G o d an d t h e o e o f at u e (A uto bi ography o f M rs A s ui th
q )
r
. .

2 2 b
T h e T ex ts qf T a oi s m p 1 3 (S a c e d B ooks qf th e E as t) I i d ,p 1 5
S f C k
. . . . .

1
T h e Rel i gi ous y s tem I, p 9 3 6
‘
o h i n a, B o o . .
3 0 8 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
The Great Unknown was by the later Ve d ic poets referred
to by t h e interrogativ e pronoun What ? (Ka ) ”
.

I n the I ndian Kh a nd ogy a Up a ni sh a d , the sage te l ls a

pupi l to break open a fruit He then asks, What do “
.

” ”
you s e e ? and receiving the reply Nothing says , , ,
“
that subtle essence w h ich you do n o t perceive there o f ,

that very essenc e this gr e at N y agro d h a tree exists Believe .

me, my s o n , that wh ich is the subtle essence , in it all that

exists has itself It is t h e True I t is self ; and thou , my
. .

” 1
son , art i t .

Th e idea of t h e oneness and unity of all thin g s is t h e

basic principle of mysticism .

Th e i s t ru kn w l d g L e n t h u i t i s t h is
er e o e e. ar o

T o s e h an g l ss L i fe in all t h li s
ee o n c e e e ve ,

A d i th S p t O e Ins p abl
n n e e ara e , n e ar e .
2

Dr Legge in his commentary on T h e T exts of T a oi sm ,

.

asks his readers to mark well t h e foll owing predicates of

the Tao
B fo r t h r w r h a n
e e d e a t h f o m f l d t h e It w as
e e e e e ve an r ,
r o o ,
re

s cur ly
e e xi st in g F o m It c m t h m y t i us x ist nc f
e . r a e e s er o e e e o

s pi i t s ; f o m It t h
r rm yst i us e ist nc e o f Ti (G o d ) It p o duc e d
e er o x e . r
”2
he av e n It p o duc d art h
. r e e .

Lao Tze h ad probably never been in I ndia, but t h at

passage from h is writings might well have been composed
by o n e o f the Brahmanic sages who compose d t h e
Upanishads .

Th e exp l anation may be that in Brahmanism and

Taoism w e have traces o f the influence o f B abylonian and
Egyptian schools o f thought No direct proof is avail .

able i n t h is connection I t is possible, however, that th e .

ancient sages who gave oral instruction to their pupils

1
In d i a n My th and L ege n d , pp 9 7 — 9
3
. .
2
Th e B laga v a d — G i ta, B o o k 1 8 .

T he T ex ts f
o T aoi s m , p . 1 9 .
 MYTHS AND D O CTRI NES OF TAOI SM 3 9 0

w e re the earl iest missionaries o n the trade rout e s Th e -

.

searc h for wealth h ad, as has been s h own , a r e l igious

incentive I t is unlik e ly, t h erefore, t h at only miners and
.

traders visited distant lands i n whic h precious metal s and

j ewels were discovered Expeditions , such as t h ose of the
.

Egyptian rulers that went t o P unt fo r articles required in

the temples , were e ssentially religious expedition s I t was .

in the temples that the demand for gold and j ewe l s w as

stimulate d and each temp l e had its workshops wit h th e ir
,

trade s e crets Th e priests o f Egypt were t h e dyers , and

.

t h e y were t h e earliest al chemists o f whom we have know 1

l edge Such recipes as are found recorded in the Leyden

.

papyrus w e re n o doubt kept from t h e commo n peop l e .

A ssociat e d with the search for metal s was t h e i m

m emoria l quest o f the elixir of life , wh ich w as undoubted l y
a priestly business o n e t h at required the performance of
—

religious ceremonies o f an e l aborate character M eta l s .

and j ewels , as we h ave seen , as well as plants, contained

the soul substance t h at was required to promote h eal th
and to ensure longevity in t h is worl d and in the next I t .

w as , no doubt, the priestly prospectors , and n o t t h e

traders and working miners , who first i m parted to j ade
its re l igious va l ue as a substitute for gold and
j ewels .

W h en t h e searc h ers for wealt h introduced into I ndia

and China the god Pta h s potter s whee l they may we ll ’ ’

h ave introduced to o the doctrine o f t h e Logos, found in

th e pyramid age Pta h hym n quoted above, in w h ic h t h e
—

“ ”
World Soul is the mind o f the go d , and the active
princip l e the tongue t h at utters the Word ”

I f they did s o the h ypothesis does not seem to be

—

improbable i t may be that as Buddhism was in I ndi a

—

1 T h e b e gi n n i n gs of A l ch e m y c an be t r d k
ac e b ac to th e r d
ea ly r d
y n as t i c pe i o in
an c i e n t E gy pt .
3 1 0 MYTH S OF CHINA AN D JAPAN
mixed with Naga worship and was imported into Tibet ,

and China as a fusion o f m etaphysical S peculations and

crude idolatrous beliefs and practices the priestly phi l o ,

sophies o f Egypt and Babylonia were S imilarly associated

with t h e d ebris of primitive ideas and c e r e monies when
t h ey reached distant lands A s a matter of fact, it is found
.

that in both thes e culture centres t h is fusion w as main

t ai n e d all t h rough t h eir histories Pta h might be the .

“
Word to the priests , but to th e common peop l e h e
”

remained the artisan god fo r thousands o f years the god

- —

who hammer e d o ut the heavens and s e t t h e wor l d in order

a form o f Shu w h o separated the h eavens from the earth ,
as did P an K u in China
’
.

I n India and China, as i n ancient Egypt the doctrine ,

of t h e Logos , in its earliest and vaguest form , was associ

ated with the older doctrine that l ife an d the universe
emerged at the beginning from the womb o f the mother
god d ess w h o was the activ e principl e in water, or t h e
,

personification o f that principle .

In o n e o f t h e several I n d ian creation myths , Praj apati

emerges , like t h e Egyptian Sun god Horus , from t h e -

l otus bloom floati n g on the primordial waters The l otus

-
.

is the flower form o f the Great M other, w h o i n Egyp t is

Hathor .

Another myth tells that after the heat caused t h e rays

to arise and the rays caused a cloud to form and the
, ,

cl oud became water th e Self Existent Being (her e th e

,
—

Great Father) created a seed He flung the seed into t h e .

waters , and it became a golden egg From the e gg came .

forth the personal Brahma (Praj apati) Becaus e B rahma .

1

came from the waters (Narah ) and they were his first ,

h ome or path (ay a na) h e is calle d Narayana

,
.
2

1 d
T h e E gy pt i an go s Ra an d P t ah
2 1 nd i a n M t h a n d L e e n d
i
s m i l a lyr em e r d fr
ge om cosm ic eg s
g .

y , pp 1 0 0
-
2
g . .
3 1 2 MYTH S OF CHINA AND JAPAN
Honoured Ancestor appears to h ave been before God
I n his chapter Th e Completion o f Material Forms
,

h e refers to the female vall e y spirit T h e valley says .

”
,
“ ‘
Legge, is used metaphorically as a sy m bol o f emptiness ’

‘
or vacancy and th e spirit o f the valley is the female
mystery the Tao which is the mother o f all t h ings
—
‘

C h almers renders C hapter VI as follows :

“
k
T h e S pi ri t (li e pe re n n i al s pri n g) o f the ll y
Va e neve r di es .

T h i s (S pi ri t) I c al l t h e abyss m o t h e r -
. T h e pass a e o f t h e g a byss
m o t h e r I c al l t h e ro o t o f h e av e n an d e art h C e as e le ssly i t
. se e m s

t o e n d ure , an d i t i s e m pl o ye d w i t h o ut e ffo rt .

Dr Legge s rendering is i n verse

.
’

T h e v al l e y s pi ri t d i e s n o t , ay e t h e s a m e ;
T h e fe m al e m ys t e ry t h us d o w e n am e .

g fi
It s at e , fro m w h i c h at rs t t h e y i ss ue d fo rt h ,
IS call e d t h e ro o t fro m w h i c h re w h e av e n a n d g e art h .

L gon k
an d un b ro e n d o e s i t s po w e r re m ai n ,

g
U se d e n t ly, an d wi t h o ut t h e t o uc h o f pa i n 1
.

T h e symbolism o f this short chapter is o f special

interest, and seems to throw light on the origin of the
myths that were transformed by Lao Tze into phi l osophical
“ “ ”
abstractions We find th e female mystery o r abyss
.

mot h er is at once a gate (or passage) and a root The

Gr e ek goddess Artemis was both She was the guardian .

of the portals , and was herself the portals ; s h e was th e

giver o f the mugwort (t h e Chinese knew it) and was her ,

self the mugwort (A rt em esi a) , as D r Rendel Harris h as .

shown She opene d the gate o f birth as the godd e ss of

.
2

birth her key being the mugwort and s h e opened the

, ,

portal o f death as the goddess o f deat h A S the goddess .

of riches s h e guarded the door o f the treasure house, and —

s h e possessed the
“
p h i l osoph e r s stone whic h trans ’

1 Dr . L e gge , T aoi s t T e x ts, p 5 1

. .
2
A sce n t qf Oly mp us, p 7 3 . .
 M YTHS AND DOCTRINES OF TAOISM 3 3
1

muted base metal s into gold Artemis was a form o f t h e .

Egyptian Hathor, Aphro d ite being another specialized

form Hathor was associated wit h the lotus and ot h er
.

wat e r plants , and was N ub t h e lady of gold , w h o gave h er ,

name to Nubia ; sh e was the goddess of min e rs, an d

“
th e refore o f the Sinaitic peninsula ; she was the gate
of birt h and deat h T h e monumental gateways o f Egypt , .

I ndia China and Japan appear to h ave been originally

, ,

goddess portals .
1

Th e goddess of the earl y prospectors and miners was ,

as has been said
,
a water goddess I n the writings o f -
.

Lao Tze, his fe male and active Tao, the Mother o f

“

al l Things is closely associated with water T h e chapter .

“ ”
entitled T h e Placid and Contented Nature refers to
water, and water as an illustration o f the way of t h e
Tao is , Dr Legge comm ents, repeated ly emp l oyed
”
,
“
.

”
by Lao Tze .

“
g
T h e h i h e s t e x c e ll e n c e i s li k e
(t h at o f ) wa”t e r . T he ex cl
e

le nc e o f wat e r appe ars i n i t s be n e fi t in g a ll t h in g s .

2

L Tze , dealing with The Attribute of H umi l ity

ao
“

“ ”
connects water with women
W h t m k s gr t s t t i s i ts b i g (li k l w lyi n g do wn
a a e a ea a e e n e a o -

flo w i g s t m ; i t b c m es t h e c e nt t wh ic h t n d e s m ll
n
) re a e o
( ll t h re o e a a

s t t s) un d r h
a e n e e av e .

(T ill us t at
o f o m ) t h e c as
r e f l l f m l
r s z t h f m l e o a e a e —
e e a e
”2
al w ys a e rco m s t h e m l
ov by h r s t i lln s
e a e e e s .

Water is soft, but it wears down t h e rocks .

T h e so ft e s t t h in i n t h e w o rl d dash e s g a g a inst d e r o m s an ov c e

t h e h ard e s t ; t h at w h i c h h as n o (s ubs t an t i al) ex i st n c e n t e s w h e r

e e r e
”4
t h e re i s n o c re v i c e .

1 F o r d i s c us s i o n s on th e se
gat e s s e e E l l i o t S m i th i n J ou nar l of th e Manches te r an d
Ori e n ta l S oci e gr a n d T h e E v ol uti on
of th e Dr
gon, pp a 1 8 4, 1 8 5
Dr
. .

2 2 Ibi d 1
‘
. L e gge , T a oi s t T ex ts, p 5 2 . .
,p 1 0 4
. . . Ibi d .
,p . 87 .
3 1 4 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
The Tao acts like water, and (T h e Tao ) w h ich origi
n at e d a ll under the S k
”
y is Lao Tze says ,
“
to be con ,

s id e re d as the mot h er o f a ll of them When the mother .

is found , we know what h er children sho ul d b e 1

.
”

A passage which h as puzzl ed commentators i s ,

G t , i t (t h T
re a
) passes o n (in c o n st t fl w ) Pass in g
e ao an o . o n,

it b c m s r m ot
e o e H i g be c o m
e m ot e it . t ur s Th av n e re e, re n . e re

fo re th e T ao is g re at .
”2

The reference may be to the circ l e of wat e r whic h

surrounds the world I t is possible Lao Tze h ad it .

in mind , seeing that h e so often compares t h e action of

the Tao to that o f water the T ao that produces and —

nouris h es by its o ut flo w i n g operation

Like soul substance , the Tao is fo und in all t h ings ”

t h at live, and in all things t h at exercise an infl uence on

life T h e Tao is the absolute or, as the Brahmanic
.
,
“ “ ” ”
sages declared, the I t which can not be seen the It —

”
in the fruit o f the tree , the I t in man Lao Tze
“
.

“ ”
refers to the It as the One “

I n his c h apt e r, T h e Origin o f the Law h e writes

T h t h in gs w h i c h f o m o f o l d h v e go t t h O
e
(t h T o) are
r a e ne e a

H e n w h i h by i t i s b i gh t d pur ;
e av ,
c r an e

E th n do w d t h ar by fi m d s ur ;
e e e re r an e

S pi i t s wi t h p w s b y i t s uppl i d ;
r o er e

V ll ys k pt ful l t h ugh ut t h ir o i d ;
a e e ro o e v

A ll c tu s w h ic h t h ug h i t d li
re a ; re ro o ve

P in c s d K i g w ho f m it g t
r e an n s ro e

T h m d l w h i h t o all t h y g ie o e c e ve .
2

T h e Tao may produce and nourish a l l things and

b ring them to maturity, b ut it exercises no control over
t hem

2
Dr . L e gge , T aoi s t T ex ts , pp 9 4, 9 5 . .
2
Ibi d
4 Ibi d
, pp 6
.
7 9
-
. .

Ibi d .
, p 82. .
, p 94
. . .
3 6 1 MYTHS OF CHINA AND J A PAN
as s uc h . Li k w i e se , if w e a re no t i
c o n sc o us o f t h e i
e x st e n c e of

ii
s p r t s as s uc h , w e m us t be e q ua lly un i
c o n s c o us o f t h e e x i s t e n ce o f

i n s pi re d t e ac h e rs as s uc h ; an d t o be un c o n sc i o us o f th e ex is t n
e ce o f

S pi i r t s an d o f i nspi re d t e ac h e rs is the ver y e ss e n ce o f T ao .

” 1

Th e sc h olarly sage thus reached the concl usion t h at

it is a bless e d thing to know nothing to be ignorant , .

Good ord e r is necessary for the workings o f the Tao ,

and good order is secured by abstinence from action , and
by k e eping the people in a state o f simplicity and i gn o r
ance s o that they may be restful and child like i n t h eir
,
-

unquestioning and complete submission to the T ao .

T h e state o f vacancy, says Lao Tze , shou l d be

“

brought to the utmost degree Wh e n t h ings (in .

the v e getable world) have display e d their luxuriant

growth , we s e e eac h o f them return to its root This .

returning to the i r root is what w e call t h e state of

stillness .

There woul d be no virtues if t h ere were no vices ,

no robberies if there w e re no wealth .

” “
If, the Taoists argued, we would renounce o ur
sagen e ss and discard o ur wisdom it woul d b e better ,

fo r t h e people a hundredfold I f w e could reno unce .

our benevolence and discard o ur rightness t h e people ,

would again become filial and kindly I f we could .

renounce o ur artful contrivances and discard our

scheming for gain , there would b e no thieves and
3 ”
robberies .

H e re we meet wit h t h e doctrine o f t h e W orl d s Ages ’

already r e fe rre d t o Men were perfect to begin with .

,

becaus e as Lao Tze says they d i d not know they were

, ,
” ”
ruled “
I n the age of perfect virtu e , K wang T z e
.

writes , they attached no value to wisdom

“
They .

1 r r
H e b e t A G i l e s, R l gi o ns of ! ie i n d ent C h i n a , p 47 2
l e T ex t: of T aoi s m , p 5 9 . .

r r
. . .

3
G i l e s, Clz ua ng T z u, My s ti c, Mo f
a /1 s t, a n d S oc i a l Re o rm e .
 MYTHS AND DOCTRI NE S OF TAOI SM 3 7
1

were upright and correct wit h out knowing t h at to be ,

s o was righteousness ; they l ove d one anoth er , without

knowing t h at to do so was benevolence ; they were honest

and l eal h earted without knowing that it was l oyalty ;
—

t h ey ful fi l led their engagements without knowing that to ,

do so was good faith ; i n their si m ple movements they

employed the services of one another, without thinking
t h at they were conferring or receiving any gift There .

fore their actions left no trace , and there was no record of

”
th eir a ffairs .

T o this state of perfection , Lao Tze wis h ed h is fe ll ow

countrym en to return .

Th at the idea of th e Tao originated among those w h o

went far and wide, searching for the e l ixir o f life , is
suggested by Lao T z e s chapter, The Val ue Set on “ ’

Life ”
.He refers to t h ose whose movements tend
“

to t h e l and (o r place) of deat h , and asks , F o r what “ ”

” “
reason ? Th e answer is Because of their excessive ,

endeavours to perpetuate l ife

He continues :
B ut I h h ard t h t h w h o i s s k il ful i m anagi g t h e li fe
av e e a e n n

e n t us t d t
r e him f o tim t l or a th l n d w i t h o ut h i n g t o
e rav e s o n e a av

s h un h in c
r s o tig
e ro d tor h t W i th o ut h i g t
e r, an id
e n e rs a os av n o av o

b uff c t oa h rp w p n
or s T h
a h in ea os finds . o pl c i h im e r o c e ro n a e n

in t w h i h t t h u t i t s h o n
o c o r ths tig a pl c i w h i c h t o fi
r ,
nor e er a e n x

i ts l w s
c a ,th w
nor
po n pl e t d m i t i t po i n t
ea a A nd f w h t
ac e o a s . or a
”1
re as ? B caus t h i s i h i m o pl c o f d e at h
on e e e re n n a e .

I t woul d appear that Lao Tze was acquainted not

only with more ancient writers regarding the Tao , but
with traditions regarding h eroes resembling Ac h il l es ,
Siegfried and Diarm id, whose bodies h ad been rendered
,

inv ul nerab l e by dragon s b l ood , or the water o f a river ’

in th e Oth erwor l d ; o r, seeing that each o f these heroes

1
f
T b s T e x ts o T a oi s m ,
pp 9 2, 9 3 . .
 3 1 8 M YTH S OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
had a spot whic h was a place of death with traditions
regarding heroes w h o , like El K edir plunged in the ,
“
W el l of Life and becam e immortals, whose bodies
”

could not be inj ured by man o r b e ast T h e El K e d i rs .

o f western Asia and Europe figure in l eg e nds as

“
Wandering Jews or invulnerable h eroes incl u d ing
”
,
”
those who , like D iarmid , found the Well o f Life ,
“

and those who had knowledge o f charms that rendered

them invisibl e o r protected them against wounds The .

Far Eastern stories regarding the inhabitants o f the

”
Islands of the Blest , related in a previous chapter,
m a
y be recal l ed in this connection Having drunk the
”
.

“ “
waters of the Well o f Life and eaten o f the fungus
”
of immortality , they were rendered immune to poisons ,
and found it impossible to inj ure themselv e s When , .

therefore we find Lao Tze referring to men w h o had no

,

reason to fe ar armed warriors o r beasts of prey it s e ems ,

reasonable to conclude that thes e were men w h o had

found and partaken o f t h e elixir of life , o r h ad accumulated
”
stores of vitality by practising breathing ex e rcises and
“ ”
drinking char m ed water o r by acquiring m erit , like ,

the I ndian ascetics who concentrated their thoughts on

Brahma (neuter) .

I n the chapter, Returning to t h e Root

“
in his
T a o T e/z K i ng, Lao Tze appears to regard the Tao
“
as a preservative against death He who in the .

”
stat e o f vacancy returns to primeval simplicity and
perfectness achieves lo n gevity t h roug h the workings
of the Tao .

Po ss e sse d o f th e T ao , h e e nd u re s lo n g ; a nd to th e e n d o f h is
bo d i ly l if e is exem pt fro m al g
l d an er o f d caye .
”1

Here the Tao acts like t h e magic wat e r that restores

1
m e T e x ts of T a oum , p 6 0
. .
3 20 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
Scorpio , he took h is place among the stars Various spirits .

imbibed I t likewise and owed t h eir power and attributes

”

t o I t (the T ao )
1
.

K wang Tze te l ls that a man once addressed a Taoist

sage saying, Y o u are old s i r, w h ile your complexion is
,
“
,

like that o f a child ; h ow is it s o P ”

The reply was , I h ave become acquai n ted wit h th e

“

T ao

Here the Tao is undoubted ly regarded as t h e e l ixir

o f life as sou l substance that renews youth and
—
“ ”

promotes longevity I t w as n o t however, a t h ing to

.
,
“ ”
eat and drink the plant o f life o r the wat e r of
—
“

life ”
but an influence obtained l ike the spiritual power,
—

t h e merit accumulated by t h e B ra h manic hermits o f

“ ”
,

India w h o practised yogi“

A s the mystery of creation
was rep e ated at birth when a n e w soul came into
e xistence , s o did th e Tao create n e w life when the
devotee reached the desired state of c o m pl e t e and un
questioning submission to its workings .

There were some Taoists who like the Brahmanic ,

hermits , so ught refuge in so l itary places and endeavoured

to promote longevity by management of the breath , adopt
i ng what Mr Balfour has call e d a system o f mystic an d
.

”
recon d ite calisthenics A s we have s e en , Lao Tze makes
.

reference to breathing exercises but apparentl y certain

o f h is fol l owers regarded t h e performance o f these e x e r

cises as the sum and substance o f his teachings whereas ,

they were but an aid towards attaini n g the stat e of mind

which prepared the Taoist fo r submission to the Tao .

K wang Tze found it nec e ssary to con d emn the practices

o f those sch olars w h o instead o f pursuing the path
,

o f s e lf cultivation
“
endeavoured to accumulate the
”
breath of life s o that they might live as l o ng as th e
2
1 T i l e T e x ts of T a oi s m , pp
. 2 44 e t se
.
q
. 1 6121 , p
. 2 45 .
 M YTHS AND D OCTRI NE S OF TAOI SM 3 21

patriarch P h ang I n h is c h apter, I n grained Ideas

.
“

he writes
B lo w i n g n d b e t h i n g wi t h pe n m ut h ; in h lin g a d e x
a r a o o a n

h alin g t h b r t h ;
e ea p ll i g t h o l d b e t h
ex e n e d t ak i n g in e w ;
r a an n

pa ss in g t h i r t i m
e li k
e e t h (d o m n t) b
e rr d ast t ch i g a d e a , an re n n

t w ist i n g t h
( e c k )
ne li k e a b ird ; al l t h i s s i m ply s h o w s t h e d e s i re

f r lo g e v i ty
o n
1

T h e genuine devotees enj oy their ease without resort

ing to the rivers and seas , they attain to l ongevity “ ”

wit h out t h e management (of the “

they forget
all things and yet possess al l things by cultivating t h e
qualities of placidi t y indi ff erence , silence , quietude ,
,
” “
absolute vacancy and non action -
Th e se qualities are .

the substanc e of the Tao and its c h aracteristics

It s e e ms undoubted however, that the system of L ao
,

Tze , w h ereby spiritual fl uid flowed into the p l acid,

“ ”

receptiv e mind , originated in t h e very practices here con

d em ned —
i n the quest o f soul substan ce contained in
water, h erbs , meta l s , and gems As Indian and C h inese .

sages retired to solitudes and end ured great privation s so ,

”
that they m ight accumulate merit , so did the searchers
for herbs metals , and gems penetrate desert wastes and
,

cross trackl ess mountains, so as to accumulate th e wea l th

which was m e rit to t h em They were inspired in l ike
”
.

manner by genuine religious enthusiasm .

The Taoists never forgot the E l ixir Taoism

began with the quest o f that elusive and mystical I t “ ”

which renewed yout h and ensured immortality or pro ,

longed long e vity after death and t h e later Taoists revived ,

o r, perhaps one s h ould s a , perpetuated the search for

y
“ ” “
t h e Water of Life , and th e Plant of Life th e Peach “

o f 3 0 0 0 years or years t h e gem trees , gold ,

pearls ,j ade , & c The fear of death obsessed their minds
. .

1
Th e T ex t: of T aoi sm , p 3 64
. .
2
Ibz d .
, pp 3 64 5
.
-
.

( D 71
3 22 MYTH S OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
They wished to live as long as the Patriarc h P h ang o n
this earth o r to be transferred bodily to the Paradise o f
,

the West the Paradise o f C loudland or Star land , o r that

,
-

“ ”
of the Islands o f the Blest Besides it w as necessary
.
,

that the earthly life should be prolonged s o t h at t h ey

might mak e complete submission to t h e Tao Their lives .

had to be passe d in tranqui l lity ; they were not to re flect

o n the past o r fe e l anxiety regarding the future The .

fear o f death in the future tended to disturb t h eir peace

o f mind and they were t h erefore in need of water which
, ,

like the water o f L e the would make t h em forget their

,

cares o r some other elixir that would inspire them with

,

confidence and give them str e ngth K wang Tze might .

censure the ascetics for confusing the means with th e

”
end , but ordinary men have always been pron e to attach
undue importance to ceremonies and rit e s to concentrate —

th eir thoughts o n t h e performance of rites rather than in

“ ” “
accumulating merit , and to believe that m e rit can
be accum ul ated by the performance of the rites alone .

The e xplanation of the state o f a ffairs censure d by

K wang Tze seems to be that the transcend e ntal teachings
o f Lao Tze and himself in which the vague idea o f the
,

Logos was fused with belief in a vagu e elixir o f life, were

incomprehensible not only to the masses but even to
sch olars , and that the practices and bel iefs of t h e older
faith o n whic h Lao Tze fo und e d his system were p e rp e t
uat e d by custom and tradition by oth e r adherents to the
cult of whic h he was a teac h er Ordinary men , who w e re
.

not by t e mperam e nt o r m e ntal constitution o r training

either mystics o r m etap h ysicians required something more
,

concr e te than the elusive Tao o f Lao a n d K wang ; they

clung to their beliefs in the e ffi cacy o f life prolonging -

h erbs j e wels metals coloured stone s wat e r fresh air, & c

, , , , ,
.

Withal they require d something to worship having

, ,
 C H A P TE R XVI I

C ul t ur e
Mi x in g in j a pan
R r l i l
ac e s an d AT ll r
c h ae o o g c a
P d i My h d A ge s— he it -
we e s -
A nu t s an

L e ge n d s M i S r
um m fic a t i o n
l rb d T r A i ac e d A n i m a s, H e s, an ees nu

C o s m o go n
y i —Dl A d P rl l r
nu i e Jp M rk i
uge L e ge n — ea o e n a an — an d a e n

Ko r Jp
e a, a d C i T
an , an Jp Dr h rl S l i k
n a— he a an e se
“
ago n - P e a as ou — L n s

i h
w t Amr M d i l rb d J l
e i c a— e ic Gna
y S H i y f e s an ew e s— T he o d - Bod — an c t t o

B e ad s—T C r l S ll C
he Fro a ,d F h r
he fs, k J i o i n s, ui t , an e at e s o L uc -
go d s — ad e n

Jp
a a n— JdNo kl i C i J p I p ri l I
a e N ec ac es Mi rr r
n h n a— a an e se m e a n s i gn i a th e o ,

r
S w o d, J l h i T pl
an d ewe —
r S G n to Mk em es an d A te m i s at e w a
y s— i ad o as

Osi ri s- i
T he Sh Fi Y F f D
nto a th — f Mi k om i— ood o th e e ad — T h e S o ul s o ad o s

an d Ph r a ao h s—
T K i G d & G f C r lP i
he am as o s, c —
. od s o the a d i na o nts .

“
There was not only culture m ixing but al so a
mixing o f races in anci e nt times throughout the Japan e se
Archipelago Distinct racial types can be detecte d in the
.

”
present day population
-
“
Of these , says the Japanese .

writ e r , Yei Ozaki “

th e two known as the patrician and
,
1

t h e plebeian are the most conspicuous The delicate oval .

fac e o f the aristocrat o r Mongoloi d with i t s aquiline nose, ,

oblique eyes high arche d eyebrows bud like mouth ,

,
-

,
-

cream coloure d skin and slen d er fram e has been the

—
, ,

favourite theme of artists for a thousand years , and is

still t h e ideal o f beauty t o day The Japanese p l ebeian has -
.

the Malayan cast of count e nance high cheek bones , large ,

-

prognathic mout h full, straight eyes a skin almost as , ,

d ark as bronze , and a robust heavily boned physique ,

—
.

The flat face d h eavy j aw e d , hirsute Ainu type, wit h

—
,
-

1
C us tom s
of th e Wo r ld , p 3 8 0
. .

3 24
 CULTURE M I X I N G IN JA P AN 3 25

l uxuriant hair and long beards, is al so frequently m e t wi t h

among t h e Japanese Such are the diverse elements
which go to compris e t h e race of t h e pr e sent time .

The oblique eyed aristocrats the Normans of Japan

- —

—
appear to have come from K orea, and to have achieved
po l itical ascendancy as a result o f conquest in the arc h ae o
“
logical Iron Age when m e galithic tombs o f th e corri
dor type, covered with mounds , w e re introduced They .
1

brought with them , in addition t o distinctive b urial customs ,

a h eritage o f K orean religious beli e fs and myths r e gardi n g

s e rp e nt or dragon gods o f rivers and ocean , air and moun
—

tains A fter coming into contact wit h other peop l es in

.

Japan, t h eir mythology grew mor e comp l ex, and assumed

a local aspect Chinese and B uddhist elements were
.

subs e quently a d d e d .

There was no distinct Bronze Age in Japan .

Ancient bronze obj ects are , says Laufer so scarce i n

“
,

Japan , that even granted t h ey were indigenous , the estab

li s h m e n t of a Bronze Age would not be j ustified nor is ,

t h ere i n the ancient records any positive evid e nce o f the

us e of bronze Although stone imp l ements have b e en
.
” 2

found , it is uncertain wh e ther t h ere ever w as in the strict ,

Western European sense , a Neolithic A ge Th e

earl iest inhabitants o f the islands could not h ave reached
them unti l after s hips came into us e in the Far East, and
therefore aft e r t h e cu l ture of t h ose w h o used metal s h ad
made its infl uence felt over wide areas .

As we have seen (Chapter III) t h e most archaic s h ips ,

in the K am s ch at k a area in the north , and in the Mal ayan

area in t h e sout h , were of Egyptian type , h aving appar

1 T he te rr a c e d m o un d tom bs o f th e E m pe rr J
o s of a an a
p ppe a r to r
b e s u v i v al s o f t h e
an c i e n t tom bs r d
A l t h o ugh t ue o l m e ns f d
h av e b e e n o un in K o r e a, t h e
y d o n o t , s o fa r
r J (J
.

as i s k n o w n, o ccu in a
pan our na l i t/t rap Ins t ,
z xx i v ,
p 3 30 , an d 1 9 0 7 , pp 1 0

C F r
. . .

2
et Clz m ese lay i
gu e s, p 2 6 5 , n
.
3 . .
3 26 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
ently been introduced by the early prospectors w h o
searched for pearls and precious stones an d m e tals I n .

th e oldest Japanese writings, the records o f ancient o ral

“
tra d itions , gold and silver are referred to as yellow and
“
W hit e metal s existing i n K orea W hi l e bronze, when
”
,

first m entioned is called the Chinese metal and t h e

“
,
”

K orean m e tal T h e bronze and iron obj ects found

”
in the ancient graves have simply, says Laufer been “
,

imported from the mainland , an d plainly are in the ,

maj ority of cases, o f Ch inese manufacture Many of .

these, like metal mirrors certain helmets , and others , have

,

been recognized a s such ; but through comparison wit h

corresponding Chinese material, th e same can be proved
for the rest A t the beginning o f o ur era, the Japanese,
.
”2

as the annals o f t h e Later Han Dynasty o f China record ,

purc h ased iron in K orea T h e Chin e s e and K oreans .

derived the know l edge o f h o w to work iron fro m the

i nterior of Siberia, the Turkish Yakut there being t h e
ol d er and better iron workers -
.
3

The racia l fusion in ancient Japan was not complet e .

Al though th e K oreans Chinese , and Malayans i nter ,

marri e d an d became Japanese communities of the A inu

“

nev e r su ff ered loss of identity, and lived apart from t h e

conquerors and those o f their kinsmen w h o were absorbed
by them .

An outstanding feature of Japanese arc h aeo l ogy is t h at

C ul ture A appears to h ave been a h ig h er o n e than C ul ture
B whic h is represented by Ainu artifacts Culture A is
,
.

that o f a pre Ainu peop l e whom the Ainu found in h abiting

-

parts o f the archipelago , and called the K oro po k guru - —

.

T h e name signifies t h e peop l e h aving depressions and

1 T r ansa cti ons J
of til e A si a ti c S oci e ty of apan, V o l X (s uppl e m e n t) , p x xxv i .

C F r C
. .

2
Ci t i nese lay igu es ( h i c ago , p 2 6 5 , ft 3
. . .

3 Ibi d , p 2 7 1 an d n 3 , p 2 7 2 an d n 1
. . . . . .
3 28 MYTHS OF CHINA A ND JAPAN
cultivate millet (their staple food) and vegetables , and
gath e r herbs and roots among the mountains Accord ing .

to th e ir o w n traditions they came from Sara, which means ,

“ “
a plain Their culture hero O k i k urum i d e scended ,

from heaven to a mountain in P i rat o ru having been del e ,

1

gate d by the Creator to teach the Ainu religion and law .

B efore this h ero returne d to heav e n he married T ure s h ,

Machi , and he l e ft his s o n , W arui n e k uru, to instruct the

2

“
Ainu h o w t o m ake cloth to hunt and fish , h o w to make ,

poison and set the spring b o w in the trail o f animals —

Wh e n O k i k urum i first arrived among t h e Ainu , the

“
crust of the earth was still thin and all was burning
beneath It w as impossible for people to go a h unting -

without scorching th e ir fe e t The celestial hero arranged .

that his wife should d istribute food, but made it a condi

tion that no human being would dare to look in her face .

She went daily from house to house thr usting in the food
with her great hands .

“
An inquisitive Ainu, of th e Peeping Tom order,
resol ved to satisfy h is curiosity regar d ing the mysterious
food distributor One morning h e seized her and pulled
-
.

her into his house , whereupon she was immediately trans

formed into a wriggling serpent dragon A terrible -
.

thunderstorm immediately broke out, and t h e h ouse o f

Peeping Tom was destroyed by lightning .

T h is is an interesting Far Eastern version of t h e

Go d iva legend o f Coventry 3
.

Greatly angered by the breaking o f the taboo , O k i k u

rum i returne d to the cel e stial r e gions H is dragon wife .
-

is not only a Godiva, but another Far Eastern Melusina .

4

O k i k urum i is said to have worn ear rings He h ad -

.

1
Pi ra f cl i
”
f ; toru,
“
to s t ay
2
Ty /
res z
,
“
y o unge r si ste r m at /xi ,
“wi fe
”

3 For
,

r r
o th e v e s i o n s, s e e H r d
a t l an , T h e S ci e nce of F at ry T al es (L o n d o n,
pp 7 1
d dr M
.

4 e l us i n a
"
S e e In ex un e .
3 3 0 MYTHS O F CHI N A AND JAPAN
The salmon is divine and its symbol is worshipped , .

Folk tales are told regar d ing salmon taking h uman shape
-
,

as do the seals in Scottish Gaelic stories As in China .

and Japan the fo x is the most subtle of all beasts It

,
.

supplanted t h e tiger as chief god according to an Ainu ,

folk tale There is a great tortoise god in the s e a and an

-
.
-

o wl o d o n the land , and their children h ave intermarried

g
-
.

The cock is of celestial origin It w as , at the beginning .

,

sent down from heaven by the C r e ator to ascertain what

the world looked like but tarri e d for s o lo n g a time, being ,

well pleased with things that it was forbid d en to return ,

.

Hares are mountai n deities .

The o l dest trees are the oak and pine and t h ey are ,

therefore sacred, and the old e st and most sacred herb is

the mugwort In K am s c h at k a the pine is associate d with
.

the mugwort The mugwort is connect e d with go d dess e s

.

of the A rtemis order Sacred too , was the willow and .

1
, ,

specially sacr e d th e mistletoe that gr e w on a willow tree .

An elixir prepared from the mistletoe was supposed to

renew youth and ther e fore to prolong life and cure d i s
,

eases Sib e rians venerate the h erb willow

. The drink .
2

prepared from it was a s o po ri fic fo r human beings wil d ,

animals an d deities Far Eastern deities had apparen t ly

,
.

to be soothed as well as invoked as it may be recall e d , ,

w as Hathor Sekhet in the Egyptian flood myt h when

-

s h e was given beer poure d o ut from j ars , so that she

might cease from s l aug h tering mankind 3
.

W h en t h e Ainu performed r e ligious ceremonies ,

shavi n gs and whittled sticks o f willow were us e d and ,

libations of intoxicating liquors provide d Deities were .

made drunk , as in B abylonia and t h en provi d ed with a ,

4

1
Re n d el H a rr
i s, T i l e A scen t of Oly m p us, pp 5 6 e t se q , w i t h i ts N ote an Iv y and

d rr
. .

Mugw o rt in S i be r i a, pp 9 6 e t s e q
. .
2
Re n e l H a i s, op ci t , pp 1 0 1 - 2 . . . .

3
E gyp ti a n My th d L ege n d , pp 6 e t
an se
q
r
. .

1
‘
My tlz s qf B a by lon i a an d A ssy i a, pp . 1 —
43 4 .
 CU LTU RE M I X I N G IN JAP AN 33 1

soot h ing anti intoxicant Th e Ainu set up their wil l ow

-
.

sticks at Wells and around their dwellings T h ey had no .

temp l es , and w h en they worshipped the sun , a s h aven

wi l low stick was p l aced at the east end o f a h ouse .

T h e moon god came next i n order to the s un go d

— -
.

T h e fire god was invoked to cure diseas e There was a

-
.

subtl e connection between fire and mist l etoe , per h aps

because fire was obtained by friction of soft and h ard
wood , and an intoxicating e l ixir prepared from a tree or
its parasite was believed to be fire water “
t h at is , ”
—

“
water o f life O ffering s were made to gods o f ocean ,
”
.

rivers and mountains

,
.

Th e worl d was supposed to be floating o n and sur

rounded by water,and to be resting on t h e spine of a gigantic
fish w h ich caused earthq uakes when it moved There were .

t w o heavens one above t h e clouds and another in the

-

Underworl d A h e ll , from whic h t h e vo l canoes vomit

.

fire, was reserved for t h e wicked .

Like t h e C h inese, t h e Ainu tel l stories of visits paid

to Paradise A man , whose wife h ad been spirited away,
.

appealed to t h e oak god , who provided h im with a golden

-

h orse o n which he rode to the sky He reached a .

beautifu l city in w h ich people wen t about singing con

s t an t l.
y T h ey smelled a stranger , and , the smel l being
o ffensive to them , they appeal ed to t h e c h ief god to give
him h is wife T h e go d promised to do s o if t h e visitor
.

would agree to go away at once He consented readily,

.

and returned to t h e oak god, w h o to l d h im his wife was

-

in hel l, and that the p l ace was n o w in confusion because

t h e chief god had ordered a search to be made fo r her .

Soon afterwards t h e lost woman was restored to her

husband T h is man was given t h e go l den horse to keep ,
.

and al l t h e h orses in Ainu l and are descended from it

-
.

Another man once c h ased a bear on a mo untain side .

33 2 MYTH S O F CHINA AN D JA P AN
The animal entere d a cave and h e fol l owed it passing , ,

through a long, dark tunn e l He reach ed t h e beautiful land .

o f th e Underworld Feeling h ungry, he ate grapes and

.

mulberries , and , to his horror, was imm e diately trans

formed into a serpent He crawled back to the entrance .

and fell asleep below a pine tree In his dream t h e go d .

dess o f the tree appeared She told h im he h ad been .

transformed into a serpent because h e had eaten o f the

food of Hades and that, if he wished to be restored to
,

human shape , he must climb to the top of the tree and

fl ing h imself down When h e awoke , the man serpent .
-

did as the goddess advised After l e aping from t h e tree .

top , he found himse l f standing below it , wh i le near him

lay the body o f a great serpent which h ad been split open .

He then went t h rough the tunne l and emerged from t h e

cave But later h e h ad another dream , in w h ic h the
.

goddess appeared and told h i m he must return to the

Underworld because a goddess ther e had fallen in l ove
with h im H e did as h e w as commanded to do, and was
.

never again seen on earth .

A story tells of anoth e r Ainu w h o reached t h is Para

dise He s aw many people he had known in the worl d ,
.

but they were unable to S e e h im On l y the dogs per .

c e i v e d h im and they growled and barke d

, Catching sight .

of his father and mother h e went forward to embrace

them , but they complained o f being h aunted by an evi l
spirit, and h e had t o leave them .

The A inu have a Deluge Myth which tel l s t h at w h en

t h e waters rose the vast maj ority o f h uman beings were
destroye d Only a remnant escaped by ascending to the
.

summit o f a h igh mountain .

1

1
B at c h e l o r , T he A i
n u a nd t h e i r F ol k-l o e . r B at c h e l o r N otes o n th e A i nu ( T r a nsacti ons

of th e A si a ti c S oci e g’ , pp X q 20 6 e t se
,

Mi l n e , N otes on t he K oro-poh-guru
X r
. .

( T ransa cti ons qf t h e A si a ti c S oci e t'y qf j apa n), V o l pp 1 8 7 et se

q C h am b e l ai n ,
F k r
,

XX
. . .

A i n u F ol k tal es ( o l - l o e S o c i e t y s P ub l i c at i o n s , V o l
-
. II,
3 34 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
he says , ros e coloured pearl s were abundant and quite as
—
,

K aempfer , writing in t h e eigh

”
valuable as white ones .

t e e n t h century , stat e d that the Japanese pearls were found

in small varieties of oysters (ahoj a ) resembling the Persian
p e arl oyst e r, and also in the yel l ow snail s h ell , t h e
“ -
”

ta i ra ga i ( P l a cuna ) and the a w a bi or a ba l one (H a l i oti s)

! , .

A p e arl fishery form e rly existed in the neighbourhood of

S agh al i n I sland As pearls have from the earliest tim e s
.

be e n fis h ed from southern Manchurian rivers, in K ams

c h at k a, and on the sout h coast of t h e Sea of Ok h otsk ,

it may be that the earliest settlers in Japan were pre

historic pearl fis h e rs It is of special interest to note here
-
.

that, according to G A Cook e , pearls and gi nseng (man . .

drake) were formerly Manchurian articles o f commerce 1

.

The herbs and pearls were , as we h ave seen , regarded as

avatars of the mother goddess -
.

In K orea gi nseng is cultivated under Government

supervision “
I t is Mrs Bis h op writes, o n e o f the .
2

most valuable articles w h ich K orea exports , and o n e great

”
source of its revenu e A basket may contain gi nseng .

worth £40 0 0 “
But s h e adds, valuable as the cul ti
“
.
,

v at e d root is , it is not h ing to the value o f th e wild , whic h

grows in Northern K orea, a single specimen of which has

been sold for £40 ! It is chi e fly found i n the K ang ge J
-

Mountains , but it is rare , and the search so often en d s in

failure , that the common people credit it wit h magical
properties , and believe that only men of pure lives can
a n d o ur
j pa n, are
a ot he rr d r
en e i n gs of th e C h i ne se n am e w h i ch w as fir st us e d o ffi c i a l l y

in J
pan i n t h e
a s e v e n th r
ce n tu y A D. E a r rJ
li e a
pan e s e n am e s i n cl u d e T a m a ra an d

r dr d
.

”
C—m i - hun i , t h e g (m i ) l an
’

e at ago n &c
Y
,
r
.

1 ul e , T h e B ook qf S e r M a rco P ol o (Bo o k III, c h apt e i i i ), V o l III, p 2 0 0 K unz ,

F r r r r C
. . .

ol k- o l e
of P re ci ous S t one s (M e m oi s In te n a t Congr A n th op , h i c ago , pp
k r
. . . .

1 47 et se
q G A C o o e , Sy s te m of U n i v e rs a l G e og aphy , V o l I p 5 74
W J r C r d
. . . . . .

J . .

1 0 6
ac k s o n ,

e t se
S h el l s as E v i d ence i
f th e Mi g a ti ons
of E ar
ly ul t u e
(L o n on ,

pp q
r r
. .

2
Ko ea an d h e r N ei gh bou s (L o n do n, V o l II, pp 9 5
. . et se
q,
 CULTURE MI XIN G IN JAPAN 335

find it T h e d ae mon who is t h e tutelary spirit o f

.
“

g i ns e n
g is great l y honoured (p A rea d y .

“
mark e t is found i n China for K or e an gi nse ng I t is a .

tonic, a febrifuge a stomachic, the very e lixir o f life , ,

taken spasmo d ically o r regularly in C h i n ese wine by most

”
Chinese who can a fford it (p .

I n Japan , gi nseng mushroom and fungus are, l ike , ,

pearls , promoters of longevity, and sometimes says Joly, ,

: t h ey are
”
m asqu e rade as phalli
“
Plants o f Life and
Plants of Birth like th e plants searched for by the
Babylonian heroes Gilgamesh and Etana, and like the
dragon h erbs of C h ina -
.
1

In Shinto , the ancient religion o f the Japanese promi ,

n e n ce is given t o pearls and other precious j ewels , and

e ven to ornaments like artificia l beads which were not , of

,

course, used mere ly for personal decoration in t h e modern

sense of the ter m ; beads had a religious significanc e A .

sacre d j ewel is a l a m a , a name which h as deep significan ce

in Japan , because m i ta m a is a sou l, or spirit, o r double —
.

Mi is usually referred to as an h o n o ri fic prefix or

“ ”

h o n o ri fic e pithet b ut it appears to h ave been originall y

something m ore than that A Japanes e commentator as .
,

D e Visser notes has pointed o ut in anot h er con nection ,

2

that m i is an o l d word for snake t h at is for a snake

“ ”
, ,

dragon Mi ta m a, ther e fore may as sou l or double

.
—
,
”

” ” 3
be all that is meant by snake pearl o r dragon pearl — —
.

1
T h e Ch i n e s e dr ag on K il h- l ung,
’
o r i gi n at e d fr om a se a-
pl an t c all e d ha i - l il De
V r Dr C , .

i ss e T he a
gon i n h i na a nd
j apan, p 72
D C
, . .

2
T he gon i n h i na
ra an d j apan, p 1 37
dr r d
. .

3 T he t e m pl e o f t h e M e x i c an ago n an d ai n -go d , T l al o c, w as c al l e
“
Ep -
c o at l

w h i ch s i gn i fi es
“
pe ar r l -
se
p e nt
”
or
“
r
pe n t pe a l
se - r
Y o un g c h i l
”
dr en s ac i rfi ce d to
T r r k M r
.

l al o c b y b e i n g th ow n i n t o th e w h i l po o l
(pan ti t Ian) o f t h e l a e of e xi c o , we e

al s o d c al l e E p -
co at l
”
T h is s ac rfii ce too k pl a c e at th e w at erf e s t i v al i n th e fir st

r f r rfi d r
.

M
m o n th o f t h e e x i c an
yea T h e i n an t s w e e s ac i c e at s e v e al po i n t s, s o m e b e i n g
rd d r rd r
.

”
b ut c h e e on hol
y h i ll s i n c l u i n g th e l
p ce of
a m ug o t , s ac e t o t h e m ugw o t an d
w
f T
,

ge m dd -
go e s s C h al c h i h ui t l i c ue
, w i e of l al o c B ut o n l y t h e c h i l e n t h o w n i n t o th e dr r
k r d
.

“ ”
la e we e c all e Ep -
co at l .
336 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D JA P AN
T he p e arl as we have seen contained soul s ubstanc e
, ,
”
the vital principle the blood o f the Great Mother, like ,
“
the j asper of Isis worn by women to promote birth ,

and therefore to multiply an d prolong life ; in China and

Japa n the pearl w as plac e d in the mouth of the dead to
preserv e th e corpse fro m decay and ensure long e vity or
immortality The connection b e tween j ewels and medi
.

cine i s found among the Maya o f Central A merica Ci t .

“ ”
B ol on T un (the nine precious stones ) was a god of
medicine The godde ss Ix T ub T un s h e w h o spits o ut
.

”
precious stones ) was the goddess o f t h e workers in j ad e
and amethysts She lin k s with Tlaloc s wife
”
.
’
.

A ccording to Dr W G Aston l a m a contains t h e . . .

1

root o f the verb ta bn t o give more often met wit h in ,

its l e ngthened form ta m afu T a m a r e tains its original .

significance in l a m a m ono a gift thing and tosh i d a m a a

—
, ,
—
,

n e w year s present T a m a n e xt m eans so m ething valu

’
.

able as a j ewe l Then as j ewels are m ostly globular in

,
.
,

shape it has come to mean anything ro un d At the

,
2
.

same tim e , owing to i t s precio us quality it i s us e d s y m b o l i ,

cally fo r the sacred e m anation fro m God which dwells in

his shrine and also fo r that most precious thing, the
,

h um an life o r soul The element ta m a enters into

.

the names o f several d e ities T h e food goddess is called .

—

”
eith e r Uh em och i no K a m i or Uha no m i ta m a Phallic —
.

deities are also r e ferred to as m i ta m a The m i tam a is -

.
-

sometimes used in much the sa m e sense as the Egyptia n

Ka it is the spirit or do uble of a d e ity which dwells in a
S hrine, where it is provi d ed with a sh i nta i go d body
a j ewel , weapon stone mirror pillow , o r some s uch
, , ,

obj ect .

T h e j ewels (l a m a ) worn by gods and human beings were

1
S h i n to (L o n d o n, pp 2 7 e t se
q
T d r r d j
. .

h is be th e fo r t h e s an c t i t of a b
2
oes not see m to e as o n o un o e ct.
y
33 s MYTHS OF CHI N A AN D JAPAN
l am a may correspond to the m a ni o f th e Indian Buddh ists ,

it was not o f Bu d d h ist origin In Japan ; the B udd h ists

simply added to the stock of Japanes e l uck j ewels
“ ”
.

The l a m a of j a d e has raised an interesting problem .

“ ”
Nephrite is not found in Japan It is di ffi cult , says .

“
Laufer to decid e from what source h o w and wh e n the
, ,
”
nephrite or j adeite m aterial was transmitted to Japan .

Refe rring to j ade obj ects found in the prehistoric Japanese

“
graves he says : The j ewels m ay go back after all , to
, ,

an early period when historical intercourse between Japan

and C hina was not yet establis h ed ; they represent two 1

clearly distinct and characteristic types , such as are not

found in the j ewe lry of ancient China I f t h e Japanese .

m aga l a m a and hud a l a m a would correspond to any known

- -

Chin e se forms it would be possible to give a plausible

,

reason for the presence o f j ade in the ancient Japanese

tombs ; but suc h a coincid e nce of type cannot be brought
forward Nor is it likely that similar pi e ces will b e d i s
.

covered i n China, as nechla ces w ere n ev er used th ere a nci ently

or i n m od ern l i m es We must therefore argue that the
.

two Japanese forms of ornamental stones were either

indigenous inv e ntions or borrowed from some other non
C hinese c ul ture sphere in south eastern A sia, the antiqui -

ties o f whic h are unknown to us .

” 2

The l am a is of great importance in Shinto religion .

At Is e 3 “
,
the Japanese Mecca wh ic h has long been ”
,

visited by pious pilgrims , a virgin daughter of the M ikado

used to keep watc h over the three imperial insignia the —

mirror, the sword, an d th e j ewel (l a m a ) whic h h ad been —

handed down from Mika d o to Mikado There were no .

idols in the t e mples T h e S h i nl a i w as careful ly wrapped

.

“ ”
up and kept in a b o x in the holy of holies a screene d ,

1
T he Maga - tam a an d t h e K ud a- tam a 2
j a d e , pp 3 5 3 — 4
r r Y d
. . .

3
Is e i s t h e n am e o fa p o v i n ce, an d th e ne a e st to w n t o th e Me c c a i s
"
am a a.
 p
C o y ri gh t H . G P o n t m g, F R G S

T H E F MO A U S OL D TO RI- W I (G O DD E SS S Y MBO ) MY JM J
L , I A I A, A PA N
Mi y aJIm a or It s k us h i m a ( Is l a n d of L ight ) is of th e S Tr
a n -K e i h t b e a ut i ul f
sce nes

W
o

e alt h
f Ja p an
"

f the
T h e i s la n d is
D i v i m t ne s
sac rd
e

fL
to
uc k
o ne

B e nte n , th e G dd
p Tr r p p
o ess
o r

o f th e S
ee

ea .
m os

o f B e a ut y . o f
(s e e T he Ja S hi
-
o ne o se v e n o a ne s e eas u e a ge
3 40 MYTHS OF CH INA AND JAPAN
g ira wnh c h t h e i y e at is no o t he r th a n t h e se e d b e st o w e d on them

by t h e G o d s o f

T h e M ika d o w as thus , in a sense a Japanese Osiris ,

.

Shinto religion w as in pre Buddhist days a system of -

ceremonies an d laws o n whic h the whole social structure

r e ste d The name is a C h inese word meaning the way
.

”
of the gods the Japanese equivalent being Ka m i no
,

m i c/i i B ut although the gods w e re numerous only a

.
,

small proportion o f the m played an important part in the

ritual (nari l a) , which was handed down orally by genera
tions of priests until after t h e fifth century of our era,
when a native script, bas e d on C h inese characters , came
into use .

Old Shinto was concerned chiefly with the food supply, -

with c h ild getting with the preservation of h ealth and

-
, ,

protection against calamities cause d by floods droughts, ,

fire or earthquakes I t has little or nothing to s ay

,
.

regar d ing the doctrine of immortality Th ere w as no .

h eaven and no hell T h e spirits of some o f these .

dei t i es who died like ordinary mortals w e nt to the land of

Yomi , as did also the spirit of the M ikado but littl e is ,

told regarding the mysterious Otherworl d in which dwel t

“
the spirits of disease and death I n one passage of the .

N i h on gi , says A ston ,
”
—
1
Yomi is clearly no more than a
m etaphor for th e grave I t thus resembled the dark .

Otherworld or Un d erworld o f the Babylonians , from w h ic h

Gilgames h summoned the spirit o f his dead friend,
E a bani -
No spirit of a god could escape from Yomi
.
2

“
after eating the food of the d ead Wh e n t h e Baby
lonian go d A d apa s o n of Ea , was summoned to appear in
,

the Otherworld , his father warned h im not to accept of

1
S hi n to pp 5 - 6
. 1 .

2
K i n g, B a byl oni an Rel i i on g a nd My th ol ogy , pp .
3 5 , an d 1 74 c l se
q
.
 CULTURE M IXI N G IN JAPA N 3 4 1

the water and food whic h would be o ffered him The .

1

goddess Is h tar was struck with disease when s h e e nter e d

Hades in quest o f h er lover, t h e god Tammuz, and it w as
not until she had been sprinkled with the water of life
t h at s h e was healed and liberated .
2

T h e Mikado , being a go d had a spirit, and might be ,

transferred to Yomi o r might ascend to h eaven to the

cel estial realm of his ancestress the sun goddess Some ,
-
.

distinguished men had spirits likewise But th e re is no .

Cl ear evidence in t h e Koj i hi or the N i h on gi that the - -

S pirits of the common people went anywhere after death ,

or indeed that th ey were supposed to have spirits Some

,
.

might becom e bir d s or badgers, or foxes , and live for a

,

period in th es e forms , and then die , as did some o f the

gods There are no ghosts in t h e early Shinto books
.
3
.

T h e ancient Pharaohs o f Egypt, like t h e ancient

Mikados of Japan were assured of immortality T h e
, .

mortuary Pyramid Texts were al l intended fo r the king s

“ ’

excl usive use, and as a w h o l e contain bel iefs w h ich app ly

on l y to the king There are vague references in these
“
texts to the dead whose places are hidden and to those
w h o remain in the grave The fate of t h e masses did not .
4

greatly concern the solar cult .

Before deal ing with the myt h s of Japan it is necessary ,

“
to consider what the term ha m i usually translated gods ,

signified to t h e devotees of Old S h into

“
The ha m i ”
.

were not spiritua l beings, but many o f t h em had spirits o r

doub l es that resided i n t h e sh i nl a i (god body ) D r . .

“
Aston reminds us that although ha m i corresponds i n a
general way to god it has some important l imitations
‘
.

The ha m i are h igh swift, good, rich , living but not

,

3
My ths of B aby l oni a an r
d A ssy i a, pp 7 2 - 3 .
2
Ibi d , p 9 5
. . . .

A s t o n , S h i nt o p 14
r d
. .

4 B e as t e , Re li gi on and T h ou h t i n A n ci en t E
g gy p t,
pp 9 9 e t se q . .
3 4 2 MYTHS O F CHI NA AN D JAPAN
infinit e , omnipotent, or omniscient Most o f them had a .

father and mother, and o f some t h e death is recorded 1

.
”

It behoves us to exercise caution in applying t h e term

”
animistic to the numerous ha m i of Japan, or in assum
ing that they were worshipped, o r revere nced rather,
simply b e cause t h ey were feared Some o f the ha m i were .

feared but the fear o f the go d s is not a particular fe ature

,

o f Shinto religion with its ceremonia l hand clappings and -

happy laughter .

Dr Aston quotes from Mo t oo ri , t h e great e ighteenth

.

century Shinto theologian the following illuminating ,

stat e ment regarding the ha m z

T h e t e rm ha m i i s a ppl i e d in t h e rs t plac e t o t h e v ari o us fi
d e i t i e s o f h e av e n an d e art h w h o are m e n t i o n e d i n t h e an c i e n t
re c o rd s as w e ll as t o t h e i r s i ri t s i
p (m l a m a
)
-
w h i c h re s i d e i n th e

s h rin e s w h e re t h e y w e re w o rs h i ppe d . Mo re o v e r, n o t o n ly h um an
g
b e i n s , b ut b i rd s , b e as t s , pl an t s , an d t re e s , s e as an d m o un t ai n s , an d
g
al l o t h e r t h i n s w h at so e v e r w h i c h d e se rv e t o b e d re ad e d a n d
re v e re d fo r t h e e x t rao rd i n ary an d pre e m i n e n t po w e rs w h i c h t h e y
-

po ss e ss are c all e d ha m i . T h e y n e e d n o t b e e m i n e n t fo r surpass i n g

n o b l e n e ss
, o r s e rv i c e a bl e n e ss al o n e . M al i n an t
g an d u n c an n
y
g
b e in s are also c alle d ha m i i f o nly t h e y are o b e c t s o f e n e ral d rea d j g .

A m on g ha m i w h o are h um an b e in gs, I n e e d h ard ly m e n t i o n fi

rs t o f

k
a l l , t h e s uc c e s s i v e Mi ad o s — wi t h re v e re n c e be i t spo e n k Th e n
t h e re h av e b e e n n um e ro us e x am pl e s o f d i v i n e h um an b e i n s, b o t h g
i n an c i e n t an d m o d e rn t i m e s , w h o , al t h o ugh n o t ac c e pt e d by t h e
n at i o n ge n e rally, are t re at e d as g
o d s , e ac h o f h i s S
e v e ral d i n i t y
g ,
S g
i n a i n l e pro v i n c e , v illage , o r fam ily
”
.

I n ancient Egypt the reigning monarch was similarl y

a god a Horus while h e lived and an Osiris after h e di e d ,
—

while a gr e at scho l ar like Imhotep (the Im ut h e s of the

Greeks i n Egypt who identified him with A S k l e po i s )
mig h t be deified and regarded as th e son of Ptah , the go d
1 S h i nto p 6 . .
3 44 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
(west )
,
and the Blue o r Gre e n Dr agon east
( ) The .

Japan e se co l our scheme, however i s n o t the sam e as the ,

C hinese . At the north is the blue god B i s h am o n o r

T a m o t e n ; at the south the white faced warrior Z o c h o ; —

at the west the red fac e d K o m o k u with book and brush

-

or a sp e ar ; an d at the east the warrior with gr e en face ,

nam e d Ji k o k u, who is som e times S hown trampling a demon

under foot .

I n I ndia the north i s white and the south black, and

in Ceylon the B uddhist colours o f the cardinal points are
yellow (north ) blue (south ) , red ( west) and white (east)
, , .

Although it is c ustomary to regard the coloured

guardians o f the Japanese world as o f Buddhist origin , it
may wel l be that the original Japanese guardians w e re
substituted by the Hindu and C h ines e d ivinities imported
by t h e Buddhists Th e dragon gods of China and Japan
.
-

were pre Buddhistic, as D e Visser has S hown but were

—
,
1

given , in addition to their original attributes, those o f t h e

g (
na a serpent or dragon ) gods introduced by Bud d h ist
priests.

1 T he Dr a
gon in Ch i na a nd
j apan
.
 C HA P TE R XV I I I

a an e s e G o d s an d D r a o ns
Jp g
Jp a V r i f y p i Fl d My h A
a n e se e s on o r Mrd h
E g t an oo t — F ar E as t e n e o ac

Dr l yi
ago n —s aS ry T Ri r f Bl
ng O i ri
to — l i Dr
he ve o o o d— s s as a S a n ago n

i
A nc hi
ent B Sk S hi C
n to
y S p
oor is—f d n to h o s m o go n —
e a at o n o H e av e n a n E art

R dS i l J l Sp r
”
— C T he i o sm cd h N
“
gi ee T C l hoot an t e ig
-
l -
m a— he e e st a e we ea

— I i z an ag I ian d rh f Dii d Il z an am T — Dr
Bi f
t s o e t es an s a n d s— he ago ns o

J p Th W i
a an — r r
e h r Dr
an — Bea r ,
ifi H i o se , an d ot e ago n s— H o se - sac r ce n

J p B d hi E l
a an— u d i J p Dr L r I d i g C h i
st e m e n ts n a an e s e ago n o e— n an Na as — n e se

Dr d J p
ago n s an W r k a an e s e at e -
S na es .

There is no Shinto myth regarding t h e creation o f

man ; the Mikados and t h e C hi e fs o f trib e s were descend
ants o f deities Nor is there a Del uge Myth like the
.

Ainu o n e invo l ving the destruction of all but a remnant

,

of mankind T h e C hines e story about N u Kw a , known to

.

the Japan e se as Jokwa, w as apparently imported with t h e

bel i efs associated with the j ade w h ich that mythical qu e en
or goddess w as supposed to have created after s h e h ad
caused th e flood to retreat, but it does not find a p l ace i n
t h e ancient Shin to books T h ere is , however an interest .
,

in g version o f the Egyptian flood story which has been

fused with the B abylonian Tiamat dragon S laying myth —
.

Susa n o w o a Far Eastern M arduk , s l ays an eight head e d

— -
,
1 -

dragon and sp l its up its body, from which he takes a

S pirit sword -
an avatar o f th e monst e r
—
.

Hat h or S e k h et , of the Egyptian myt h was made

-
,

drunk , so that she might cease from slaying mankind ,

1
S e e Ch apt e r XX .

3 45
3 46 MYTHS OF CH IN A AND JAPAN
and a flood o f blood red beer w as pour e d from j ars —

for that purpose Susa n o w o provi d es sake (rice b e er) .

— —

to intoxicat e the dragon which h as b e en coming regularly

apparently once a y e ar for a daughter o f an earth go d —
.

When he slays it , the River H i is changed into a river

“

o f bloo d

A not h e r version of t h e Egyptian myth , as t h e Pyramid

Texts bear evid e nce appears to refe r to the Red N ile ,

of t h e inundation season as t h e blood o f Osiris who ,

had be e n felled by Set at N e d y t, near Abydos Lucian .

1

tells that the blood o f A donis was S imilarly beli e ve d to

redden each year the flooded River o f Adonis , flowing
“
from Lebanon and that it dyed the sea t o a large S pace ,

re d Here Adonis is t h e Osiris o f t h e B y b l i an s

” 2
. .

Osiris , as w e have s e e n had a dragon form ; he w as th e ,

dragon of th e Nile flood and t h e world surro unding ,

-

dragon o f ocean He w as also the earth giant ; tree and .

3 —

grain grew from his body T h e body of th e eight .

4

heade d Japanese dragon w as covered with moss and trees .

Susa no w o as the rescuer of t h e doomed maiden ,

— —
,

l inks with P e rseus , the r e scuer of Andro m eda from t h e

water d ragon -
The custom of sacri ficing a maiden to
.
5

the Nile e ach year obtained in Ancient Egypt In t h e .

Tiamat form o f the B abylonian myth Marduk cut the ,

c h annels o f the dragon s bloo d and mad e th e nort h

“ ’

”
wind bear it away into secret places 6
The stories of .

P an K u o f C hina and the Scandinavian Ym e r, each of

’

1
B r d
e as t e Re l i gi on an d T h ough t i n A n ci e n t E gypt, p r f rr d 26 T he T e xts e e e t o are
r r f d ,
r Or dr d
.

H is b ot he Set e lle h i m t o t h e e a t h i n N e dy t si i s w as o wn e in his

r( C rV
.

2
new w at e th e D e D e a Sy ri a, h apt e III
r d Or ddr d T r r
.

3 “
B e as t e ci t , si i s w as h o u art g e at , t h o u a rt e e n, i n
,o p p 20 a e ss e : g
r r r d r Cr (
. . . .

th y n am e o f G e at G een
(S e a ) ; 1 0 , th ou a rt
)
o un as th e G e at i cle O k e an o s ; l o ,
th o u art r d t u ne a b o ut , t h o u
4 Ibi d
r d
a rt

—
r
o un r as th e ci cl e t h at e nci cl e s t h e H aun e b u

, 2 2 3
r r d r d f r
. .

5
For va i o us v e si o ns of th i s l e ge n se e H a t l an , L ege n d o Pe se us an d Ri v er

d e i ti es i n In d e x 6 K i n g, B a by l oni an Re li gi on, p 7 7
. . .
3 48 M YTHS OF CHI N A AND JAPA N
The myth of th e separation of Heav e n and Eart h
dates back to re m ote antiquity in Egypt Shu , the .

atmosphere god , separated the S ky goddess N ut from

- —

the earth go d Seb I n Polynesian mythology Rangi

—
.

( Heaven ) and Papa ( Earth ) , from

, whom “
all t h ings
“
originated were rent apart by Tane mahuta, the “ -

”
o d and father o f forests , o f birds of insects But
g , .

in t h is case the eart h is the mother and the S k y the

father .
1

About t h e T h re e Deities refe rred to by Y as um aro ,

w e do n o t learn much The i d ea of t h e trinity m ay have .

been of In d ian origi n Th e Passive and Acti ve Essences .

recall t h e m al e T a ng and its female T i n principles o f

C h ina These are repr e sented in the K oj i hi by Izanagi
.
—

(
“
Male who I nvites ) and Izanami (
“
Female w h o ”

Dr Aston trans l ates the opening passage of the

.

N i h on gi as follows :
-

O f o ld H n d E th w , ote av e
y t s p r te d dan t h e ar e re n e e a a
, an

In d t h e Y o t y t d i i d d T h y f rm d a c h ao t i c m ass l i k
an o n e v e . e o e e

an
gg
e w h i h ,
w s f b u ly
c d fi d l i m i t s
a nd co t in d
o o sc re e ne , a n a e

g rm s T h pu
e . d cl er p t w as t h inly d i ffu s d d f m d
re r a n e are ar e an or e

H n w h il t h h i r d g ss r l m n t S t t l e d d w
e av e , e e e av e d an ro e e e e e o n an

beca m E th e T h fin ar l m n t as ily b m a uni t d bo dy

. e er e e e e e ca e e
,
b ut t h c nso l i d t i o n f t h h e y
e o d g r ss e l m n t w
a ac c o m
o e av an o e e as

pl i s h d w i t h d i ffi c ul ty
e H n w t h fo fo m d fi s t a d . e av e as e re re r e r
,
n

E rt h
a t b l i h d s ub qu n t ly
es a s T h e r ft r d i in e be i gs we e
e se e . ea e v n r
”
pro d uc e d b e t w e e n th e m .

Here w e meet with the cosmic egg from whic h ,

emerged the C h inese P an K u, t h e Indian Brahma th e ’

Egyptian Ra or Horus and one o f the Polynesian ,

creators I t mig h t be held that China is t h e source

.

o f the Japanese myth because the In and the T o are ,

1
G r e
y , P oly nes i a n My th ol ogy , pp . 1 e t se
q
.
 JAPANESE GODS AN D DR A GO N S 3 49

h ere quite evident l y the T a ng an d the T i n r e presenting

, ,

not Izanagi and Izanami as in th e K o j i hi , but the deities — —

o f h eaven and earth But the K oj i hi form of the myth .

—

may be the oldest and we may have in the N i h on gi ,

-

evidence of Chinese ideas having been superimposed o n

those already obtaining in Japan , into whic h they were
imported from other areas .

But to return to t h e Creation myt h An ancient n ative .

work , the K i uj i hi , which has not y e t been transl ated into

— -

English , refers to seven gen e rations o f gods , beginning

with o n e o f doubtful s e x in whose untranslatable name ,

the sun , moon earth, and moisture are mentioned T h is

, .

First Parent of the deities was the o ffspring of Heaven

and Earth The last couple is Izanagi and Izanami ,
.

brother and sister, like Osiris and Isis, who became man
and wife .

A ccording to t h e K oy i hi the first t h ree deities cam e -

i nto being in T a ha m a no h a ra , th e “
Plain of Hig h - —

H e aven T h ey were al one and afterwards disappeared ,

”
.
,
“
i e died
. . The narrative continu e s : The names of the
.

deities that were born next from a thing that sprouted up

like unto a reed shoot when t h e earth young and like -
,

unto floating oil drifted about medusa like , were t h e

1
,
-

Pleasant Reed Shoot Prince Elder Deity, next the

Heavenly Eternal l y Standing D eity T h ese t wo Deities
- - -
.

were likewise born a l one, and h id their persons 2

Eart h .
”

and mud deities fo ll owed, and al so the other deities w h o

were before Izanagi and Izanami .

I t may be that t h e reed s h oot was t h e Japanese

“ -

ni
gg i Zm a
-

(See Chapter XII I ) As in one of the ear l y

-
. .

1
k Li e th e F l o at i n g Is l an d or Is l an d s of th e Bl e s t
r r fi rd r
.

2 “ H id thei s i ni e s i ng t o so m e c o m m
"
pe so ns
g , ac co e n t at o s , t h at t h e y d i e d
r d r dd r r d J
.

B ut t ai n E gy pt i an e i ti e s w e e
“ ”
h i e n ; t h e i i n flue n c e
ce i
e m a ne : th e a
pan e s e
hid d d en e it
“ ”
y h ad a m i t am a (s o ul )
-
.
35 0 MYTH S OF CHINA AN D J A PAN
Sumerian texts, the mysterious plant, impregnated with
“ ”
preserving and perpetuating life substance , was the
second product of C r e ation .

Izanagi and Izanami wer e told by the e l der deities

that they m ust make , consolidate and give birt h t o this ,

d rifting land They were t h en giv e n the A m e no l a m a

“ ”
boho, the Celestial Jewel spear It is suggested that
-
.

t h e spear is a phallic sy m bol Th e j ewe l (tama) is life

“
.

”
“
substance Izanagi an d Izanami stood o n the floating
bridge o f h eaven which A ston identifies with the rain
”
,

b o w , o r, as some Japanese scholars put it , the Heavenly

Rock B oat or Heaven l y Stairs , and pus h e d down
“ ”

the l a m a boh o and groped with it until they found the

—

ocean According to the K oj i hi they stirred the brine

.
—
,

until it went curdl e curd l e (how oro -

that is , as
Chamberlain suggests “
thick and glutinous,
Others
think the p assage should be translated s o as to in d icate
“ ”
that the brine gave forth a curdling sound When
”
th e pri m m v al waters and the oily mud began to curdle
“ ”
or cook , the d e iti e s drew up the spear Som e of the .

“ ”
cosmic porridge dropped from t h e point an d formed
”
an island, which was named Onogoro self cur d ling , or -

“
self cond e nsed
-
T h e deities descended from heaven
an d erected on t h e island an eight fathom house with -
1

a c e ntral pillar Here w e meet with the aniconic pil l ar,

.

th e
“
h erm of K am s c h atk an religion, the pillar of the
Ve dic world house e rected by the A ry o Indian god Indra
— —
,
”
the branstock of Scandinavian r e ligion , the pillar o f
“

th e Lion Gate o f Mycen ae ; the pillar is the world

“ “ ”

“
spine like the Indian Mount Meru The central 2
.

”
pillar o f a house (corresponding to o ur king post) is , -

writes Dr A ston , at the present day, an obj ect of

.
“

1 E i gh t i s rd
a s ac e n um be r J in pan
a

fC r
.

2
S ee My ths o re te a n d pr e —H e ll eni c E u o e, p
p p .
30 5 9
-
.
35 2 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
form o f H i rum e the s un fema l e The sun and moon
, .
” 1

had n o t h ow e ver come i nto existence when he was s e t

, ,

adrift and it m ay be that as the leec h chi l d he was

,
“ -
”

a star He becam e identified in time with Ebisu (or

.

Yebisu) god of fis h ermen and one of t h e gods o f

, ,

luck .

Izanagi and Iza n ami had subsequentl y as c h i l dren the

eight is l ands of Japan and although other islands came ,

into existenc e later Japan was cal l ed Land o f t h e Eight ,

- - -

great Is l ands ( Oh o y a sh i m a huni )

-
” “
When continues — — -
.
,
“
the K o j i hi -
they (Izanagi and Izanami) had finished
-
,

giving birth t o countries they began afresh giving birth ,

to deities (ha m i ) These inc l uded Heavenly Blowing

“
.
-

Male , Youth of the Wind t h e sea ha m i , Great

“ ” “ ”
,
-

Ocean Possessor -
“
Foam Ca l m , Foam Waves
“ ”
,
” ”

Heavenly W ater Divider , or Water Distributor

-
“ -
”
-

(e d m e no m i h um a ri
- -
no ha m i , and the deities of moun
)— - -

tains passes an d vall eys

, , .

According to the N i h on gi the gods of the s e a to -

,

w h om Izanagi and Izana m i gave birth are cal l ed Wa l a

l s um i w h ich m e ans
,
s e a chil d ren or, as Florenz trans
lates it, Lords o f the Sea Wa l a, s o like our water , ” ”

“
is an Ol d word for s e a I t is probab l e that, as D e
“
Visser says , the o l d Japanese sea gods were snakes or -

” 2
dragons
In the K o j z hi two groups o f eig h t deities are fo l
- -

’ ”
lowed by the Deity Bir d s Rock Camphor Tree Boat ,
“ — - — —

another na m e for this ha m i being Heavenly Bird Boat -

“
Then cam e the food goddess , Deity Princess o f Great - - —

Food She w as followed by the fire go d , hagu tsuch i - —

.

This deity caused t h e d e ath of h i s mother Izanami ,

having burned her at birth so severely t h at s h e sickened

1
S hi n to
p
. 1 3 2.
2
The Dr a
gon i n C
hi na a nd Jp a an,
p
. 1 37 .
3 54 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPA N
“
rain and dragon According to De Vi s s e r,Kura oka m i -

is a d ragon or snake god who controls rain and snow, —

and had Shinto temples in a ll provinces

“
Another ”
.

reading in the N i h on gi states that one of the three gods —

w h o came into being from t h e pieces of the fire god s -

’

body was T a ha oha m i a name which , according to a

-

“
Japanese commentator, means the dragon god residing -

o n t h e mountains , whi l e Kura oha m i means

“”
the dragon -

god of the val l eys 1 ”

The second go d born from the .

blood drops from the upper part of the S word, Kara

”
a m a l sum i , is translated Lord of the Dark Mountains
y
-
,

and M ountain snake and the t h ird, K ura m i l su h a , is

- - -

” ”
Dark water snake or Valley water snake
- -
Accord - -
.

ing t o the K oj i hi , the deities K ura oha m i and K ura m i tsu

- — —

h a came from t h e blood that leaked out between Izanagi s

’

fingers .

I t is o f interest to note here that ot h er dragon deities

to which Iza nagi and Izanami gave origin , incl uded the
“ ”
m i z uch i or water fathers w h ich are referred to as ,
“
h orned deities , four l egged d ragons or large
“ ” “ -
”
,

water snakes
-
As Aston notes , t h ese water fat h ers
”
.
2 “ ”

h ad no individual names ; they were prayed to for rain i n

times of drought Another sea dragon c h i l d o f the great
.
-

coup l e was the w a ni , whic h appears to h ave been a combi

nation of crocodi l e and S hark Aston thinks t h at w ani is .

a K orean word De Visser on the other h an d , is of

.
,

opinion that the w a ni is t h e o l d Japanese dragon god or -

s e a god and that the legend about the Abundant Pear l

-
,

Pri ncess ( T oy o l a m a bi m e) w h o had a human lover and,

- -
3

like M elusina, transformed h erse l f from human shape

into that of a w a ni (Ko j i hi) or a dragon (N i h on gi ) , was - — -

original ly a Japanese serpent dragon w h ich was dressed -

,

1
De V r i s se ,o p c i t , pp. 1 35 6
- 2
S hi n to p 73
r
. . . . .

2
S e e In d e x un d e w ani .
 JAPANESE GOD S AND DRAGON S 3 55

in I ndian garb by later generations F l orenz, the G e r ” 1

man Orienta l ist, thinks the legend is of Chinese origin ,

but a simi l ar o n e is found in Indonesia Wa ni , D e .
”

“
Visser says , may be an I ndonesian word , and it is pos ~
sib l e, as he sugg e sts , t h at foreign i nvaders , w h o in pre
h istoric times conquered Japan , came from Indonesia and
brought the myt h with them 2
.
”

There is a reference in t h e N i h on gi (C h apter I ) to a -

bear wani , eight fathoms l o n g , and it has been sug

-
”

gested that bear means here not h ing more than

“ ”

“
strong The Ainu , however, as we h ave seen (C h apter
” 3
.

XVI I ) associated bear and dragon deities ; t h e bear

,

godd e ss was t h e wife o f the dragon go d , and t h at goddess —

had like the Abundant Pearl Princess, a h uman lover

,
.

”
Bear wani may therefore have been a bear dragon
— —
.

T h ere w as a dragon h orse with a long neck and wings -

at its S ides w h ich flew throug h the air, and did not sink
w h en it trod upon t h e water , and t h ere were wit h al 4

Japanese crow dragons , toad dragons , fis h dragons an d

- - -
,

lizard dragons —
.

T h e horse played as prom inent a part in Japanese

rain getting and rain stopping ceremonies as did the bear
- -

among the Ainu White , black, or red h orses were

.

o ffered t o bring rain , but red horses a l one were sacrificed

to stop rain Like t h e Buriats of Siberia and the A ry o
.

Indians of the Vedic period , the Japanese made us e of the

domesticated h orse at t h e dawn of their h istory N o .

doubt it was imported from K orea There is evidence .

that at an early period h uman beings were sacrificed to t h e

Japanese dragon gods of rivers , lakes, and pools Human
—
.

S acrifices at tombs are al so referred to I n t h e N i h on gi .

-
,

under the l egendary date 2 B C , it is re l ated t h at when a . .

1 Th e Dr a
g on in C h i na a nd Jp a an, p. 1 40
2 Ibi d pp 1 41
—
2.

V r V r ,
. . .

2 4
De i ss e ci t . , pp. 1 De i s se
p 39 40 , op ci t , pp 47 et se
—
,o . 1
q
. . . . .
35 6 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D J AP AN
M ikado died h i s persona l attendants were buried a l ive in
an upright position beside h is tomb 1
.

I n h i s notable work o n t h e dragon , M W de Visser 2

. .

shows that t h e Chinese ideas regarding their four legged -

dragon and I ndian B udd h ist ideas regarding naga s were

introduced into Japan and fused with local ideas regarding
serpent S haped water gods T h e foreign elements added
- -
.

to ancient Japanese legends h ave, as has been indicated,

made t h eir original form obscure In the dragon p l ace .

names o f Japan , h owever, it is stil l possib l e to trace t h e

locations of the a ncient Shinto gods who were mostl y
serpent S haped An ancient name for a Japanese dragon
-
.

“
is T a tsu D e Visser notes that T a tsu no Kuch i ( Dragon s
.
’

mouth ) is a common place name It is given to a h ot

”
-
.

spring in t h e Nomi district, to a waterfal l in K oj i m ach i

district, to a hi ll in K amakura district, where criminals
were put to death , and to mountains, & c , e lsewhere . .

“
T a l sa ga h a na ( Dragon s nose is in Taga district ; T a l su
’

”
hush i ( Dragon s skewer ) is a rock in Tosa province ;
“ ’

and so o n Chinese and I ndian dragons are in Japanese

.

“
place names ryu or ryo
-
T h ese include Ry a ga m i ne
” ”
.
- -

“ “
( Dragon s peak
’
in Higo ; R y u ga l a he
( Dragon s — —
’

” “
peak ) in Ise ; Ry u han ga w a ( Dragon s rest river
- —
in ’

Tok yo & c , .

The worship of t h e Water Fat h ers or Dragons in

Japan was necessary S O as to ensure the food supply -
.

1 A s t o n, S hi nto p 5 6 an d pp 21 9 20
-

Dr C J
. . .

2 T he and
gon i n
a h i na apan, pp . 23 1 c l se
q
.
35 8 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
food o f Yomi Nevertheless it is my desire to return .
, .

” 1
I will therefore S peak with the ha m i of Yomi She .

added in warning Look n o t at m e ! ,

Izanami then went back to the plac e s h e had come

from She tarried there for so l ong a time that Izanagi
.

grew impatient At l ength he fe lt he coul d not wait any .

l onger, s o he broke o ff the end toot h o f his hair comb , -

which is called the mal e pillar and thus mad e a light,

and entered He found his sister .
2
Her body was .

rotting and maggots swarmed over it The K oj i hi

, .
—

procee d s
In h h d d w l t t h G t T h un d in h b eas t d w l t
er ea e e re a er
,
er r e

th Fi T h un d r i h
e re b lly d w l t t h B l c k T h un d r, i h
e , n er e e e a e n er

p i t
r va e p t s d w l t t h C l
ar i g T h u n d r i eh r l ft h ded w l t e av n e , n e e an e

th Y u g T h un d r in h i gh t h n d d w l t t h E t h T h u d r
e o n e , er r a e e ar n e ,

i h
n l ft f o t d w lt t h R um bl i g T h u de r i h i gh t f o t
er e o e e n n , n er r o

d w l t t h C uc h n t T h un d ;
e e lt g t h r i gh t t h un de r d it i s
o a er a o e e e e e
”
h d b n b n
a ee d d w lt t h or an e e re .

H at the spectacle , Izanagi drew back sudden l y ;

o rri fie d
“
whereupon his sister exclaimed, You have put me to
shame ! and became angry .

Here Izanagi has brok e n a taboo , as did t h e Japanese

youth who married th e d rago n m ai d , Abundant Pearl ~

Princess and as did t h e husban d of M elusina in t h e

,

French l e gend It was an ancient custom in Japan to .

“ ”
erect parturition houses These were one roo m ed .
—

huts to which women retired so as to give birth to

children unseen E rnest Satow tel l s that o n the island .

“
o f H ac h i o , until comparatively recent times , women
j ,

when about to becom e mot h ers , were driven out to

the h uts on t h e mountain side , and according to t h e -

1
T he s pi r its of d i s e ase , d e c ay , d e s t r uc t i o n , an d dr
a k ne ss
T r d r r r r
.

2 h i s ph al l i c s
ym b o l h ad , appa e ntl
y, l ik e j a e
,
h i n o ce o s- h o n , &c .
, no c t u n al
l um i n o s i t y .
 D EITIES O F LI F E AND D EATH 3 59

accounts of native writers left to s h ift for themse l ves , ,

t h e resul t not infrequentl y being the death of the new

” 1 “
born infant I t was taboo for a man to enter a par
.

t uri t i o n house Apparently Izanami had retired to a

“
parturition h ouse in Yomi ”
.

Enraged against Izanagi , because h e had put h er to

S ham e, Izanami commanded the Ug l y Fema l es o f Yo m i

to pursue and S l ay him .

At this point in the myt h ical narrative begins a version

of t h e widespread folk story about the young man w h o -

makes escape from his enemy or enemies , and i n t h e

course of his flight t h rows down articl es t h at are trans
formed into obstacl es , or into t h ings w h ic h tem pt t h e
2
pursuers to tarry and eat .

T h e first article t h at Izanagi cast down be h ind h im

was his wreat h or head dress , which was instantly turned -

into grapes T h is is according to the K o j i hi ; t h e

.
- -

N i h on gi makes t h e h ead dress the second obstacl e

-
His -
.

pursuer (Ko j i hz) or pursuers (N i h on gi ) , h aving devoured

- - —

the grapes , resumed the c h ase Then Izanagi , as h e .

fled , broke his hair comb and t h rew it down ; it instant l y

—

turned into bamboo sprouts W h i l e t h ese were being .

p ull ed up and eaten , he continued h is flig h t .

The K o j i hi (but not t h e N i h on gi) h ere introduces

- - —

anot h e r set of pursuers Izanami , finding t h at h er .

broth e r h ad outwitted t h e Ugl y Fema l e (or Fema l es ) ,

“
sent t h e eight T h under D eiti e s with a t h ousand and -

five hundred warriors o f Hades to pursue h im Izanagi .

,

drawing t h e ten grasp sabre t h at was augustl y girded o n

-

h im , fled forward brandis h ing it i n his back h and,

(brandishing it behind h im) ; and as t h e demons sti ll

1 T r qf
ansact onsi
A g qf j p
si a ti c S oci e » a an, V o l V I, P a t III,
pp 45 5 6
-
r
r r r r d dr C
. . .

2
F o r e p e se n t at i v e v e s i o n s i n v a i o us l an s, s e e A n e w L an g’ s us tom an d My th
(A F r
ar- t av e ll e d
T al e ), pp 8 7 e t se q . .
3 60 MYTH S O F CHINA AN D JAPA N
continued to pursue h im he took o n reac h ing t h e base , ,

o f the Even Pass o f Hades , three peach es t h at were 1

growing at its base and waited and smote (his pursuers ,

t h erewith) s o that they all fled back 2

.
”

Having t h us rid h imse l f o f his pursuers , Izanagi

addressed t h e peaches , saying : As you h ave h elped me,
“

s o must ye help a l l living people i n the Centra l Land o f

Reed Plains when t h ey are troub l ed and h arassed

-
,
”
.

Here we have not only a native name o f C h ina

(
“
Land o f Reed Plains applie d to Japan ,
but also
-
t h e
sacred C h inese peac h , a symbo l o f the Great Mother ,
t h e Western Queen o f Immortals (Si Wang F u) T h e .

story o f a h ero s flig h t from th e Underworl d has not ’

survived in C hina, if ever it existed t h ere It is, how .

ever, found in t h e myt h s of Scandinavia .

I n the N i h on gi (Aston ) the comment is added to t h e

—

peach incident : This w as t h e origin of the custom of

“

exorcising evil spirits by means o f peac h es

T h e peach , like the bean , w as in Japan a symbo l o f
t h e mother goddess , as was the s h el l i n Egypt and t h e
-

pig s h el l in Greece
-
.

Izanami herself was the l ast to pursue Izanagi W h en .

h e s aw her coming Izanagi blocked up the Pass o f Yomi ,

with a huge boulder of rock , w h ic h it wou l d take a

thousand men to lift, and he stood o n one S ide o f It
while s h e stood on t h e other to exc h ange l eave takings -

( j
K o i hi
-

) —
or to pronounce
, the formu l a of divorce
( N i h on
g)z -
.

I n the Koj z hi Izanami t h reatens to S l ay a t h ousand

-

inhabitants in the land of the living, but Izanagi retorts

1 Or F l at H i l l of H ad e s
”
, th e fr o nti e r l i n e b e t w e e n t h e l an d of th e l i v i ng an d th e
l an d of d d
th e ea

r d dr r r fr d
.

2
In t h e A i n u s t o y ab o ut t h e m an w h o v i s i t e t h e U n e w o ld an d w as t ans o m e

i nto a s n ak e , a pi n e t e e , i nh ab i t e r d
by a go d e s s, o cc upi e s t h e s po t d on w h i ch g r ows th e

pe a ch t r ee i n th i s J a
pan e s e m
y th .
 D EITIES OF L I FE AN D D EAT H 3 6 1

t h at he wil l arrange for t h e birt h o f one thousand and

fiv e hundred , so that the number born may exceed the
number who must die .

’
Izanami became thereafter T om o l su oh o ha m i (Y o m i s - — -

Great Deity) The rock which blocks the Pass of Yomi

.
1

”
became the Great D e ity o f the Road Turning back - — - — — —
.

I n the JVih on gi (Aston s translation) it is r e l at e d t h at

—
’

Izanagi flung down various articles on leaving Hades, as

the godd e ss Ishtar in Babylonian mytho l ogy flung down
her clothing and ornaments on ent e ring the dread abode
of B rish k i gal (P e rsephon e ) Having pronounced t h e
— —
.

divorce formula
H els s i d C m o fart h
a o a ,
d t h w d o w n h i s s t ff
o e n e r , an
’
re a
,
'
w h i h w s c ll d F u n
c a a h m i (pas
e o t pl c
na d i ty ) o K
a o—no- d a s- n -
a e- e ,
r a na o

n o- h mi ( m
a co t pl d i ty) M
e- no -
h t h w d w n h i g i rd l
ac e - e . o re o v e r, e re o s e,

whi h wc ll d N g hi h
as c a e h mi M a h th w d w n
ac a—no- a . o re o v e r, e re o

h i s uppe r g m n t w h i c h w s call d W d u hi
ar e ,
h m i (go d a e a z ra -
no- a

o f dis s )
ea e Mo r . h t h w d o w n h i s t us rs w h i c h w r
eover
,
e re ro e , e e

ca l l d A hi guhi h m i Mo o
e — -
h
no— a th w d w n h i s sh o s
. re ver e re o e
,
wh i c h w ll d C h i hi hi h m i
e re c a e -
s - no- a .

On returning to t h e land o f t h e living Izanagi ,

exc l aim e d : I have come from a h id e ous and polluted

“

place I wil l th erefore perform t h e purification o f my

.

”
august body .

He went to bathe at a river mout h on a plain covered

wit h bush clover, beside a grove of orange trees confront
-

ing t h e sun It is here, according to the K oj i hi , that h e

.
-

flings down h is sta ff and t h e various articles of clothing

th at are transformed into d eiti e s Two evil deities were .

born from the filth of Hades that fe ll from his p erson

when he entered the water He dived , and t h ree s e a .

gods came into being H e washed his l e ft eye , and t h us .

gave origin to the goddess o f th e sun , A m a l e rasu oh o m i — - —

1 T he Jp a an e s e Pe r se p h one .
3 6 2 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
ha m i (The Heaven Shining Great August Deity ) He
- - — -
.

washed h is right eye and there cam e into b e ing t h e god ,

o f the moon , T s uhi Moon Night Poss e ssor

y om i n o ha m i
( —
) — — - -
.

He washed his nos e , and from it was born T a he h ay a -

s us a no w u no m i hol 0
- -

( His
—
Brave—
Swift Impetuous Male
1 - - - —

Augustness) .

Izanagi took o ff h is necklace of j ew e ls or beads (tama) ,

and, S haking it s o that the beads j ingled , bestowed it o n

Ama t e ré s u, the sun kami or goddess and s e t her to rul e
—
,

the Plain o f Hig h Heaven

“
He commanded the ”

moon go d to rule the night, and Susa no w o to r ul e t h e

- - -

“
Sea Plai n
“ “
At this point as Chamberlain says , the story ,

loses its unity The m oon goddess is no more heard of,

.
-

and the traditions concerning the s un goddess dive rge -

‘
from those concerning the Impetuo us Male Deity in — —
’

a manner which is productive o f inconsistencies i n the

”2
r e st o f t h e mythology .

“
Chamb e rlain translates Susa no w o as Impetuous - —

” “
Male D e ity , connecting his name with s usa m a to be
-
,

impetuous B ut as A ston points out, the implied noun

,
“ ”
s usa ,
impetuosi t y , does not exist There is, however, .

a town named Susa in Id z um o , with which ar e a the 3

l egends regarding t h e go d are specially associate d Susa .

“
no wo
-
m a
y ther e fore have been simply the god of
Susa ”
A ston following Dr Buckley, Chicago , regards
.
, .

him as a personification of the rain storm Japanese -

.

writers , on the other hand , have con nected him with

G o d z u T e nno , an Indian Had e s d eity and with th e ,

moon go d or regarded him as a war god, whi l e some

-
,
-

European scho l ars hav e refe rred to him as a rotating “

heavens god Having be e n born from t h e nos e of

”
.

1
Su s a- n o -w o
”
fo r s h o t
2
r .
2
T h i ngs j apanese, p . 1 45 .

S h i n to p . 1 41 .
 6
3 4 MYTHS OF CHINA AN D JAPAN
i m itated these C hinese customs , but not, however, until
about t h e el e vent h century 1
.

As a trickster among the gods , Susa no wo bears some - -

resemb l ance to the Scandinavian Loki ; h e is , like t h at

d eity, an ally of the pow e rs o f darkness and destruction ,

and he S imilarly su ff ers banishment from the ce l estial

land . Susa no w o also recal ls N e rgal , the Baby l onian
— -

“
warrior god who conquered Had e s , and was the death
-
,

spr e ad e r (M ush l a ba rrii m ii l a nu)

”
-
.

The d e ities o f the sun and moon proceeded to r ule

the day and t h e night as commanded by their parent
Izanagi but Susa no w o did not depart to the ocean ,
,
— -

which had b e en committed to h is charge ; instead , he

cried an d wept until his eight grasp beard reac h ed the —

pit o f h is stomach Says the Koj i hi z .

—

T h fas h i o n o f h i w pi g w s suc h as b y h i s w pi g t
e s ee n a ee n o

d y up l l t h
r a i d S
e F t h is
r v e rs as th ans o un d f b d e as . or re on e o a

d it i
e es w as l i k u t t h fl i e f t h fi ft h m
n o n as t h y ll s w m d
e es o e oo e a ar e ,

d in ll t h i n gs
”
an a y p t t of w oe s
ev er or en aro e .

The reference to the god s tears causing the green ’

mountains to wither and the waters to d ry up has greatl y

perp l exed Japanese commentators B ut there are state .

ments in Asian and American mythologies regarding

” “ ”
“
evil o r poisonous rain distributed to the inj ury o f ,

vege tation, by dragons that may b e sick or badly disposed

towards m ankin d De Visser refe rs to a Buddhist legend
.

about a poisonous Naga that guarded a big tree an d kill e d

al l t h ose who took a branch from it ; when angry it sent
thunder and rain Central Asian legends tell that evil
.
2

rains were sent o ut of season by disturbed and enraged

d ragons A Chinese story tells o f a S ick dragon that,
.

2
De V r i s se , Th e Dr gon i n
a C
h i na a nd
j apan, pp . 83 e t se
q .

Ibi d .
, p. 1 5 .
 DEITIES OF LI FE AN D DEATH 6
3 5
“
having been rous e d by prayers gave a ,
l
bad y smelling
—

rain which would have spoil e d t h e crops if a diviner

had not discovered it in time and cured the dragon
at t h e l atter s request Thereupon a fertilizing rain
’

fe ll and a very clear S pring dashed forth from a

rock.
1

I n Ancient Egypt the deities wept V italizing tears (see

I ndex) Ra s tears gave life to gods and men , the tears
.
’

of t h e go d Shu and t h e godd e ss T e fn ut became incense

bearing trees The tears o f Osiris and Isis caused life
.

giving herbs & c , to grow, but the tears shed o n the

,
.

world by the evil Set and his partisans produced

poisonous plants Wh en deities were enraged , their
.

saliva sweat, and blood o n touching the eart h ger

,

m i nat e d and produced poisonous plants, scorpions ,

S erpents, & c .
2

The Chinese Buddhists be l ieved in a Naga that , by

means of a S ing l e drop of water, could give rain to one or
t w o kingdoms , and even prevent t h e s e a from drying up
s
.

Similarly a S ingle tear from Isis Hathor as the star Sirius , —

,
”
that fe ll on the Night o f the Drop , caused the Nile to
“

rise in flood .

T h e blighting and ocean drying tears o f Susa no w o - - -

were evidentl y those of an evil or angry d e i ty, o r o f o n e

w h o was sick wit h sorrow .

Izanagi beho l ding the ocean rul er in tears , asked h im

,
-

w h y h e wail ed and wept .

Susa no w o made answer : I wai l b ecause I wis h to

- -
“

d epart to t h e land o f my dead moth e r (Izanami ) in the

Nether Distant Land (Yomi , i e Hades)
-
. .

Izanagi was very angry and said : I f t h at be so , y o u

“
,

1 The CD ra
gon i n h i na a nd Jp a a n,
p 1 21

r D fC
. .

2
M as pe o , aw n
o i v i li z a ti on,
pp 1 56 e t se
q
V r D C
. .

2
De i ss e , Th e ra
gon i n hi na a nd
j apan, p . 1 3 .
3 66 MYTH S OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
shall n o t d well in the ocean domai n He then banishe d
Susa no w o to A fum i - -
.
l

Susa n o w o made answ e r that h e would first take leave

- —

of h i s sist e r, A ma t e rfis u, goddess of the sun H e rose —

.

i n the air, as does a thunder bringing dragon Says the -

.

(W i t h t h e se w o rds) h e fo rt h w t h i w ent up t o H e av e n , w h e re
upo n all t h e m o u n ta i ns Sh k oo ,a
nd e ver yl an d a n d c o un t r y qu a k e d.

So A m rés u a a
,
a—t e
,
l rm
e d at t h e n o i s e s ai d : T h e re as o n o f t h e as c e n t
‘

h i th e r o f H i s u us t n e ss m
y Ag
e l d e r b ro t h e r i s s ure ly n o go o d in t e n t
2

’ ”3
.

It i s o n ly t h at h e w i s h e s t o w re s t m y lan d fro m m e .

The goddess unbound her h air twisted it into bunches , ,

put on her string o f five hundred curved j ewels (m aga

l a m a i e claw ,
and armed herself with b o w and
. .

“ ”
arrows She stood valiantly like unto a mighty man ,
.

and asked her broth e r why he had ascended Susa no w o .

- -

declare d h e had no evil intention , and s h e asked h im t o

give proof o f h is sincerity and goodwill H e propos e d .

that they S hould pl e dge t h eir faith and produc e c hi l

d ren To this she consented, and th e y swore to each
.
“

oth e r from the opposite banks of the Tranqui l Rive r

” 5
of Heaven
A m a t e ras u asked Susa no w o for h i s sword
-
H e gave - -
.

it t o her and s h e broke it into three pieces S h e then .

ma d e a j ingling sound with her j ewels , brandis h ed and

6
washed them in the True P O Ol Well of H e aven and — -

“
crunch ingly crunc h ed t h em Then from the mist (of ”
.

1 T he m o e n dr O m i , A fum i (A h )
a-h um i , Fr es h - w at e r k La e r
Ch am b e l ai n ,
T r a ns a c ti on s
qf A si a ti c S oci e ty o X
f j apan, V o l (s uppl e m e n t ), p 45, n 1 2
T dr r r f r r r f
. . . .

2
h at i s , t h e e l e b o t h e o f h e r am i ly H e w as e a l ly y o un ge t h an h e sel

Nr r d fr r
. .

3
A s t h e B ab y l o n i an e ga l w e s t e d H a e s o m E re s h - k i -ga l
( P e s e ph o n e )
d d d r r r
.

“
T he c o m m a s h ape be a w h i ch th e c l aw s o f t i ge
"
ao - c all e -
s, e p e se n t e d s or

be a r s o r a c ut s e a- s h e l l .

5
,
T he Mi l k y W a
y d
by n i gh t, a l s o c a l l e th e H e av e n l y Ri v e r of E i gh t rrcu e nts

(o r r e ac hes
T he an c i e n t d
E gy pt i an C e l e s t i al P o o l of th e Go s.
3 6 8 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
the victory He t h en proceeded to harry t h e ce l estial
r e gions He broke down the divisions of the rice fie l d s ,
.
-

filled up the ditches , and fouled with excrement and urine

the palace in which the goddess took food He became .

even more violent Having broken open a hole in the .

sacred house in which s at Ama t e rfis u s uperintending the —

weaving o f t h e garments of d e ities he l e t fall into it a ,

heave nl y piebal d horse that had been flayed backwards

( a criminal o ff ence ) The celestial female weavers
. were
terrified .

Al armed by Susa no wo s doings , t h e s un goddess

’
- - -

entered her cave, the Heavenl y Rock Dwelling shut the 1

,

door and made it fast Al l the land became dark . .

T h en the eight hundred myriad deities took counsel,

sitting in the bed o f the River of Heaven , s o as to pl an
h o w they cou l d entice the sun godd e ss from h er h iding —

place T h ey mad e the cocks ( the long singing birds of

.
“ -

”
eternal night ) to crow loud, they caused t h e Heavenly
Smith to S hape a mirror o f iron (the true m e tal ) from
“ ”

the Heavenly Meta l Mountains (the mines) , and charged -

the Jewel Ancestor ( T a m a noy a no m i hol o) to make a com

- - - -

l e t e string of five hundred curv e d j ewels A tree was

p .

2
then taken from the celestial Mount K agu and on it
.

w e re hung the mirror, the j ewel, cherry bark, and ot h er

o fferings The ritual was recited, and thereafter Am a no
. e
—

U z um e (the Dread Celestial Femal e) , wearing metal hea d

gear (flowers of gold and silver) and a sas h of club moss -

from the celestial mountain , and ho l ding i n h er hands a

posy of bamboo grass , danced o n a tub unti l the eight 3

hundred myriad deities laughed Wondering to hear .

sounds o f merriment , instead of sounds of woe, the sun

1
In A n c i e n t E gy pt t h e m o un t ai n t h at s pl i ts w h e n t h e s un e m e ge s r at d aw n .

2
r d d
T h e t e e S aka ki (Cl gt e ra j aponi ca ) pl an t e b e s i e S h i n t o s h i n es r
d r d
.

3 T he an c e w as a
g o s s an d in e l i c at e o n e .
3 7 6 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
were suspended from trees as in the celestial regions ,
while t h e straw rope w as utilized to keep back demons
and to ensure the rising o f the s un by preventing the
retreat of the sun goddess
-
.

The finding of the dragon S word is deal t with in the

-

next mythical story .

 C HA P TE R XX

T h e D r a go n S l ay e r —
an d H i s R i v al
T h e E i gh t h e ad e d
-
Dr
ago n — S ac ri fic e s o f M ai d e ns — H o w t h e ago n w as Dr
i n t o x i cat e d an d s l ai n — F
i nd i n g o f t h e Dr r
ago n s w o d — T h e N u t i al H o us e
-
p
r J
A d v e n t u e s o f O h o n am o c h i — T h e e al o us B o t h e s r r F
l i gh t o f Oh o n am o c h i t o
—

H ad es— S usa n o w o as
- -
G r Fr r
i an t go d o f H ad e s — P i n c e s s o w a d — F ar E as t e n
-
r
V e rs i o n o f ac J kan d t h e B e an s t al
- - k r f r
S t o y — T h e L i e s w o d ,L i fe b o w an d a o w s,
- - -
rr
.
’
J
&c — Oh o nam o c h i s C o n q ue s t o f Japa n A apa ne se O d i n — A n o t h e C e at i o n
u
r r
fi D r k
My t h — T h e E l n e i ty i n Bi d S i n s— A S h i n i n g S e a—go d .

After Susa no wo - -
h ad been banished
from h eaven , h e
descended on T ori ha m i beside the river H i , in th e province
—
,

of Id z um o A c h opstick came floating down the river, S O

.

h e knew t h at peop l e were dwelling near and h e set out to ,

search for t h em H e soon met an old man and an o l d

.

woman w h o were weeping bitterl y ; between t h em wa l ked

a l ovely mai d en .

“
W h o are you ? asked Susa no w o - —
.

The o l d man made answer : I am a god o f eart h , son

“

‘
of a mountain god, and my nam e is A sh i na az u ch i ( foot — -
’
—

t h is woman is my wife , and her name is T e na -

‘
’
a z u ch i
-
( hand stroker ) the maiden is my ’
daughter
K ush i na d a h i m e
-
M i rac ul o us rice fie l d sun maiden
— — — - -

W h y do you w e ep ? asked Susa no w o ”

- —
.

Said the old man : I have h ad eight daughters but

“
,

each year t h e eig h t forked serpent (dragon ) of K os h i has

—

come and devoured one after t h e ot h er I weep now .

because t h e time is at hand to give K us h inada h ime to - -

the serpent .

“
What is the serpent l ike ?
3 71
3 72 MYTHS OF CHI NA AND JAPAN
Its eyes are re d as t h e winter cherry ; it h as a body
“ 1

with eight heads and eight tails , and o n its body grow
moss and tr e es It is s o long t h at it stretc h es ov e r eight
.

valleys and eight h ills It s belly i s constant ly b l oody and .

”2
i n flam e d .

If this maiden is yo ur daug h ter, said Susa no wo ,

“ - -

will you give her to me

Y o u honour me , t h e o l d man made answer, but“ ”

”
I do not know your name .

“
I am the dear brother o f t h e sun goddess , and h ave —

”
j ust descended from heav e n .

“
M ost obediently do I o ff er my daughter to you ,
t h e o l d man said with reverence .

Susa no w o then transformed the girl into a comb ,

- -

w h ic h he placed in his hair Having done this , he bade .

the old couple to brew rice beer (sa he) They obey e d -
.

him , and he asked t h em to construct a fence with eight

gates and eight b e nches , and to place o n eac h bench a
vat filled with the beer .

I n tim e the e ight forked serpent came nigh It —

.

dipped each of its heads into each o f the vats , drank the
sa he, became drunk , and then lay down and slept Susa .

no w o drew his two handed sword, and cut the serpent

- —
3

in pieces T h e H i River turned red with b l ood

. .

When Susa n o w o cut the m iddle tai l his sword

- -

broke He marvelled at this Taking t h e point of t h e

. .

sword in his hand, h e thrust and split , and looked inside,

and found a keen c utting blade within this tail H e took -
.

it out and sent it to his S ister, Ama ter i su , the sun -

1
T he dr
m o e n h oh od z uhi (P hy sa li s A l ke ke ngi )
r rfr r C dr d
.

2 “ ”
l i v i ng i n
De G oot e e s to a v e ne ble
a h ine se ago n po n ; i t h a d n i n e
a

hea d s an d e i gh t e e n t ai l s , an d “
at e n o t h i n g b ut f rdev e em on s T h e Rel igi ous Sy s te m of
Ch i na, V o l V I, p 1 0 53 A n o th e r dr ago n is 1 000 m r
i l e s l o n g; h i s b e at h c aus e s w i n ; d
V r
. . .

wh e n h e o pe n s his ey e s i t i s d ay , an d w h e n h e cl o se s t h e m i t i s n i gh t De i s s e , T he
Dr C
.

a
gon i n hi na a nd j a a n, p 6 2
p
rd d r r)
. .

2 n h e N i h on- i t h i s
I t g sw o is c all e Am a n o- ha sv e—gi i (
th e h e av e n ly fl y -
c ut t e .
3 74 MYT H S O F CHI N A JAPA N AN D

an d w h e n O h o n am o c hi seized it he was so grievous l y

burne d that he die d .

Then his mot h er wept and lamented , and ascending to

h eaven appealed to Kam i m usu bi no ha m i (Divin e Pro d uc
,
— — — - -

ing Wondrous D e ity) , o n e o f t h e elder gods , who sent

-
1

K i sa ga h i h i m e (Princ e ss Cockle S h e ll) and U m ugi h i m e

- — -
2 —

(Princess lam ) to restore the d e a d deity to life isa

3
C K .

gahi h ime —
“
triturated and scorched h er shell and
“
U m ugi hi m e -
carrie d water and sm e ared him as with
mot h er s milk ’
T h ereupon O h o n am o c h i came to life
” 4
.

as a beautiful young man and walked again .

The eig h ty deities again deceived O h o n am o c h i They .

led him to the mountains There th ey cut down a tree, .

w h ic h they split inserting a we d ge in it and having made

, ,

him stand in t h e middle , they took away the wedge, and

thus kill e d him .

O h o n am o c h i s mother again wailed and wept

’
She .

cut the tr e e, and, taking him out restored h im to life ,

once more The n he fled to t h e Land o f Trees, escaping

.

from his pursuers who had fixed arrows in their bows , ,

by dipping under the fork of a tree and disappearing 5

.

O h o n am o c h i was advised to seek r e fuge in the Net h er

Distant Land (Hades ) , wh e re dwe lt Susa no w o
- — -
.

Princess Forward met him an d t h ey exchanged glances, ,

and were marrie d She then informed her father Susa .

,

no w o that a very beautiful god h ad arrived B ut Susa

—
,
.

no wo was angry, and called th e youthful deity Ugly

-

1
O ne of r th e fir r st th r ee d e i t i e s, t h e ch i l d e n o f H e av e n an d E a th
C r
.

2
fl
T he A r ea in a ta .
3 T he y th e ea m e re tr i x
r r
.

4
C h am b e l ai n , i n h i s
( t a n s l at o n i o f th e K o— J i - hi
p s ay s th e m i
e an n g is
k d r r d d d r
.

t h at a
pas t e l i e m i l k w as m a e o f th e t i tu at e an d c al c i n e s h e ll m i xe w i t h w at e
M r( )
ot he r d r
om o M C r
m ay d Dr
be ea as n u se too rs . a m i c h ae l , w i ow o f A l e x an dr e

Cr S f fr O r rd r
. .

a m i c h ae l , t h e co t t i s h i
o l k - l o ri s t , n o m s m e t h at i n th e ut e H e b i es w om en bu n

r d
an d g in co c r d dr
k Ie - s h e l l s t o m ak e a
“
lim e w at e fo r i
e l c at e ch i l e n. T he c l am is
d
l i k e w i s e us eJ rd T he r
an c i e n t a
pan e s e an d an c i e n t H e b i e an s m ay h av e e ce iv e d th i s
f d fr frr r d
.

o l k -m e i ci n e om th e an c i e n t s e a a e wh o h e fo r s h e ll s an d m e t al s .

T f
s sea c
5 r drd
h i s w as a m agi c al a c t . H e en e e h im se l i n v i s i bl e .
 DRAGON SLAYER AND H I S RIVAL -
3 75

Mal e God o f Reed Plain , and commanded him to s l eep

- - - —
”

in the snake house The Princess Forward gave O b ona

-
.

mochi a snake scarf, instructing him to wave it t h rice

-

w h en the snakes t h reaten ed to bite him This h e did , .

and was protected On t h e next nig h t Susa no w o p l aced .

- -

the you n g god in the house of centipedes and wasps but ,

t h e princess gave h im anot h er scarf that protected h im

against attack .

Next day Susa no wo s h ot a h umming arrow into

“ 1 - -
”

t h e midd l e of a m oor, an d made O h o n am o c h i fetch it

back But w h en the young g od went out on t h e moor
.

Susa no w o s e t fire to it all round O h o n am o ch i could

- -
.

perceive no way o f escape As h e stood th e re, a mouse .

2

came and to l d h i m o f a ho ll ow place in w h ich h e cou l d

s h e l ter himse l f O h o n am o ch i hastened to the ho l e and
.

hid in it til l the fire had gone past Then the mouse .

discovered and brought t h e humming arrow to Oh o n a

moc h i “
T h e feathers o f t h e arrows w e re broug h t in
.

t h eir mout h s by al l the mouse s children (Koj i hi , p 7 ’ ”

-
.

Princess Forward l am ented for h er h usband , and

Susa no w o bel ieved h e was dead
- -
B ut t h e princess .

found O h o n am o c h i , and took him to the house He .

returned the arrow to S usa no w o T h is god h ad many - -

.

centipedes in h is h air, and bade th e youth take them out .

O h o n am o ch i made pretenc e of doing this , and Susa no -

w o fe ll as l eep .

T h en O h o n am o c h i tied t h e h air of Susa no w o to t h e - -

rafters, p l aced a great boulder against t h e door, and fled

1 T he “
s o un d i ng a rr ow
”
w i th a w h i stli ng con t r i v anc e d
m a e of bo n e It w as
k dr T D d r k rd
.

i n C h i n a u i n g th e
’
no w n an g y n as ty , an d w a s us e by h un t e s t o m a e b i s
r dr r fr k
i s e , an d b y s o l i e s t o s ca e e n e m i e s L au e t h i n s t h e a an e s e s o un i n
p g a ow s J d rr
r r C C F r
.

w e e o f C h i n e s e o i gi n — hi ne s e l ay igu es, p 2 24, n 4 2

O r a ra t
r r
. . . . .

2 H e e o ne i s t e m t e d t o s e e
, o r t h e m o use o f t h e H o m e i c A po l l o
m o us e -A o ll o
p p
rr d r
w h o sh o o t s th e a o w s o f i s e as e T h e m i c e t h a t s t i p th e a o w s o f t h e i e ath e s m a
y rr rf r
rr r d d
.

b e th e a e s t e s o f i s e as e Mo us e m e i c i n e i s o f gr e at an t i qui ty i n E gy pt
.
.
3 76 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D JAPAN
away with Princess Forward on his back He carried .

away , too , Susa no w o s life sword and life bow and - -

’
— -

arrows , and the h eaven l y speaking lute -

.
1

A s O h o n am o c h i fled , the lute touched a tree and the ,

earth resounded wit h its call Susa no w o was awak e ned .

- -

by the spirit call He pul l ed down t h e great house so

-
.

as t o get out but was so long de l ayed in disentangling

,

his hair from the rafters that when he went in pursuit h e ,

did not get within call of O h o n am o c h i until he reac h ed

the Even Pass o f Yomi (Hades) .
2

Susa no w o s h outed to O h o n am o ch i advising him to

- -
,

pursue the eighty half brothers with the life sword and - —

life b o w and arrows until they were swept into t h e river

-

“
rapids Then wretch , said he
.
“
,
become Oh o huni ,
-

Great Master god o f the land , and make Princess

nush i
( )
Forward t h y consort Set up the temple pillars at the .
-

foot of Mount Uka on foundations of rock and raise the

cross beams to the Plain of H igh Heaven Dwell t h ere ,
-
.

”
you villain .

O h o n am o c h i pursued and destroyed the eigh ty deities .

Then t h e narrative continues , he b e gan to make the

lan d .

Here we meet with anot h er Creation myth .

Two children were born to O h o n am o c h i and Princess

Forward ; these were Xi no m a l a no ha m i (Tree fork deity ) — - — - — -

and M i wi no ham i (Deity o f August W ells)

- f - -
.

Like Odin , Oh o n am o ch i woos in t h e course of his

career mor e than o n e goddess One of these t h e Princess .

o f N una ha h a Lagoon river sings to him

( -
) ,
-

B i g m e n
p o b b ly (t h o
a u) h as t an t h ri us i slan d h e d
a on e v ar o a

la ds t h t t h o u s st ,a d o e v e y b e c h h adl n d t h at t h o u lo o ke st
n a ee n n r a e a

1 D iv i ne m e s s age s, y sa s r
Ch am b e l ai n , “ w e r e c o nv e e
y d r t h o ugh a pe r s on pl ay i n g
on t h e l ut e
”
T h e l an guage o f t h e “ l ut e w as t h us l i k e th e “
l an guage o f bi rd s

T r r J k r
.

2 his is a F ar E as t e n v e s i o n o f th e ac -
an d - t h e - B e an s t al k s t o y .
 C H A PT E R XX I

Mi k ad o s an d H e r o e s
A nc ie nt
E d f D n yo f y Dy y f
n as t o T h Fi r
S usa -
no -w o — n as t o S un go d d e s s —
-
e st

E p r r f J p
m e o oMk d a d
an — f di h a b o as D e sce n an t o t he S e a go , t e “ A un d an t
-

P rl P ri
ea Jp n ce Gi l h Q
— A a f h r T r f if
an e s e ga m e s — ue s t o t e O an ge ee o L e

T he “
r l d T P ly
E te n a L anP r i —d T r f if Y
he o n e s i an a ad se an ee o L e— a m at o

T k a i l r fJ p
e , N at o na fliH i G d dR b l E h
e o o a an — Co n cts w th o s an e e s— nc an t m e n t

and D h f r T i rd l pr Ji Mi k d d i fi d G d
e at o H e o— he B -
so u — E m ess n go — a o e e as o

ofW Shi
ar— R li i n to r r p T G
e g C l i J p
o n an d N at u e - w o sh i — he o d d e ss ut n a an

Ad r i f
o at o n oP r i i pl f if i J
th e l T rnc rb & B d d h i
e o L e n e w e s, e e s, H e s, c — u sm

R i l fP r S i C l r d J p
.

ev v a o u ei i i Ch i
h n to — C i u tu e - m x ng n n a an a an — h na
“
no t a

n at i o n

Many children were born to O h o nam o ch i , but the

Celestials would n o t giv e recognition to t h e Dynasty of
Susa no w o and resolved that Ninigi , the august grand
- -
,

c h i l d o f t h e sun goddess , shou l d rule Japan -

Oho na .

mochi was depos e d and several d e ities were sent down ,

from heaven to pacify the land for the chosen one .

’
N i n i gi s wife was K onoh a na s a huy ah i m e, and two of -

t h eir children were H oh od e m i the hunter, and H o no S usori , ,

- —

the fisherman .

It w as H o h o d e m i who wooed and wed t h e Abundant

“

P e arl Princess and lived wit h h er for a t ime i n the land

”

under t h e oc e an After she gave birth to h er child , s h e

.
1

departed to her o w n land , deep l y o ffended because h er

husband b e he l d her i n dragon (w a ni ) shape i n t h e par
t uri t i o n h ouse he had built fo r her on t h e seashore .

This child was the fath e r of t h e first Emperor o f

1
S e e In d e x .

3 78
 AN CIENT M I K ADOS AND HEROES 3 79

Japan , Jimmu Tenno The M ikados were therefore .

1

descended from the sun goddess Ama t e ré s u and the —

Dragon king o f Ocean , the A bundant Pearl Prince

-
“ ”
.

When e ngaged pacifying the land , Jimmu fol l owed a

gigantic crow that had been sent down from h eaven to
2

guide h im He poss e ssed a magic ce l estial cross sword

.
—

and a fire striker His two brothers , who accompanied

-
.

him on an expedition across the sea, leapt overboard w h en

a storm was raging s o that t h e waves might be sti l led .

T h ey were subsequent l y worshipped as gods .

Yamato n o w becomes the centre o f the narrative ,

Id z um o having l ost its former importance .

Jimmu Tenno r e igned until he was 1 2 7 years of age ,

dying, according to Japanese dating in 5 8 5 B C His , . .

successor was Suisei Tenno There fol l ows a b l ank of .

5 0 0 years w h ich is bridged by th e names o f ru l ers most

of whom had long lives , some reaching over 1 2 0 years .

At the beginning of the Christian era t h e M ikado ,

was Sui nin who died at the age of 1 4 1 years Th is

-
,
.

monarch s e nt the h ero Taj ima mori to the Eternal Land —

wit h purpose to bring back t h e fruit of the Time l ess (or “

Everlasting) Fragrant Tree The Japanese Gilgames h

succeeded in h is enterprise According to t h e K oj i hi .
-

Taj m m o i t l st ac h d t h t c o un try pl uck d t h e fruit

i a- r a a re e a ,
e

o f th t d b o ugh t o f l ub m o ss i gh t an d o f s p ars i g h t ; b ut
e re e , a n r C -
e e e

m an w h il t h
e H nly S e i gn h ad d i e d T h n T j im m i
e e av e o v e re . e a a- or

s t
e
p t f c
a l ub m
aro ss fo
o ur d o f p
-
s f ur w h i c h h e p re s n ted an s e ar o , e

to th G t E m pr ss
e d s e t up o f lub m o ss fo u a d o f s p
re a e ,a
n s c -
r n e ar

f ur ff i g t t h d o o f t h H e ly S o v i gn s august ’
o as an o er n a e o r e e av n e re

m us o l um
a d r i s in g o h i gh t h f ui t o f t h t
e , an , a w il d d n e r e re e
, a e an

w e pt s yi g:
‘
,
B i n gi g t h f ui t o f t h E e las t i g F gran t Tr e
a n r n e r e v r n ra e

f om t h E t n l L nd I h A t l st h e
’
r e c m e to s
er a the
a ,
av e o e rv e e . a

1
T h i s i s h i s po s th um o us n am e Dr u i ng h i s l i fe h e w as K a m u- T a m a to- Iw a re-B i ha.

d r r j d r
.

2 T h e go l e n c o w o f t h e s un h ad t h ee l e gs . In th e m o o n w as t h e e w e ll e ha e.
3 8 0 MYTHS OF CHI NA A ND JAPAN
wail e d an d w e pt h m i se lf to d e at h . Th is fru t i o f the E l i
v e r as t n g
Fra g ra nt Tr ee is wh at is l
n o w c al e d t h e o ra n ge .
”

C h amberlain explains that club moss oranges signifies 1 “ -

oranges as they grow on the branc h surrounded by leaves ,

while spear oranges are t h e same divested o f l eaves and
-

hanging to the bare twig .

The l ocation of the Eterna l Land has great l y puzzl ed

native scholars Some suppose it w as a part of Korea
.

and others that it was Southern China or t h e L o o ch o

I slands According to the N i h on gi , Taj ima mori found
.
— -

the Eternal La nd to be inhabited by gods and dwarfs .

As it lay somewhere to t h e west o f Japan , it would appear

to be identical wit h the Western Parad ise which , according
to C h inese belief is ruled over by Si Wang Mu (the ,
”
Japanese S e i o b o ) the Royal Mother and Queen o f
“ “
,
”
Immortals I n stead o f the Chinese Peach Tree o f Life
.
,

t h e Japanese h ad in their o w n Western Paradise t h e

Orange Tree of Life T h e orange was not, however, .

introduced into Japan until the eighth century o f our

era .
2
Whether o r not it supplante d in t h e Japanese
paradise an e arlier tree, as the cassia tree supplant e d the
p each tree in the C hines e paradise, is at pr e s e nt
uncertain It may be that the idea o f t h e Wester n
.

Paradise was introduced by t h e Budd h ists At the .

same time , it will be recal led that the P e ach Tr e e of

Life grew on the borderl and of Yomi , wh ich was visited
by Izanagi .

A similar garden paradise w as known to t h e Po l y

n e s i an s , and especially t h e Tahitians It was ca ll ed .

Ro h ut u n o an o a ( Perfumed or Fragrant
“

Thither the sou l s o f t h e dead were conducted by t h e god

1 T r i
ansa ct ons
of th e A si a ti c S oci egt fj
o
pan, V o l
a X ( uppl
s )
e m e nt , p 1 9 9, n 5
r
. . . .

2
Ch am b e l ai n , T hi ngs j apanese, p 5 7 . .
 ANCIENT M I K ADOS AND HEROES 3 8 1

U rut ae t ae T h is paradise was supposed , writes E ll is ,

.
“ ” 1

“
to be n e ar a l ofty and stupendous mountain i n Rai at e a,
situated in the vicinity o f H am an i i n o h arbour and ca ll ed
T em eh a ni una una , sp l endid or g l orious T e m e h an i
‘ ’
It .

was , however, said to be invisible to mortal eyes being in ,

th e raw , o r aerial regions The country was described .

as most lovely and enchanting in appearance adorned wit h ,

flowers of ev e ry form and h ue , and perfumed with odours

o f every fragrance Th e air was free from every noxious
.

vapour, pure, and most salubrious Rich viands and .

delicious fruits were supposed to b e furnis h ed in abun

dance for the frequent and sumptuous festival s ce l ebrated
t h ere Handsom e yout h s an d women , p urol u a nae, all
.

perfection , thronged t h e p l ace .

”

Anoth er Po lynesian paradise call ed P ul o t u was reserved , ,

for chiefs, w h o obtained p l enty o f the best food and ot h er

“

indulgences I ts ruler, S av e as i ul e o had a human head , .

T h e upper part of his body reclined in a great house in “

company with the spirits o f departed chiefs whi l e the “

extremity o f h is body was said to stretch away into the

sea i n th e S hape of an eel or serpent
The Japanese had thus, like the Po l ynesians, a garden
paradise and a s e a dragon king s paradise as we ll as the - —
’

gloomy Yomi It may b e that th e beliefs and stories

.

regarding these Otherworl ds were introduced by the

earliest seafarers, who formed pear l fis h i n g communities —

round their s h ores Th e Ainu be l ieve t h at Heaven and .

He l l are beneath t h e earth in P ohna m osh i ri , the lower

“
,

World , but they have no idea what the rewards o f the

”

rig h teous are Nothing i s definitely known regarding

.
3

1 P oly n es i a n Resea r ch es
( Fr i st E di t i o n , p 3 27
Tr r r
. .

2 u ne , N i ne te en T ea s i n P oly ne si a p 23 7
r
. .

2
B at c h e l o , N ote s on th e A i nu ( T ra nsa cti on s i
f th e A s i a ti c S oci e gI of j pa n, V o l
a . X) ,

p. 21 8 .
3 82 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
the beliefs o f the earlier and more h ig hl y civilized peop l e
remembered as the K oro pok guru - -
.

T h e Mikado Sui nin was succeeded by t h e Mikado -

K e i k o , who died in A D 1 3 0 , aged 1 4 3 years

-
One o f . . .

his sons , Yamato Take , is a famous legendary hero of

-

Japan He performed many h eroic d e eds in battl e against

.

brigands and rebels At Is e he obtained from his aunt .

,

Yam ato h ime,the priestess , the famous K usanagi sword,and

-

a bag which he was not to open except when i n peril of

his life He then s e t out to subdue and pacify al l savage
.

deities and unsubmissive peop l es The ru l er of Sagami .

set fire to a moor which Yamato entered in quest o f a

“
Violent Deity Finding himse l f in peril, h e O pened
”
.

the bag and discovered in it a fire striker (or fire drill) - -

.

He mowe d t h e herbage with the dragon sword, and, usi n g -

the fire striker, kindled a count e r fire which drove back

- -
,

t h e other fire Th e K usan agi (h erb que l ling) sword takes

.
-

its name from this incident Yamato Take afterwards s l ew .

-

th e wicked rulers o f t h at land He also slew a go d in .

the shape of a white deer which met him in Ashigara Pass .

He lay in ambush and with a scrap o f chive h it the deer

1
,

in the eye and thus struck it d ead Th en h e shouted .

three times Adzuma ha ya (Oh , my wife l ) T h e l and

“ ”
.

was t h ereupon called Adzuma .

Then follows t h e mysterious story of t h e deat h of t h e

hero He w e nt to the land of S h i n an u, in whic h Oh o n a
.

mochi had taken refuge when Japan w as being subdued

for th e ru l er chosen by the sun god d e ss, and wh e re -
,

being pursued and threatened with death , O h o n am o ch i

consented to abdicate and take up h is abode in a temp l e .

The country takes its nam e from sh i na, a tree resembling

the lime and nu o r no, moor
,
2
Yamato Take entere d -

1
Ni r a, th e A l l i um r
od o um

r
.

2 2 6, an d 2 1
cor d a ta . S e e C h am b e l a i n t - hi
’
T i li a s K o-j , pp. 1 0 2 n .
5 .
3 84 MYTHS OF CHINA AND JAPA N
be h ind Mount A w o gak i . His next song was one of l ov e
an d regret .

H ow t o t h e Ski s
sw e e
’
er e

F m Y am t o , m y h o m e ,
ro a

D o i t s w h i t e c lo ud s a is r e,

D o i t s wh i t e c l ud s all c m e o o .

H is sickness and weariness made h im fee l more and

more faint, and h e sang in h is distress
O h ! t h sh rp s b sw d e a a re - or

I l e ft by t h e b e d si d e
O f P i n c e ss Miya u r z
”
T h e s h a p sabr s w o d 1
r e -
r .

Yamato Take sank and died as soon as h e h ad finis h ed

-

h is song .

I n time h is wives came and bui l t for h im a mauso l eum ,

weeping and moaning the w h ile because he cou l d not ,

h ear them or make answer T h en Yamato Take was .

-

transformed into a w h ite bird , w h ic h rose h ig h in the

2

air and fle w towards t h e S hore The wives pursued t h e .

bird with lamentations and entered the s e a They saw .

the bird fl ying towards the beach , and followed it For .

a time it perched on a rock Th en it fle w from Ise to .

Shiki , in the l and o f K afuchi , where a mauso l eum was

bui l t for it, so that it might rest 3
But the wh ite bird .

rose again to h eaven and fle w away I t was never again .

seen .

After Mikado K e i k o , fat h er of Yamato Take, h ad - -

passed away, Sei m u reigned unti l he was 1 0 8 years o l d

-
.

T h en fo ll owed the Mikado C h iu ai His capital was i n -

.

t h e south west on t h e is l and of K yush u A message

-
.

1 r A ppa e nt l r
y t h e s w o d w o ul d h av e p o t e ct e d h i m r i
aga ns t th e f
at al e nc h an t m e nt

r r
w o ugh t by t h e w h i t e b o a -go d o f Mo un t Ib u i k
C r r d r
.

2
hi d o i , a d o t t e ri l, pl o v e , o r s an pi pe
d r r
.

2
in b e w o s h i ppe d
’
As a
go s m i - t am a e st s a t e m pl e t o .
 ANCIENT M I K ADOS AND HEROES 3 85

came fro m the goddess through t h e Empress J ingo , w h o

was divinely possessed , prom ising h im K orea , a l and“

“ ”
to the westward with abundance of various tr easures , /

dazz l ing to th e eye from go l d and silver downwards

,
”
.

The M ikado refused to believe ther e was a land to

the west an d decl ared t h at the gods spoke fa l se l y Soon
, .

afterwards t h e heaven l y sovereign was str uck dead .

Now t h e Empress Jingo was with c h i l d Having .

received the instructions of the deities to conquer K orea

for her son , she delayed his birt h by taking a stone and
attac h ing it to her waist with cords K orea was subdued , .

the Empress h aving made use o f t h e Jewels of flood

“

and ebb , as related in a previous c h apter

”
Her c h i l d .

w as b orn after she returned to Japan .

Empress Jingo is further credited with subduing and

uniting the Empire o f Japan , and again establis h ing the
centra l power at Yamato S h e l ived unti l she was 1 0 0 .

years old .

Her son Oj i n Tenno , w h o had a dragon s tail , l ived 1 ’

u n ti l h e was 1 1 0 years old and died in A D 3 1 0 H e , . . .

was worshipped after deat h as a war god , and the patron —

of t h e Minamoto c l an His successor, N in toku , w h o .

-

died at the age of 1 1 0 , was the l ast of the myt h ica l

monarc h s , or of the monarchs regarding whom miracu l ous
deeds are re l ated Japanese h istory begins and myt h
.

ends about t h e beginning of t h e fifth century of t h e

Christian era .

The cult of Hac h iman (Oj i n Tenno) came into

prom inen ce in t h e ninth century with t h e rise of t h e
M inamoto family ; its original seat was Usa , in B uz e n
province Hac h iman s sh i nta i ( god body ) is a w h ite
.
“ ’ ”

stone , or a fly brush , or a pil l ow, or an arm rest

- -
.

1
H is
po s t h um o us ti tle . Dr u i ng l i f
e h e w as c al l e d H ac him an .

( D 71
3 8 6 MYTHS OF C HINA A ND JAP A N
J immu Tenno the Empress Jingo, and Yamato Take
,
-

were similarly deifi e d and worshippe d A ninth century .

scholar, Sugahara Mi c h i z an e , was deified as T e m m angfi,

god of scholars Living as well as dead M i k ados were
.

“
ha m i (deities ) T h e spirits of all the soldiers who d ied
.

” “
in battl e , writes Yei Ozaki , are worshippe d as deified 1

heroes at the K udan s h rine in Tokyo .

The worship of human ancestors in Japan is due to

Chinese influence , and had no place in old Shinto prior
to the sixth century I n the K oj i hi and N i h on gi , the
.
- -

ancestors of the Mikados and the ruling classes are the

deities and their avatars As we have seen , the M ika d os .

were reputed to be descended from t h e sun goddess, an d -

from t h e daughter o f the Dragon K ing of Oc e an , called

the Abundant P e ar l Princess a Japanese Melusina
“ —
.

I t is far from correct, therefore to refe r as h as been , ,

“
done, to Shinto religion as th e worship of nature go d s -

” ”
and ancestors Even the t e rm nature worship i s m i s -

lea d ing The adoration i n sacr e d shrines of the m i l a m a

.
—

” “ ” ”

( the “
August j e we l or
“
Dragon pearl , or spirit ,
-
,
”
or double ) of a deity is not t h e worship o f Nature
but the worship of the imperishable principle o f life
“

w h erever found ”
.
“
At Ise , the M ecca of Japan the ”
,

goddess cult is prominent Both the s un goddess and t h e .

-

food goddess are forms of the Far Eastern Hathor, the

-

personification o f the pearl , the S he ll , the precious j ewe l

”
containing life substance , the sun mirror, the swor d
“
,

the pillow, the standing stone , the holy tree the me d icinal
-
,

herb the fertilizing rain & c

,
The Mikado , as h e r , .

descendant, was th e living Horus , an avatar o f Osiris ;

after death the M ikado asce nded, like Ra, to the celestial
regions , or departed, like Osiris , to th e Underworld of

1
C us tom s o f th e Wo r (J
ld )
apan , pp. 3 80 e t se
q .
3 8 8 MYTH S OF CH INA AND J A PAN
w e r e o f spontaneous g e neration in widely separat e d coun -

tries . C ulture compl e x e s cannot be accounted fo r o r

explain e d away by the application o f the principl e s o f
biological e volution As h as b e en S hown in these pages
.
,

there are many culture complexes in China and Japan ,

and many links with more ancient civilizations .

Touching o n the problem o f culture mixi n g in C h ina ,

Laufe r writes
I n O pposition to the prevalent opinion of t h e day, it
cannot be emp h asized strongly enough o n e very occasion
that Chinese civilization, as it appears n o w i s not a unit ,

and n o t the e xclusive production o f t h e Chines e , but the

final r e sult o f the cultural e fforts o f a vast conglom eration
o f th e most varied tribes an amalga m ation o f ideas
,

accumulated from m anifold quarters and widely di fferen

t i at e d in spac e and tim e ; bri e fly stated this m e ans C hina
,

is not a nation but an e m pire a political but n o t an

, , ,

ethnical unit N o graver error can henc e be committe d

.

than to attribute any cult ure idea at t h e outs e t t o t h e

Chinese , fo r n o other reason than b e cause it appears
”1
within the pr e cincts o f th e ir empire .

j a d e , P' 5 7 °
 IN D E X

A d am , C h i n es e , 2 7 5 A p o l l o , as d r ago n on Il
s an d of
.

A ge s , A rc h ae o l o gi c al , i n C h i n a (s e e D e lo s , 1 2 2 ; as so n of H e p h ai s to s ,
N e o l i th i c A ge ) ; i n ap an , 3 2 5 J 1 22 ;
fr
th e Mo us e
85
r
1

fir
. .

My t hi c al , C h i n e s e , 2 7 4 ; s t A ge A p p l e , ui t o f A p h o d i t e , 1 3 9
rf I r r f
.

p e e c t as i n n d i a, 2 7 6 ; i n A p p l e T e e , as T e e o f L i e , 1 2 4;

T ao i s m , 3 1 6 ; s e e al s o Worl d s
’
rk
m an d a e an d , 1 6 8
r
.

A ges Ar o w , t h e s o un d i n g, 3 7 5 an d al so

r r
.

A gri c ul t u e , o i gi n o f, 6 , 2 0 1 n o te 1

r
. .

A i n u, t h e , 3 2 6 ; as p o t t e s , 2 1 ; m y t h s Art e m i s , Ai n u an d , 3 3 0 ; C h i n e s e
o f, 3 2 8 ; d e i t i e s o f s un , m o o n , an d H o S i e n K u an d ap an e s e K as e n k o J
fire , 3 3 1 ; d e i ti e s o f, m ad e d un , r k as , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 ; go at an d , 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 ;
r
r
3 3 0 ; d ago n m o t h e o f, 3 3 3 ; A n i r i n T ao i s m , 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 ; m ugw o t
J
c o ni c p i ll a r
an d m o t h e go d d e s s , r o f, 1 7 0 ; ap an e s e s y m b o li c gat e

r
3 3 3 ; t h e P a ad i s e o f 3 8 1 , 3 8 2 , . w ay o f, 3 3 9
r r r
.

r
A t h u s s w o d E x cal i b u , 1 0 1
’
A ll - h e al p l an t s , 1 5 8
f r
.
.

Al l S o ul s , e as t o f, 1 3 3 A s t o n o m y , s e e G r ea t B e a r, P o la r
J
.

Am a t e rfis u , ap an e s e s un go d d e s s ,
- S ta r , S ta rs , &c
r r fr r
.

3 3 9 ; c e at e s C h i ld e n o m j ew els , Ax e an d h am m e go d s , 2 62
k
.

3 6 6 , 3 67 ; n e c l ac e o f, 3 6 2 ; s un
go c1 d es s (cav e an d m i o rr r
m yt h ) , B ab y l o ni a, A i n u d e i ti e s m ad e d runk
3 68 as i n , 3 3 0 ; as c ad l e o f B ro n z e r
r
Am b e , B ud d hi s t b e l i e i n , 1 2 6 f i n d us try , 1 9 6 ; C hi n e s e hi l l go d
r r r I r
.

A m e i c a , an c i e n t m a i n e s i n , 45 ; d e s s an d s h t a , 2 69 ; C h inese
ge m s y m b o li s m i n , 3 3 6 ; w h al e I s h ta r in e l uge D l e ge n d , 1 5 1 ;
r
w o sh i pp ed in , r
C h i n e s e w o ld gi an t m y th an d -

r
Am o y , e l i gi o us S i gn i c an c e o f S i t ua fi T i am at m y t h , 2 64 ; co l o n i s t s o m , fr
ti o n o f, 2 3 6 as K r
u ga n b ui l d e s , 2 0 0 ; co p p e r r
r r r
.

A m i t a, 1 4 5 , 1 4 6 (s e e S o m a ) us e d at e a ly pe io d in , 1 94
°

r r r r
.

Arn ul e t s , m o tua y , i n E gy p t an d se a ch fo r c o p p e , &c , 1 9 4

r r
.

C hi n a , 2 2 2 e li gi o us us e o f c o p p e in , 1 9 5
r r r
.

An ce s to w o s hi p , C hi n e s e , 2 4 2 c ul t ure o f i n E as t e n A s i a , 2 0 2 ,
r
E gyp t i an P h a ao h w o s hi p , 2 42 r j ad efr om C h i n e s e T u e s t an i n , rk
r D r f
.

An i c o n i c Pi l l a , i n S h i n t o m y t h , 3 5 0 ; 20 2 ; at e T ee of L i e 1 79 ;
r
P i l l a s , th e F ar E as t e n , 3 3 3 r r
d ago n o f, an d P o l y n e s i an d ago n , r
,

r r
.

A n i m i s m , o i gi n o f, 2 5 6 ; i ts c o n 78 ; d ago n s o f, 7 4 ; E a an d
n e c t i o n w i t h m um m i fic at i o n , 2 5 6 C hi n e s e E u H i , 2 7 5 ; E a an d
r J rk
.

An t e l o p e , E a- d rago n an d , 5 1 ; H o us ap an e s e H i u o , 3 5 1 ; e a gl e go d

an d , 5 3 ; H i n d u w i n d go d an d , 5 3 o f, an d G
ar ud a , 7 0 ; i l gam e s h G
r r r
.

A p h o di t e , H at h o an d , 3 1 3 ; w an K an d S a go n an d C h i n e s e Wu, 2 8 8 ;

y i n as C h i n e s e , 2 7 2 . r r
i d e as o f, e ga d i n g s o ul s , i n C h i n a ,
3 90 MYTHS OF C HINA AND JAPAN
2 40 ; I n d i an kr d m a a a an go at B r onz e , fir s t m an u a c t u e d f r i Bb n a y
fi h s 21 Ih r
5; Ch s ta an d in e se lo n i a , 1 9 6 ; i n d us t y , an d u o p e an r E r
go dd 6
e ss , 2 Il d 7; s an of B le s t in a n d C hi n e s e l i n s , 2 0 5 ; ad e an , k j d
1 0 9;J ap an e s eDl h e uge m yt an d
,

i n an c i e n t E u o p e , 2 0 1 r
T J
i am at m y t , 3 4 5 ; ap an e s e i n s
h l k B ud d h a , b l ue e y e s o f, 1 2 7 ; C h i n e s e
J
w i t h , 3 3 3 an d al s o n o t e 2 ; ap an e s e d e i t i e s an d , 2 7 3 ; o f este n Pa a W r r
Y om i and O r rd
t h e wo l o f, 3 40 ; d i s e , 2 1 0 ; N a gas as w o s h i p p e s r r
f d f h d
oo o t e e ad , 3 4 1 ; Ni g- gi l o f, 7 0

rh
.

m a o , 2 4 5 ; P l an t o
f f Bi t , 3 3 5 ; B ud d hi s m , C hi n e s e T ao i s m an d ,
P d
l an t o L e e ge n o f, 9 9 ; P o l e
f if l 297 ; c ul t u e m ix i n g ri n , 2 43 ;
S r ta as go d i n , 23 2; Chinese D e w o f lif e i n , 1 4 0 ; ap an e s e , 2 0 ; J
r
as t o n o m y fr
om , 23 2 ; r
p e c i o us r r
e l i gi o us m e i t i n j e w e l s , ge m s , &c ,

sto ne s fr Com hi n e s e T rk
u e s t an , 1 2 6 ; S h i n t o an d , 3 47
.

r r fl
.

20 2 ; ev id e n c e s o f an c i e n t t ad e B u m a , C hi n e s e i n ue n c e i n , 2 1 ;
f
o , 20 3 ; r li
e gi o us us e o f r
eed s in , j un s o f, 3 2 k
rfl
.

8 5 d
an l a so no te d f 3; s e a- go o B ut t e y , as C h i n es e l o n ge v i ty s y m
( see S i )
um er a S b ri d
30 ; i e a an b o l , 2 2 5 ; as s o ul i n Me x i c o , 2 2 5 ;
20 4; r f Sbr
s o u ce
,

o d i e i an an
,
as S c an d i n av i an go d d e s s , 2 2 5 ; as

Ch i n e se h l i l
yt o
m r
o g ca m o n s te s , s o ul in t al y an d I e e ce , 2 2 5 ; Gr
20 3; T o f, an
am m uz d Chi
nese , P s y c h e a , 2 2 5 ; c i ca d a an d , 2 2 5 ; as
1 38; am m uz s t o y an d
T r Jap an e s e , s o ul i n I
n d o n e s i a , 2 4 1 ; s o ul o rm f
1 55; t e h Jap an e s e Gi l h d
gam e s an , i n C h i n a , 2 2 5 , an d i n S co t l an d ,
3 79 ; Ti r
am at d ago n o f , 5 2 ; Ea 2 40
dr W r
.

ago n , 5 1 ; at e of e L if
n i
Ad ap a m y t h , 1 3 2 ; g o s ts s e a c
h rh r
C al e n d a , an c i e n t E gy p t 1 an , 1 1
f or f d d
oo an r
w at e , 1 3 2 ; w d e i fr
C al i o n i a, w h al e s v e t e b a i n g av e
’
r r
.

r
area s i fl n d b
ue n c e r y c ul t u e o f, i n , 49 .

8
3 7 C ali s t h e n i cs , i n T ao i s m , 3 2 0
dr r r f
.
.

B am b oo , m oon d 5 an 1 0 ; ago n C am p h o T e e o f L i e , 1 6 6
,

r
.

an d 1 50 C a d i n al P o i n t s , C hi n e s e go d s o f,
r fD h ,

r
.

B a ge o e at 2 40 23 0 ; C hi n e s e c o l o u s o f, 2 3 0 ;
Kii i J
, .

B e ad s , as an n ap an 3 43 ; C hi n e s e c o nn e c t i o n o f, w i t h s e a
hi ld r r d fr ,

6 s o n s , e l e m e n t s , p l an t s , an d in
c en c e at e om 36 ; in

J ap an e s er li i ( T )
g o n s ee e am a , 3 3 7 ;
,

r r
t e n al o gan s , 2 3 0 ; c o l o u s o f, i n r
s un go dd
e ss , 3 2 6 S c o t l an d an d n d i a , 2 2 9 ; i n ap an , I J
B r Ai Gr j r
.

d
n u an , 3 5 5 s e e ( ea t B ) 3 ; ad es o f, 2 3 4 ; p i ll a s o f, 2 2 7 ,
gg
ea , ea r

B rd r
.

i an d s e pe nt m y th s , 6 ; n 6 i 2
D i d V ll l d
am o n a ey e ge n , 1 2 8 C as s i a T r ee of Li f e, 1 41 (s e e T r ee o f
B rd rr r f l 8 i
.

i s , as c a i e s o s o u s , 1 2 ; n

D d V ll l d 8 h
i am on a ey e ge n 1 2 ; t e C av e s , w e l l s an d d ago n s o f, 5 5 r
d r
,
r
.

Th un e 6 1 2 C l arm , S c o tt i s h an d C h i n e s e s i m i l a ,
rd l i C h i
.

Bi so u s n n a, 1 5 0 g5
D
. .

B b
l o o d - ag m y t , 2 h 86 Ch i n y n as ty , 2 9 1
d fr r r r
. .

B lo o o m t e e s , 1 43 C hi n a , as c ul t u e c e n t e i n F ar E as t ,
d f if r
.

’
2 1 ; p o tt e s w h e e l i n ( s e e P o t ter s
’
B lo o o L e , 1 5 9
d Ri r f J k
.

B lo o , ve o , ap an e se , A i i s at c , w h e e l) ; B ab y l o n i an li n s w i t h ,
an d E i
gy p t an , 3 46 2 0 3 ; B i ti s h r o e i gn d e v i l s in, fr
Dr
.

B l ue ago n , 5 7 3 1 ; c i v i l i z at i o n o f, b e gan i n S h e n s i
r i J r
.

B o a s t o n e , n ap an e s e m y t h 3 73 p o v i n c e , 2 0 9 ; E gyp t i an , B ab y
J ,

I fl
.

B o at , ap an e s e d i go n, 351 l o n i an , an d n d i an i n ue n c e i n ,
f D
.

B o at o h C hi
e at E n e s e , 2 40 ; gyp 20 9 ; c i v i l i z at i o n o f, n o t o f l o c al
t i an , 2 40
,
r
o i gi n , 3 8 8 ; c o n n e c t i o n o f, w i t h
B ri d r
.

Se, f h C l i
erp e n t o dd t e e t c go e ss , Kh o t an , 2 0 2 ; d rago n l o e o f, 3 8 ,

Br
57 r
4 6 ; e a l y c ul t u e o f, s i m i l a to r r
h
i tis f i d il o re gn ev s 3 1 . r
E u o p e an , 2 0 5 ; e a ly t ad e o f, 2 9 3 ; r r
39 2 MYTH S O F CHI N A AN D JAPA N
Dl e uge L e ge n d , C hi n e s e go d d e ss to w ns . 23 6; J
3 43 . 3 47
a p an e s e

N u K w a i n , 1 5 1 ; C h i n e s e re Jap an e s e an d n d i an N aga , 3 44 ; I .

fr e ence t o , 2 67 ; N u K w a an d , Jap an e s e an d N agas , 3 5 6 ; m a

2 67 ; C h i n e s e d at e o f, 2 6 8 ; Ja kra a an d C h i n e s e s e a - d ago n r
r
p an e s e v e s i o n , 3 4 5 ; t h e A i n u, 2 1 5 ; m o o n an d b am b o o an d , 1 5 0

332 r
O s i i s as , i n s e p e n t o m , 59 ; r fr
Dl r rY d 8 r r fr
.

e uge m y t h E m pe o u an 2 3; Pl um t e e g o w s om b lo o d o f,
th e C h
,
h i ne se , w y sh ip s a s e nt
i b
,

80 ; P o l y n e s i an o m s o f, 78; fr
fr o m , 247 P o l y n e s i an go d s an d , 4 8 ; s e a an d
D r hi
.

e m e te , C n e s e godd d
e s s an , 1 38 l an d ani m al s an d , 5 0 ; T e ut o ni c ,
D il T F r
.

ev s , he o e i gn 31 7 7 ; t h e C h i n e s e , an d m e tal s y m
W r f f
.

D e w , as at e o L i e, 1 39 h o li s m , 3 8 ; t h e E i gh t - H e ad e d
f I r J
.

D ew o m m o t al i t y , 1 44 , 1 5 7 ; P ot ap an e s e , s l ai n b y S us a - n o - w o ,
an d f
P l an t o L i e an d , 2 46
f r
3 7 1 ; t h e g e at m o un t ai n , 6 3 ; th e
f J k J
.

D ew o f L i e , 1 40 ap an e s e s e a s n a e an d , 4 1 ; e w e ls
D V r
.

i am o n d al l e y L d
e ge n , Ch i nese o ff e e d t o , 4 1 ; t h e l un ar , 1 4 9 ; th e

r f 8
v e si o n o , 1 2 P o l y n e s i an (s e e P o ly ne si a ) , t i ge r
D r k
.

i o n y s o s , go at an , 1 8 3
d as enem y o f, 4 7 ; w at e sna e
D o g, c o n n e c t i o n w t i h r t ees d
an
.

b e c o m e s , 5 4 ; c o i l e d d ago n as r
6
p l an t s , 1 7 ; J ap an e s e r f
s to y o rr r
w at e - e t ai n e , 5 4 ; w o m an as , 8 4 ;
S hi r 8 h r
o , 1 6 ; t e l un a , 1 47 Me d us a l e ge n d o f, 8 4 ; ap an es e J
Dl Kr r
.

o m en i n o d
e a, l 3 25, an a so d ago n w o m an , 8 5
,

Dr r
.

n o te 1 ago n an d B al l p o c e s s i o n , 64

Dl Dr
. .

o ph in , Bu d d hi d s ts an 1 27 ; D ra ago n B at t l e s , 5 6
,

Dr F
.

go n an d , 5 0 ago n B o at e s t i v al , 2 6 8
Dr A ll Dr r r
. .

ago n , p o o as , 1 2 2 ; as C l e e s ti a
l ago n B o ats , i n ai n - ge tt i n g c e e

s t ag i n C h i n a , 5 1 ; as w at e r d go in m o ni e s , 4 1
kr Dr
.

C h i n a , 5 5 ; as m a a a , 1 5 0 ; as ago n E ggs , 1 8 2
rr T r Dr Fr
.

sy m b l f
o o E m p e o , 5 4 ; as ee , ago n i e , 63
V r Dr r
.

7 5 , 1 52; as am p i e , 64 ; as ago n H e b s , 7 9

r r ll r Dr I Gr k
.

b
w at e c o n t o e , 2 3 5 ; B a y l o n an i ago n s l an d , ee l e ge n d o f,
B a d
an , 5 1 ; B ab y o n i an
l G o at 1 0 0 ; i n E gy p t i an , S c o tt i s h , an d
fis h go d , 3 0 , 3 1 ; B ab y o n an
l i Me l an e s i an l e ge n d s , 9 8
d r i fr Dr
.

Ti am at as , 5 2 ; ba a n om ago n j ad e s y m b o l s , 2 5 3

i k dr rd d Dr
.

s c ago n , 3 64 , 3 6 5 ; Bi an ago n K i n gs , t h e fiv e , an d th e fiv e
r
s e p e n t m y t h an , d 7 bl
2; ue and p l an e ts , 2 7 4
r r fC Dr r
.

y e l o w , 5 7 ; c h a ac t e s o
l h i n ese , ago n Mo t h e , i n P o l y n e s i a , 7 9

Ch d E
i n e s e an D
gy p t i an e at h Dr ago n o f B ab y l o n i a , t h e up u o f, K
.

l e s s S n ak e 7 8 , an d al s o n o t e 3 ; an d P o l y n e s i an up n a , 7 8 K
Dr r
. .

C h i n e s e an d S c o t t i s h c h arm s , 5 6 , ago n - s l ay e , E gy p t i an , 7 7 ; S ieg

5 7 ; c o n n e c t i o n w i t h P i n e s , 1 67 ; fr i e d an d S i gu d as , 7 7 r
D D Dr
.

ugo n g an d olph i n an d , 5 0 ; ago n S t o n e s , 1 8 2

r Dr I r Dr r J
.

E as t e n ago n as n d a, 2 3 8 ; ago n S w o d o f ap an , h o w S us a
e ggs o f, 5 8 ; r
E gy p t i an s l ay e o f, n o - w o o b t ai n e d i t , 3 7 2
rr Dr r
.

77; E m p e o H w a n g -T i b
e co m e s , ago n S w o d s , 1 0 1 , 2 7 5

Dr
.

27 9 ; Y ao as s o n o f, 2 8 0 ; S h un ago n w e l l s , 5 5
f r Dr f r fr
.

an d , 2 8 0 ; ago n s B l o o d , m an u ac t u e d
’
e m al e d ago n e at e n b y om
r r
E m p e o r, 2 8 5 ; fiv e co l o u s o f, 8 4 , m e t al s , 3 8
f r f k Dr r r k
.

1 63 ; fis h o m s o f, 5 9 , 7 5 ; a go n s H e a t , as s o u c e o f
’
ol no w

r f
s t o i e s o f,7 6 ; o rm s as s um e d b y ,4 7 ; l e d ge , 7 7
r r I r Dr
.

as t h un d e an d ai n go d , 47 ; ago n s S p i t t l e
’
n d a, 79
r Dr r r r
.

Ze us , &c , an d , 47 ; as gua d i an s ago n s as gua d i an s o f t e as u e ,

r rk
.

o f p e a l s , 47 ; s h a an d , 47 ; go l d 1 5 6 ; B a b y l o n i an an d C h i n e s e , 7 4
°

an d , 5 5 ; h as m o s t
“
li n g o f al l co n n e ct i o n w i th at e o f L i e W r f
r fl
c re at u e s , 1 8 6 ; i n ue n c e o f, o n an d
“
r ”
T e e o f L i e , 7 5 ; b l ue f
 I NDEX 3 93

rus h 8 5 ; C hi n e s e an d P o l y
o f, E m pe rr
o T
’
an g an d , 28 5 (s e e
n e s i an , 67 ; an d ago n Dr
B o at
F e s ti v al , 2 6 9 ; E gy p t i an s e p e n t r r
E gyp t , agri c ul t u e i n , 6 ; b e li e s o f, f
i s l an d s t o y , 9 8 ; r F
i v e , as ul e s o f r r r r
e ga d i n g s o ul s , i n C hi n a , 2 3 9 ,
s e as o ns , &c , 6 1 ; un gus o f Im F 2 40 ; r
B i d an d s e p e n t m y t h i n , r
r Gr
.

m o t al i t y an d , 1 0 7 ; a ud as an d 71 C h i n e s e a d o p t i n v e n ti o ns o f,
°

N agas an d , 7 0 ; go d s i d e o n , 6 5 ; r 1 3 , p o tte
’
r
s w h e e l o f, 1 3 ; C h i n e s e
r
h e b s , &c ,an d , 1 8 3 ; h um an s h ap es go d d es s an d , 1 3 7 ; C h i n e s e H o us , r
I I
.

o f , 47 ; n di an N agas an d , 6 9 ; i n 2 8 5 ; Ch in es e s i s an d N e p h t h y s ,

r r
p o o l s , i v e s , an d s e a , 5 4 ; as ti d e 1 39; C hi n e s e S h un an d H o us , r
r r
c o n t o ll e s , 5 4 ; r r
i o n d e ad e d b y , 2 80 ; c i nn am o n i m p o t e d i n to , r
8
3 , 4; 6 ar
s ai n -b i n r r
ge s , 3 9 ; o n d f 1 42 ; co m , fr
ui t , an d m i l in k
of ge m s , 3 8 ; ap an es e J d ago n r r
P a ad i s e , 1 3 3 ; C o s m i c E gg i n ,
p l ac e - n am
es , 3 5 6 ; J
ap an e s e s e a 3 4 8 ; c ul t o f E as t an d o f es t W
go d s as , 3 5 2 ; ap an e s e J “
w at e r i n , 60 ; at eD T e e o f L if e , r
sn a es k as , 3 53 ; i n gd o m K 1 79 ; D
e ath l e s s S n a e o f, an d k
r
U n d e th e S e a l e ge n d s o f, 9 5 ; C h i n e s e an d ap an e s eJ d ago n s , r
as L i gh t - go d s , 6 3 ; Me l us i n a 7 8 , an d al s o n o t e 3 , 1 5 6 ; d e i t i e s as
r
l e ge n d i n lo e o f, 8 6 , 8 7 ; m o t h e r fis h , 5 9 ; d e i t i e s c e at e p l an ts o f r
r
o f, 5 9 ; P e arl P i n c e s s l e ge n d , 9 7 ; l ife , 1 8 0 ; Dr
ago n s le s to y o f, I r
r r
p e a l s p o d uc e d b y , 3 9 ; ap an e s e J 9 ;8 aDr
g o n -s la e
y r o f, 7 7 , 7 8 ;
m o un t ai n s an d , 3 9 ; Re d s l an d o f I Dr ago n - s t o n e s an d m o un t ai n o f
k
9 5 ; s i n s o f, s hi n e b y n i gh t , 64 ; d aw n , 5 9 ; Fr
o g go d d e s s o f, 1 4 5 ;
t h e C h i n es e n i n e h e ad e d d ago n ,
-
r go d P tah an d Dr
ago n , 6 3 ; go d
3 7 2 , an d al s o n o t e 2 ; t an s o rm e d r f d es s of r
t u q uo i s e , 58; go l d
d r ago n s h arm l e s s , 1 0 5 ; v i t al S p i i t r p l e n ti ful i n , 1 9 8 , an d als o n o t e 1 ;
i n e y es o f, 64 ; at e W
of L i e r f H at h o ran d C hi n e s e S pi nn i ng
c o n tro ll e d b y , 1 5 9 ; w e e - an i m al s r Mai d e n , 1 47 ; H ath o an d T ao i s m , r
an d , 2 2 1 ; w h al e s an d , 4 9 ; w o m e n
3 1 3 ; H at h o r r
b e e an d F ar E as t e rn
as , i n C li i n a , 8 6 ; b o y s b e co m e , i n i n t o x i c an ts , 3 0 ; H e a t an d t o n gue
3 r
Jap an , 8 6 co n n e c t i o n in, 22 2 ; H e art as
D r
.

“
ugo n g, d r ago n an d , 5 0 m in d i n , 7 7 ; H o us m y t h i n
D J r r J
.

’
y n as t i e s , C hi n or T s i n , 29 1 ap an , 3 5 1 ; H o us s t o y i n ap an ,

r
E a l y an d My t h i c al , 2 7 7 ; H an , 1 55: I
n di an li n s w i t h , 7 4 ; k in
r
Mi n o , T an g, S un g, Mo n go l ,
’
flue n c e o f, i n A s i a , 2 0 6 i o n as °
r
Mi n g, an d Man c h u, 2 9 2 ; t h e S e t s m e t al , 64 ;
’
s l an d o f th e I
C hi n e s e , C h o u D
y n as ty , 2 8 8 ; th e r
B l e s t i n P y am i d T e x ts o f, 1 0 8 ;
H e a , 2 8 1 ; t h e S h an g, 2 8 5 J ap an es e D
e l uge m y t h an d E gy p

r
.

t i an , 3 4 5 ; P h a ao h an d Mik ad o ,
E a, B ab y l o ni an go d , as s e a- are r, 3 0 f 3 41 , 3 87 ; as p ej of sis r an d I
D aga n an d ago n Dan d , 52; J ap an es e T am a , 3 3 6; ki n gs o f, as
d r ago n an d , 5 1 ; an t e l o p e , go at , go d s , 3 42 ; k
Mi ad o as O s i ri s an d

gaz e ll e an d , 5 1 ; O ann e s an d , 3 1 r
H o us , 3 8 6 ; Mi ad o an d k
Osi i s , r
j
.

E agl e , ad e an d , 2 2 1 3 3 9 , 3 40 ; m y t h s o f, i n C h i n a ,
r
.

E agl e s t o n e , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9
-
1 48 ; m yth of s e p a at i o n of

r J
.

E as t , C ul t o f, 1 3 4 , 2 1 0 ; C ul t o f, i n H e av e n an d E a t h , i n ap an an d
C h i n a an d E gyp t , 60 ; s ac e d n e s s r P o ly n e s i a , 3 48 ; N il e ows om fl fr
o f, in E gyp t an d C h i n a , 2 2 9 k
Mi l y Way i n , 1 1 1 ; N ut an d
I r
.

E as t n d i e s , E gy p t i an m i l l e t i n , C hi n e se v i gi n go d d e s s , 2 68 ;
E r
e l , as P o l y n e s i an d ago n , 7 8 ; G o d r
o i gi n of ag i c ul t u e r
i n, 2 0 1 ; r
o f S am o a as , 6 8 r
o i gi n o f m um m i fic at i o n i n , 2 5 7 ;
r r
.

E e l s as d ago n - v am p i es , 64 c o nn e c ti o n o f m um m i fic at i o n w i t h

r
.

E gg, t h e C o s m i c , 2 60 , 2 66 , 3 0 3 ; i n A n i m i s m , 2 5 6 ; O s i i s an d C hi n e s e
S h i n t o , 3 48 S h e n -n un g, 2 7 7 ; O s i i s an d L ao r
r
.

’
E gg, t h e S w all o w s , An c e s t e ss o f T z e , 2 9 9 ; S e t an d L ao T z e , 3 0 0 ;
3 94 MYTH S OF CHINA AN D JAPAN
Osi i s r fJ o a p an , 3 6 7 ; P a ad i s e s o f, r Fi h s rr i r f l 4 (as ca e o so u s , 1 1 s ee
1 35; r
lo pe a l r e i i i , 44 ; pea l r M k r ) a a a

r r r Fi h f r f d r g i C h i
.

s e a c h e s o f, i n E as t , 4 1 ; P h a ao h s -
o d
m s o a on n n a an
b e c o m e s go d , 2 42 ; P o l y n e s i an J p 76 a an ,

Fi h d d h F E r 3 3 3
.

b o at s , 3 3 ; P t ah an d t h e C h i n e s e s -
go ess , t e ar as t e n,
r r F h l P rl d j d d
.

’
a t i s an go d , 2 6 2 ; O s i i s an d P an is s ca es , ea s an a e an 2 22
r F h y bl i jd , .

K u, 2 6 4 ; P t ah d o ct in e an d is s m o s n a e , 222 .
T ao i s m , 3 0 3 ; Q ue e n H ats h e p F d ff r i
oo d d o
3 e n gs t o ea 1 2
F d fh D d i J Y i
, .

’
s ut s n av al e xp e d i tio n , 3 6, 3 7 oo o t om
°
e ea n ap an e s e

re d e a t h i n r D
e l uge m y t h o f, 2 46 , 34 ; i B b l i0 H d 34 n a y o n an
,

a es, 0
,

r r F r i g d i l Bri i h 3
.

e l i gi o us us e o f e e d s an d li n e n o e n ev s t s as , 1
i J p
.

i n , 8 5 , an d al s o n o t e 3 ; Rh am p F Ai
ox, d 3 n u an
3 43 30 ; n a an ,

F r i l i Chi , .

s i n i tus a n d C hi n e s e W u- Y i h , 2 8 6 , oxes, d
we e - an m a s n na an
2 8 7 , an d al s o n o t e 1 ; s c a ab as r J ap a n 22 1
r r Fr Ch i fr , .

m o th e go d d es s , 2 2 3 ; s ca ab o f, o g, g dd n ese o es s t ran s o m s
an d C hi n e s e c i ca d a am ul e t s , 2 2 2 ; wom an E gyp t i an go d
i n to , 1 44 ;
r r
s c a ab p o t e c t e d h e a t a n d t o n gue , r d e s s as , 1 4 5 ; i n j ad e , 2 2 5 ; i n
r
2 2 3 ; s e a c h fo r li e - gi v i n g h e b s , f r C h i n a an d E gyp t , 2 2 6
Fr r r
.

s t o n e s , &c , 2 0 7 ; s h i p s o f, i n S e a o gs , B i t i s h c o m p a e d t o , 3 1
k k fr Fr f J
. .

o f O h o t s , 3 2 ; s m e l t i n g u n ac e s ui t o f L i e , C hi n e s e an d ap an e s e
o f, i n A s i a an d E uro p e , 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 ; r
s e a c h fo r , 1 3 8

rfr r r
.

s t a - o m o f go d d e s s , 1 8 4 ; s t ug P u H i , N u K w a as s i s t e o f, 2 7 7 ;
g l e s fo r c o pp e -
m in e s , 1 9 4; Ja r t h e C h i n e s e A d am , 2 7 5
r r f rfr
.

p an e s e H at h o , 3 8 6 ; T e e o f L i e F u li l , 2 1 8 ; C hi n e s e e e e n c e s t o ,
'

g
-

as r
Wo l d T e e i n , 1 3 6 ; w e e p r 1 2

i n g d e i ti e s o f , 3 6 5 ; e l l an d T e e W r F un g- s h ui 2 3 4; c o n n e c ti o n w i th
f
o f L i e at H e li o p o l i s , 1 2 2 ; wide
,
B a b y l o n i a an d E gy p t , 2 3 4 ; g av e s r
a e as r fl
i n ue n c e d b y c ul tu e o f, r an d , 2 3 5 ; h o us e s an d t o w n s an d ,

3 87 23 5 t h e T i g am s , 2 7 5 r r t i ge r
E gyp t i an s h i p s i n N o th e n E uro p e , r r an d d ago n r
c o n t o ll e s , r r 23 5
W i n d an d at e W r r
d o c t in e , 2 2 8
33
rli r F I r
° .

E gyp t i an s , ea e st s hi p b uil d e s an d un gus o f m m o t ali ty , 1 0 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 46 ,

n av i ga t o r s , 27 ; m a ri it m e e x p e di 1 7 4 ; i n Chi n e s e I
s l e s o f B l es t , 1 1 1 .

ti o n s o f, 2 8
G
E l e p h an t an d d o l p h i n , 2 0 3
.

h C l i l B d dh i an ge s , t e e e st a , u s ts

r f r G r dd 6
.

E li x i o f L i e , m al ac h i t e an d s il v e an , 1 2 .

o fle re d t o d e ad as , 3 7 ; C hi n e s e i f N 7 a u as , as en em es o agas , 0 ;
al c h e m i c al , 3 8 ; s e e Me t a l S y m
b d B a y l o n i an e agl e go an d , 7 0
r G l
.

bo l i s m , P ea ch ,P e a ls ,P l a n t of L ife , d d E az e l e , E a- r ago n an , 5 1 ; gyp

an d Wa t er of L if e t i an go d s an d , 5 2
rr r r G f T r
.
.

E m p e o s o f C h i n a as c ul tu e h e o e s , f L if 6 e m s , as rui t o f ee o e, 1 5;
1
9 , 20 d f f 8 S l rago n s ond o , 3 ee a so

l b li f i rl S
.
.

E n gl an ,d sou j l e e s n , 24 1 ew e s , P e a s , to n e s
G i f h H ill C h i . .

E vo l bi l i
ut i o n , l d o o g c al , e t h n o o gy an ,
en us o t e s n ese

2 dd ll d 6 go e s s ca e 2 9
G Il f l l d , .
.

E y e as S fS l 6 e at o ou , 4 i an t i n s e o B e st e ge n 1 1 2
G K r
, .
.

i S i f i n s e n g, n o e a, 3 3 4; p ri t o

Fi T rg f L if (
ee o S d
e, 1 k 34 ( M see y ca m ore 335; m an ra e, 1 74 see an
,

d
an f L if ) T ree o dr k ) e a e

Fi r d r G bl d f . .

e an w at e , 1 59 b i f o at , oo o as su s t t ut e or

Fr B l rl d r d d b h rb
. ,

i e- al s , pea C hi
s C l
an 8 p o uc e y e 1 73 ; nese e e s t i al , 1 4;
dr ago ns 57 J l d
,
ap an e s e
,

e ge n 1 8 4; as sto nes ,

Fi r C r d d 8
, . ,

e d P l i fi
h in es e T h an o y n e s an re 1 84; un d e -
go s an 1 3
dr r d G G rd d f fd dh rb 8 d , .
,

il
na h 8 m yt s 4; ago n s s ca e o a ts , o es s o e s an 1 83 ;
b 8 fr r 6
y, 5; om
,

t ees, 1 2 . as av at a s o go ess , 1 3 .
,
396 MYTH S OF CH INA A ND j A PA N

I drn a , as m an i n th e m oon, 1 46 2 2 6; r
c o l o u s o f, 2 3 4 ; c o n n e ct i o n s

Ir i r W r
.

an an s , as m e d i ato s b e twe en est o f, w i th C a d i n al P o i n ts , 2 3 4;

d Ean as t , 2 9 4 s h ap e s o f, 23 4; c o m p le x s ym
Ir l d r
.

e an ap p l e - l an d Pa ad i s e , 1 24 ; b o li s m o f, 2 46 , 2 5 4— 5 ; s up p l an t s
c alli n g
,
b ac k s o ul s i n , 24 1 ; s al m o n b o at i n C h i n e s e D
e l uge m y t h , 2 47 ;
r
d a go n i n , 7 7 ; s t a m y t h o f,
as r c o nn e c t i o n o f, w i t h c o w s , c o p p e , r
an d C h i n e s e , 2 8 1 , 2 8 2 r
w at e , &c , 2 2 7 ; e a li e s t us e o f, i n r
Ir r r
. .

o n , d ago n s d e ad , 3 8 , 64 C hi n a , 2 1 1 , an d al s o n o t e 1 °

r rr r
.

Is an agi , j e w e l s o f, w e e am i K m i o s o f , 2 1 1 , an d al s o n o t e 1 ,

3 43 F j ”
i r e ad e , 2 2 0 ; g o un d j ad e r
Is e , 3 86; J ap an e s e Me c c a 3 38; s w al l o w e d , 2 43 ; i m m o t a l i ty e n r
G o d d e ss e s 339 o f,
,

r
s u e d b y , 2 4 3 ; s p i i t o f, i n al l l i f e , r
I r
.

s l an d s o f t h e B l e s t , F ar E as t e n 2 44 ; fis h s c al e s an d , 2 2 2 ; fis h
l e ge n d s o f, 1 0 6 ; o i gi n o f c o n r s y m b o ls i n , 2 2 2 ; o g o r T o ad Fr
c e p ti o n o f, 1 0 8; C h i n e s e s age am ul e t , 2 2 5 ; s c a ab - li e am ul e ts r k
re ac h e s , 1 48 ; E gy p t i an , 1 3 5 ; f
i n , 2 2 6 ; fis h o rm s i n , 2 2 6 ; go l d ,
r
H e b s , T e e s , an d r e ll s o f L i e W f r
c o w i e s , an d , 2 1 4 ; m o ut h o f d ea d
i n , 1 0 7 (s e e D ago n Is l a n d an d r s t uff e d W i t h , 2 1 4 ; e at B e a Gr r
Re d Is l a n d ) ; S c o t ti s h l e ge n d , 1 2 9 ; an d , 2 3 2 ; s o ul as p i v o t o f, 2 3 2 ;
c ul t o f E as t an d , 2 1 0 ; ago n s le Dr I in F
un g s h ui
”
-
sy s t em , 2 3 6;
of D
e l o s , 1 2 2 ; gi n s e n g (m an d ak e ) r r
t i ge j ad e an d w ar , 2 3 6 ; i n
-
ap an , J
o n , 1 7 4 ; go l d , j ad e , p e a l s , &c , i n , r 3 43 ; i n r
ai n ge t t i n g c e e m o ni es ,
-
r
F I r r
.

1 1 1 ; un gus o f m m o rt ali t y i n , 2 5 3 ; i n t o d uc e d w i th b o n z e i n t o
1 1 1 ; ad e j
in , 2 1 5 ; ap an e s e J r
E u o pe , 20 1 ; ap an e s e J
b e li e s f
l e ge n d s o f H o rai z an , 1 1 6 ; s e a c h r r r
e ga d i n g , o f C hi n e s e o i gi n , 2 2 0 ; r
r
fo r , p o m o t e s e x p l o at i o n , 1 1 9 ; r r r
l un a att i b ut e s o f , 2 1 8 ; n o c t urn al
shi pping an d , 29 3 ; S y i a, At r l um i n o s i t y o f, 2 1 6 ; n o n e c l a c e s k
l an t i s , an d o t un at e Fr sle s , 1 2 3 ; I o f , i n C h i n a , 3 3 8 ; o i gi n o f s y m r
H e b i d e s an dr e l an d , 1 2 3 ; Ir ae l i c G b o l i s m o f, 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 ; p e a l s an d , r
A p p l e - l an d , 1 2 3 ; ae l i c o ati n gG fl 1 57; r
p o m o t es l o n ge v i t y , 2 1 6 ;
an d v ani s h i n g i s l an d , 1 2 5 ; s e e r r r
hi n o c e o s h o n an d 2 47 — 9 ; w a m r
r
P a a d i s e an d U n d erw o rl d . an d c o l d , 2 4 9 , 2 5 4 ; us h p att e n
,

r r
Iv y , C h i n e s e go d d e s s an d , 2 7 0 o n , 8 5 , an d al s o n o t e 3 ; s y m b o l i s m
I r r
.

z an agi , c e at i o n of i s l an d s an d o f, 1 6 5 ; s y m b o l i s m o f, an d p e a l
d e i ti e s b y , 3 5 2 ; i n H a d e s , 3 5 7 ; s y m b o li s m , 2 1 2 ; us e d i n s t e ad o f
J
a p an e s e d e i t y , 3 49 e m b al m i n g, 2 2 3 ; w h y s w all o w e d ,
I r r
.

z an am i , c e at i o n of i s l an d s an d 2 1 6 ; w h y s o ugh t i n E u o p e , 2 5 1 ,
d e i ti e s b y , 3 5 2 ; ap an e s e d e i t y , J 2 5 2 ; S p an i s h n am e o f, 2 5 3 ; co l o ur

3 49 ; v isit to an d i gh t om fl fr s y m b o li s m o f, 2 5 3
J
.

H ad e s , 3 5 7 ad e Mo un t ai n 1 3 9 ; i n Chi n es e
r
.

P a adi s e , 1 3 7
Jd J R r k
.

a e L i gh t s h i n i n g at n i gh t ,
as ad e i v e o f P e i n g, 2 3 6
,

r fr J
.

21 8; B ab y l o n i a i m p o t e d , om ap an , ar c h aeo l o gy o f, 3 2 5 ; Ai n u an d

rk
C hi n e s e T u e s t an , 2 0 2 ; B ab y K r
o o p o k gu u,
- -
3 26;r Chin ese
l o n i an n i g-gi l m a an d , 2 4 5 ; b i t h
-
r n am e ap p li e d t o , 3 60 ; d ago n r
as s i s t e d b y , 2 4 3 ; d i s e as e s c u e d r r k
p e a l p e a o f, 3 9 ; d ago n s o f, 4 7 r °

b y , 2 43 ; Mo t h e o d d ess r G
an d , r r r
e a l y s e a c h e s fo r w e al t h i n , 3 3 3 ,
1 5 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 44 ; b o o o f, 2 1 6 r k °
E gy p t i an s h i p s i n , 3 3 ; E m p e ss r
j ui c e o f, 2 1 6 ; g e as e o f, 2 1 6 , r J r
i n go an d p e a l s o f e b b an d o o d , fl
rfl
b utt e i e s i n , 2 2 5 ; C hi n e s e an d 40 ; r
h i s t o y an d m y t h o l o gy o f,
B ab y l o n i an j ad e li n k s , 2 0 2 ; C hi n e s e r
3 2 4 ; ac e s o f, 3 2 4 ; n am e s o f, 3 3 3 ,
Mo t h e r G
o d d e ss c e at e s , 1 52 ; r an d al s o n o t e 3 ; 3 5 2
C h i n e s e s y m b o l i s m o f, 2 0 8 ; C h o u J e w e l t h at g an ts al l r es i e s D r
an d j
H an ad e s i n d i ge n o us , 2 1 2 ; 7 3 , 1 29 ; i n I
n d i a , C h i n a , an d

c i ca d a am ul e t s o f, 2 2 2 ; co fl i n s o f, J ap an , 3 9 ; fis h e y e as , 2 1 8 .
 INDE X 3 EY7
Jw
e e l s as Kmi
i n ap an , 3 43
a J Maga - t am a , c o m m a- s h ap e d b e ad s ,
J F r
.

e w e ls o f l o o d an d E b b 40 3 3 7 (s e e T a m a ) ; c u v e d j e w e l s ,
Jim m u T en no , 3 7 9 , 3 8 6
.

r r
c h i ld e n c e at e d fr
o m , 3 66 i n Am a

J J r
.

i n go , ap an e s e E m p e s s , 40 , 3 8 5 t e ras u c av e -m y t h , 3 6 8
Jk r G r r
. .

o w a, 3 45 ; as Mo t h e o d d ess , Mak a a , d ago n as , 1 5 0 ; e l e p h an t

1 52 h e ad e d d o l p h i n as , 2 0 3 ; e y e o f a
J k Br
un s,
.

u m es e an d C h i n e s e , an d ge m , 2 1 8 ; go ld an d m e c u y an d , r r
E gy p t i an sh i p s , 29 , r
3 2 ; o i gi n o f, 21 5; B ab y l o n i an s e a go a t an d ,
r
-

24 2 1 5 ; go l d an d p e a l s an d , 2 1 5
.

ff r
.

Mal ac hi t e , as o e i n g t o d e ad , 3 7
K am i , th e evi l , 3 43 ; th e J ap an e s e , (s e e Me ta l S y m bo l i s m )
D
.

3 4! Man c h u y n as t y , 2 9 2
J r rk f r
.

K as e n k o , ap an e s e A t e m i s , 1 7 1 Man d a e , as li e p l an t , 2 46 ; c o l o u s
r r
.

K h o t an , as t ad i n g c e n t e , 2 0 2 an d s h ap e s o f , 1 7 4 ; c ul t i v at e d i n

Y r Kr r
.

K i an uan , C h i n e s e go d d e s s , 2 7 0 Ko e a, 3 3 4 ; o e an s p i i t o f, 3 3 5 ;
r r r
.

Ki n gd o m un d e th e S ea 95; cy p ess t e e an d , 1 67 ; d o g an d ,
K us an agi s w o d l e ge n d an d , 1 0 1 r 1 68 ; r
ap p l e t e e an d , 1 6 8 ; ad e j
r
.

K i n gs , My t h i c al C h i n e s e , 2 7 7 an d , 21 6 ; l o t us , p o m e g an at e ,
J r k
.

K o -j i - ki , th e , ap an e s e s ac e d an d , 1 7 2 ; gi n s e n g as , 1 7 4 ; S h a e
b o o , 3 47 k spe a e s
’
r rfr
e e e n ce s t o , 1 6 8 , an d
r r J
.

K o e a, E m p ess i n go an d , 40 ; a l s o n o t e 1 ; s e e P l a n t of L ife

rk
gi n s e n g (m an d a e ) c ul t i v at e d i n , Man i n t h e m o o n 1 46
.

r r r r
.

3 3 4 ; i d e as e ga d i n g s o ul i n , 2 4 1 ; Mari n e s , an c i e n t , 1 3 ; as c ul tu e
J ap an e s e an d , 2 0 ; Ch i ne se o v e r r r
c ar i e s , 3 5 ; m o t i v e s fo r a c t i v i t i e s
run , 2 1 ; t h e d o l m e n i n , 3 2 5 o f, 3 6 ; C h i n e s e , 2 4 ; i n o e a an d K r
Kr k J r r
.

o y a s , E gy p t i an b o at s o f , 3 2 ap an , 2 5 ; C e t e e ac h e d b y , 2 8 ;
r
.

K ud a -t am a , t ub e - s h ap e d b e ad s , e a ly ac t i v i t i e s o f , 2 7 ; E gy p t i an
3 3 7 (s e e T a m a ) v o y age s , 3 0 ; S um e i a s
’
st s ea r fir
K f r
.

u as , C h i n e s e an d Me s o p o t am i an , p o t , 3 0 ; m o t i v e s fo r v o y age s o f,
5 2 45 ; r r
p e a l l o e an d , 4 1 ;
-
P h os
Ku r g r r r
.

an s as c ul t u e c e n t re s , 2 0 0 n i c i an s as t a d e s , 3 0 ; s e a go d s o f,
K us an agi swo rd , 3 82 ; o f J
.

ap an , r r
5 0 ; S um e i a e ac h e d b y , 3 1 ; t h e
1 0 1 P o ly n e s i an , 3 3 ; l o n g v o y age s o f,
Kw
.

T z e , T ao i s t t e a c h e , 3 0 2
an g r 3 3 5 , 3 6 ; w an d e i n gs o f, 44 ; s e e
—
r
r
.

Kw an -y i n , go d d e s s o f m e c y , 2 7 1 ;
as m o t h e r
an d c h i ld gi v e , 2 7 1 ; r May a ge m s y m b o l i s m 3 3 6 , .

as w ar go d d e s s , 2 7 2 Me ad i n m o o n 1 45 , .

Me d i c i n al p l an t s 1 5 8 (s e e
.

T re e f
o
L k
a e o f Li f
e th e I n d i an , 1 2 6 .
,

L an guage o f B i d s
,

i n d ago n r r Me l an e s i a Fi h s -
go d o f, an d r d ago n ,
r
l o e , 7 3 ; i n E gy p t i an d ago n r 68
,

r r dr
.

s l ay i n g m y th , 7 7 ; i n no th e n Me l us i n a l e ge n d , i n C h i n e s e ago n
m y th s , 7 7 r
l o e , 8 7 , 8 8 , 9 7 (s e e P e a rl P ri n
f r
.

L ao T z e , o un d e o f T ao i s m , 2 9 9
r J
O s i i s , uli us C ws ar, &c an d , Mer r cu y i n E l i xi o f L i e, 3 8; r in f
I di
n
,

an m e di c i n e , 2 1 5

Mr
.

L ap i s l az uli ,
-
as e sse n ce of go ld e c y , go d d e s s o f , 2 7 1

M r id r r r r
.

21 9 . e m a s , as p o v i d e s o f h e b c u e s ,
L e e c h - c h i ld , d e i ty c al l e d , 3 5 1 85
Fr f r r
. .

L i gh t n i n g as i e of L i e 1 60 Me t al s , s e a c h fo r, s p e ad s c i v i li z a
r r
.

L i t e at u e , C h i n e s e go d o f, 2 3 3 t i o n , 1 9 9 (s e e Ma ri n e rs an d S h ips )
k
. .

L o i , S us a-n o - w o an d , 3 64 Me t al S y m b o l i s m , 3 7 ; C h i n e s e as s o
r fl r r rk
.

L o t us , F ar E as t e n go d d e s s s o w e ,
’
c i at e d co p p e w i t h d e at h an d d a
1 7 1 ; E gyp t i an H at h o as , 1 7 2 ; th e r r r
n e s s , 3 9 ; i o n d e ad e d b y d ago n s , r
C o sm i c , 3 0 3 .
3 8, 39 ; ee , Gr k I
n d i an , C h i n e s e ,
 39 8 MYTHS OF CHI NA AN D J A PAN
3 7 , 3 8 ; i n C h i n e s e d ago n -l o e , 3 8 ; r r T r e e o f, 1 45 , v ap o u r fr o m , caus es
in I
n d i an c e at i o n r m y th , 38; p r e gn a n c y , 286; y e l lo w d r ago n
I
n d i an c o l o u r
s y m b o l i s m an d , 3 8 ; an d 1 49
r r ,

r
.

m al ac hi t e an d s i l v e as o ff e i n gs Mo o n an d T e e go d d e s s , 1 7 2
t o E gyp t i an d e ad , 3 7 ; C h i nese Mo o n Gr J
i l , t h e ap an e s e , 1 5 0
.

al c h e m i s t s
’
l i q uo of im m or r Mo o n Is l an d , 1 4 8 .
.

t al i t y 3 8 ; w h y go ld w as s o ugh t , Mo o n m e ad 1 4 5
r r r ,
r
.

4 2 ; s e e C o pp e , G o l d , I o n , an d Mo o n ab b i t an d h a e 1 44
r Mo o n Wat e 1 45 r , .

S i lv e
k .

Mi a d o , as O s i ri s an d H o us , 3 8 6 ; r Mo o nl i gh t P e a l 2 1 8
,
r .

r
P a adi s e o f, 3 4 1 ; l i e Ph a ao h s o f k r rG
Mo t h e o d d ess as Mo un t ai n
, .

of
E gy p t , 3 4 1 ; as an O s i i s , 3 3 9 r D aw n 8 5 ; as s un bo at , 1 8 5 ;
1
,

k fr r r
.

Mi ad o s , d e s c e n t o f, o m d e i t i e s , as s o u c e o f m o i s t u e s o f li fe , 1 5 9 ;

3 7 8 ; t h e an c i e n t , 3 7 8 asT r f
e e o f L i e , 1 3 4 ; B a b y l o n i an
k k rk
.

Mi l , E gy p t i an go d d e s s e s s uc l e nig -gi l - m a an d , 2 46 ; m an d a e
s o ul s , 1 3 3 ; fr
om c o c l e s h e ll s i n k - an d , 2 4 6 ; re d e art h an d , 2 46
J
ap an e s e m y t h , 3 7 4 ; o m c o c le fr k C h i h e s e , an d em ete , 1 38, D r
s h e l l s i n S c o t l an d , 3 7 4 , an d al s o r r
C h i n e s e a c h e an d , 1 44 ; C h i n es e
n o te r
4 ; m o t h e l e s s c h il d e n i n r G
e n i us o f t h e H i ll s 2 69 , 2 7 0 ;
T i b e t an m y t h , 2 6 1 ; o ff e e d t o r C h i n e s e N u K w a, 1 5 1 ; j ad e
d e ad i n S c o tl an d , 1 3 3 ; i n E gyp t i an r
c e at e d b y , 1 5 2 ; Ch i n e s e s y m b o ls
r
P a adi s e 1 3 3 ; S e a o f, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 o f, 2 6 5 ; C o s m i c E gg an d , 2 66 ;
k r W
.

Mi l go d d e s s e s , C h i n e s e t i g e s s an d Ch inese S i an g Mu, an d Ja
E uro p e an an d E gy p t i an o m s o f, fr p an e s e S ei o bo , 1 3 7 ; C h i n es e
237 ; v ul t ure s w i th b e as ts i n r tig essr as , 2 3 6 , 2 3 7 ; co l o u e d r
E gyp t i an m y t h , 2 3 8 ; E gy p t i an fr ui ts an d s t o n es o f, 1 65 ; c o n n e c
c o w - go d d e s s , 23 8 (s e e Mo th er ti o n o f, w i t h ge m s an d m e ta l s , 2 1 6 ;
G o d d ess) r
c o al as t e e o f, 1 6 5 ; r c o nn e c t i o n

k r r
.

Mi l y Way , as s o u c e o f Chi n es e , o f, w i t h w at e , 1 6 5 ; D ew of
I
E gyp ti an , an d n d i an i v e s , 1 1 0 , r r I r
m m o t ali t y o m , 1 44 ; fr
E gy p t i an
1 1 1 ; C e l e s t i al ive Ro f, 1 48 ; r an d C hi n e s e , 1 3 7 ; E gyp t i an H a
r
C hi n es e s age e ac h e s , 1 44 ; h o l y th o r feeds s o ul s o f d ea d , 1 33
w o m an r
ea c h e s , 1 4 9 ; s l an d of I r
E u o p e an an i m al o m s o f, 1 8 3 , fr
B l e s t i n , 1 0 6 ; s o ul s i n , 3 1 9 ; S p i n 2 3 7 ; E gy p t i an s e p e n t o m o f, 2 3 7 ; r fr
ni n g Mai d e n o f, 1 47 E gy p t ai n c o w go d d e s s , 2 3 8 ; fis h -

fr r
.

Mi n d , h e art as , 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 o m o f, 2 2 2 ; p e a l co n n e cti o n
D j fr
.

Mi n g y n as t y , 2 9 2 caus e s ad e co nn e c t i o n , 2 2 1 ; o m s
rr fr
.

Mi r o , 3 69 ; i n Arn at e ras u cav e an d att r i b ut e s o f, 2 46 ; go at o m

m y t h , 3 69 (s e e O bs i d i a n ) o f, 1 8 3 ; go l d o f, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 ; i n
f
.

Mi s t l e t o e , as p l an t o f l i e , 1 0 0 ; i n T ao i s m , 3 0 2 ; j ad e c o n t ai n s i n flu
r
As i a , 1 7 6 ; s ac e d t o A i n u, 3 3 0 ; e n ce o f , 2 4 3 ; i an g uan as , 2 7 0 K Y °

s e e P l a n t of L if e l o t us o f, i n F ar E as t an d E gyp t , 1 7 1 ,
D r
.

Mo n go l y n as t y , 2 9 2 m ugw o t o f, 1 7 1 ; m o o n an d , 1 46 ,
r
.

Mo o n , as P e arl o f H e av e n 44
°
1 5 7 ; n i gh t - S hi ni n g ge m s an d h e b s
as s o ur c e o f d e w an d n e c ta , 1 5 7 , r o f, 1 8 6 ; p e ac h an d , i n ap an , 3 4 3 ; J
as s o u ce r
o f li e , 1 5 0 ;f b am b o o r
p e ac h t e e o f, 1 43 ; p o t o f, 1 8 4 ,
an d , 1 5 0 ; C hi n e s e w o m an i n , 1 44 ; 1 87 f
s t ar o rm o f, 1 8 4 ; s ca ab as ,
°
'

r
r
j ad e , p e a l s , m an d a e , &c , S h i n e rk 2 2 3 , c i ca d a as , 2 2 4 ; S co t ti s h , as
k I r rr
.

l i e , 2 1 6 ; Man i n t h e , 1 46 ; n d a a sto ne , 1 8 2 ; S pa o w as m e s s e n ge r
i n , 1 46 ; d o g i n , 1 47 ; m e t al s o f, o f, 1 3 9 ; s t o n e s as , 1 8 5 , p e c i o us r
21 9; Mo t h e rG o d d e s s an d , 1 4 6 ; s t o n e s o f, 1 8 5 t h e Ai n u an d ,
°

n i gh t - s h i n i n g s to n e s an d h e bs r 3 2 9 , 3 3 3 ; th e H e av e n l y L ad y P a ,
an d , 1 8 6 ; p e ar l s an d , 2 1 8 ; as Vr i gi n Mo t h e N u- C h i an d ni n e r
r
p e a l , 64 , 1 5 7 ; s il v e as m e t al o f, r S o n s , 2 68 T h e H e av e n l y L ad y
°

3 7 ; as s o urc e o f W
at e r o f L i e , 1 8 3 ; f P ao 2 7 8 ; T h e P o o s a as go d d e s s
40 0 MYTH S OF CH INA AND JAPA N
2 53 ; B ud d h i s t b e l i e in , 1 26; f Pl um r t ee, d r ago n s
’
b lo o d o ri gi
r
d ago n s an d , 3 9 , 49 ; fis h s c al es n at e s , 8 0
Gr r T r f fl
.

“ ”
an d , 2 2 2 ; e at Be a an d , Pl um ee of Li e, 1 1 6; b utt e r y
23 2 ; i n J
ap an , 3 4 3 ; i n ap an e s e J an d 225
r f S r
, .

w at e s , 3 3 3 ; i n S hi n t o ai t h , 3 3 5 ; P o l ar ta , as Pi v o t of S ky 23 2 ;

j ad e an d , 1 5 7 ; j ad e an d go l d us e d as B ab y l o n i an go d , 2 3 2 ; as
k
li e , 2 1 4; J
ap an e s e T am a , 2 2 0 ; C h i n e s e go d , 2 3 2
r rr
.

N aga s an d , 7 3 ; n i gh t s h i n i n g , 3 9 , -
P o l y n e s i a , an c i e n t m a i n e s e ac h , 45 °

64 , 2 1 6 ; P o l y n e s i an d ago n an d , r r
b i d - go d an d s e rp e n t - go d i n , 7 1
68 ; p o d uc e d atr Dr
ago n B at tl e s , C o s m i c E gg i n , 3 4 8 ; d ago n o f r
57 ; Sha rk
as r
gua d i an o f, 2 2 1 ; r
5 0 , 5 1 ; d ago n o f, an d p e a l s , 5 1 , r
Mo t h e r G
od d ess an d , 2 2 2 ; th e r
d ago n o f, an d B ab y l o n i an , 7 8 ;
m o o n l i gh t , 2 1 8 ; am in g o r fl e ry , fi r
d a go n o f , an d C h i n e s e , 6 7 ; i e Fr
21 8;
’
w h al e s e y e s as , 2 1 8 ; of n ail l e ge n d o f, 8 4 ; a d e n Pa a Gr r
E b b an d F
l o o d , 40 , 5 4 d i s e o f, 3 8 0 ; P a a d i s e o f c hi e s , r f
k r fi r
.

P e i n g, e l i gi o us s i gn i ca n c e of 3 8 1 ; gh o s t s go w e s tw a d , 1 2 1 ; m y t h
S i t uat i o n o f , 2 3 6 r
o f s e p a at i o n o f H e av e n a n d E a t h r
r J r r f
.

P e s e us m y t h , ap an e s e v e s i o n o f, i n , 3 4 8 ; T e e o f L i e i n , 1 3 5 ; w an
3 46 r
d e i n g gh o s t s i n , 1 3 2 ; w e l l o f l i e f
r r
P e s i a , Bi d an d s e rp e n t m y th i n , in , 1 1 9 , 1 20 ; c o nn e c t i o n w i th
74 Am e i ca , 1 2 0r
r r
. .

P e ruv i an s , w h al e w o s h i p p e d b y , P o l y n e s i an go d s , C hi n e s e d ago n s
49 an d , 4 8 ; r
b i d s , b e as ts , an d re p
r r
P h oen i c i an s , Af i c a c i c um na v i gat e d t i l e s as , 4 8 ; i n s e a s h e ll s , 4 8 p ro
frr
b y , 3 4 ; as s e a a e s , 3 0 ; S o l o t e c t o rs o f fi r
s h e i e s , 49

r r r
.

P o l y n e s i an s , E gyp t i an b o ats o f, 3 3
’
m on s m a in e s w e e, 3 6; as
’
r r
E gy p t s m a i n e s , 3 4 ; c o l o n i es o f, l o n g v o y age s o f, 3 3 .

i n E uro p e an d A s i a , 3 0 P o o s a (s e e K w a n -y i n)
k r r r
. .

P i e , N o t h e n G o d as , 7 7 P o t , t h e Mo t h e , 1 6 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 7 , 3 0 3 ;
r r
.

Pil l a s o f C a d i n al P o i n t s , 2 2 7 , 2 68 . B ab y l o ni an n i g-gi l - m a an d , 2 4 5 ;
Pi n e , Ai n u an d , 3 3 0 ; C hi n e s e go d C hi n e s e , 2 6 6 ; L o t us an d , 1 7 2
r f
.

d e s s an d , 2 7 0 P o t t e s , m al e an d e m al e , 1 5
r J r
. .

P i n e T e e , Mai d e n o f, 1 7 0 ; ap an es e
’
P o tt e s w h e e l , an E gyp t i an i n v e n
Jo an d U b a o f , 1 7 1 ; m ug wo t an d , r ti o n , 1 3 ; Ch ina e ce iv es , 1 7 r °

1 68 ; J
ap an e s e d o g an d p i n e s t o ry , C hi n e s e s am e as E gy p t i an , 2 2 ,
1 68 i n B ab y l o ni a an d P e s i a , 2 2 ; di d r
.

r
P in e T e e o f L i e , 1 1 6 , 1 6 6 f no t e v o lv e 1 7; un n o w n i n k
Pl an e t s , t h e fiv e , m y t hi cal i n gs an d , k
.

r
A m e i c a , 1 8 ; ap an e s e e ce i v e , 2 0 ;J r
274 K r
o e an s an d , 2 0 , 2 1 ; P t ah - O s i i s r
.

P l an t o f B i rt h , 3 3 5 an d , 2 0 ; s ac e d r
i n E gy p t , 1 9 ;
f
.

Pl an t o f L i e , B ab y l o n i an l e ge n d o f, rfr
B i b li cal e e e n c e s t o , 1 9 ; C h i n e s e
99; B ab y l o ni an n i g gi l m a an d , - - rr
E m p e o s an d p o tt e s , 1 9 — 2 0 ; w e n t r
2 45 ; go at an d , 1 7 3 ; in T a o i s m , r r
fa t h e th an i n v e n t o s , 4 2 r
J r
.

3 20 ; ap an e s e eed S hoot as , P o tt e ry an d c i v i l i z at i o n , 1 4 , I 5
rk r r r
.

3 49 , 3 5 0 ; m an d a e as , 1 7 4 , 2 46 ; P o tt e y , e l i gi o us an d s e c ul a , 1 8
r r r
.

t e a as , 1 7 5 ; m i s t l e t o e as , i n As i a P o g e s s , O i gi n o f, 1 2
r
.

an d E ur o p e , 1 7 6 ; i v y an d m ug P t ah , E gyp t i an go d (o r P t ah - O s i i s ) ,
r
w o t i n A s i a , 1 7 6 ; m an d a e (gi n rk as d i v i n e p o tt e , 2 0 r
r f
.

s e n g) , m us h o o m an d un gus as , P um p e ll y E x p e d i t i o n , 2 0 0
J r
.

in ap an , 3 3 5 ; m i s tl e t o e as , 1 0 0 ; P u p l e S e a , 1 40
r fr r
.

o i gi n o f , om te a s o f d ei ti es ,
1 80 ; s ap o f, as e l ix i , 1 45 ; r R ab b i t o f m o o n , 1 44
R r
.

h e m p as , 1 8 0 ; t h e h uc h u 1 77 ; ai n go d , d ago n as , 5 5
r I
.

th e oot i n T ao i s m , 3 1 2 Re d s l an d , E gyp t i an H o rus an d ,

P l an ts o f L ife , 1 5 8 .
99
 INDEX
Re e d P l ai n s , L an d o f, C hi n a an d S e i o b o , 3 8 0 ; C o s m i c E gg an d , 2 66 ,
J ap an as , 3 60 2 67 ; J ap an e s e go d d e s s , 1 3 7 ; s am e

R d Sh t i J W
.

ee oo n ap an e s e m y t h , 3 49 as S i an g Mu o f C h i n a , 1 3 7

R d r r
, . .

ee l i gi u
s , re o s us e o f, 85, an d al s o S e p e n t an d b i d m y t h s , 66
r
.

t 3
no e S e rp e n t c h arm , S c o tt i s h , e s e m b l es
Rhi r hr
.

no ce os q uali t i e s o f,
o n , h e ali n g C hi n e s e , 5 7
j Y r r r
.

2 49 ; ad e an d , 2 47 ; an g i n , 2 48 ; S e p e n t , O s i i s as , 5 9 ; t h e h o n e d ,
p ea l r fi r
s h e s us e d , 2 4 9 ; n o c t urn al d r ago n an d , 5 4 ; w at e s n a e b e r k
l um i n o s i ty o f, 2 1 9 , 2 49 ; w arm r
co m e s d ago n , 5 4 ; s e e S n a k e .

an d c o ld , 2 49 S e t , gaz e ll e an d , 5 2
R r r r D r
. .

h i n o c e o s , p o t o ty p e o f uni c o n , S h an g y n as t y, 2 8 5 8;
—
P at i arc h
r
2 5 0 ; h e b s an d , 2 5 0 ; as ud gm e n t J P h an g i n , 3 1 9 .

B e as t , 2 5 0 S h an g t i , G o d o f S k y , 2 7 2
-

W k r
. .

Ri p Van i n l e s , th e C hi n e s e , 1 7 7 S h ao - K ’
an g , t h e C h i n e s e H o us , 2 8 5

k r
.

1 80 S h ar , as gua d i an o f p e arl s , 2 2 1 ;
Ri r f f
.

ve of Li e, P o l y n e s i an b e l i e re K i n g as , 68 , 6 9 ; s e e D rago ns
r G rk r
.

ga d i n g, 1 21 ; an ge s as , 1 21 ; S h a s , as d ago n s i n P o l y n e s i a , 7 8 ;
L e t h e as , 1 2 1 r
d ago n s an d , 47 , 48
Ru h m r
. .

s at s , m agi c al us e o f, 85 S h e ll s , an c i e n t t ad e i n , 4 3 ; t e
Ru h p r f
.

s at t e n s o n j ad e 8 5 l i gi o us us e o f, 43 ; B ud d h i s t b e l i e
Ru i rk , .

T u
s s an e s t an , B ab y l o ni an i n i n , 1 2 6 ; c o w ry s y m b o li s m , 44 ;
flue n c e i n , 20 2 d e i t i e s an d , 44 ; go ld an d , 1 64 ;
k fr
.

m il o m , 3 7 4 , an d al s o n o t e 4 ;

rfi
S ac i ce s , h um an , i n C hi n a, 2 9 0 P o l y n e s i an d r ago n an d , 5 1 ; P o l y
r
.

S al m o n , w o s hi p p e d b y A i n u, 3 3 0 ; m e s i an go d s i n , 4 8
r r f r r r
.

a s d ago n i n C h i n a , 7 6 ; as d ago n S h e n - m i n g, as at h e o f ag i c ul t u e
i n S c o t l an d , 7 5 ; as i s h d r ago n, Ir r
2 0 ; O s i i s an d , 2 7 7
,

r
.

7 7 ; L o ki as , 7 6 S h e n s i , as c ad l e o f C hi n e s e c i v ili z a
S al m o n of n o w l e d ge th e K ti o n , 2 0 9
G J
.

ae li c , 7 7 S h i n t ai ( go d b o d y ) , t h e ap an e s e ,

r
.

S an T s i h e b , go at an d , 1 7 3 (s e e 3 3 8 ; S p i ri t o f K
am i i n , 3 4 1

r fl f
.

P l a n t of L ife ) S hi n t o , co n c e n e d c hi e y w i t h o o d
r fr r
.

S c a ab , j a d e o m s e s e m b l e , 2 2 6 s up p l y , h e al t h , &c , 3 4 0 ; d e i ti e s
S co t l ai i d , A p p l e l an d P a ad i s e , 1 2 4 ; r f Dr
. .

o f fir e , o o d , &c , 3 5 2 ; ago n
r r F G
.

d o c t i n e o f C a di n al P o i n t s i n , l o o d m y t h i n , 3 46 ; o d s o f S e a,

2 2 9 ; e agl e c ar i e s m an t o r s l an d I 3 5 2 ; m y t h o f s e p a ati o n o f h e av e n r
r
P a ad i s e , 1 2 9 ; e agl e - s t o n e an d an d e art h i n , 3 47 , 3 48 ; n o t N at u e r
rav e n - s t o n e , 1 29 ; ae l i c s t o ry G r
w o s hi p , 3 8 6 ; d o c t i n e s o f, 3 3 5 ; r
r r
e ga d i n g w at e o f li e , 1 2 0 ; go d r f r e v i v al o f, 3 8 7

r
.

d e s s as s t o n e , 1 8 2 ; go d d e s s w i t h S hi p b ui ld i n g , o i gi n o f, i n E gyp t , 2 7 ;
r
h am m e , 2 6 2 ; o ff e i n gs t o d e a d i n , r as E gy p t i an n at i o n al i n d us t y , 2 8 r
r
.

1 33 ; s al m o n as d ago n i n , 7 5 ; S h i p s ,A n c i e n t E gyp t i an an d C hi n e s e ,
s o ul fr
o m s i n , 2 40 ; c all i n g b ac k 24; r
e a li e s t , o n C hi n e s e c o as t s ,
o f s o ul s , 2 4 1 ; w i n d - ai s i n g S t o n e s r 29 3 ; E gy p t i an , i n B urm ah , &c ,
J
.

in, 58 3 2 ; i n ap an , 3 2 ; i n F ar E as t , 3 2 5
r r
.

S c o tt i s h s e p e n t c h a m res e m b l e s Mal ay , P o ly n e s i an , &c , 3 3 ; C e c i l

rr
.

C hi n e s e , 5 7 To on E gy p t i an t yp e s o f, 3 3 °

fr r r
.

S e a- c o w s , 5 0 w en t a th e t h an i n v e n t o s , 4 2
r r
.

S e a- d o gs , d ago n s an d , 48 ; as gua s e e B a rge of D e a th , B o a t of D ea th ,

d i an s o f p e a l s , 4 8 r N a v i ga ti o n , an d Ma ri n ers
frr rr fi r r
. .

S e a a e s , an c i e n t (s e e Ma ri n e rs) S h un , t h e E m p e o , as s h e , p o t t e ,
r r
S e a t ad e , e a l y , 2 9 3 (s e e S h ips )
.

r r r
an d ag i c ul t u i s t , 2 0 ; s o n o f ai n
r r
.

S e c e t ary B i r d , m un go o s e e p l ac e s , bow , 280

I r r k
.

in n di an m yth , 73 ; o i gi n of S i b e i a, a rt li n s w i t h C h i n a, 2 0 3 °

r
b i d an d s e p e n t m y t h , 7 1 , 7 2 r . r k r
b o n z e li n s w i th E u o pe , 20 5
40 2 . MYTH S OF CHINA AND JAPAN
go ld i n , 2 0 2 ; h o s e s ac i c e s i n , r rfi S ta r go d d e s s es o f C hi n a an d E gy p t ,
3 55; r e li gi o us s y m b o l s o f, 2 0 3 1 47
r r Dr
. .

S i gu d , C h i n e s e S h un an d , 2 8 0 S t ar go d s , as an c e s t o s , 2 7 5 ; ago n
k r r r
.

S i l -w o m s , C h i n e s e E m p e s s n o ur S w o d s an d , 2 7 5
J r rr
.

i sh es , 27 8 ; ap an e s e m y th of S t a s , C h i n e s e E m p e o s an d , 2 7 7
r
o i gi n o f, 3 69 8 0 ; C h i n e s e go d an d go d d e s s o f ,
S il r rr Ir
.

ve as m oon 37; as m e t al , 23 3 ; E m p e o Y u an d , 2 8 1 ; ish

f ri
o fe
,
n g t o d e ad , 3 7 ; B ab y l o n i an m yt h an d C hi n e s e , 2 8 1 , 2 8 2 ;
l
n i g -gz - m a an d , 2 4 5 ; b a d m e t al Gr r e at Be a c o n s t e l l at i o n as
in I din a, 3 8 ; B ud d h i s t b e li e i n , f r r fY
co n t o ll e o an g an d Y in, 23 1 ;
6 r
1 2 ; p e a l s , &c , an d , 2 1 9 ; T e e r N r W r ld
o se o m i ll an d , 2 3 2

f r
. .

f
o L i e o o t s are , 1 1 6 ; s e e M e ta l S ff
to n e , c of ins o 226
f D rk r
, .

S y m bo li s m S to n e o a n ess co p p e an d ,
W
.

Si an g Mu
3 8 0 ; C h i n e s e go d d e s s , 39
1 37; J
ap an e s e
,

S e i o b o an d , 1 3 7 ; S r
.

(
to n e te a s , 1 T ea s ) 81 see r
C o s m i c e gg an d , in S Dr
t o n e s , as ago n E ggs , 5 8 , 5 9 ;
.

C h in es e l e ge n d , 1 3 9 d e i ti e s i n , 1 8 2 ; o m ed by s ap , fr
Dr
.

S n ak e , ago n -m ai d e n as , 8 7 ; Ja 1 82; go at s as , 1 8 4; C h i n es e
r
p an e s e d a go n as , 3 5 3 , s e e S erp en t r
s p i i ts i n , 1 8 5 ; h e b s an d , 1 8 6 ; r
r r k r
.

S o l o m o n , as i m p o t e o f p e ac o c s , n i gh t s h i ni n g, -
64 , 1 8 6 ; w at e
r
3 2 ; i m p o t s o f, 3 4 ; s hi p s o f, 3 0 y i e l d i n g , 1 8 6 ; N o s e go d s s p i n g r r
r fr r r fr
.

S o m a , m o o n an d , 1 4 5 (s e e A m i t a ) om , 1 82 ; Mi th a s p i n gs o m
W r J r k I f
.

S o ul , as h i t e Bi d i n ap a n e s e o c , 1 82 ; n d o n e s i an b e li e s re
m y t h , 3 8 4; cal li n g b a c o f, i n k gar di n g , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 ; S y i an go d d e s s r
r
C hi n a, S i b e i a , E gy p t , an d B i t i s h r an d , 2 1 7 ; S y r i an go d d es s 8 ni gh t
’

Is le s , 241 ; C h i n e s e i d e as re s h i n i n g ge m , 2 1 7 ; th e ago n , Dr
gard i n g , 2 3 9 ; c an e as c a i e o f, r rr r r
1 8 2 ; t u q uo i s e , an d go d d e s s , 5 8 ;

2 40 ; b o at o f, 2 40 ; d ago n as r E gy p t i an go d d e s s an d , 5 8 ; v i t al
ca ierr r o f, 2 40 ; d e p art u e o f, r e s s e n c e g ad e d i n , 1 8 6 r
r r
.

d u i n g l if e , 2 40 ; an i m al , &c , S t o n e s an d t e e s , 1 8 0
f r I rk
. .

o rm s o f , i n E u o p e , 2 40 ; ndo S t o , t h e b l ue , 1 40
fr r r
.

n e s i an o m s o f, 2 4 1 ; t w o s o ul s S um e i a , c ul t u e o f, b e gi n s i n s ea
i n C hi n a , 2 4 1 ; E gy p t i an i d e as p o r t , 3 0 ; d a go n - r
go d ( E a) o f, 3 0 ,
r r
e ga d i n g, i n C hi n a , 2 4 1 ; a p an e s e J 5 2 ; e a ly s e a a e s r frr r
e ac h , 3 1 , 3 2
d e ad as an i m al s , 3 4 1 ; n o gh o s t s i n (s e e B a by l o ni a )
D
.

e arl y S hi n t o , 3 4 1 ; am i a n d , 3 43 ; K S un g y n as t y , 2 9 2
k r J
.

i n gs an d an c e s t o s as go d s , 2 4 2 ; S un go d d e s s , ap an es e , i n c av e , 3 68 ,
ki rin s as ca rr r
i e s o f, 2 40 ; i n 3 69
m o on or s t arl an d , 2 40 ; t an s r S un , go l d as m e tal o f, 3 7
r
m i g ati o n o f , 2 4 0 ; o e an b e li e K r f S us a n o w o , as L o d o f H ad es , 3 7 4
-
r
.

i n t h r e e s o ul s , 2 4 1 ; S hi n t o i d e as b an i s h m e n t o f, 3 6 5 ; c e at e s c hi l r
r r
e ga d i n g, 3 3 5 ; so ld i e s
’
s p i i ts r r r fr
d en om e w e l s , 3 66 j
c hil d r e n
°

r
w o s hi p p e d i n ap an , 3 8 6 J o f, 3 73 ; d a g o n - la i n
s y g m yt h , r
r r f
.

S p ar o w as m e s s e n ge o f go d d e s s , 371 ; s l ay s oo d go d d e s s , 3 6 9 ;
1 39 rr
h a i es H e av e n , 3 6 8 ; e x p ul s i o n
J
.

S p i n e s o f fis h an d w h al e s as am ul e ts an d p un i s h m e n t o f , 3 6 9 ; ap an e s e

r
i n E u o p e an d Am e i ca , 4 9 r r
d ago n - s l ay e , 3 4 6 ; s o n o f z an agi , r I
k I r
.

S p i n ni n g Mai d e n i n Mi l y Way , 1 47 , 3 6 2 ; as w e e p i n g go d , 3 6 3 ; nd a
1 48 (s e e Mi l ky Way an d Mo th er an d , 3 6 3

Dr r
.

go d d esse s) S w 0 rd ,t h e ago n ( K us an agi s w o d ) ,

r
.

S p i i t s (s e e S oul ) 3 82
f r r r J Dr
. .

S p i ri t s o f all e n s o ldi e s w o s hi p p e d S w o d , t h e ap an e s e ago n , 3 7 2

J
i n ap an , 3 8 6 r r f
S w o d t an s o rm e d i n t o t e e , 1 8 3 r
.

r r r
. .

S t ag, C h i n e s e go d d e s s an d , 1 40 : S w o d s , d ago n s an d S t a s an d , 2 7 5 ;
r
d ago n an d , 5 1 . r
an d h e b s , 1 0 0 .
40 4 M YTH S or CHI NA AN D JAPAN
U ni cor hi r d n, r n o ce o s an 250 W es t e n r r di
Pa a se , B ud d h a o f, 2 1 0
Wh M ri d r rd
, . .

a e,l ao ago n co m pa e to
V ir d r
,

am p e, 6 6 ago n as , 4, 5 .
49 ; S c o t t i s h w i t c h e s a n d , 49 ;
d o l p h i n , d ugo n g, an d , 5 0 ; w o r
W ll h Gr
a t e e at , 2 9 1 29 2 s hi p p e d i n P e u, 49 ; d ago ns an d , r r
W i J Dr k
, , .

an (
ap an e s e , ) 3 54 se e agon 4 9 ; b ac b o n e o f, as am ul e t i n
,

r r r r
.

W ar d f Chigo i
o 6 n a, t ge as , 2 3 C e t e , i n L i gu i a, an d Am e i ca ,
W r dr r ll r f r
.

at e a go n co n t o e o 23 5; 4 9 ; p ea l s as e y es o f, 2 1 8
W r r
, ,
s to n e s an d 8 5 59 i l l o w , s ac e d i n S i b e i a, 3 3 0
W r d r
, , .

a te fire 1 5 9 , 1 0
an 6 s ac e d t o Ai n u, 3 3 0
W r f f d r rh W r W
. . .

’
at e o L i e , A l e x an e s s e a c i n d , co n t o ll e d b y h i t e T i ge r
f o r, 1 2 5 ; b ody m o i s t u es r an , d go d , 2 3 5 (s e e T iger)
d J rh W k
.

51 9; C hi n es e an ap an e s e s e a c i n ge d d i s , i n E gyp t an d Me x i co ,
f 8
o r, 1 3 ; d e w as , 1 3 9 ; dr
ago n s 71
r W r
.

d
an , 7 5 , 1 59 ; H aw a an ii S to y i n t e , as d ry s e as o n i n C h i n a, 5 6
fo G li
1 20 ; f ae c S t o ry o 1 20 ; W f K
o l , as J
am i i n ap an , 3 4 3
.

Il d f ,

W r G r J
.

i C hi
n n es e s an o B le s t , 1 1 0 ; o ld ua d i an s , ap an es e , 3 43
i En r di
gy p t i an i Pa a se, 33;
1 n Wo ld r Mi ll ,Gr e at Be a co n r
.

F h i
un g-s d ri u i o ct ne , 2 3 4; n s t e ll ati o n an d , 2 3 2
T i i
3 0 2 , 3 1 , 3 2 1 ; n v a o us
ao s m 7 ri W r
o ld Mo un t ai n , 1 3 7
.

P r di W r r
, .

a a ses , 1 29 ; in B b l
a y o n an i o ld T e e , 1 3 6 (s e e T re e of L ife)
r W r .

’
h
m yt , 1 3 2 ; l un a po t o , 1 7 f 8 °
o ld s A ges , m e t al s an d d o c t ri n e
l r r f 8
un a s o u c e o , 1 3 ; P o t an , 2 4 d 6 o f, 3 7 ; Gr k I ee an d n d i an , 3 7 (s e e
S o uth S I l d r di
e a s an t a ti o n o , 1 2 1 f Ages , th e My th i ca l )
r fr r 8 f r D
.

te a dd om go ess s ta 1 4; Wu, o un d e o f C h o u y n as ty ,
S i b ri r G
,

e ll an l
we s, 20 4; un a 1 45 ; il gam e s h , &c , an d , 2 8 8 ; o d e o n
,

r
.

p urp l e, 1W ll f i f40 ; se e e o L e b i rt h o f, 2 8 8 ; e i gn o f, 2 8 9 ; h um an
W r k
at e d d
s n a es an rago n s , 54 rfi r
s ac i ce s i n t o d uce d b y , 2 9 0
W lh r i rr
. .

ea t , i e l i g o us
i n c e nt v e t o q ue s t Wu Y i h , t h e E m p e o , b lo o d b ag o f,
-

f
o 45 2 8 6; p l ay s di c e w i t h go d , 2 8 6 ;
W ll f L i f C l
.
.

e o e, ey on , 1 21 ; at K a fir i d o l b e at i n g , 2 8 7 ; E gyp t i an
-

H li e l o po r is, 1 22 ;f g een w at e r o k i n g an d , 2 8 7 , an d al s o n o t e 1
K r
, .

1 25 i ; n 6 i o E i
an , 1 2 ; n gyp t an

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