You are on page 1of 222

Yixia Wei

The Chinese Philosophy


of Fate

123
Yixia Wei
Beijing
China

Translated by Weidong Wang

ISBN 978-981-10-4369-7 ISBN 978-981-10-4371-0 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4371-0
Jointly published with Heilongjiang Education Press

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953830

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Heilongjiang Education Press 2017

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature


The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is:
152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
Contents

1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1


1.1 Human Destiny as Decided by Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Reverence and Proper Acceptance of One’s Fate . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Knowing One’s Own Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Holding One’s Fate in Awe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 The Arbitrariness and Inscrutability of Divine Fate . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 13
2.1 The Belief in Divine Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 13
2.1.1 The Belief in Heaven as the Ultimate Cause
of the Universe and “Divine Will” . . . . . . . . . . . .... 14
2.1.2 Divine Will and Heaven’s Love of Righteousness
and Abhorrence of Injustice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 16
2.2 The Belief in Divine Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 22
2.2.1 Obeying Heaven’s Will Shall Be Rewarded, and
Contradicting and Violating It Shall Be Punished . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Bending to Heaven’s Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.3 Righteous Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 The Belief in the Existence of Ghosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Professed Existence of Ghosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 The Intermediary Role of Gods and Ghosts . . . . . . . . . 30
3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 The Vision of Divine Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Heaven’s Destiny and Man’s Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Heaven’s Will Is Man’s Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 Heaven’s Will Is Overshadowed by Man’s Will . . . . . . 37
3.2.3 Man’s Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 The Manifest Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.1 Understanding One’s Mental Faculties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2 Knowing One’s Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Following the Course of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.4 Living One’s Life Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 On Tao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1 The Nature of Tao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.2 The Tao of Heaven and the Tao of Man . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 The Truth About Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.1 Life Has No Essence That’s Supposed to Be
in Man’s Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 49
4.2.2 Man Is Born as Conditioned, in Constant Coercive
Passivity and Resignation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 49
4.2.3 Confronted with Life, Man Is at a Total Loss . . . . ... 50
4.2.4 Man’s Life Is Short, but Life Is not the Original
or Normal State of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 51
4.3 On the Equality of Life and Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 52
4.3.1 Life and Death Are the Two Sides of the Same
Coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 53
4.3.2 Death Enjoys Superiority Over Life in Duration
of Existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.3 Life and Death Are Equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4.1 Inaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4.2 Uselessness (Inutility) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.3 Wuqing (Desireless) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.4 Sitting Forgetting (In Oblivion) and Fasting
of the Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 60
5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man . . . . . . . . 65
5.1 Discourse on Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1.1 Heaven Equals Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1.2 Heaven’s Rule Is Independent of Man’s Will . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.3 All Anomalies Are just Celestial Events . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.4 Heaven Cannot Decide the Rise or Fall of Human
Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 67
5.2 Discourse on Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 68
5.2.1 “Man Has Energy, Life, Intelligence and
Righteousness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 68
5.2.2 “People Are Able to Form Society While Animals
Are Not” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 69
5.2.3 “What Makes Humans Human… Their Ability to
Distinguish” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 70
5.3 The Destiny Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 72
5.3.1 Man Is the Product of Nature and Must Abide by
Natural Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 72
5.3.2 Living in a Certain Social Group, Man Must Obey
Social Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 73
5.3.3 At the Macro Level, Man Can Govern His Own
Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.4 At the Micro Level, Man’s Destiny Is Coincidental . . . 75
5.4 Master of Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.1 Sages Are of High Moral Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.2 Teachers Are Men Who Are Erudite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.3 An Emperor Is the Noblest Being of a Country . . . . . . 77
6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1 Heaven-Based Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Human Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2.1 Mankind’s Body and Physiology Replicate Heaven . . . 82
6.2.2 Man’s Emotion and Physiological Manifestation
Replicate Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 83
6.2.3 Human Nature Replicates Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 83
6.2.4 Mankind’s Morality Stems from Heaven . . . . . . . . ... 84
6.2.5 Mankind’s Language and Idea Reveal Heaven’s
Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Interaction Between Mankind and Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.1 Things of One Kind Have a Connection . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.2 Propitious Omen and Cautionary Scourge . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 The Kingly Tao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.4.1 Statecraft Stems from the Law of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4.2 The Administrative Measures of a Country
Complies with Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 89
6.4.3 Selection and Assignment of Officials Follow
the Number of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 89
7 Natural Fatalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1 The Original Ch’i of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1.1 Man Is Created by Heaven and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1.2 Heaven Operates in a Natural Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.2 Natural Fatalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2.1 Hylozoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2.2 Fatalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.3 Awaiting Fatalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3.1 Good Deeds Has Nothing to Do with Fate . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3.2 Sacrifice and Divination Are Unrelated to Fate . . . . . . . 104
7.4 Cognitive Fatalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.4.1 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.2 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Morality . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.3 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8 Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1 Individualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1.1 Neither Heaven nor Earth Can Give Birth
to Anything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1.2 Individualization of Everything’s Self-existence . . . . . . 112
8.2 Inherent Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.3 Man and Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3.1 Man’s Living Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3.2 Life and Death, Fortune and Misfortune Are All
Written in One’s Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.4 Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4.1 Freedom from Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4.2 Freedom from Conscious Desire to Alter . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.4.3 Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.4.4 Connecting with Nature and Forgetting Everything . . . 125
9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.1 Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.2 Hedonist Approach to Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.2.1 Life Is Short, Enjoy Every Minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.2.2 Life, Longevity and Wealth Are All Pre-determined
and Unalterable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.2.3 Life Should not Be Too Restricted by Rituals and
Ethics, and Man Should Learn to Enjoy . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.3 Natural Subjection to Disposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.3.1 Unaffected and Natural Subjection to Destiny . . . . . . . 135
9.3.2 Mental Voidness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
10.1 Taoism, Metaphysics and Unification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
10.2 A Natural Attitude Towards Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.2.1 Immortality, Wealth and Longevity Are All
Destined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.2.2 Follow the Course of Destiny and Feel no Worries . . . 143
10.3 Longevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
10.3.1 The Existence of the Immortal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.3.2 The Diversity of Universal Existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.3.3 The Alteration of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.3.4 The Wonder of Magic Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.3.5 The Method of Pursuing Immortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.4 Approaches to Immortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.4.1 Preserving Unification and Qi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.4.2 Ingesting Elixir and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.1.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.1.2 Destiny Are Predetermined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.2 The Oneness of Heaven, Li, Dao, Nature, Destiny
and Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.2.1 The Oneness of Heaven, Li and Dao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.2.2 The Oneness of Heaven, Li, Destiny, Nature
and Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.2.3 “To Fully Understand Li, to Fully Develop One’s
Nature and to Fulfill One’s Destiny Are the Same.” . . . 160
11.3 Destiny Determined by Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.3.1 To Preserve One’s Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.3.2 To Know One’s Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
11.3.3 “Destiny Lies in Righteousness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.4 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4.1 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4.2 To Fulfill Destiny by Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4.3 To Maintain Oneself and Keep Righteousness . . . . . . . 167
12 The Duality of Fate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.1 The Theory of Principle as the Supreme Ultimate, and the
Outlook on Principle & Vital Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.1.1 The Characteristics and Rules of Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
12.1.2 The Theory on Creation by the Union of Li and Qi . . . 173
12.2 The Duality of Fate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
12.2.1 Human Fate Is Determined by Li and Qi, Which Are
Both Indispensible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
12.2.2 Li Is Undifferentiated, and Qi Endowment Is
Differentiated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
12.3 The Duality of Human Nature Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
12.3.1 The Connection Between Fate and Nature Versus
the Separation Between the Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
12.3.2 The All-Good Heavenly Principle, and the Varying
Degrees of Goodness of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
12.4 The Theory of Eliminating Desires and Retaining the
Heavenly Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
12.4.1 Proper Treatment of the Duality of Human Fate
and Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.4.2 Preserve the Heart, Investigate Things, and Extend
Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature . . . . . . 189
13.1 Man Originates from Heaven and Fate Is Determined by
Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
13.2 Humanistic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
13.2.1 World Is a Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.2.2 Destiny Is Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.3 The Theory of Creating Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
13.3.1 The Necessity of Creating Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.3.2 The Possibility of Creating Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.3.3 The Content of Creating Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.4 Create Fate and Way to Master Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.4.1 Subjection to Hardships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.4.2 Worry and Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.4.3 Be Modest and Tolerant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
13.4.4 Cherish Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
13.4.5 Self-Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
13.4.6 Take Delight in Hard Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
14 Mind Creates Fate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
14.1 Causality and Karma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
14.1.1 Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
14.1.2 Theory of the Karmic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.1.3 Communal Karmic Rewards Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
14.2 Mind Creates Circumstance Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.3 Theory of Individual Fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.4 National Fate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.4.1 Heroes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
14.4.2 Geographical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 1
The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

Is man’s fate pre-determined by heaven or created by man himself after birth? Does
heaven arrange man’s fate by randomly or by design? According to the view of
heaven’s arbitrary determination, a man’s fate is pre-arranged by heaven; once it is
settled, there is no altering it. As for why there are people rich or poor, honorable or
humble, clever or slow-witted, or benevolent or vicious, all is decided by sheer
chance and hardly explicable using a cause-and-effect rationale. In the pre-Qin
period, the most ardent advocate of this notion was Confucius.

1.1 Human Destiny as Decided by Heaven

Confucius adopted the tradition of simultaneous reverence and fear of heaven from
the Shang and Zhou eras. He once exclaimed: “Ah, heaven overrides all!”1 He
regarded heaven as a sacred, omnipotent presence governing as supreme master of
human society. This view, in fact, was treating heaven ontologically. However, a
thorough reading of Confucius’ ontological philosophy shows that he did not say
much about the ontological nature of heaven. Amongst his doctrines, what best
represents heaven’s ontological nature and supreme authority is his vision of
heaven’s arbitrary determination. Therefore, that vision is the key to understanding
Confucius’ ontological views about heaven. It can well be divided into four aspects.
Firstly, heaven decides whether a man can survive at all or live long. In
Confucius’ view, a man’s health or longevity is willed by heaven. In a similar vein,
illness is also a result of divine arrangement. Confucius, according to the “Yong
Ye” section of Analects (also known as Lunyu), once went to call on his disciple
Boniu, who was gravely ill. Upon seeing him, he gripped Boniu’s hand from

1
Analects: Taibo of Wu.
2 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

outside the window and said, “This man is dying. It’s fate! To think that such a
person should have contracted such a disease! What a mishap!” In the depth of
Confucius’ consciousness, all is pre-determined by one’s destiny. When he saw his
disciple in a critical condition, his first reaction was to attribute the condition to
divine will. Mournful and fatalistic, he blurted out the above-quoted remark.
Secondly, heaven decides a man’s familial ties and social status. Confucius not
only thought that a man’s natural attributes such as life or longevity are predeter-
mined by heaven; he went on to say that what members a family consists of and
whether they’re rich or poor, or of high or low class, cannot escape heaven’s
influence. According to the “Yan Yuan” section of Analects, Sima Niu once sadly
grumbled, “Why haven’t I a good brother as everybody else does?” To this com-
plaint, his friend Zixia replied: “I used to hear people say that ‘One’s life or death,
or wealth or poverty, is all up to heaven.’” Zixia here meant that since everything is
a matter of fate, one might as well leave to heaven the question of whether one
should have a brother or how many brothers he or she should be endowed with.
What’s noteworthy here is that Zixia clearly indicated that this thought had been
heard from someone else and was not his own. Who could it have been? Judging
from the fact that Zixia was one of Confucius’ favorite disciples, this thought was
probably borrowed from Confucius. Zixia’s idea coincided with Confucius’; it
could well be viewed as reflecting the latter’s own stance.
Thirdly, heaven decides a man’s level of intelligence, talent and virtue.
Confucius held that those three attributes are inherent rather than acquired. Heaven
divides humans into four classes: those who know even prior to their birth, those
who know after proper learning, those who learn only when they find themselves
stranded in trouble, and those who will not learn even in trouble. Then heaven
bestows diverse talents and virtues upon them accordingly. Confucius modestly
asserted that he was definitely no born genius; he was instead only a keen learner.
However, he took pride in how he was so favored by heaven. He often behaved as if
he had been commissioned to carry out heaven’s will. In Historical Records: the
Story of Confucius’ Family, for example, we read:
Thus, the Master left the Kingdom of Cao and later settled down in the Kingdom of Song.
One day while he was teaching his disciples about rituals and etiquette under a huge tree,
someone warned him that HuanTui, a General of the Song army, was planning to murder
him by uprooting the tree under which he was giving instruction. The Master quietly rose to
leave. His disciples said, “Hurry up, master!” “I won’t,” he answered. “With my virtue and
talent bestowed by heaven, what harm can HuanTui really do to me?”

The last words in this quotation, “With my virtue and talent bestowed by heaven,
what harm can HuanTui do to me?” can also be found in the “Shu Er” section
of Analects. He is saying that with his virtue and talent pre-determined by heaven,
not even HuanTui himself can harm him; thus, he shouldn’t be afraid of their
provocations or curses. Another time, Confucius had left the Kingdom of Wei and
was passing through Kuang on his way to the Kingdom of Chen. The people of
Kuang had once been robbed and slaughtered by a plunderer named Yang Huo,
who happened to look like Confucius. They mistook Confucius for Yang Huo and
1.1 Human Destiny as Decided by Heaven 3

detained him. “But after King Wen of Zhou died, aren’t all cultural legacies left in
my hands? If heaven had meant to destroy them, it would not have enjoined me to
master them. If heaven does not want to destroy these legacies, what can the people
of Kuang do to me?” said Confucius. Since heaven, as the master of human destiny,
had trusted him to preserve certain cultural legacies, it would intervene for the
singular purpose of protecting him from harm. Hence the people of Kuang could do
him no harm.
Finally, heaven decides a man’s fortune and accomplishments and also a
country’s politics. Confucius believed that the rise or fall of a man’s fortune and
whether his political views would be accepted hinged upon heaven’s arrangement
rather than human effort. According to the “Xian Wen” section of Analects,
Gongbo Liao vilified Zilu in a conversation with Ji Sun. Hearing about that, Zifu-Jingbo
went to see the Master. “Ji Sun seems to have been won over by Gongbo Liao’s words.
With my physical strength, I can easily kill him and leave him lying dead in the market-
place,” said Zifu-Jingbo. To his surprise, however, the Master remained unaffected. “If the
great Way prevails, it’s all because of fate; if the great Way is wasted, it’s still a matter of
fate. What, pray, can Gongbo Liao do to fate?” was his answer.

Confucius’ implication here is that the vicissitudes of a man’s political fortune or


whether his political views will be accepted are all up to divine will; no one else’s
provocations or vilifications can change heaven’s willful arrangement.
So precisely because heaven controls a man’s fortune or destiny, once ill luck or
injustice occurs, heaven becomes a target of popular anguish and resentment.
In Analects we find two parables that illustrate this point. The first of these goes
like this:
The Master wailed over Yan Yuan’s death. “O, heaven, in terms of the horrible feeling one
has to go through, I’m the one who’s died. Yes, I am the one,” he said between sobs.2

The second story is as follows:


The Master went to see Nan Zi. Zilu was displeased about this. The Master said, “Should I
do anything wrong, let heaven abhor me! Yes, let it do so!”3

Yan Yuan was better known as Yan Hui. He was a favorite disciple of
Confucius, who thought highly of him. So when he died, his teacher could hardly
contain himself for grief. According to Confucius’ logic, Yan Yuan’s death was the
will of heaven. It was heaven which had intended for this fine young man to die
before he himself did, but he still couldn’t stop missing him. Wasn’t this equivalent
to claiming his life? Hence his exclamation, “I’m the one who’s died. Yes, I am the
one!”
Nanzi, Duke Ling of Wei’s wife, was dominating the Kingdom of Wei’s
political scene at the time. At that time, there was the rumor that she often had
dubious relationships with men. Thinking it ridiculous for his revered teacher to go

2
Analects: The Priority.
3
Analects: Yong Ye (Ran Yong).
4 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

and meet with a woman of such ill fame, Zilu, candid as he was, looked very
unhappy. To clear his name, Confucius had to show the last ace in his hand—he
resorted to heaven for self-defense. He swore that if he did anything gravely wrong,
even heaven would not spare him.
In summary, Confucius was a fervent believer in heaven’s arbitrary determi-
nation. He claimed that a man’s longevity, wealth, social status, virtue and luck are
all arbitrarily pre-determined by heaven. Here it needs to be stressed that on the one
hand, Confucius made it clear that fate does exist, that a man’s survival, fortune and
longevity all depend on divine arrangement, and on the other, such an arrangement
is carried out “somewhere out there”, without the guidance of a law or a causal
relationship. Thus, arbitrariness becomes the only means and essential rule whereby
heaven decides a man’s fate. It is a typical attribute of the Confucian vision of
heaven’s determination. Arbitrariness is central to that vision, according to which
heaven does not set a uniform or fixed norm or criterion in deciding each and every
man’s destiny. Everything is haphazard. First, the difference in fates between men is
haphazard or arbitrarily determined before birth. The varying levels of wealth or
nobility among individuals cannot be attributed to an “ultimate cause”—they’re
completely haphazard. The second, a man’s fate is unrelated to his moral integrity
or conduct after birth. Therefore, there is no causal or necessary relation between a
man’s longevity and size of fortune on the one hand, and his level of talent or moral
integrity on the other. If this were true, a morally upright and talented person might
not necessarily achieve longevity or wealth, whereas a shallow and dull-witted
person might not be short-lived or of low social status. Yan Yuan was one such
example. Once, the Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius: “Which of your disciples is the
most eager to learn?” To that Confucius replied: “Yan Yuan is clearly one such
disciple, as he never unleashes his anger on the wrong target or handles work with
half-hearted devotion. What misfortune that he should have died so young!”4 As
Confucius’ most favored disciple, Yan Yuan could hardly be rivaled in both
morality and learning. But this outstanding young scholar suffered life’s many
hardships—he lived in a poor neighborhood and died young. His painful experience
vividly reveals the arbitrary nature of Confucius’ vision of divine determination. In
Confucius’ eyes, a man’s life or death is determined by heaven; so are his levels of
wealth, nobility or talent. Seemingly everything at his disposal is determined by
heaven. Thus, each individual’s fate can well be the combined outcome of various
arbitrary factors: moral goodness plus longevity and wealth; a short life plus low
birth and moral defect; a long, morally fulfilled life despite poverty; longevity
despite poverty and lack of intellectual acuity; longevity and wealth despite lack of
intellectual acuity; a short yet morally fulfilled life plus wealth; or a poor, short life
worsened by lack of intellectual acuity, and so forth. Of all these categories, the
individuals whose virtue is fully rewarded (in the form of moral goodness plus

4
Analects: Yong Ye (Ran Yong).
1.1 Human Destiny as Decided by Heaven 5

longevity and wealth) and those whose evil is duly punished (in the form of a poor,
short life and lack of intellectual acuity) are both in the minority. For all the rest
constituting the masses, fate consists of an unsurprising mixture of various factors,
such as a short yet morally fulfilled life; moral fault despite being rich; longevity
despite lack of intellectual acuity; or, in Yan Yuan’s case, a poor, short, yet morally
fulfilled life.

1.2 Reverence and Proper Acceptance of One’s Fate

As an advocate of the vision of divine determination, Confucius never doubted that


everything in the universe is sent down to Earth by heaven. But at the same time, he
also stresses that heaven sires all things without saying a word. Heaven, as the
supreme master of everything in the universe, including humans, continuously
unleashes its overwhelming force “somewhere out there” without bothering to hint
at or communicate anything to people. Based on that understanding and in response
to his disciples’ expectations, Confucius said, “What need has heaven to say
anything? It operates in response to the calls of the four seasons, making everything
thrive. No need for it to say anything, indeed!”5 Because heaven does not speak,
men receive no hints or suggestions from it. This fact, while enhancing a sense of
its mystery and enchantment, adds to men’s fear, depression and helplessness when
looking up to heaven. As an advocate of divine determination, Confucius asserted
that heaven determines men’s fates haphazardly, without recourse to a chain of
cause and effect. This further enhances a sense of its mystery, even ruling out an
opportunity for peering into its mechanisms. In Confucius’ understanding of divine
will, if heaven’s wordlessness bespeaks an aloofness and pride, the haphazard way
in which it operates forebodes its unfathomable profundity. This attribute of law-
lessness, along with heaven’s refusal to drop a hint, creates an unbridgeable gap
between heaven and men, drawing up a veil of mystification. Men are left in the
dark as to whether or not heaven has preferences or operates according to specific
rules. This form of heaven’s existence and this particular code of behavior prede-
termine Confucius’ essential attitude towards—and actual handling of—heaven and
fatality.

1.2.1 Knowing One’s Own Fate

Knowing one’s fate is the very basis for its proper acceptance. To comprehend
Confucius’ instructions for properly accepting one’s fate, it must first be determined
whether fate as he addressed it is knowable. Confucius’ own experiences indirectly

5
Analects: Yang Huo.
6 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

answered this question. When recalling his course of learning and personal culti-
vation, he said, “I made up my mind to follow a scholarly career at age 15. When I
was 30, I became accomplished to some degree. At age 40, I no longer felt puzzled.
By the time I was 50, I finally came to see what divine destiny is about.”6 That took
him as long as 35 years. Under conditions of ancient society, a great many people
had lost their lives long before they understood divine destiny. And 35 years even
for a man like Confucius! Although he did not claimed to have understood
everything at birth, he was thankful indeed for his natural talent and virtue,
believing that he was a cultural savior. This already placed him far above ordinary
people. Besides, Confucius was incomparably diligent. If even he needed all
35 years to understand divine destiny, less intelligent people would naturally have
greater difficulty in doing so, even if they live to be 880 years like Peng Zu, the
legendary long-lived man.
More importantly, when he said “One knows his own fate at age fifty,” what did
he actually mean? Was he talking about “merely coming to terms with” one’s fate,
or was he seeking to get down to its root? In other words, when Confucius declared
that he was clear about what fate was, was he saying that he recognized the
existence of fate, seeing that men’s fate is completely manipulated by heaven, or
that he already grasps fate in all its truth, leaving himself with no doubt as to
whether heaven really decides men’s fortune or misfortune. Judging from his
constant assertions and practice, it can be inferred that the answer must have been
the former. If a man understood fate in depth, he could very well go by it, thus
abandoning his fear of it. If he understood it in depth, he could very well elaborate
on it. Obviously, that’s not the situation Confucius found himself in. The topic of
fate plays a minor part among Confucius’ intellectual legacies, and is hardly dis-
cussed at depth in his representative work Analects. When teaching his disciples, he
could dwell on cultural knowledge, moral conduct, loyalty to one’s duty and the
obligation to carry out one’s promises, but he seldom referred to matters of fate. No
wonder his disciple Zi Gong once said, “I do know his writings well, but I hardly
hear him mention fate and divine will.”7 As one of Confucius’ favorite disciples, Zi
Gong no doubt understood his teacher far better than the others did. If even he was
unaware of Confucius’ views on fate and divine will, it follows that Confucius must
have very rarely broached the subject.
In addition, since divine will is ubiquitous and men’s destinies are all manipu-
lated by heaven, it is impossible to break loose and escape them. As a result, a wise
and morally cultivated person has but to admit their existence. In that very sense
Confucius declared, “Without knowing his destiny, a man can hardly be called
noble.”8

6
Analects: Governance.
7
Analects: Gongye Chang.
8
Analects: Lord Yao’s Words.
1.2 Reverence and Proper Acceptance of One’s Fate 7

1.2.2 Holding One’s Fate in Awe

For Confucius, knowing one’s fate is not an end in itself. His concern is to find an
asylum, by creating an ontological basis and proper code of behavior that fit the
premise of fate’s ubiquity. In fact, the heaven envisaged by Confucius for his fellow
beings is a mysterious, controlling force that is neither visible nor audible. In
arranging men’s fates, heaven’s haphazard operations only enhance a sense of
profound mystery. Such a heaven is unapproachable and incomprehensible to men.
Standing before it, one would never be able to extinguish a sense of nameless fear
and sorrow. Helplessness, humility and insignificance are a man’s unalterable fate
—whether he is a saint or a rogue, or whether he should be eulogized or con-
demned. Confucius’ depiction of heaven, whether in rough outline or in nuanced
detail, reflects his theoretical premise and frame of mind for properly accepting fate.
Along this line of thought, he proposed “fear, worship, praying and proper
acceptance” as essential methods for handling fate.
Fear takes precedence. Since divine will is inescapable and largely unknowable,
men have to be extremely reverent and cautious, trying not to overstep their
boundaries or violate divine decrees. Thus, “fear” becomes the principal aspect of
Confucius’ view on fate. He once said, “Noble persons have three fears: fear of
divine will; fear of men of high stature and fear of saints’ words. Men of low
breeding know not divine will; therefore, they fear it not.”9 What merits attention
here is that the “fear of divine will” wasn’t created by Confucius; rather, it is
adopted from Confucian classics where one can find a fundamental attitude towards
divine will. In The Book of Change and The Book of History (otherwise known as
Shang Shu), there are these similar statements: “One must handle fate as if he were
placed on the brink of a deep abyss or skating on thin ice,” and “A man of lofty
sentiments should do on the hill as he would in the hall”—a thrilling recipe for
acquitting oneself honestly and gracefully. Through this fear of divine will on
Confucius’ part, we can see how he viewed divine will as a whole.
Second come worship and praying. Although Confucius held divine will in awe,
he by no means thought it proper to await one’s doom without rising to action.
Unlike passive, nonchalant fatalists, Confucius communicated often with gods and
ancestors through worship and praying, in an attempt to improve or patch up fate.
To worship deities and ancestors was to obtain blessings from them. So he piously
put himself to work on rituals for that purpose. The following passage is an excerpt
from the “Ba Yi” section of Analects:
Pray to the gods as if they were right with you. The Master said, “Failure to actually go to
the site of worship is tantamount to not worshipping at all.”

From what is quoted above, we learn that, each time a god or


ancestor-worshipping ceremony was held, Confucius would personally attend it
rather than ask someone else to be there on his behalf. Throughout the ceremony, he

9
Analects: Ji Shi.
8 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

would act as if the gods or ancestors were right in front of him, never allowing his
reverence or piety to dwindle. He stressed that when worshipping, one should not
do more than his or her due. “If you show piety to the wrong god, you’re playing up
to him,” he said.10 This highlighted the importance of doing what’s proper.
Furthermore, to ensure ceremony perfectly in line with etiquette, he would lavish
money and material things without stint. For instance, once when Zi Gong was
reluctant to sacrifice a living sheep for the ritual held on the first day of a lunar
month, Confucius exhorted him, saying, “Go and hand it in, young man. Whereas
you pity the sheep, I care about the strict observance of etiquette.”11
Distinct from a worshipping ceremony, praying is a direct appeal to heaven with
the goals of attaining longevity and peace. Confucius never dismissed prayers as a
means to achieve a blissful life and fend off ill fortune. A minister of Duke Ling of
Wei once asked him: “If I get more by kissing up to the kitchen god, why should I
wait on the god posted at the southwestern corner of a room?” “What a wrong thing
to say,” quipped the master. “If you should offend heaven by thinking so, you
would be praying all in vain!”12 In saying this, Confucius meant that praying is a
way of achieving communion with heaven as the highest and ultimate master of
human destiny; its purpose is to seek protection from heaven. If, by any chance, one
fails to please it, what use is there of praying at all? Here, Confucius wasn’t denying
the practical function of praying, but he put more emphasis on divine protection
itself. Without that, praying would lose its effect altogether. In the “Shu Er” section
of Analects, we find these words:
The Master was critically ill and Zilu prayed for him. “Did you pray?” asked the Master.
“Yes,” the student admitted, “I recited the words in our prayer-book: ‘Gods up in the sky
and here on earth: Please bless the patient with a speedy recovery.’ The Master replied with
a groan, “Ah, that’s what I’ve been doing all along.”

The third, the proper acceptance of fate. Fundamentally, Confucius’ attitude


towards divine will is one of secularity rather than otherworldliness, focusing more
on reality rather than sheer fantasy. Therefore, besides worship and prayer,
Confucius believed that a man should handle his fate via his own strength, i.e. his
moral cultivation. To be specific, people want to be rich and noble, and generally
despise abject poverty. This universal truth helps explain the large numbers of
unscrupulous rich people in the world. Confucius himself linked wealth and
nobility to divine will and moral goodness—he would simply turn his back on those
who had amassed hordes of wealth by crooked means, while being kind to those
who led poor yet honorable lives. He could live in miserable conditions without
losing his poise or composure, provided that those conditions were decided by
divine will. So, according to Analects, “the Master hardly mentioned material

10
Analects: Governance.
11
Analects: Eight-row Dance.
12
Analects: Eight-row Dance.
1.2 Reverence and Proper Acceptance of One’s Fate 9

welfare; he referred to divine will and benevolence much more.”13 A common


understanding of this statement is that Confucius seldom talked about material
benefit, but he set store by divine fate and benevolence. That makes the sentence
sound antithetical. A more accurate interpretation might be that Confucius hardly
addressed material benefit without taking account of divine fate and benevolence.
He did not reject wealth and fame; rather, in pursuing wealth and fame, he always
sought to make sure such activities were morally justified (benevolent) or manda-
tory (following a divine will). Such an explanation fits much better with Confucius’
overall philosophy.
Based on his understanding of the relationship between material benefit and
divine fate, Confucius touted men of noble spirit for their commitment to moral
principles in the face of poverty and despite lacking means of subsistence. For
example, he spoke highly of Yan Hui’s adherence to moral principles in defiance of
poverty. Besides, Confucius endorsed a determination to meet fate’s challenges
bravely. He judged a person’s nobility or fault based on whether he was capable of
withstanding major trials and tribulations, and whether he was willing to bear the
unfairness of fate. He encouraged people to accept frustrations and failures the way
pines and cypresses refuse to wither when faced with the cold of winter. What is
particularly praiseworthy is that Confucius meant what he said. When traveling
through all the kingdoms, he was hounded, confined, mocked, and insulted. Against
all odds, he did not complain or curse, but instead carried on with his epic journey
step by painful step, knowing full well that it was an impossible mission. Although
the trip did not enable him to fulfill his political dreams of promoting benevolent
rule across the country, he was adored for his courage and heroism. He continued to
exert long-term influence on people of later generations and still set the ideal
example of refusing to bow to fate.
Overall, Confucius adopted a tone of profound awe in treating divine fate. He
was always deeply afraid of it and shuddered at it. His approach to facing divine
fate centered on “awe of divine fate.” To him, sacrifices, praying and an attitude of
proper acceptance are all based on an awe of divine fate; or more exactly, these are
in themselves a manifestation of an awe of divine fate. Confucius’ proper accep-
tance of divine fate results from his understanding of heaven and divine fate. It is
vastly different from Mo Zi’s heroic defiance of fate and Mencius’ proud pro-
nouncement that “Everything under heaven is prepared for me.”

1.3 The Arbitrariness and Inscrutability of Divine Fate

The theory of heaven’s arbitrary insists that men’s fate is determined by heaven,
and that the way heaven decides fates is haphazard and inscrutable. In this sense,
the theory of heaven’s arbitrary will stresses the decisive role of chance. When

13
Analects: Zi Han.
10 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

examining an individual’s fate against a group, one might wonder why people have
such divergent fates and outcomes–some are broad-minded and sanguine, some
melancholy, some poor, some rich, some living to a ripe old age, and some dying
very young. The answer offered by the theory of arbitrary divine fate is: all is
haphazardly arranged by heaven. There is no fixed rule or law of necessity to go by;
all is a result of chance. This emphasis on fortuity throws men into confusion when
faced with cryptic fate. All these factors combined gave rise to the assumption that,
since heaven is after all unknowable, one should hold divine fate in awe.
Paying heed to fortuity is only one aspect of the issue. The other is that the
theory of arbitrary divine fate also reveals an inescapable necessity lying beneath
fortuity. Specifically, according to that theory, each individual’s fate in real life is
unalterable, with its trajectory mapped out by heaven. No matter how that indi-
vidual behaves after birth, the outcome will never err from the lot cast by heaven.
All operates under the law of necessity. In fact, in explaining a real-life individual’s
fate, the theory of arbitrary divine fate holds everything he comes across to be
inescapable or unchangeable. A person’s life or death, or fortune or misfortune, is
decided at birth; after birth, his weal or woe comes unexpected and irrevocable. In
short, things run just as predetermined; this is the crux of what divine fate is about.
It entails a necessity unforeseeable and inescapable. In view of this entanglement
between fortuity and necessity, Confucius attributed divine fate to a force external
and alien to men. First, because a man’s fate is arranged prior to his birth,
impossible to alter, fate is, to each and every man in real life, a necessary existence
beyond all human control. Secondly, a man’s fate has nothing to do with what he
does after birth. Confucius believes that fate is wrought once and for all and
irreversible, so it is unconnected with a person’s behavior after birth. In other
words, a learned and virtuous man may not be blessed with wealth and rank, just as
an ill-behaved and untalented one may not be condemned to a life of abject poverty.
This notion to some degree negates man’s subjective initiative, making him feel
helpless and ill-used under heaven’s repression.
Fate’s predetermination, unpredictability and inscrutability reflect the unique
disposition of Confucius’ theory of arbitrary divine fate. Due to its adherence to
fate’s haphazardness and unpredictability, Confucius’ theory of arbitrary divine fate
is markedly different from that of his successor, Mencius, who added to his own
theory popular feeling for or against something and elevated a harmonious rela-
tionship between fellow humans to top status when mentioning favorable climatic,
geographical and human conditions together, thus transforming divine fate into
some kind of human fate. It is all the more different from Mencius’s behavioral
code and practice of trying one’s utmost, knowing right from wrong, being com-
passionate, being kind, acquiring a sense of shame, and thus achieving a real
understanding fate and divine will. Even when, like Mo Zi, seeing fate as a force
external and alien to men, Confucius’ theory of arbitrary divine fate never gave the
same proportion to the factors of divine retribution and human effort as the latter
did.
For ages, Confucius’ theory of arbitrary divine fate has remained popular in
Chinese society, especially amongst grassroots people. This theory has a
1.3 The Arbitrariness and Inscrutability of Divine Fate 11

superstitious tinge—“You’d better accept it simply for what it is, without asking
why it turned out that way. If you insist on asking, you will surely end up feeling
disappointed.” In this day and age, as society and civilization progress to more
advanced stages, people are paying increasingly heavier prices as misfortunes befall
them one by one. Vast numbers of people, originally healthy and happy, fall victim
to the mishaps of modern civilization, such as traffic accidents, air pollution, nuclear
explosions and electrical accidents. Amid deep sorrow, family and friends may well
attribute such misfortunes to divine fate, thus giving vent to their sad feelings and
easing their trauma. In such cases, the theory of arbitrary divine fate does have a
positive significance and value. With men’s subjective, collective consciousness
taking shape and getting ever stronger, mysteries of the world are being unraveled.
The natural sciences, while disenchanting heaven, strip it of its original mysticism
and sublimity. But at the same time, modern-day people hold fewer and fewer
things in awe. This is truly horrible. Hence, the notion of awe of heaven has
received more attention in recent years, and awe-related ethics have come into
peoples’ views. Among all things they worship, heaven is supposed to occupy a
proper status.
Like everything in the world, once a certain limit is reached, a change in the
opposite direction is inevitable. The theory of arbitrary divine fate, with its
excessive emphasis on the necessity of fate, will ultimately lead to a theory of
haphazard divine fate. Life’s mobile trajectory is wrought from a variety of
inevitable and accidental events. The way a person heads for a certain fate is just
like the way a given event occurs—there must be both inevitable and fortuitous
factors involved. To say that a person’s fate is a product of some inevitable force
alone is, in essence, to push fortuity up to a level of inevitability. Through such an
unwarranted elevation, inevitability is no longer pure; it cannot help absorbing
certain elements or factors of fortuity. This is exactly how the theory of arbitrary
divine fate interprets human fate.
If the emphasis on heaven’s arbitrariness and the subsequent discussion sur-
rounding the relationship haphazardness and inevitability have are attributable only
to Confucius’ theory of arbitrary divine fate, seeing heaven as a supreme power and
associating heaven with the fate of men has been Chinese philosophy’s constant
and general practice. As one of Chinese philosophy’s oldest, most basic categories,
heaven has been the shared object of Confucianism, Taoism and Mohism, despite
the somewhat different interpretations on certain specific points. Of the three
leading philosophers, Lao Zi, Confucius and Mo Zi, in the Spring and Autumn
Period, Confucius and Mo Zi turned to heaven for guidance. Confucius stuck to the
view of divine determinism, whereas Mo Zi argued vehemently against it, denying
an unknown existence that invisibly governs everything throughout the universe but
instead constructing a theory of his own, with its integral combination of divine
will, ghosts and actual non-existence of divine fate. From the Spring and Autumn
Period onward, heaven and the derivative relationship between heaven and humans
evolved into one of Chinese philosophy’s fundamental issues. Lao Zi and Zhuang
Zi, who did not believe in heaven as a supreme being because they were both the
advocates of the Way, nevertheless incorporated heaven into their philosophies.
12 1 The Theory of Heaven’s Arbitrary Will

The crucial part of Confucius’ ontological philosophy is his view of divine


determinism. That is to say, his reverence for heaven is based on his belief that the
fate of men is doomed or controlled by heaven. This has led to two consequences.
First, there arises only a feeble ontological awareness, with no explicit reference to
heaven as the ontological controller of the entire universe. In Confucius’ thinking,
heaven’s authoritative status is marked by its determination of men’s fates.
However, he did not try hard to describe or expound on heaven’s traits, implications
and state of being. The second, Confucius’ reverence for heaven revolves around
the fate of men; this means that he discussed heaven from the angle of men, and not
out of interest in heaven itself. Thus, connected always with the welfare of mortal
flesh, the metaphysical charm of heaven as the universe’s ontological controller is
weakened as Confucius tainted his ontological philosophy with a strong strain of
mundane wisdom. Although he placed heaven high above, and therefore far
removed from, human crowds, although he deliberately widened the distance
between heaven and men by silencing the former, heaven’s excessive involvement
in men’s fates weakens its metaphysical significance. Here, heaven only serves the
need to live in peace and contentment in a worldly wise manner. Confucius’
ontological philosophy contains life’s sparkling truths; it obviously leans toward
mundane aspects of human existence.
Chapter 2
The Theory of the Causality of Divine
Destiny

The theory of divine destiny not only proclaims that human destiny is determined
by heaven; it holds that heaven has the power of will and decides the cause and
effect of human destiny. As the supreme master of nature and human society,
heaven can rightfully reward or punish men. However, it does not do so whimsi-
cally; it rather follows an inevitable course of cause and effect. When a person
performs a good deed to please heaven, he deserves a reward. When he does evil
and thus dissatisfies heaven, he is duly punished. Heaven holds out its rewards and
punishments through ghosts and gods’ surveillance. In a nutshell, humans are never
wrongly rewarded or punished. In the pre-Qin period, the greatest advocate of the
theory of causality of divine destiny was Mo Zi.

2.1 The Belief in Divine Will

Mo Zi believed in heaven as the ultimate cause of the universe and everything that
evolves in it (He would sometimes call heaven the “Supreme One,” as in “The
Supreme One in the old times founded the capital city with the help of gods and
ghosts” and “making sacrifices to the Supreme One.”). Everything in nature—from
the sun, the moon and stars to the seasonal changes in a year, or from snow, frost,
rain or dew to jade, grain, silk or linen—is the work of the Supreme One. In his
view, heaven divides the initial chaos into the sun, the moon and stars to illuminate
roads; creates the cycle of four seasons to regulate all forms of life; unleashes frost,
snow, rain and dew to help food crops grow and silk and linen mature to better meet
common folks’ daily needs and expenses; shapes the earth’s surface into mountains
and valleys to facilitate all kinds of undertakings; sets up kings, lords, marquises
and counts to reward the good and punish the evil; collects gold, wood, fur and
14 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

feather, and also engages in business in the five cereals, silk and linen, to better feed
and clothe people.”1 At the same time, Mo Zi attributed human society itself to
heaven’s arrangement. Specifically, heaven puts a monarch and various levels of
officials in place, setting up “kings, lords, marquises and counts just to reward the
good and punish the evil.”2 That is to say, heaven itself properly arranges all levels
of officials to ensure law and order in human society; it also takes the trouble to
develop codes of behavior and principles governing administrative activities;
namely, seeking commonality, respect for virtue and talent, prizing a sense of
righteousness, having an all-embracing love, and opposition to war.
Mo Zi believed heaven is the ultimate source of the universe, creating everything
in the forms of nature and human society. Confucius and Mencius also adopted this
assumption in their philosophies. Here, the Mohist school of thought and the
Confucian school of thought are no different from each other. But this is only one
aspect of the issue. The questions that follow are: What kind of an entity is heaven
which creates the world? In what ways does heaven create and master the universe?
To these, the Mohist and the Confucian scholars offered drastically different
answers. Heaven that Confucian scholars (and especially Confucius himself) con-
tend is a silent being. So, when the assumption that “heaven speaks through the
changes of four seasons and the growth of all life” becomes a self-evident truth, it is
only natural for heaven’s creation of nature and human society to be muted and
mysterious, arbitrary and unfathomable. In that very sense, Mencius said, “Nobody
wants it done, but it is done—that is what heaven is about; nobody wants it to come,
but it comes—that is called fate.” Since heaven is profoundly mystical and does not
follow a cause-and-effect chain, holding divine destiny in awe is the optimal choice.
Thus, it is apparent that both Confucius and Mencius’ emphasis is on heaven as the
ultimate cause of the universe and heaven’s complete control of men’s fate, playing
down its power of will and desire. In contrast, Mo Zi seems to believe that heaven
obeys the law of causality and acts in line with preset rules. More importantly, he
declared that heaven has its own will and desires, on the basis of which it creates the
universe. He called this will and desire “divine will.”

2.1.1 The Belief in Heaven as the Ultimate Cause


of the Universe and “Divine Will”

As the core of Mo Zi’s ontological philosophy, the concept of divine will has an
unusual significance. So as a philosophical term, what is the basic implication of
divine will? Where does divine will come from? And what is its specific content? Mo
Zi promoted this special concept to highlight heaven’s will power and desires and
composed three essays on it. In fact, he did not confine his discussion to those three

1
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
2
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
2.1 The Belief in Divine Will 15

essays; he expounded on the concept in many places in the book Mo Zi. A com-
prehensive look shows that the concept of divine will expresses three layers of
meaning. First, heaven has its will power and desires—not unambiguous or inactive
like Lao Zi’s notion of “governing without interruption,” or something unfathomable
like heaven in Confucian thought. Second, in terms of function, heaven creates the
whole world according to its wishes and preferences, and reward or punishes human
behavior accordingly. Third, where the specific content of divine will is concerned,
heaven has the will of favoring righteousness and disfavoring injustice, of favoring
love and mutual benefit between humans and abhorring hatred and contempt
between them, and of favoring a sense of world community and saintly goodness.
What is noteworthy here is that in Mo Zi’s eyes, heaven’s various desires are not
parallel or equal in status. The most fundamental of them is the idea of favoring
righteousness and disfavoring injustice. This is because: first, in terms of function,
righteousness is of the utmost importance to life or death, wealth or poverty, and
chaos or order, under heaven. Mo Zi declared:
Nevertheless, how do we know that heaven favors righteousness and disfavors injustice?
The answer is probably this: when righteousness prevails, people survive, become rich and
enjoy peaceful and secure lives; when injustice holds sway, they perish, become poor and
live in chaos. Because heaven loves to see something alive and not dead, or hopes for it to
become rich but not poor, or wants it to be orderly but not chaotic, we know that it favors
righteousness and abhors injustice.3

To Mo Zi’s mind, righteousness decides not only the wealth and orderliness of a
country but also its life or death. Unlike righteousness, the qualities of seeking
commonality, favoring virtue and talent, having an all-embracing love, or opposi-
tion to war, at worst affect the wealth or orderliness of a country; they do not affect
its life or death. Without a doubt, the former and the latter are questions on two
different levels. Their different spheres of influence and functional values indicate
that the notion of heaven favoring righteousness and abhorring injustice stands out
among all other tenets of the divine will theory. Second, in terms of status, although
the aforementioned qualities show heaven’s will, righteousness is the core and all
other items are based on it. Whether as a moral discipline, a code of behavior, a way
to rule or an administrative measure, seeking commonality, favoring virtue and
talent, having an all-embracing love and opposition to war are only the manifes-
tations and actual implementation of righteousness. Specifically, all-embracing love
and opposition to war arise from the need to favor righteousness and disfavor
injustice; they are important only because they help to carry out righteousness and
uproot injustice. Seeking commonality means that, with divine righteousness taking
precedence, persons who obey the “laws of heaven” and identify themselves with
divine will “prize righteousness.” Hence, heaven’s love of righteousness is the
ontological basis and theoretical prerequisite of men’s love of righteousness.
Likewise, respect for virtue and talent results from virtuous and talented men’s
exemplary reverence for the laws of heaven and their willingness to act accordingly.

3
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 1.
16 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

It is to carry out the principle of favoring righteousness and disfavoring injustice


that the notion of favoring virtue and talent is valued so much. All this shows that,
although they are of the same source, the importance and function of favoring
righteousness and disfavoring injustice is not to be equated with that of
all-embracing love, opposition to war, seeking identification and respect for virtue
and talent. The latter are only the manifestations and actual implementations of the
former. But then again, this does not conflict with divine will’s parallel and equal
relationship with all the other items when it is mentioned as a technical term.

2.1.2 Divine Will and Heaven’s Love of Righteousness


and Abhorrence of Injustice

As a divine will, heaven’s love of righteousness and abhorrence of injustice is more


conceptual than actual. What is done, then, to ensure the implementation of righ-
teousness as desired by heaven, so that this divine will can be turned into a human
will, actualized or externalized as part of human behavior? All-embracing love,
opposition to war, seeking identification and respect for virtue and talent are the
answer. According to Mo Zi, heaven has the will of all-embracing love, opposition
to war, seeking identification and respect for virtue and talent, thus guaranteeing the
implementation of divine righteousness. First, in terms of the line of thought and the
principle of behavior, seeking identification is heaven’s requirement of men and a
criterion for judging the right and wrong of human speech and behavior. This
makes it necessary for human speech and behavior to conform to heaven’s will.
Thus, people should put righteousness first, and all human speech and behavior
should agree with the demands of righteousness. Of course, all-embracing love,
opposition to war and respect for virtue and talent, as specific items of divine will,
are also important components of seeking identification with heaven. This shows
that seeking identification not only determines that the ultimate right to interpre-
tation of all-embracing love, opposition to war, respect for virtue and talent, and
even the idea of seeking identification itself, rests with heaven; it also makes sure
that they implement the principle of divine righteousness the whole way through.
With this prior understanding, it Mo Zi’s purpose and intention becomes clearer:
when he mentioned all-embracing love and opposition to war, he attributed them to
the negative lesson of ten people having ten different interpretations of righteous-
ness. Everybody involved struggled to benefit themselves at the expense of others.
When he touched upon respect for virtue and talent, he stressed that its criterion for
implementation is complete identification with righteousness. Second, in terms of
specific measures and actual implementation, heaven favors the virtuous and the
talented, so it chooses an entrusted agent on earth—a monarch—to do the same on
its behalf, making it much more likely for divine righteousness to be carried out
there. When the monarch governs a country in obedience of heaven and relies
heavily on the virtuous and the talented, so that the monarch, the three top officials
respectively in charge of military, administrative and imperial affairs and even
2.1 The Belief in Divine Will 17

lower-level officials are all “benevolent persons,” this further facilitates the
implementation of divine righteousness. Under the double guarantee of favoring
identification with heaven and stressing virtue and talent, it is not only the principle
of righteousness that is valued; more weight is given to universal, divine righ-
teousness. At the same time, all-embracing love and opposition to war make divine
righteousness more specified and more detailed, thus bringing it down to Earth.
They are not just innate, abstract beliefs but also show up in interpersonal rela-
tionships to become part of daily ethical routine. They expand from a public domain
into a private one, and as a result their influence and ability to dominate daily lives
mount higher and higher.
To sum up, as part of the belief in heaven as the ultimate cause of the universe,
divine will is a purely philosophical category; in a similar vein, as a specific item
under divine will, divine righteousness is supposed to be a metaphysical, onto-
logical philosophy. However, even divine will finally needs to be turned into human
will and behavior. In Mo Zi’s own words, divine will is fulfilled through the action
of human behavior. Under gods’ and ghosts’ surveillance, by obeying the laws of
heaven and identifying with them, as well as through divine righteousness’ change
from a conceptual pattern to a concrete action, divine righteousness has become
directly associated with interpersonal relationship-regulating moral philosophy and
country-ruling political philosophy. That is to say, heaven’s love of righteousness
and disfavoring of injustice contain multiple structures and meanings. In philo-
sophical terms, the concepts purely metaphysical; from a worldly viewpoint, it
serves human needs and is counter-metaphysical; in terms of conceptual pattern, it
falls into the category of ontological philosophy; where actual operations are
concerned, it is moral philosophy and political philosophy. This multitude of
structures and meanings forms a trinity composed of the ontological concept of
divine righteousness, morality and political philosophy.
Divine will determines that human behavior “ought to conform to the laws of
heaven.” In other words, men’s moral values and ethical norms are the result of
obeying divine laws. This shows that, in the realm of moral philosophy, Mo Zi
believed divine will is turned into human will that the moment men’s moral values
and codes of behavior derive from heaven. Correspondingly, divine righteousness,
originally a specific component of divine will, has turned to an ethical domain.
Besides, just as it occupies a dominant position in ontological philosophy, divine
righteousness is especially welcome, too, in the field of moral philosophy. Mo Zi
did contribute a great deal to the founding of an ethical thought system and the
spreading of concrete moral values and ethical items, showing a ubiquitous rallying
as well as penetrating force. Needless to say, divine righteousness also imbues Mo
Zi’s moral philosophy with ontological and political implications.
In view of divine righteousness, Mo Zi emphasized the idea that “nothing is
more valuable than righteousness.”4 Moreover, he coined the slogan of “Prize
Righteousness.” That slogan has two connotations. First, righteousness is always

4
Mo Zi: Righteousness as the Highest Value.
18 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

primary. It is the supreme value of life. Mo Zi himself pursued it as the ultimate


goal of his life. Meanwhile, he urged others to use righteousness to govern their
senses, saying, “If one uses his hands, feet, mouth, nose and ears to serve the
purpose of righteousness, he will surely become a saint.”5 Here, righteousness is
not only the singular path to sainthood; it is also a benevolent man’s worthy goal.
As is known to all, Mo Zi repeatedly claimed: “A benevolent man does each and
every thing for the good of all.” What did he mean by “the good of all”?
“Righteousness is equated with benefit,” he claimed.6 In his view, righteousness is
but a great benefit for all three parties involved: heaven, ghosts and men. To
enhance the benefit of all is to uphold righteousness itself. Second, righteousness is
of a higher caliber than other moral values and ethical codes. This view is borne out
by Mo Zi’s interpretation of how heaven’s favoring of righteousness and abhor-
rence of injustice is related to all-embracing love, opposition to war, respect for
virtue and talent, and pursuit of commonality.
In the domain of moral philosophy, Mo Zi established his ethical thought system
with righteousness as its core, and developed a series of concrete moral items and
ethical norms surrounding it. They include all-embracing love, opposition to war,
pursuit of commonality, and respect for virtue and talent. Then there are also
demands of frugal funerals, and of vigilance against extravagance and musical
festivity.
It is noteworthy that, on the one hand, all-embracing love, opposition to war,
pursuit of commonality, respect for virtue and talent, frugality and vigilance against
extravagance have their respective, definite implications and true reference points,
which differ from each other due to their respective focuses. On the other hand, they
all regard righteousness as their ultimate norm and spiritual substance, and unfold
or expound on t hat base from various dimensions and levels. For example, using
one modifier to describe the relationships between people, the moral focus of
all-embracing love is on individuals, whereas that of opposition to war is on the
collective—a state or a homeland. The moral focus of seeking commonality, or of
favoring virtue and talent, is on the relationship between superiors and inferiors.
As a general principle, righteousness is no empty talk. It is manifested in a
variety of concrete moral items. To some extent, it can be said that righteousness is
nothing but all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality, and
respect for virtue and talent. For instance, all-embracing love and opposition to war
amount to righteousness, while invasion of someone else’s homeland, or differ-
entiation between fellow humans, is a case of injustice. Specifically, in terms of the
social environment and the fundamental cause of injustice, failure to love all or
invasion of someone else’s homeland arises from peoples’ mutual differentiation,
dislike and repulsion; that is, the phenomenon of benefiting oneself at the expense
of others. People struggle to benefit themselves at the expense of others because
they lack a sense of righteousness. In terms of conceptual implications and ethical

5
Mo Zi: Righteousness as the Highest Value.
6
Mo Zi: Scriptures, Part 1.
2.1 The Belief in Divine Will 19

significance, all-embracing love and opposition to war mean treating all people as
one’s equals; this in itself is righteousness. On the contrary, if one treats them
differently on the basis of their rank, intelligence, strength or number, he is
unrighteous. Where existential meaning and functional value are concerned, to love
all and refrain from going to war is to exchange non-differential love for differential
love; that is, to conquer injustice with righteousness and unify people’s behavior
under the principle of righteousness. Whether or not to love all and avoid going to
war is completely determined by the dictates of righteousness. In other words, the
criterion for all-embracing love or opposition to war is to see if it suits the purpose
of righteousness. The power of judgment rests with righteousness. Likewise,
righteousness is a top-down process rather than a bottom-up one. That being the
case, righteousness prevails only when rulers set good examples. When ruler and
the ruled reach a consensus, they achieve a commonality. This applies to frugal
funerals and vigilance against extravagance as well as to all-embracing love,
opposition to war and pursuit of commonality. For example, Mo Zi championed
respect for virtue and talent. The concrete way to make this possible, as well as the
ultimate goal of administration, is to do things under one and the same principle of
righteousness. Thus, following the guidelines and behavioral principle of
lower-class people emulating the example set by those above them, the situation of
a thousand persons having a thousand perceptions of righteousness can be reversed,
and the whole world submits itself to righteousness. Seeking commonality guar-
antees that righteousness, recognized by all, comes from heaven and represents the
best interests of all people.
Thus it becomes clear that in the field of moral philosophy, if prizing righ-
teousness and ensuring a shared benefit for all (i.e. righteousness) is the general
guiding principle and norm, then all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of
commonality and respect for virtue and talent, and even observing frugal funerals
and vigilance against extravagance, form the concrete behavioral norms and moral
items that are manifestations of the principle. For one thing, these concrete items
make righteousness clearly visible and present in people’s thoughts and behavior
everywhere and at all times. For another, they evolve from the core value of
righteousness and can be regarded as the manifestations and substantiation of that
core value.
To Mo Zi’s mind, to match men’s behavior with divine will, an ethical system
for disciplining men’s behavior must originate from heaven, be it righteousness as
the heart and soul of ethical wellbeing, or concrete moral items such as
all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue
and talent. This lends an ontological hue to his moral philosophy.
Firstly, after examining the source it becomes evident that ethics come from
heaven; heaven as an ontological presence serves as the ultimate foundation for
establishing an argument. According to Mo Zi’s logic, righteousness never arises
from the foolish and the abject; it certainly comes from the wise and the noble.
Heaven is the noblest and wisest existence in the universe, where righteousness
dwells. Mo Zi’s stress on heaven’s noblest and wisest identity gives it a tran-
scendent qualification and authority to launch the idea of righteousness. Along that
20 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

line of thinking, as the noblest and wisest master and authority, heaven can well be
a dwelling for righteousness. However, it is also capable of launching other wills,
like injustice. Such being the case, one might ask, “Why does righteousness, rather
than injustice, come from the noblest and wisest heaven?” First, righteousness is
willed by heaven. This is exactly what “heaven favors righteousness and abhors
injustice” means. On that level, heaven’s favoring of righteousness and abhorrence
of injustice is no different from all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of
commonality or respect for virtue and talent. Second, to punctuate the paramount
importance of heaven’s favoring of righteousness and abhorrence of injustice—
all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue
and talent pale in significance compared to the main principle of righteousness.
Therefore, Mo Zi did not emphasize the highest nobility and wisdom of heaven
when discussing other divine wills. This observation leads to two concluding
remarks. Firstly, heaven is the basis for righteousness. Righteousness in itself is
implicitly ontological. Secondly, commonality is a desirable attribute. There is only
one kind of righteousness under heaven—righteousness that results from heaven.
This to some extent sets the ontological foundation for the crucial status of righ-
teousness. Just as Mo Zi said, “What complies best with divine will is the law of
righteousness.”7 Like righteousness, all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit
of commonality and respect for virtue and talent can all find support from onto-
logical philosophy, assured of a place in the theory of heaven being the universe’s
ultimate foundation, at least as concrete items of divine will.”
Secondly, in terms of implementation, moral deeds such as prizing righteous-
ness, all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for
virtue and talent come not only from moral consciousness but more importantly
from a pressure from heaven—people hope to be rewarded and fear punishment by
heaven. By this logic, just as heaven’s love of righteousness corresponds with an
individual’s love of heaven, loving all in compliance with divine will promises
reward and attacking someone else’s homeland will bring punishment. This idea
strengthened Mo Zi’s resolve to pursue all-embracing love and to avoid attack.
Using utilitarian effect as a bargaining chip sets Mo Zi’s ethics and morality far
apart from Confucian-style devotion to moral idealism; it also tricks ontological
heaven as a supreme authority into teaching moral lessons to people. Thus, the
appearance of heaven sheds an ontological light on Mo Zi’s ethical philosophy.
This utilitarian function of urging people to be good gives his philosophy a com-
pulsory tinge.
So, righteousness as a supreme value and heaven’s love of righteousness and
abhorrence of injustice share the same divine will. Righteousness as a general ethical
guideline, and all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality or
respect for virtue and talent as moral sub-items, come from the same heaven—they
are simply concrete manifestations of divine will. This, while enhancing the status of
righteousness, promotes their own legitimacy and authority as ethical items. Since

7
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
2.1 The Belief in Divine Will 21

Mo Zi was a grassroots person and because his words were perceived to carry less
weight due to his negligible position, he made a point to voice his desires and
demands through recourse to heaven. A direct consequence of this act is that he
imbued his ethical thought with implications of ontological philosophy. Meanwhile,
it should be seen that this ontology of Mo Zi’s moral philosophy and the ethicality of
his ontological philosophy (as in the moral values of all-embracing love, opposition
to war and the desirability of righteousness) are an interactive, two-way process.
Sometimes, Mo Zi mentioned benevolence and righteousness together. In such
cases, righteousness focuses on an ethical aspect—like “A thorough exploration
shows that one can never be cautious enough in matters of divine will.”8 At other
times, his righteousness focuses on a political aspect—like in the definitions
“Righteousness is concerned with politics,” “Righteousness means good politics”
and “righteousness politics.” At the same time, his main moral items of
all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue
and talent all carry political implications. This is because these are not only men’s
innate moral conceptions and outward behavioral codes, which fall into the ethical
category, but also a state’s political measures and schemes for ruling its subjects,
which fall into the category of political science. For example, Mo Zi once said, “If
all-embracing love prevails, righteousness prevails. Once people are treated on a
differential basis, everything will be decided by power alone.”9 Here, all-embracing
love and treatment of people on a differential basis are mentioned obviously from
the perspective of politics. What is more, on account of divine will, all-embracing
love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue and talent
(even the act of putting righteousness first itself) have an unquestionable, manda-
tory nature from the very start. As a will of heaven, men must obey them, or else
they will be punished. As a state’s edicts, laws and regulations, and administrative
measures, no one shall ever violate them. This takes them farther and farther away
from the moral law of voluntariness and conscience-driven choice, lending Mo Zi’s
moral philosophy a political potency impossible to ignore. From another point of
view, his is a particular kind of political philosophy.
In summary, in the field of ethics, Mo Zi’s favoring of righteousness originates
from heaven’s love of righteousness and abhorrence of injustice. What he really
prefers is not righteousness as a highly-individualized notion, one that differs from
person to person, but a divine, universal principle that favors righteousness and
abhors injustice. Besides, this requires that heaven’s abandonment of injustice in
favor of righteousness is not just an empty doctrine; its actual content is
all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue
and talent. For men, these items are moral concepts implanted deep in their hearts
while serving as outward behavioral norms. They function in compliance not only
with men’s subjective will but also with an external coercive force. This makes it
possible for Mo Zi’s moral philosophy to interact and converge with political

8
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
9
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 3.
22 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

philosophy. Righteousness becomes the supreme value of ethics (righteousness


placed above all else) and the goodness of political science (good politics), ulti-
mately because heaven rejects injustice in favor of righteousness. All-embracing
love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue and talent are
concrete manifestations and actual contents of the overriding principle of heaven
rejecting injustice in favor of righteousness. This, again, shows that principle’s
multi-faceted structure combining ontological philosophy, moral philosophy and
political philosophy into one.

2.2 The Belief in Divine Fate

In Mo Zi’s eyes, the belief in divine creation suggests heaven’s omnipotence and
authority, whereas the belief in divine will verifies heaven’s will and preferences.
Both of these foretell men’s dominance over fate. Under this precondition, Mo Zi
urged people to obey the laws of heaven so they can be rewarded and honored via
compliance with it.

2.2.1 Obeying Heaven’s Will Shall Be Rewarded,


and Contradicting and Violating It Shall Be Punished

As Mo Zi saw it, heaven’s magical power and authority is limitless and boundless.
Even forest that never-before visited or valley is overseen by heaven. So he said,
“Even a deep forest or valley will not be left unnoticed. Heaven sees all.”10 Then he
pointed out that heaven not only can observe human behavior down to the last
detail; it rewards or punishes on the basis of personal preference. Therefore, he
declared, “Heaven rewards a monarch if he performs good deeds, and punishes him
if he does what is brutally vicious.”11 If heaven can reward or punish even a
monarch, it can certainly reward or punish lower members of the noble class and
ordinary people. Specifically, heaven rewards or punishes in accordance with the
principle that “he who does good to please heaven, shall be rewarded; and he who
does evil in violation of its will, shall be punished.” First of all, those who prize
righteousness ought to be rewarded, and those who commit injustice must be
punished. In Mo Zi’s view, righteousness is desired by heaven and injustice
abhorred by it. Therefore, leading the whole world in a righteous fight is doing what
heaven desires. While men do things to bring about heaven’s joy, heaven also does
things to satisfy men. What, then, is men’s desire? It is for wealth and welfare. So,
those who pursue righteousness will be happy and well off, and those who commit

10
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 1.
11
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
2.2 The Belief in Divine Fate 23

injustice are countering heaven’s will. If men do what heaven abhors, heaven will
do men an equal disservice. What do men actually abhor? It’s misfortune and
disaster. Therefore, those who commit injustice will be condemned to misfortune
and disaster. Second, “He, who loves and benefits others, shall be favored by
heaven.” According to Mo Zi, heaven wants men to love and benefit each other.
Therefore, those who love and benefit others will be rewarded by heaven.12 He cites
an example to illustrate this idea. Once upon a time, Yu the Great, King Tang of
Shang, King Wen of Zhou and King Wu of Zhou had loved all the subjects under
their reign. They led them in serving divine spirits with devotion. All their subjects
benefited substantially from their benevolent rule. So, heaven blessed these great
rulers, helping them rise to the throne and putting vassals at their disposal. They
each found niches in the temple of fame. People of later generations have never
ceased to laud and honor them. Third, “he who detests and injures his fellow
humans, shall be punished by heaven.” Mo Zi believed heaven hates conquering
and slaughtering, and that it is firmly against killing innocent people. Those who
detest and kill people, especially the innocent, must be brought to justice. In this
regard, he mentioned the examples of King Jie, King Zhou, King You and King Li.
Those tyrants had detested people under their reigns; they show no piety to heaven,
reviling and vilifying heaven and other spiritual beings. They treated their subjects
brutally, so heaven inflicted disasters upon them, making them lose both power and
their homelands and depriving them of their lives. They earned the foul reputation
they deserved. Their posterity has been spitting on their graves and cursing them to
this day. Fourth, aristocrats and commoners alike, he said, should be blessed with a
prosperous and decent life if only they are diligent, and they should live in chaos
and poverty if they are lazy or fed up with work.
In short, it seemed to Mo Zi that not only an individual’s fate but that of a state
also lies in heaven’s hands.13 He declared, “Politics that agrees with divine will are
righteous politics; politics that counter it are coercive politics.” Here, he was
stressing that a state blessed with righteous politics shall be rewarded by heaven, in
the forms of law and order, strength, wealth and popular support; and that a state
that clings to coercive politics shall be punished, in the forms of chaos, weakness,
poverty and rejection by the populace. For that matter, Mo Zi attributed a state’s
weakness, poverty and chaos to a neglect to worship divine beings.

2.2.2 Bending to Heaven’s Will

As Mo Zi pointed out, all people should strictly follow norms and standards.
Nothing can be accomplished without them—much like an artisan must use com-
pass and setsquare to get his work done. What norms and standards, then, should be

12
Mo Zi: Etiquette and Law.
13
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 1.
24 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

adopted? The answer: heaven is the weightiest, most intelligent existence in the
universe, so men naturally should emulate it. About that Mo Zi said, “When we do
something, we should do it in line with norms and standards. Nobody can succeed
unless he follows norms and standards…But what norms and standards should be
adopted to govern well? None of them would work better than the laws of hea-
ven.”14 Mo Zi emphasizes here that since heaven alone is the true master of fortune
and misfortune throughout the universe, calamities will still occur if men totally
rely on an earthly ruler for salvation. This is because that ruler is hardly able to
ensure his own safety and welfare; what extra energy does he have to protect his
subjects? “Whenever the son of heaven suffers an illness or misfortune, he is bound
to engage in fasting and ablution, and wash clean wine vessels, to worship divine
spirits so that heaven will help eliminate such an illness or misfortune. However, I
never hear that heaven will ever pray to the son of heaven for a blessing.”15 This
shows that heaven is weightier and more intelligent than the son of heaven16; it is
the supreme authority over men’s fortune or misfortune. Mo Zi’s stress on taking
heaven as the highest authority and toeing its line carry three implications. First, use
heaven as the only criterion for telling kindness from evil and right from wrong. Mo
Zi held that, so long as men have divine will and divine intention to obey, like
artisans have compass and setsquare to go by, all their words and actions are
practically placed before heaven so it can judge them. Words and actions that agree
with heaven’s will are benevolent and virtuous, while those that disagree with it are
vicious and evil. This is as clear as black and white. Second, do what heaven desires
and not what it abhors. Mo Zi claimed, “Divine will cannot but be obeyed.”17 To
obey heaven is to go along with it, modeling one’s words and actions on heaven’s
norms and standards. “Everything said or done shall comply with heaven. Whatever
heaven desires, do; whatever heaven detests, refrain from doing.”18 Third, pay
homage to heaven. In Mo Zi’s eyes, worship is not just a means of communication
between men and heaven, men and the gods, and men and ghosts; it is also a way to
serve, emulate and thoroughly comply with heaven. Therefore, ceremonies are not
quite dispensable; they must be held. Throughout a ceremony, one must not only be
pious and deferent, but also decorous and opportune.

2.2.3 Righteous Politics

Deferring to heaven is not just an individual deed, but also an administrative act of a
state. If the former enables the doctrine “heaven favors righteousness and detests

14
Mo Zi: Etiquette and Law.
15
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
16
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
17
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
18
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
2.2 The Belief in Divine Fate 25

injustice” to fall into the ethical category, the latter gets it to assume an aspect of
political science. More importantly, Mo Zi directly transplanted politics into the
notion of righteousness, making politics a constituent part of righteousness. In the
political field, Mo Zi’s ideal is “righteous politics” which, as a proposed solution for
rulers, views righteousness as a matter of course. All of this is, through examples
set by monarchs or lower levels of authority, to better obey and identify with
heaven. As heaven desires righteousness and abhors injustice, a monarch should
correspondingly enact righteous politics. This is why Mo Zi endorses righteous
politics and opposes coercive politics. His statement here highlights three issues.
First, so far as the origin of his doctrine is concerned, righteous politics is the result
of complying with heaven, which adds to its moral legitimacy, correctness and
authority. Theoretically, this helps to establish the supremacy of righteous politics
from the height of ontological philosophy, making it clear that only righteous
politics, not coercive politics, are desired by heaven. Second, in terms of concrete
operation and actual content, righteous politics rely on all-embracing love and
opposition to war (the very statement that “a big country should not attack a small
country, a big household should not rob a small household, the strong should not
rob the weak, the noble should not despise the abject, and crafty persons should not
take advantage of dull-witted ones,” when interpreted in an active sense, can be
taken to mean all-embracing love, but when interpreted in a passive sense, can also
be taken to mean opposition to war; or, when examined in terms of
person-to-person relationships, involve all-embracing love, but when examined in
terms of group-to-group or state-to-state relationships, involve opposition to war) as
a means and method to rule a country, as well as to handle the relationships between
individuals, families and countries. Third, in terms of actual function and effect,
righteous politics maximizes benefit for all—heaven, ghosts and men—while
bringing harm to none. Mo Zi was a utilitarian. He not only spurred himself to
action with the motto “ensuring a shared benefit for all;” he appealed to monarchs to
take equal account of heaven, ghosts and men. By encapsulating his concern for the
state, families and the people into his “Trio Theory,” which underlines the necessity
for any argument to be classics-based, mindful of actual conditions of the time and
helpful to the promulgation of the state’s edicts and laws, he defended the notion of
usefulness from the heights of transcendent truth and value. Apparently, righteous
politics match with this value-laden choice. More importantly, righteous politics
benefit the state, families and the people just because it is desired by, and a reward
from, heaven. Mo Zi approved of and even fervently expected this. Thus, he not
only imbued righteousness with a political significance, but called it benevolent
politics as well. With respect to that, he said, “Righteousness is equivalent to
benevolent politics. This is true because there is law and order whenever righ-
teousness triumphs and there is chaos and bustle whenever righteousness rolls
down the gutter.”19 In his words, the purpose of politics is for a country to proceed
from chaos to order, with the former being an impediment to politics and the latter a

19
Mo Zi: Heavenly Will, Part 2.
26 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

goal of politics. How shall that impediment be removed, then, to achieve law and
order? To that, Mo Zi’s answer was: “Righteousness leads to law and order, while
injustice is responsible for chaos and bustle.” Righteousness and order always come
together, and injustice and lawlessness are synonyms. This shows, explicitly or
implicitly, that righteousness (i.e. law and order) is both a goal of politics and a
good guidebook for ruling a country. This goal and recipe is worked out not so
much by the monarch as by heaven itself, reflecting a divine will. To maximize that
will’s manifestation in a country’s political life and day-to-day operations, Mo Zi
proposed that, in developing a political line and concrete administrative measures,
righteous means of governance ought to be adopted, or, to use his own words,
“righteousness is the foundation of good governance.” “Provided that a ruler is
righteous in administration,” he firmly believed, “his populace will thrive, law and
order will be maintained, and ordinary people will enjoy a peaceful and contented
life. A good method for governance, in this case righteousness, will surely benefit
the people. So, it pays after all to be a righteous ruler.”20 In other words, the goal of
benevolent governance is to ensure a clean and honest government, a thriving
population and social stability. Righteousness is the best way to reach that goal.
Therefore, it is a valuable asset for good governance.
Furthermore, in view of the fact that righteousness is the best method and an
essential principle for ruling a country, Mo Zi said, “To rule a country is to be
righteous.” This is equating governance with righteousness, thus combining two
items into one, making righteousness an indispensable part of ruling a country.
Besides, what is the relation between “to rule a country” and “to be righteous”?
What are the concrete meaning and ways of ruling a country righteously? Here,
“righteous politics” and “ruling a country righteously” are the same, as both of
these urge people to obey or comply with divine will. In the domain of public
politics, this shows itself as “heaven delegating power to a monarch, who in turn
exercises it righteously over the three top officials, vassals, scholars and com-
moners.” Or it can be the other way around, with commoners, scholars, vassals and
the three top officials emulating a monarch who in turn emulates heaven.
Obviously, this process and principle involves men’s identification with heaven, or
rather the pursuit of commonality. Meanwhile, righteous politics entails respect for
virtue and talent. In terms of evidence from classics and theoretical basis, this
manifests one’s identification with heaven; in terms of actual content and concrete
operation, the purpose and process of respect for virtue and talent is to identify with
righteousness. This ensures that stress on virtue and talent helps to approach
righteousness from the very start, reflecting the principle of heaven scorning
injustice in favor of righteousness that aims to emulate heaven’s preference for
righteousness.
In addition, the notion of righteousness shows Mo Zi’s tendency to combine
ethical and political principles. The contrast between righteous politics and coercive
politics, too, implies an ethical significance of his political philosophy. The

20
Mo Zi: Geng Zhu.
2.2 The Belief in Divine Fate 27

idealism, methods for rule and establishment of a political line based on righteous
politics, together, show his faith in, and yearning for, moral elevation. The scheme
of political rule through moral means was called “moral government” by Confucius,
and “benevolent rule” or “princely way” by Mencius. Although the phrases used
and details as to how to put righteous politics into practice vary, Mo Zi agreed with
Confucius and Mencius on the importance of relying on moral strength to govern a
country. The only major difference is that, whereas moral government or benevo-
lent rule has nothing to do with heaven, Mo Zi’s righteous politics originates from
divine will and applauds men’s emulation of heaven. In other words, it manifests
heaven’s favoring of righteousness and abhorrence of injustice in human society.
What’s more, the specific methods and administrative measures resulting from Mo
Zi’s righteous politics are all-embracing love, opposition to war, pursuit of com-
monality and stress on virtue and talent. These, too, are revelations of divine will, so
he listed them as moral items to be advocated. Thus, when righteous politics focus
on one’s innate conceptions or purely personal (especially ordinary people’s)
behavior, it belongs to the ethical domain; when it indicates a state’s administrative
measures, scheme of ruling or a ruler’s public behavior, it falls into the political
domain. Likewise, when righteous politics focuses on subjective consciousness, it
belongs to the moral category; when it stresses an obligatory need to cater to one’s
superiors, or rather a fear of being punished by heaven or the state, it becomes part
of the political category. This aspect determines Mo Zi’s moral philosophy as
inevitably tinged with a politico-philosophical hue. Its compulsory political nature
is ultimately attributable to heaven’s will and authority.
Thus, from divine creation to divine fate, Mo Zi developed a set of methods and
values for toeing heaven’s line, identifying to the greatest possible degree with
heaven. In the domain of ontological philosophy, heaven creates all forms of life
including humans while having its own feelings, preferences, and power of will.
This forebodes heaven’s status as the manipulator of human behavior and destiny.
In this sense, the notion of heaven favoring righteousness and abhorring injustice is
part of the theory on heaven being the origin of everything, as well as an actual
content of divine will. In the field of moral philosophy, that notion is shown in
moral assumptions and ethical norms such as righteousness above all, all-embracing
love, opposition to war, pursuit of commonality and respect for virtue and talent;
these are concrete demands on men meted out by divine will. In the political
philosophical field, that notion is transformed into an idealistic sentiment toward
righteous politics and the scheme of ruling a country righteously, by stressing the
need to cater to divine will through the monarch and various levels of officialdom.
Through the examination and analysis above, it can be seen that Mo Zi promoted
divine will and endorsed the idea of identifying with heaven by starting from
ontological philosophy, then moving on to moral philosophy and finally ending in
political philosophy. This makes it possible for all of these philosophies to infiltrate
into and complement each other, forming an interactive pattern. The notion of
heaven favoring righteousness and detesting injustice vividly shows Mo Zi’s
philosophies as a trio, which not only guarantees a better enforcement of divine
will, but also gives his philosophies a distinctly Mohist hue as well.
28 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

2.3 The Belief in the Existence of Ghosts

In Mo Zi’s understanding, heaven has its own will, expecting men to do what it
wants them to and meting out rewards or punishments in accordance with their
deeds. This enables heaven to decide men’s fates by following certain cycles of
cause and effect. Men’s deeds are the cause, while rewards and punishments from
heaven are the effect. To reward or punish a deed, it is necessary to examine human
behavior first. To achieve that purpose, Mo Zi held that the existence of ghosts must
be clarified so they can be used a medium between heaven and men, or as angels to
inspect and supervise men’s behavior.

2.3.1 Professed Existence of Ghosts

By “professed existence of ghosts,” Mo Zi meant that it must be made clear that


ghosts do exist. The ghosts in his mind carry a far wider range of suggestions than
Confucian scholars’ ghosts, which are simply just the spirits of dead humans. He
claimed: “Ghosts of both yesterday and today are, apart from what dead humans
have turned into, divine spirits and mountain or river spirits.”21 This shows that,
besides what dead humans have changed into, there are divine spirits and ghosts in
the form of mountains or rivers. In his view, these ghosts are all missionaries sent
by heaven. So he called gods and ghosts alike “spiritual beings,” and heaven and
ghosts “divine ghosts.” To prove the existence of gods and ghosts, Mo Zi raised his
trio theory. He said, “Any argument must base itself on a source, have support from
real-life situations, and be useful. It has to comply with the wisdom of the ancient
sage-kings, have concern for the weal and woe of common folk, and ensure the
smooth running of a state through edicts, laws and regulations.”22 That is to say, the
criteria for judging whether a statement is correct are: the first, whether it agrees
with ancient sage-kings’ words and deeds; the second, whether it echoes ordinary
people’s sentiments and sensuous experience; the third, whether it caters to the
interests of the state and people. If it does, it is correct; if it does not, it is wrong.
The same is true for judging whether something exists—whatever meets the three
criteria exists, just as whatever violates them does not. With this theory as a
weapon, Mo Zi claimed that ghosts do exist, and he provided compelling proofs for
their existence.
Firstly, the existence of ghosts is proved by ancient sage-kings’ words and deeds.
The existence of ghosts is absolutely self-evident, Mo Zi claimed. This is exactly
why ancient sage-kings made much of sacrificial ceremonies, serving gods and
ghosts with full-hearted devotion. Then he pointed out that, to reinforce posterity’s
faith in the existence of gods and ghosts, ancient sage-kings repeatedly mentioned

21
Mo Zi: Discerning Ghosts.
22
Mo Zi: Negating Fate.
2.3 The Belief in the Existence of Ghosts 29

and recorded matters relating to them. They not only referred to gods and ghosts in
their writings on bamboo or silk; they also “inscribed their images on plates,
broad-mouthed liquid vessels, and gold or stone wares.” That way, they had helped
posterity to further believe in the existence of gods and ghosts and to serve them
heart and soul. Hence, the professed existence of gods and ghosts is proved by
ancient sage-kings’ deeds. Thus, the existence of gods and ghosts does match
ancient sage-kings’ pious deeds.
Secondly, the existence of gods and ghosts corresponds to ordinary people’s
sentiments and sensuous experience.
Just as a statement or an argument should be judged on the basis of whether it
echoes ordinary people’s real-life experiences, the best way to find out if something
exists is to see if it is seen or heard by the masses. If it is, it exists; if it is not, it does
not exist. On that basis, he went on to say that the existence of gods and ghosts is
felt and witnessed by all, so it must be a fact, not a sheer fantasy.
Third, the existence of gods and ghosts serves the interests of the state and
people.
According to Mo Zi, the world’s chaos, atrocities and moral decay all arise from
mens’ distrust of gods and ghosts. If everybody put faith in gods and ghosts, they
would not act unscrupulously and ravenously. This would be helpful to the state
and people. He held that people dare to be outrageous because they frivolously
dismiss the allegation of gods’ and ghosts’ existence, not knowing that the latter can
supervise their actions and duly reward or punish them. Along that line of thinking,
Mo Zi confidently declared that, once people see gods and ghosts’ magical powers,
officials will not dare to be dishonest or corrupt; they will reward good people and
punish bad. Outlaws will no longer rob, steal or rape, using weapons, poison, floods
and fires to force innocent wayfarers off the road and to seize their horse-driven
carriages and clothing for illegal gains. People will live in peace and content-
ment.”23 In such circumstances, people will no longer dare to do evil things because
they are afraid that gods and ghosts will inflict punishment on them. To obtain
blessings from gods and ghosts, they will work diligently, perform charitable deeds
and obey moral law. This will benefit both the state and people. Thus, Mo Zi
concluded: “If princes, other members of the aristocracy, scholars and
noble-minded persons really want to benefit the world and rid it of all kinds of ills,
they should regard gods and ghosts as a solid existence and openly worship them.
Such is the way of sage-kings.”24
Furthermore, Mo Zi earnestly urged people to openly acknowledge their exis-
tence because he wanted to tell them that, although they never see gods’ and ghosts’
physical forms, they should still firmly believe in their existence; only by doing so
can they ensure their personal safety, the safety of their families and property, and
the harmony and stability of the state. What’s more, gods and ghosts do exist, don’t
they?

23
Mo Zi: Discerning Ghosts, Part 3.
24
Mo Zi: Discerning Ghosts, Part 3.
30 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

2.3.2 The Intermediary Role of Gods and Ghosts

In Mo Zi’s understanding, heaven can reward or punish men on the basis of their
behavior, and then even decide everybody’s wealth or poverty, nobility or abject-
ness, and fortune or misfortune. However, heaven’s manipulation of men’s fate is
not arbitrary, because heaven only rewards or punishes in consideration of how men
behave. Thus, to reward or punish appropriately, it has to examine each person’s
deeds. There are multitudes of men in this massive world. We only see a vast
expanse of land crisscrossed by deep forests, streams and valleys. Ordinary people
rush east today and west tomorrow, doing all kinds of different things. If heaven
oversees everyone at all times without a single omission, it would have to overwork
itself. To assist heaven’s endeavor, Mo Zi resorted to gods and ghosts. He paid
close heed to gods and ghosts; therefore, he tried to prove their existence from
various aspects. More importantly, he asserted that in changing or manipulating
men’s fates, gods and ghosts can create miracles.
Firstly, he claims that ghosts and gods are capable of monitoring men’s behavior.
This is the very basis and source of all rewards and punishments heaven inflicts on
them. Mo Zi declared, “Ghosts and gods’ wisdom is to saints what sharp ears and
eyes are to the deaf and the blind.”25 In his view, ghosts and gods’ wisdom lies in the
impossibility of escaping ghosts and gods’ surveillance. In other words, ghosts and
gods have a way of monitoring men without being noticed; no human behavior can
escape ghosts and gods’ secret attention. Everyone, be it a king or a commoner, is
under heaven’s surveillance. He said, “Ghosts and gods know when officials high
and low do not behave in a clean and honest way, or when there is no prudent reserve
between men and women. The same happens when commoners engage in sexual
license, brutal violence, banditry, rebellion, robbery and thievery, or when they
block innocent people’s way with weapons, poison or fire and water, and take away
their horse-drawn carriages and clothing to for self-satisfaction.”26 Here, Mo Zi
stressed that ghosts and gods are unlimited in their ability to monitor and control. In
his fate theory, ghosts and gods’ surveillance is a basis for rewarding or punishment.
The necessity of surveillance determines that of rewarding or punishment, and the
clarity of surveillance determines that of rewarding or punishment.
Secondly, ghosts and gods offer rewards or punishments in accordance with
heaven’s will. Heaven’s reward or punishment, Mo Zi held, is actually meted out by
ghosts and gods. A good deed performed is surely rewarded by them, and an evil
deed is surely punished. Besides, “Be it high rank and affluence, outward strength
based on a seeming majority, or sturdy shields and swords, the punishment of
ghosts and gods shall best all!”27 To him, men’s fortune or misfortune, longevity or
deadly illness, is a result of ghosts and gods’ judgment based on their scrutiny of

25
Mo Zi: Geng Zhu.
26
Mo Zi: Discerning Ghosts, Part 3.
27
Mo Zi: Discerning Ghosts, Part 3.
2.3 The Belief in the Existence of Ghosts 31

human behavior. Thus, men’s good or ill fortune and other manifestations of fate
are all explainable by ghosts and gods. According to Mo Zi: Gongmeng, when Mo
Zi fell ill one day, a man called Diebi asked incredulously, “You used to say, sir,
that ghosts and gods reward good people and punish bad. If you’re a saint, then why
do you suffer misfortune and illness just as much? Can it be that you say anything
wrong or offensive?” To this Mo Zi replied, “Just because I’m ill doesn’t mean that
ghosts and gods are unwise. Men’s illness is attributable to a diversity of causes. It
can come from the heat of summer or the raw coldness of winter, or from hard
work. When you close only one door and leave all the others open, why can’t
robbers and thieves take the chance to rush in?”
The assumption about sagacious ghosts and gods occupies a unique status in Mo
Zi’s philosophy on fate. That assumption makes an otherwise obscure heaven
physically more real. Although Mo Zi praised heaven as being magnanimous and
unbiased, and as being generous yet morally unassertive, although he regarded
heaven as most precious and knowledgeable, he lacked proof to actually show its
existence. In that sense, heaven manifests itself, irrefutably, through ghosts and
gods. The existence of ghosts and gods makes Mo Zi’s heaven far more tangible
than the vague, hardly veritable heaven on Confucius’ lips.
At the mention of rewarding or punishment depending on whether one does
good or evil, one cannot help recalling karma in Buddhist philosophy. In fact, these
two ideas, despite certain similarities, are logically unrelated. Buddhism was
introduced into China as late as the Eastern Han Dynasty, whereas Mohist phi-
losophy preceded it by four centuries. The latter cannot have been influenced by the
former. At the same time, karma is based on samsara, an endless cycle of life and
death. It is not limited to this life but applies more broadly, to a past life, a present
life and a future life. In contrast, the theory of retributive divine fate stresses only
the present life. The theory of retributive divine fate sees that the inevitable factors
in fate (or human fate) are closely associated with one’s moral cultivation and
conduct. This undoubtedly exerts an admonitory effect on all people. However, the
explanation offered by the theory of retributive divine fate, as to why the good do
not fare well and evil doers do not fare ill, is far-fetched and therefore hardly
convincing.
In terms of ways of thinking, the theory of retributive divine fate complements
the antithesis of inevitability and contingency in the theory of divine fate: At birth,
before any action is performed, i.e. when a man has not yet truly materialized, his
fate is already predetermined according to the theory of arbitrary divine fate. This is
what we call “inevitability.” However, the theory of retributive divine fate holds
that, during that time, a man’s fate has no specific content yet; his fortune, good or
ill, is still waiting to be decided. This is what we call “contingency.” After an action
is carried out, according to the theory of arbitrary divine fate, it is not linked to fate,
making whatever thus befalls a man arbitrary or accidental. On the other hand, the
theory of retributive divine fate insists that such an action will inevitably lead to
32 2 The Theory of the Causality of Divine Destiny

corresponding consequences, with all good men reaping their rewards and all bad
ones getting duly punished. With regard to attitudes toward life, the theory of
arbitrary divine fate tries to resign men to fate, urging them to endure whatever fate
“inevitably” cannot be altered, while the theory of retributive divine fate encourages
men to change the contingencies of fate and embrace its inevitabilities, enjoying
good fortune and longevity.
Chapter 3
A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

If a man’s fate is pre-determined by Heaven, can human factors be included into the
divine arrangement? The Modified Vision of Divine Determination gives an affir-
mative answer. It claims that human destiny, being pre-arranged by Heaven, is also
influenced by the will of people. Through cultivating one’s personal character, one
can avoid unexpected accidents, live long and die in a peaceful way. In the pre-Qin
period, the most ardent advocate of this notion was Mencius.

3.1 The Vision of Divine Determination

Mencius was a fervent believer in Heaven’s authority over a man’s destiny,


claiming that the fate of each individual rested in the hands of the Divine Being. On
that matter, Mencius elaborated as follows:
Firstly, Heaven decides a man’s body, four limbs and various desires. Mencius
said, “The bodily organs with their functions belong to our Heaven-conferred
nature.”1 This means that at the very beginning of the creation of man, Heaven has
given each of us a body with four limbs and five sense organs that are all different
from those of dogs and horses. This suggests that man’s shape is pre-determined by
heaven. Moreover, man’s four limbs and five sense organs are organs of desire: for
instance, the eyes for beauty, the nose for taste, and the body for ease. Since
humans have four limbs and five sense organs, they have various kinds of desires
and cravings. Why, then, do men walk on two legs with their heads upright? It’s up
to Heaven. Why are some people tall and strong, while others are thin and feeble?
It’s up to Heaven. Why are humans born with desires to eat when hungry, to drink
when thirsty, and to rest when tired from labor? It’s all up to Heaven. In short,
Mencius considered all natural attributes of the human race a result of divine

1
Mencius: Bring Your Mental Faculties into Full Play, Part 1.
34 3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

arrangement, rather than human effort. This is the most fundamental meaning of
divine determination.
Secondly, Heaven bestows upon each individual “Four Feelings” in addition to
virtue and reason. Mencius asserted that Heaven endows humans with “Four
Feelings” when giving them four limbs. In his understanding, men have “Four
Feelings” as they have four limbs. This suggests that the “Four Feelings” are innate,
not infused into us from without. Furthermore, the reason why we are provided with
these “Four Feelings” is that they are bestowed on us as a nobility of heaven. What
then are they about? Mencius explained, “The feeling of commiseration implies the
principle of benevolence; that of shame and dislike, the principle of righteousness;
that of reverence and respect, the principle of propriety; and that of approving and
disapproving, the principle of knowledge.”2 We can see that the “Four Feelings” are
the source of benevolence, righteousness, propriety and knowledge; the fact that we
are born with these “Four Feelings” indicates that benevolence, righteousness,
propriety and knowledge are inherent in human nature.
It is noteworthy that man’s body and four limbs, though given by Heaven, vary
from person to person in terms of height and length. Similarly, when furnishing
humans with virtue and wisdom, the Ultimate Being has pre-arranged the varying
levels of virtue and wisdom among individuals. Therefore, Mencius claimed:
“Heaven’s plan in the production of mankind is this: that they who are first
informed should instruct those who are later in being informed, and they who first
apprehend principles should instruct those who are slower to do so.”3 In his view,
the difference between being first informed and being late informed is willed by
heaven; so are the differences between being first in learning principles and being
late in doing so, and between being benevolent and being vicious. Case in point,
both Yao and Yu were venerable sages, but Yao’s son Dan Zhu was vicious
whereas Yu’s son Qi was virtuous. Why was that? The answer can well be found in
Heaven’s arrangement.
Thirdly, Heaven decides a man’s fortune and accomplishments. According to
Mencius, Heaven not only pre-determines a man’s body and soul, but also watches
over him at all times and intervenes in his behavior. Thus, if a person is to do
something, there is a force supporting him; if a person does not do something, there
is also a force stopping him. Whether or not he does something is not simply a matter
of human will; everything is under Heaven’s control. What’s more, since each
person’s behavior cannot escape the dominance of Heaven, whether he or she can
accomplish something is also up to the divine will. In the “Liang Hui Wang II”
section of The Work of Mencius, there is one such mini-story that vividly reflects
his view: The duke Wen of Teng asked Mencius, saying, “The People of Qi are
going to fortify Xue. The movement occasions me great alarm. What is the proper
course for me to take in the case? the Master replied, “Formerly, when king Tai dwelt
in Bin, the barbarians of the north were continually making incursions upon it.

2
Mencius: Gao Zi, Part 1.
3
Mencius: Wan Zhang, Part 1.
3.1 The Vision of Divine Determination 35

He therefore left it, went to the foot of mount Qi, and there took up his residence. He
did not take that situation, as having selected it. It was a matter of necessity with him.
If you do good, one among your descendants in subsequent generations will attain to
the royal dignity. As to the accomplishment of the great result, that is with Heaven.”
Fourthly, Heaven decides a man’s political career. Mencius believed that those
who are entrusted with great tasks are the ones chosen by Heaven. Whether a
person can have an illustrious career in officialdom depends entirely on the divine
arrangement. Moreover, the Master pretentiously claimed that Heaven would put a
man to the test before conferring a great office on him, saying, “It first exercises his
mind with suffering, and his sinews and bones with toil. It exposes his body to
hunger, and subjects him to extreme poverty. It confounds his undertakings. By all
these methods it stimulates his mind, hardens his nature, and supplies his incom-
petencies.”4 On that matter, he cited quite a few examples of ancient times to
illustrate his point: Shun, the legendary tribal leader in late patrilineal society of
ancient China, rose from among the channeled fields; Fu Yue, a minister of King
Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty, was called to office from the midst of his building
frames; Jiao Ge, a minister of King Zhou of Shang, from his fish and salt; Guan
Yiwu, the man who helped Duke Huan of Qi to become the first Hegemon of the
Spring and Autumn Period, from the hands of his gaoler; SunshuAo, the premier of
the Chu Kingdom, from his hiding by the sea-shore; and Bali Xi from the
market-place, who became a minister of the Qin Kingdom and later, together with
Jian Shu and You Yu, helped Duke Mu establish his hegemony. It seems that one
has to go through a lot of hardships before he or she can rise to fame or success. In
Mencius’s eyes, these hardships are not accidental happenings; instead, they are
Heaven’s willful arrangement.
Finally, Heaven decides the rise and fall of a society. Mencius held that there are
two different circumstances under which human society exists. One is that morally
less fulfilled people are in the servitude of morally fulfilled ones, and less talented
people of talented ones. This is a time of order, prosperity and justice. The other
circumstance is that the less powerful are lorded by powerful, and the weak by the
strong. This is a time of confusion, decadence and madness. Mencius went on to
say that the exact circumstance which will befall a society is all up to divine will.
And those who obey the mandate of heaven will survive, while those who defy it
will perish; resistance is futile.
On that basis, Mencius concluded that order and confusion, as decided by
Heaven, occur in sequence in human society. Hence his famous remark, “A long
time has elapsed since this world of men received its being, and there has been
along its history now a period of good order, and now a period of confusion.”5
Departing from Heaven’s determination of order and confusion, the Master con-
sidered the alternating occurrence of such as a basic law and an evolving pattern of
human society. Moreover, he made it clear that the length of such a cycle is five

4
Mencius: Gao Zi, Part 2.
5
Mencius: Duke Wen of Teng (Teng Wen Gong), Part 2.
36 3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

hundred years, believing that every five hundred years Heaven will commission a
“born hero” to relieve people of their suffering and bring peace and order to society.
Such are his own words: “It is a rule that a true, royal sovereign should arise in the
course of five hundred years, and that during that time there should be men illus-
trious in their generation.”6 Mencius further pointed out that from the beginning of
the Zhou Dynasty until his time, more than seven hundred years had elapsed, but
Heaven did not yet wish that the kingdom should enjoy tranquility and good order.
“If it wished this, who is there besides me to bring it about?”7 said Mencius, unable
to conceal his pride. In fact, such pride derives partly from his self-confidence and
bravery, and partly from his zealous expectation of divine arrangement.
As far as can be seen, Mencius submitted to the divine will man’s various
attributes, be it natural or social; various happenings in life, be it daily or political;
and the fate of the entire human race, whether it is a single individual or a group of
people. In this sense, Mencius offered a definition of the divine determination:
“That which is done without man’s doing is from Heaven. That which happens
without man’s causing is from the ordinance of Heaven.”8 To us humans, the divine
determination presents an alien, external force that manipulates worldly affairs at all
times and has absolute power and supreme authority over our destinies.
In a nutshell, Mencius’s vision of divine determination was developed on the
basis of Confucius’ vision of Heaven’s arbitrary determination. They are the same
in essence while differing in minor points. On the matter of Heaven’s control over
man’s fate, survival and fortune, Mencius adopted the same view as Confucius did.
Moreover, since he perceived a man’s “Four Feelings” and four limbs to be
pre-determined by heaven, humans were thus locked into a fixed pattern of destiny,
both physically and psychologically. This makes Mencius’s vision of divine
determination much more thorough and radical than that of Confucius.

3.2 Heaven’s Destiny and Man’s Destiny

Though Mencius and Confucius shared similar views on Heaven’s determination of


man’s destiny, they differed diametrically in the way of the heavenly determination.
Confucius believed that Heaven’s determination of man’s destiny was random,
accidental and unpredictable like Heaven’s will. On the contrary, Mencius, despite
his allegation that Heaven may determine man’s destiny by manipulating fortune
and misfortune, didn’t view Heaven as a mystic existence but believed Heaven’s
will to be man’s will, adding a tinge of humanly involvement. This marks the shift
from heavenly determination to man’s determination of man’s destiny.

6
Mencius: Gongsun Chou, Part 2.
7
Mencius: Gongsun Chou, Part 2.
8
Mengcius: Wan Zhang, Part 1.
3.2 Heaven’s Destiny and Man’s Destiny 37

3.2.1 Heaven’s Will Is Man’s Will

In time immemorial, Yao handed his throne over to Shun, and then Shun to Yu,
giving rise to the acclaimed abdication/handing over system. Later, Yu handed his
throne over to his son Qi, which is hereditary. The former system is based on
capacity while the latter one is based on heredity. Wan Zhang, the best disciple of
Mencius, asked Mencius: “Some say that morality is a fading notion in the reign of
Yu, as he handed his throne over to his son instead of anyone else capable. Is it a
fair saying?” Mencius explained, “Handing over one’s throne is Heaven’s will,
which is determined by the public’s opinions”, which added man’s will to Heaven’s
will. As Mencius put more emphasis on man’s will and expanded its role in
Heaven’s Destiny, he eventually viewed Heaven’s Destiny as man’s will.
In the opinion of Mencius, as Heaven’s will is manifested in and even equal to
man’s will, man’s will may become a dominant factor in destiny by manipulating
Heaven’s will. Man’s destiny, therefore, is determined by both Man and Heaven. In
this sense, Heaven is no longer an absolute power, as “what Heaven sees or hears
comes from what Man sees or hears”. In other words, Heaven’s will comes from
Man’s will, and Man’s actions based on his will overshadow Heaven’s will.

3.2.2 Heaven’s Will Is Overshadowed by Man’s Will

If Heaven’s will is realized by the concurrent performance of Heaven’s will and


Man’s will, when there is conflict between the two wills and only one can prevail,
Mencius suggested that Man’s will should be pursued and Heaven’s will aban-
doned, hence the shift from Heaven’s Destiny to Man’s Destiny. According to
Mencius—Second Volume of Emperor Hui of the Liang State, the Qi State defeated
the Yan State. Emperor Xuan of the Qi State asked, “Some advised me to take the
land of the Yan State, and some did not. A powerful state defeated another powerful
state within fifty days, which was beyond possible with merely Man’s effort. If I do
not take the state, I will be condemned for violating Heaven’s will. So why not take
it?” Therefore, Emperor Xuan of the Qi State was determined to defeat and take the
Yan State. Mencius held different views on this matter: “If the people of the Yan
State are glad to be taken, the emperor should take the state; if not, the emperor
should not have.” Here, Mencius’ decision is not based on Heaven’s will, but
Man’s will. Among the triple factors of Heaven, Earth and man, Mencius
emphasized man’s power, or in his own words, “Favorable weather is less
important than advantageous terrain, and advantageous terrain is less important than
unity among the people.”9
In the “Heaven’s Will Is Man’s Will” section, man’s will works by depending on
Heaven’s will; in the “Heaven’s Will Is Overshadowed By Man’s Will” section,

9
Mencius: Gongsun Chou, Part 2.
38 3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

man’s will occupies an equal footing with Heaven’s will, and crushes the authority
of Heaven’s will. Based on the above narrations, Mencius cited a line from The
Book of History—King Taijia, “Uninvited misfortune may be forgiven, but
self-inflicted misfortune makes only oneself to blame.”10 Following this logic, we
can conclude that man and his actions is responsible for his own destiny. In this
sense, man’s fortune or misfortune is ultimately determined by his own behavior,
not by Heaven.

3.2.3 Man’s Destiny

In the “Heaven’s Will Is Man’s Will” section, Mencius confirmed Heaven’s


Destiny with some reservations for man’s role in determining his destiny. In the
“Heaven’s Will Is Determined by Man’s Will” section, the performance and
authority of Heaven’s Will fades next to man’s actions, though still at work as a
force determining man’s destiny. From the equality of both wills and the shift to
man’s will, Heaven’s importance diminishes while man’s power increases. The
result is that Heaven is no longer a factor that determines man’s destiny. It can be
seen that Mencius owed man’s fortune and his country’s rise to himself. Regarding
this, Mencius said, “A person must have humiliated himself before courting
humiliation from others; a family must have internal conflict before external
destruction looms large; a country must be plagued by internal disputes before
foreign forces defeat it.”11 As a firm believer of this view, Mencius predicted a
person’s destiny and fortune by observing his actions, and always had the precise
prediction. A man called Pen Chengkuo was an official in the Qi State, who was
described by Mencius as close to death. After a short time, Pen was killed. Mencius
was asked by his disciples about his prediction.
Mencius explained, “He is clever in trivial matters, but not well acquainted with
the way of a gentleman. His trivial cleverness suffices to bring himself misfor-
tune!”12 In the eyes of Mencius, one is responsible for both his life and the rise or
fall of his nation. This means that destiny to man is no longer an external force, but
the act and will of oneself. This marks Confucius’ shift from Heaven’s Destiny to
Man’s Destiny. In other words, if heaven’s destiny is not acceptable to man but still
effective, the former will be abandoned and the latter become the sole factor and
driving force of one’s life.
In conclusion, Mencius’ Heaven’s Destiny or Man’s Destiny is a development of
Confucius’ Heaven’s Destiny and Ruling by the Morally Qualified (以德配天)
since the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 B.C.–771 B.C.); moreover, it upholds the
subjectivity and subjective consciousness of mankind in a particular way. In terms

10
Mencius: King Hui of Liang, Part 2.
11
Mencius: Li Lou, Part 1.
12
Mencius: Bring Your Mental Faculties into Full Play, Part 2.
3.2 Heaven’s Destiny and Man’s Destiny 39

of its thoughts and theoretical orientation, Mencius’ approach is an interpretation of


the destiny determined by Heaven and part of the Manifest Destiny. As a supple-
ment to and a distinctive understanding of Heaven’s determination of man’s des-
tiny, Mencius’ Heaven’s Destiny and Man’s Destiny involves the way Heaven
determines man’s destiny and the existence of Heaven’s destiny—Heaven acts with
man and Heaven’s will is shown in man’s will. This not only involves the inter-
pretation of heaven, but also determines man’s value and deeds. As man’s power
rises against Heaven’s power, Mencius’ approach to destiny manifests man’s
potency.

3.3 The Manifest Destiny

If the fact that the Manifest Destiny is Man’s Destiny and the former fades next to
the latter makes it possible for man to make his call in destiny, Man’s Destiny
directly offers man’s destiny to his own hands. Following this logic, Mencius
completed his take on destiny and philosophical construction with the Manifest
Destiny based on efforts, intelligence and living one’s life. Regarding the way of
taking Heaven’s Destiny and living one’s life, Mencius said, “Man should know his
place and do his best. If man knows his place, he will know what Heaven has in
store for him. If man knows his heart and cultivates his soul, he will follow the
course of Heaven’s Destiny. If one sees longevity and short living as one thing and
cultivates himself constantly, he is living his life correctly.”13 According to
Mencius, as long as man uses his heart, he will know everything about human
nature; once he does this, he can perceive the way of Heaven. By preserving the
inherent moral fibers and sound traits of humanity, one can live his life correctly.
This shows that Mencius regards “Know one’s heart—Know one’s nature—Know
the way of Heaven—Follow the course of Heaven” as the fundamental method of
living a correct life and the sole approach to destiny.

3.3.1 Understanding One’s Mental Faculties

Mencius regarded knowing one’s heart as the first step of looking at destiny
correctly, as “heart” here refers to four hearts (filial piety, loyalty, rituals and
enlightened wisdom), top virtue of intelligence and kindness, namely kind intelli-
gence and capacity like “Know without anxious eagerness to learn” and “Be cap-
able without learning consciously”. The approach to destiny is to follow the four
hearts. Mencius spoke highly of the four hearts, described them the attributes of
man being man, and claimed that the four hearts elevated man beyond the animal

13
Mencius: Bring Your Mental Faculties into Full Play, Part 1.
40 3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

community as the supreme existence between Heaven and Earth. Mencius believed
that each one of the four hearts was indispensable to man’s existence. In his own
words, “If one has no compassion, he is no man; if one has no shame in evil deeds,
he is no man; if he knows not when to decline, he is no man; if one knows not what
is right and what is wrong, he is no man.”14
It is the vital significance of four hearts to man’s nature that consolidates
Mencius’ pursuit and eagerness of knowing one’s heart. Furthermore, to know
one’s heart is to give full play to the heart’s intellectual capacity, initiate one’s
inherent propensity for goodness and intelligence, preserve one’s kindness, view
and balance man’s desires from a moral standpoint, and make sure that man’s
actions comply with the code of conduct, intelligence and kindness. Here, Mencius
emphasized that Heaven endows each man with four limbs, a mouth, a nose, two
eyes and two ears, plus four hearts, which is the same for every man. Some people
stress the heart or the big picture, while others stress eyes and ears, or the small
picture, which brings about the difference between people and between gentlemen
and lesser men. Hence the proverb, “If one sees the big picture, he is a gentleman; if
he sees only the small picture, he is the lesser man.”15 Regarding this, Mencius’
disciple Gong Duzi asked, “We are all men, why can some see the big picture while
others see only the small picture?” Mencius replied, “Some people believe only
their eyes and ears, and are therefore blind-folded. What people hear or see is just a
superficial introduction, whose significance can only be captured by thinking. Such
is a natural endowment by Heaven.”16 In the eyes of Mencius, Heaven gives man
four limbs and sensory organs, plus the heart for thinking. Mencius believed that
man’s heart is the organ for thinking, so that man could evaluate fortune and desires
from a moral standpoint, and make their choices. For instance, Mencius said, “If
you pursue it, you will have it; if you abandon it, you will lose it. As you pursue,
you will be more likely to have it, which is up to you. You should pursue it
correctly, and it is destiny if you could or could not have it. The act of pursuit, as an
external factor, is only conducive, not decisive.”17 Sandwiched between the
external factor and the internal factor, how should one choose? This is where the
heart’s power comes into play.

3.3.2 Knowing One’s Nature

Though Mencius viewed man’s four limbs and “four hearts” (the heart of com-
passion, a sense of shame, sense of humility, sense of right and wrong) as endowed
traits, he treated each of them differently. In contrast with his passion for four

14
Mencius: Gongsun Chou, Part 1.
15
Mencius: Gao Zi, Part 1.
16
Mencius: Gongsun Chou, Part 1.
17
Mencius: Bring Your Mental Faculties into Full Play, Part 1.
3.3 The Manifest Destiny 41

hearts, Mencius remained aloof and even negative towards the function of four
limbs in maintaining physical existence and integrity. He saw man’s physical
desires as animal instincts. Regarding this, Mencius said, “Man exists for a purpose.
A person free from cultivation and education, though well-fed, clad and accom-
modated, is like an animal.”18 Such difference of attitude has a direct influence on
Mencius’ determination of different aspects of human nature. To be specific, there is
sharp contrast between his passion for four hearts and his aloofness towards four
limbs: Mencius viewed four hearts as the entirety of human nature and singled out
four limbs as human nature. This leads to convergence between heart and human
nature for Mencius: on the one hand, the heart is human nature. Four hearts are
endowed by birth, and work naturally. Intelligence and kindness requires no later
training or study. On the other hand, human nature is the heart. Human nature is not
the desire of four limbs, but compassion, shame, declining and right/wrong. The
convergence shows the opposition of human nature and four limbs, which makes
freedom from material desires part of knowing one’s nature.
Meanwhile, the convergence proves that knowing one’s heart means knowing
one’s nature. According to Mencius, the basic and right way to know one’s heart is
to view, contemplate and balance the desires of four limbs and four hearts, even-
tually attributing them to destiny or human nature and developing an attitude of
either passion or aloofness. Specifically, the mouth is for nice food, the eyes are for
nice looks, the ears are for good sound, the nose is for good smell, and four limbs
are for good stimuli, which all have their inherent preferences that depend on
destiny or serendipity. Therefore, gentlemen should not see them as an inevitable
result of human nature. On the contrary, filial piety is for parents and kids, loyalty is
for officials and kings, rituals are for guests and hosts, enlightened wisdom is for the
virtuous, and the way of Heaven is for saints, which all depend on destiny and one’s
nature. Therefore, gentlemen should not surrender to them as they fall in the scope
of destiny. Instead, they should choose what is best for them. With the contem-
plation of man’s heart, Mencius distinguished destiny from one’s nature, a process
in which four hearts, instead of natural endowments, are the criterion for choice. As
the heart is the sole criterion and the authoritative yardstick for judgment, the result
of distinction is that four hearts shall be deemed human nature and exert powerful
influence. This shows the moralistic aspects of Mencius, and the inevitable con-
clusion of the convergence of the heart and human nature. As the content of the
heart is four hearts (filial piety, loyalty, rituals and enlightened wisdom), the result
of thinking is the commencement of four hearts, then the expansion and transfor-
mation. It is in this sense that Mencius endows the heart with the way of living a
correct life, in the hope of knowing the course of nature by knowing one’s heart.

18
Mencius: Duke Wen of Teng (Teng Wen Gong), Part 1.
42 3 A Modified Vision of Divine Determination

3.3.3 Following the Course of Heaven

When Mencius distinguished four limbs from four hearts, he offered a macroscopic
picture of man’s value objectives and behavioral patterns. Moreover, in the ideo-
logical framework of the convergence and knowing one’s heart and nature, the
main content of heart and human nature is four hearts, which are endowed by
Heaven. In this sense, following the course of Heaven is to preserve the four hearts
and maintain their virtue. Regarding this, Mencius claimed, “There is peerage
endowed by Heaven, and there is peerage conferred by man. The former takes the
form of kindness and loyalty; official titles are conferred by man. In ancient times,
people cultivated themselves to achieve heavenly peerage and they got man’s
peerage.”19 Moral concepts and behavioral norms, including four hearts, were
described by Mencius as the noblest peerage endowed by Heaven, thus becoming
the most comfortable home to and way of human being.
Moreover, Mencius’ proposal of cultivating and preserving one’s heart is based
on the assumption that the heart is what one is endowed with and that preserving the
heart is a remarkable achievement of following the course of Heaven. According to
this logic, knowing one’s heart and nature leads to knowing the course of Heaven,
and preserving one’s nature and heart can become the fundamentals and concrete
actions of following the course of Heaven.

3.3.4 Living One’s Life Correctly

Based on the convergence and inheriting “Know one’s heart—Know one’s nature
—Know the way of Heaven—Follow the course of Heaven”, Mencius made a call
to the public that cultivating oneself is the best way to preserve and live one’s life
correctly, regardless of one’s longevity. In the eyes of Mencius, everything in life is
predestined, and life could only be correctly enjoyed if one knows his heart, his
natures, knows and follows the course of Heaven. Otherwise, going against
Heaven’s ordain will lead to unnatural death. Based on this, Mencius said,
“Everything is written down in destiny, and one should accept it. Therefore, man
acquainted with his destiny won’t risk standing in front of a flimsy wall. One’s life
is truly lived if he knows and follows the course of Heaven; one’s life is not truly
lived if he succumbs to self-made shackles and bondage.”20 This is to say that there
are two types of death: one is to die after following the course of Heaven; the other
is to die after violating the course of Heaven. Of course, people knowing his destiny
will not stand before a wall about to fall; instead, they will follow the course of
Heaven or destiny and accept the way of true living. Therefore, living correctly and
truly has become Mencius’ expectation and choice of destiny. The reason why

19
Mencius: Gao Zi, Part 1.
20
Mencius: Bring Your Mental Faculties into Full Play, Part 1.
3.3 The Manifest Destiny 43

Mencius tried to live by knowing his heart and nature is to avoid self-inflicted
shackles.
Furthermore, to live truly and correctly, Mencius suggested the moral focus of
heavenly peerage (filial piety, loyalty, rituals and enlightened wisdom), so that
people could live safely and correctly. The reason for this is simple: only those filial
to parents and loyal to others can have a safe life, which is true for individual
cultivation and kingly ruling. Kindness, or benevolence, may win the whole world,
and a lack of it will let one lose the whole world. Only by constant kindness and
rituals can one protect himself, his family and his country. Following this logic, we
can say that the achievement of blessings or worldwide prestige depends on one’s
moral integrity. In other words, it is the practice of the four hearts that determines
the destiny of a country or an individual.
As Mencius suggested that people win a correct life by moral perfection, he also
advised people to be flexible, durable and smart in adverse conditions, so as to
avoid harm and stay alive. The Confucian school is marked by officialdom, and
Mencius, as an official himself, is no exception. In his approach to life, when the
subject under discussion is politics, he stressed the avoidance of death or trouble as
the key to a correct life. Mencius emphasized that as a statesman, only by delighting
in and holding heaven in awe can one protect his life and his country.
As discussed above, the Manifest Destiny includes Heaven’s determination of
man’s destiny and man’s approach to destiny. There is casual allusion to
Heaven-centered Theory, and reference to the existence and function of Heaven, the
noumenon of the universe. These are the main contents of Mencius’ ontological
philosophy. Mencius’ Manifest Destiny aims at a correct and true life, hence its
name.
Undoubtedly, the Manifest Destiny starts with ontology and constitutes the
fundamentals of Mencius’ ontological philosophy. The question now is as follows:
In the discussion of Heaven’s existence and functions, especially regarding man’s
approach to destiny, Mencius’ framework of convergence of the heart and human
nature involves people in the choice of their respective destinies, and makes them
accept the correct life through the pursuit of moral perfection. This makes it pos-
sible for his Manifest Destiny to go from ontological philosophy, life, the philos-
ophy of human nature and all the way leading up to moral philosophy. Mencius’
system of Manifest Destiny follows the Confucian theoretical framework of Heaven
and man being one, and complies with its emphasis on morality and ethics.
Chapter 4
On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

Which is more important, your own arms or the whole world? Given something
that’s meant to be, are you going to resist it with determined efforts or just take it as
it is? The theory of respecting life and accepting fate answers the above questions
from the perspective of Taoism. It holds that, compared with the infinity and
eternity of Tao, man and myriad things are too trivial and transient to decide big and
small, long and short, permanent and temporary, this and that, right and wrong,
beautiful and ugly, success and failure. Similarly, as two forms of the ever-changing
Tao, life and death are of the same nature. Just as Tao gives form to man, it rests
him in death. Therefore, it’s impossible to differentiate between success and failure,
life and death, dream and sobriety, misfortune and fortune, honor and dishonor, for
they are indistinguishable. People should let their mind be unruffled by sorrow and
joy, delight and anger, take things as they are, and through inaction live desire-free
and care-free. In Chinese history, Zhuang Zi is synonymous with the theory of
respecting life and accepting fate.

4.1 On Tao

Among the most prominent advocates of Taoism, Zhuang Zi valued Tao most
zealously. With him, everything and anything is traceable to Tao, be it man or his
fate. What’s more, the way Zhuang Zi regarded life and fate evolves from the rules
of Tao. Therefore, the desire for knowledge of Tao will lead to a total failure of
grasping Zhuang Zi’s philosophy of fate.
46 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

4.1.1 The Nature of Tao

Versed in philosophy, Zhuang Zi expressly explored the creation of the universe.


Here is how he deducted: if there is a beginning, before it there must be
non-beginning, which is preceded by non-non beginning; if there is Being, before it
there must be non-Being, which is preceded by non-non-Being…which can run on
and on. Of such an endless chain which point exactly is the original beginning?
Zhuang Zi categorized man’s exploration of the universe into three levels, holding
that only by tracing to the phase of “nonexistence of anything”, can one truly master
the mystery of the universe. Thus, he further claimed that in the very beginning,
nothing existed, and nothing was named.1 In other words, at the birth of the uni-
verse, there existed only a nameless and formless void, from which came all that’s
named and formed; and the void, mothering all and controlling all was none other
than Tao.
What Zhuang Zi stressed is that Tao is self-sufficient, can neither be increased
nor decreased,2 and already existed before the earth and the sky.3 In one word, Tao
forms itself, producing ghosts, spirits and gods,4 and is the very source of all
creation.
Zhuang Zi also stressed that by inaction Tao evolves into everything. Here is an
analogy: When a blast of wind blows, innumerous tree hollows and crevices
resound with myriad sounds and the moment the wind drops, all echoes die out.
The volume of the sound depends on the size of the hole. As a matter of fact, Tao is
empty, quiet and inactive and that’s the very reason Tao gives birth to everything.5
According to Zhuang Zi, Tao is inactive and formless. It’s hidden, formless and
intangible and its real face eludes the human eye. Zhuang Zi insisted that Tao can
be felt but not talked about, can be comprehended but not seen.6 No matter how
hard human beings try, Tao cannot be seen or heard, and cannot be mastered or
transmitted by the use of language.

4.1.2 The Tao of Heaven and the Tao of Man

Zhuang Zi valued Tao not only as the very source of the cosmos, but also, more
importantly, as the guiding principle for man. In his interpretation of Tao, Zhuang
Zi first divided it into the Tao of heaven and the Tao of man, and then emphasized
their relationship between the king and his subjects. Zhuang Zi declared in

1
Zhuang Zi: Heaven and Earth.
2
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
3
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
4
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
5
Zhuang Zi: The Way of Heaven.
6
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
4.1 On Tao 47

“Preserving and Accepting”, “What is Tao? There is the Tao of heaven and the Tao
of man. Honor through inaction arises from the Tao of heaven, while entanglement
through action comes from the Tao of man. The Tao of heaven is primary while the
Tao of man is secondary. There is a marked difference in-between which demands
our heed.”7 What Zhuang Zi meant is that the Tao of heaven and the Tao of man are
polarizing, and unequal. They have their own respective features and manifestations
and the Tao of man is subject to the Tao of heaven. That’s the very base of and
logical premise for Zhuang Zi’s philosophy of fate. All his insights into the truth of
life, his demarcations of life and death, and his attitudes toward life and death
evolve from that basic cornerstone. Now the next proposition is, since the Tao of
heaven is primary while the Tao of man is secondary, the former controlling the
latter, the Tao of man must follow the Tao of heaven.
Well, then, what exactly is the Tao of heaven and how should man follow it?
What Zhuang Zi meant by the Tao of heaven is simple inaction, that is, naturalness
that’s devoid of man’s will and intention. Presumably, the Tao of heaven is heaven
in itself; the Tao of heaven is being natural with inaction.8 Accomplishment by
inaction is the Tao of heaven, which was also labeled as Tianni (Nature of the line)
or Tianjun (From the natural equality principle) by Zhuang Zi.
If the Tao of heaven is heaven, which is equated with inaction, then the whole
universe must function with inaction. And surely it does. Zhuang Zi stressed that
because the whole universe identifies itself with Tao, the birth of everything in it is
just a natural process with inaction. He remarked, with inaction, the sky is clean and
the earth is tranquil. When the sky and the earth converge, all things come into
being and reproduce themselves endlessly. That’s the order of heaven. That’s what
Zhuang Zi meant by accomplishment by inaction.9 Given the above analysis, it’s
inferable that the relationship between the Tao of heaven and the Tao of man can be
converted and simplified into that between heaven and man. Thereby, heaven is
naturalness, falling into the category of the Tao of heaven; man is his intention,
falling into the category of the Tao of man. In “Autumn Floods”, Zhuang Zi further
explained the difference between the Tao of heaven and the Tao of man like this:
“the Tao of heaven manifests itself in that cattle have four legs whereas the Tao of
man chooses to harness horses and yoke oxen. Therefore, man should neither act
against heaven, nor destroy naturalness (innate nature) with his own will and
desires.”10
Apparently, Zhuang Zi set great store by the harmony between the Tao of
heaven and the Tao of man, in the hopes of urging man to adapt to the change of the
Tao of heaven, to identify himself with heaven. The identification of oneself with
heaven is not achieved by imposing man’s will upon heaven, but by allowing the
Tao of man to be governed by the rules of the Tao of heaven; the premise of

7
Zhuang Zi: Carefree and Tolerant.
8
Zhuang Zi: Heaven and Earth.
9
Zhuang Zi: Perfect Bliss.
10
Zhuang Zi: Autumn Floods.
48 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

following the Tao of heaven is knowing what heaven can accomplish by being
natural and what man can accomplish by his will. Just as the Tao of man and the
Tao of heaven must be reconciled despite their glaring difference, man and heaven
must be coordinated instead of being isolated or separated. It goes without saying,
the way of identifying man with heaven lies in the fact that man follows heaven, not
the other way around. As Zhuang Zi once pointed out, in regards to the relationship
between man and heaven, the sages who know the secret of Tao view man’s
activities in terms of the Tao of heaven and never interfere in the Tao of heaven.
According to Zhuang Zi, the true man neither harms the Tao of heaven by exerting
his own heart’s desire nor supports it.11 Knowing what roles heaven and man can
play respectively, one can nurture the unknown by what’s known, and live a life of
peace till its natural end.

4.2 The Truth About Life

As a Taoist, Zhuang Zi claimed that Tao is the cosmic ontology, from which man
and myriad things are derived. Viewed in the light of Tao, man’s life becomes
natural and easy. Zhuang Zi declared in “Knowledge Wanders North”12 that qi
transcends time and space and transforms. The whole world is the effect of Tao in
its ever-evolving process. As a result, man is formed; or to put it another way,
man’s life is just one form or one phase of the ever-evolving process of Tao.
Zhuang Zi detailed the changing traces of Tao, and inserted man among them and
ascertained man’s origin and end.
As Zhuang Zi put it, man is an unintentional form of the ever-changing Tao,
coming from matter and returning to matter. So, the appearance of man is acci-
dental, with nothing special, and nothing definite. What’s noticeable is, ancient
Chinese philosophy canonizes the thinking of the harmony between man and
heaven, holding that man and all things are from the same cosmic ontology—
heaven or Tao. (In this notion, Taoism, Confucianism and Mohism all concur.) It
follows therefore that man is equal to all other creatures, enjoying no privileges or
superiority of any kind.
However, almost all ancient Chinese philosophers preached that man is above all
other things. Mencius’ theory of man’s innate goodness distinguishes man from
animals by his four hearts (The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of
humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the
feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of
right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom); even Laotze insisted that although
originating from the same Tao as everything else, man enjoys unparalleled supe-
riority over other things for man is among ‘Grand Four’, the other three being

11
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
12
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
4.2 The Truth About Life 49

Grand Tao, Grand Heaven and Grand Earth. Zhuang Zi differs from Mencius and
Laotze in that he sees no distinctiveness in man that can distinguish him from other
manifestations of Tao. Therefore, in Zhuang Zi’s theory, man’s life is destined to be
lacking in appropriateness and sacredness. That’s as life should be. In its very
source, man’s life has little specialty and definiteness, and naturally there is nothing
superior or lofty about it. Thus, Zhuang Zi put his insights about the essence of life
as follows.

4.2.1 Life Has No Essence That’s Supposed to Be in Man’s


Possession

Zhuang Zi held that life is a form of existence endowed by Tao to man. In other
words, all concerning man’s life (including his body, breath and posterity) is
endowed by nature, not truly belonging to oneself. If so, how can man appropriate
them for his own purpose? Man doesn’t own his body, his life and his offspring,
and is even ignorant of what they really are: How can he hope to control or
command these things? In Zhuang Zi’s theory, due to the fact that man’s life is the
masterpiece of Tao or heaven, and man participates in none of life’s activities,
which are beyond man’s mastery and understanding, man is none other than a
constant drifter with no consciousness—always on the move aimlessly. In view of
this, Zhuang Zi sighed in “Heavenly Revolutions”: “one’s nature and fate are
unchangeable, time and Tao are unstoppable. With the help of Tao, nothing is
impossible; without Tao, nothing is possible.”13 In effect, that’s more revealing
about Zhuang Zi’s attitude toward life than just a resigned complaint about life.

4.2.2 Man Is Born as Conditioned, in Constant Coercive


Passivity and Resignation

Youdai is a special term in Zhuang Zi’s theory, meaning condition or dependence.


As his logic goes, condition or dependence entails restriction and limitation, thus
depriving man of blissful freedom. Consequentially, Youdai is a state of passivity,
posed against freedom. In the first chapter of “Carefree Wandering”, Zhuang Zi
employed the story of roc and birds to illustrate that despite their different sizes,
both are bound by conditions and thus fail to reach the perfect realm of being
carefree and unfettered. Later in “Sir Square Field”, Zhuang Zi asserted that all
things are the same, which live and die under certain circumstances.14 And there is

13
Zhuang Zi: The Self-Sustained Operations of Heaven.
14
Zhuang Zi: Tian Zifang.
50 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

no exception of man in the matter of life and death. Hence the conclusion: life,
essentially, knows no freedom, and is never in man’s own hands.
The same notion resurges itself in another vivid story. Jing bends down and
stretches himself in turn, now stands still, now moves, wears his hair braided or
loose. Superficially, those activities were all performed by Jing, whereas essentially,
all are just some forms of movement, not in Jing’s command or possession. Change
is inevitable in movement. So what Jing was conscious of his own activities but
couldn’t grasp why they were so. Jing’s existence is conditioned, as is Wang
Liang’s, which is dependant on Jing’s. By that story, Zhuang Zi intended to
illustrate that, man, confronted with life, is at a total loss as to where he comes from
and where he goes. In view of this, Zhuang Zi concluded that life and death,
survival and destruction, poverty and prosperity, virtue and vice, hunger and thirst,
summer and winter are all predestined by fate.15 It can be put this way, since man’s
life and death are both conditioned, controlled by many interactive factors, then
both life and death are predestined by fate, and thus beyond man.

4.2.3 Confronted with Life, Man Is at a Total Loss

Unable to know, partake in or control one’s own life, man is a stranger to it. As
Zhuang Zi pointed out, just because man’s life is excluded from his own will and
participation, man is upset and confused by life, rather than feeling comfortable
with it. Kept in the dark about how and why life comes into being, man behaves
forever as an observer, an on-looker, and not an involved participant. When con-
fronted with his self, he is always puzzled and uneasy as if face to face with the
other he’s not ever acquainted with. One’s body is closest to him, but he is strange
to his organs for he doesn’t understand their nature, or how they cooperate with one
another. For instance, man is unclear about the relations of all organs, which organ
is the chief commander, and which is more favored and loved. Even if man is well
aware of all this, it won’t help him, for that can’t change the true nature of all his
organs. Faced up with such a body, man feels no familiarity or realness, instead, he
feels strangeness and even horror. That’s why Zhuang Zi commented on his feel-
ings about life in “Sir Square Field” in the following way: “My life comes into
being out of sheer coincidence, and once my form is fixed, I can’t transform it until
death comes. I respond to the factors outside me day long and night long, without
knowing where all those changes will lead me to. Of the mysteries of fate, I dare not
venture to speculate; what I can do is adapt to change as change comes.16

15
Zhuang Zi: Morality Replenished and Verified.
16
Zhuang Zi: Tian Zifang.
4.2 The Truth About Life 51

4.2.4 Man’s Life Is Short, but Life Is not the Original


or Normal State of Man

In Zhuang Zi’s theory, man is born out of Tao, which is endless and timeless. In
contrast to Tao, man’s life is exceedingly trivial and transient. Regarding this, in
“Knowledge Wanders North” Zhuang Zi pointed out that, essentially any life is just
one form of qi. There is no vital difference between premature death and natural
death in advanced age.17 In other words, given the infinity of Tao, man’s life is
something like a fleeting breath of Tao. Therefore, the gap between long life and
short life is ignorable, for at most, it is just a brief moment. The legendary Peng Zu,
who lived up to 800 years old, has no match among common people, yet his
longevity is nothing if compared to the eternal Tao. No man outlives Peng Zu, who
dies prematurely if related to the eternal Tao. That’s how Zhuang Zi’s theory of the
equality between life and death is inspired. And Zhuang Zi pinned down life to this:
life between the sky and the earth is momentary, just like a horse rushing over a
crevice. Life comes and goes naturally. Life and death are just two natural states of
Tao.18
In brief, Zhuang Zi was trying to tell people, even if life is not ascribed as a slip
of the pen of Tao, it is still arbitrary and man is not entitled to appeal for his rights
and dignity from Tao; life to man, is just a beautiful mistake; as pre-arranged by
Tao, man’s whole life course is beyond his own control; throughout one’s life
course, man is always thrown into a resigned state of passivity, witnessing his
physical and mental change while going through ephemerality or longevity, life or
death, poverty or prosperity, noble or humble, fortune or misfortune.
In this sense, to man, life is, in its essence, nihility (void). A similar notion is
embodied in many fables and allegories contained in “On the Equality of Things”.
Here is a story: A man has raised many monkeys that eat too much. In order to save,
he tells the monkeys that each will be rationed to three acorns in the morning and
four in the evening. The monkeys are all angered and protest. Then the man says,
what about four in the morning and three in the evening? All the monkeys were
satisfied. This fable testifies that the very essence of life remains the same despite
physical change. In other words, in one lifetime, man may be rich or poor, honored
or humiliated, die young or old, whose life can be all plain sailing or through
stormy waters. But the superficial discrepancy is all triviality if the eternal Tao as
the source of life, its essence and the truth about life are taken into consideration.
The story of Zhuang Zi dreaming of a butterfly suggests that, he and the butterfly
are entangled in the endless chain of life and death, which are supposed to convert
into each other. Zhuang Zi, the man coming from matter, will be transformed into
matter sooner or later. Thereby, the issue of dreaming and awakening (in his dream,
Zhuang Zi is well aware that he is the butterfly while awake, so he is confused: Is it

17
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
18
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
52 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

that the butterfly changes into Zhuang Zi, or is it the other way around?) is actually
the very truth about man’s existence. Zhuang Zi and the butterfly are both the
materialization of Tao, so they are the same in nature. Hence, nihility is the exact
truth about life.
As Zhuang Zi preached, life is void and illusionary, not only because man is
unable to possess his own life, living his life the way he desires, but also, more
importantly, because life never exists in one fixed state, but is always changing
unpredictably. Zhuang Zi illustrates the unpredictability of life with the following
passage: he who drinks wine before sleeping may grieve in the morning when
awake; he who grieves when asleep may go hunting joyfully in the morning.19
What’s more pathetic is, although nothing in life is permanent, one is bound to
suffer all its encumbrances, myriad and real.

4.3 On the Equality of Life and Death

Zhuang Zi asserted that Tao as the cosmic ontology is formless and all-inclusive,
and everything in the universe is just one tiny bit of Tao. Given this, all matters in
the natural world are relative rather than absolute. Thus, Zhuang Zi reached such a
conclusion in “On the Equality of Things”: “Nothing in the world is bigger than the
tip of the down of dust whereas even Mount Taishan is just a mound; no one can
outlive he who dies in infancy while even the legendary PengZu, who enjoys
longevity of 800 years, dies young.”20 He further mentioned that under the impact
of the constantly changing and evolving Tao, nothing is ever able to remain in one
single state. Life is accompanied by death, and death is accompanied by life;
affirmation can be negated and negation can be affirmed21; yes and no can co-exist;
success and destruction, rottenness and miracle can be converted. Inserted in the
ever-circular chain of Tao, nothing has something that defies change, so all is the
same.
With this understanding, Zhuang Zi recommended that people give up trying to
distinguish things, and to abandon judging them by size, length, or appearance; as
to right and wrong, good and evil, early death or longevity; people should treat all
things indiscriminately. More importantly, as far as abstract logical deduction is
concerned, if life is empty, with nothing cherishable, then death is sure to be less
horrible and undesirable. Besides, since life and death are descended from the same
Tao, why favor life and discriminate against death? With the help of a thorough
understanding of what life is as it is, armed with Tao, Zhuang Zi obsessively

19
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
20
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
21
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
4.3 On the Equality of Life and Death 53

pondered over death and questioned it persistently, and constantly elaborated his
views on why life and death should be treated the same way.

4.3.1 Life and Death Are the Two Sides of the Same Coin

As Zhuang Zi declared, man inevitably experiences death. Just like life, death is an
inescapable form that man is endowed with by Tao. To Zhuang Zi, if life means
labor and busyness, then death gives man rest and peace. If that’s the case, as a
result of qi that’s gathered and dissolved, life and death are interdependent,
accompanying each other. As a matter of fact, life arises simultaneously from death,
and death from life and man experiences this acuteness of change.22 In light of this,
it’s insufficient to merely experience life; only by understanding what death really
is, can life be better understood. Zhuang Zi’s elaboration of the relationship
between life and death provides a theoretical premise for his notion of regarding life
and death equally.

4.3.2 Death Enjoys Superiority Over Life in Duration


of Existence

Zhuang Zi held that, in contrast with the eternal Tao, man’s life is merely a
moment, hastened and shadowed by death closely in its wake. In one sense or
another, the transience of life just proves the permanence of death; illusionary life
reinforces the acute realness of death. The skeleton in one of Zhuang Zi’s fables
remarked: “Among the dead, there is no king to be flattered and served, and no
subjects to be enslaved; there is no need to care about the change of seasons
affecting the harvest; and, there is only spring and autumn so the dead are spared
from the heat and the cold.” The skeleton spoke well of the ease, contentment and
permanence that death is supposed to offer.
What’s more, the contrast between transient life and everlasting death enlight-
ened Zhuang Zi to the notion that death is man’s original state. Therefore, it goes
without saying, entangled in time whose beginning eludes man, man only exists in
death, rather than in life. Reasonably, death is more like man’s hometown, where
life is born, than the end of life. Zhuang Zi was convinced that death is the
beginning of life. That’s why, when confronted with death, Zhuang Zi was very
calm, composed and liberal in his actions, which is unimaginable to common
people. Zhuang Zi’s detached attitude toward death is brilliantly illustrated in
“Ultimate Joy” about his wife’s death.

22
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
54 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

4.3.3 Life and Death Are Equal

All Zhuang Zi’s insightful comments about death originate from his thorough
understanding of Tao. One is supposed to take Zhuang Zi as a role model, learn to
acquire such insights into death as he did and treat death with composure. May it be
noted, Zhuang Zi never meant to encourage people to derive pleasure from death
and to despise living. One may retort by saying that the fable of the skeleton already
highlights the pleasure and freedom of death over life; the following story conveys
a similar theme. Li Ji was the daughter of a frontier guard in Ai. She was captured
by the Jin army, who occupied the frontier. She cried her heart out and her tears
soaked her all over. Upon arrival at the palace, she was made the wife of the Lord
Jin. Now that she was pampered and well-fed, she began to regret having shed
sorrowful tears. Similarly, how can one possibly know whether the dead never
repent their desire of adhering to life?23
You see, Li Ji’s dread of her future life in the unfamiliar Jin palace is just like
man’s dread of death when alive; only after living in the palace did she realize that
what she had cried over was just her dream life. “Why didn’t I welcome this new
life happily?” Li Ji might have repented. Analogously, how can anyone be sure the
dead never regret their fear of death? The superiority of the Jin palace over the
frontier is metaphorized to illustrate that death can bring greater happiness and joy
to man than life. Hence the wrong assumption that Zhuang Zi’s longing for death
reflects his distaste for life.
However, that is not Zhuang Zi’s real intention and insistent position. He never
despises or denounces life. Actually, he treats life and death indiscriminately,
refusing to choose one over the other and refusing to eulogize one at the cost of the
other. To put it more specifically, as two forms endowed to man by Tao, life and
death are of equal appropriateness for they are the same in nature and from the same
origin. That is supposed to be the exact meaning of “regarding life and death
indiscriminately”. Therefore, man should hold the same unbiased attitude towards
life and death, favoring neither, despising neither.
As their origin and relationship both point out, life and death are equally
meaningful and valuable. A good life deserves a good death. Or rather, the proper
attitude is to treat life and death equally. Freedom can never be achieved unless life
and death are seen as an endless, recycling chain without any preferences; unless
it’s fully understood that life is not necessarily a joy while death is not necessarily a
disaster. Zhuang Zi set his ideal personas (the true man and the sacred man) as role
models who discriminate against neither life nor death, for common people to
follow. In Zhuang Zi’s perspective, the saint neither treasures life nor despises
death; instead he holds that life and death are both natural processes of change, void
of man’s intention and deliberation. Thus he takes everything as it is, follows the
Tao of heaven, and shakes the shackles of disturbances and troubles to enjoy peace
and tranquility of his soul. It is illuminating that, if people regard life and death

23
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
4.3 On the Equality of Life and Death 55

indiscriminately, they will neither enjoy living nor despise death, and they will be
flexible and adapt to the changing situations. Then, people will be free from all
emotions and feelings, allowing themselves to be shaped by Tao, to be molded and
remolded in the huge melting pot of Tao, taking things as they come.
According to Zhuang Zi, the indiscriminate attitude toward life and death
requires man to adapt to the ever-changing Tao, to be one with the Tao of heaven.
“As the Tao of heaven endows me with the form of a man that’s destined to die, I
live contented and go accordingly; even if the Tao of heaven endows me with any
other form, I also welcome it with open arms. If the change of Tao is accepted as it
is, and if life and death are accepted as they are, one can be happy and contented
wherever he goes under whatever circumstance. With this kind of mentality, one
can achieve what Zhuang Zi aspired for a perfect life, which is to be lived by those
who have acquired the following understanding: the void is man’s head, life is his
body and death is just the end of the spine, and who can separate the three?”
In view of this, Zhuang Zi classified men into three hierarchies, asserting “The
first (the most witted) hold that the universe originates in the void; the second hold
that the universe originates in something, that one thing is produced at the cost of
the other and that death is return to nature. They already distinguish things. The last
hold that, the universe originates in the void, out of which are born all living things
that are to die. They accept that the void is man’s head, life is his body and death is
just the end of the spine. Well, anyone who knows that the void (nothing),
something, life and death can be reconciled into one, will be my welcomed
friend.”24 The first level is about the ontology of the world, falling into the category
of metaphysical philosophy, which is beyond common people. Apparently, Zhuang
Zi, whose theory is inclined more towards the philosophy of life, turned his eyes to
man and the possible highest level of cognition he can reach and should reach: the
void is man’s head, life is his body and death is just the end of the spine. That’s the
cornerstone of Zhuang Zi’s theoretical argument about life and death. So, what
Zhuang Zi idealized is the mentality of regarding life and death indiscriminately,
which is and always is his typical notion about life and death.
Regarding life and death indiscriminately is almost unattainable to common
people. In the Chapter “The Great Ancestral Teacher”, Zhuang Zi recommended
how man can cultivate himself to the realm of regarding life and death indis-
criminately: try to detach yourself from the realm of life and death. Hence, the total
freedom will fall on you. Zhuang Zi cultivated himself to embrace the ideal
mentality of life and death, so he sanguinely regarded death like going home.
All in all, Zhuang Zi never despised life or death. He actually treated them with
the same detachment. Life and death are something like the two sides of the same
coin. But it needs to be driven home that Zhuang Zi’s expounding and deliberation
on life and death gives people a false notion that Zhuang Zi enjoyed death while
despising life. The truth is common people imposed their own attitude toward life
and death upon Zhuang Zi. In the hope of clearing that kind of misinterpretation,

24
Zhuang Zi: Geng Sang of Chu (Geng Sang Zi).
56 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

Zhuang Zi spared no efforts (perhaps to the extent of overdoing it) to stress that life
in itself is not so pleasurable and death in itself is not that deplorable. As a matter of
fact, Zhuang Zi saw no difference between life and death, despising neither,
savoring neither. Regarding life and death indiscriminately demands no emotional
and behavioral involvement.

4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is

Zhuang Zi’s view on life and death, as well as his theory of respecting life, is part of
his philosophy of fate. Regarding life and death indiscriminately and respecting life
are the very basic attitudes toward fate. Zhuang Zi expounded the helplessness of
one’s fate from the perspective of Tao, and proposed his theory of taking fate as it
is. Viewed from the angle of Tao, fate is just one way that Tao evolves (a mode of
operation of Tao), or rather, a result of its evolvement. According to Zhuang Zi, Tao
functions through inaction. It is a natural process in which all things are produced,
devoid of any emotion and not subject to man’s will and intention. If so, fate is
beyond man’s ability. Since all is determined by sheer luck, decreed by heaven’s
will, man is supposed to take things as they come. Zhuang Zi’s interpretation of fate
sets the tone for his attitude to fate. In order to help man to adapt himself to any
situation and bow to his fate, so as to be happy and free, Zhuang Zi put forward a
concrete set of methods to deal with fate.

4.4.1 Inaction

As Zhuang Zi pointed out, “carefree inaction” is the very key to accepting one’s
fate decreed by heaven. “Carefree inaction” is being oneself, being natural, not to
destroy one’s simplicity and purity. In his eyes, whatever is natural is beautiful. The
real that’s unintentional and unspoiled by man’s will is the true beauty. Zhuang Zi
declared that, all over the world, nothing is comparable to being simple and pure.
He, who truly takes inaction as the basic principle guiding the universe will become
one with nature, hence is rewarded with heavenly joy; the king who employs
inaction to let his subjects rule themselves will harmonize with them, hence is
rewarded with human joy.25 As far as Zhuang Zi is concerned, Tao is solitary and
quiet, which functions via inaction and accomplishes all by inaction. Being simple
is what makes Tao the cosmic ontology. Therefore, simplicity is beauty unmatched
in the world—via inaction, Tao accomplishes all, similarly, by being formless, Tao
gives forms to all things and it’s by being void that Tao manifests itself in all.

25
Zhuang Zi: The Way of Heaven.
4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is 57

Furthermore, because the Tao of man is subject to the Tao of heaven, man has to
imitate Tao to be simple. Simplicity reflected in the Tao of man as well as in human
interaction is harmony. Harmony is applicable to any kind of interaction, like that
between man and Tao, and that between men, which should be taken as the guiding
principle by man, and which ensures that man will be free from harm in body and in
mind, and that he will be gentle, flexible, living a full life of harmony and joy.
In light of this, Zhuang Zi asserted, the sacred man (sage) doesn’t hurt things
outside him and thus remains unhurt; and that’s why he can be in harmony with
others while in contact with them.26 No doubt, the sage can be free and wishful just
because he obeys the principle of harmony. Harmony in Zhuang Zi’s philosophy
not only stems from simplicity but also the crystallization of simplicity. What’s
meant by simplicity, simply put, is free from purposeful action, naturally revealing
one’s innate nature. In this sense, being simple is equal to be desireless. As Zhuang
Zi pointed out, when everyone is stupid and desireless, simplicity is there and then
man’s instincts and innate nature will remain intact.27 Zhuang Zi stressed that, if
one fails to be free from desire, that is, if he is deliberate or purposeful, things may
turn out otherwise, contrary to his expectations. Not only the desired aim is
unachievable, but an evil consequence may also be elicited unexpectedly.
Being natural, everything is perfect, requiring no deliberate embellishment or
change; what’s accomplished by being natural is perfect and any deliberate change
is detrimental, for man’s deliberate action is bound to destroy his true nature. That’s
why Zhuang Zi argued to this effect, conjoined toes are not one. What’s born long is
not extra; what’s born short is not insufficient. Thus, if short legs of wild ducks are
lengthened, or long legs of cranes are shortened, calamity occurs. What’s meant to
be long cannot be shortened; what’s meant to be short cannot be lengthened. If
things are left alone, there will be no sorrow to dispel.28 To Zhuang Zi, since any
deliberation is destructive to man’s true nature, which is improper, the value of life
lies in the protection and preservation of the true nature of himself and all things.
It’s with this understanding that Zhuang Zi appealed to the rulers to rule by
inaction that will keep intact the true nature and feelings of the ruled.29 Namely, any
deliberation, any purposeful pursuit of fame and money will result in the loss of
one’s true nature. To illustrate, Zhuang Zi used the following fable. A huge tree is
felled, out of whose trunk an exquisite wine-cup is carved and engraved with
delicate patterns in indigo and yellow, with the rest of the trunk discarded in the
valley, going rotten. The part engraved into a wine cup seems to enjoy a good
fortune while the discarded part, a miserable fate. What a glaring distinction!
However, when it comes to the true nature of a tree as it’s meant to be, both parts
have been deprived of it.30 You see, man’s action is detrimental to the true nature of

26
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
27
Zhuang Zi: Horse Hooves.
28
Zhuang Zi: A Syndactylous Foot.
29
Zhuang Zi: Carefree and Tolerant.
30
Zhuang Zi: Heaven and Earth.
58 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

all things and more so to his own life. Consequentially, confronted with fate, man
should remain inactive, doing nothing.

4.4.2 Uselessness (Inutility)

Zhuang Zi hold that, uselessness is the prerequisite for true inaction. As it’s known
to all, Tao accomplishes all via inaction; Tao is effective by being useless. Zhuang
Zi inherited Laotze’s way of thinking and furthered its practicality in real life. The
use of uselessness in Zhuang Zi’s philosophy is no longer what it meant to Laotze: a
debating wisdom as well as a debating strategy but is a way of keeping fit and
savoir-vivre. Uselessness is Zhuang Zi’s way of taking fate, and his principle of life,
for he put life and usefulness in two opposing ends, stressing that usefulness is
detrimental to life. That’s the controlling theme of “The Mountain Tree”: “Foxes
with furry coats and spotted leopards rest hidden in the woods or deep caves for
tranquility of the mind; only at night they cease from hiding to prowling, for they
are alert for danger. Even if tortured by hunger, they don’t forget to conceal their
traces while hunting for food, for they are composed in mind. Despite their cautious
self-protection, foxes and leopards still end up entrapped. Why so? Whose fault?
Their own fancy fur and hide invite calamity.”31
Thereby, Zhuang Zi arrived at a conclusion: being useful, mountain trees are
felled and used as firewood; being eatable as an ingredient, the laurel is felled. In
this sense, they deserve their fate—they fall victim to their own usefulness. Since
being useful is harmful to life, then out of respect for life and for the sake of a full
life as spanned by heaven, one should avoid being useful. If man fails to understand
this and flaunts his usefulness, he is destined to early death.
“The Mountain Tree” records an anecdote of Zhuang Zi. He encountered a group
of fellers who rested under a huge tree. He was puzzled and asked them why they
didn’t cut down the huge tree and received such a comment: it’s totally useless.32 In
another chapter “The Human World”, Zhuang Zi used in succession the example of
three trees which are spared their lives for their uselessness and outlive others to rub
in his proposition—being useless is the way to the greatest use of all, namely, to
live a full life as decreed by heaven.

4.4.3 Wuqing (Desireless)

As far as Zhuang Zi could see, man takes action in pursuit of fame, money or glory.
For true inaction, one has to free his mind from any desire of that kind, which’s

31
Zhuang Zi: Mountain Woods.
32
Zhuang Zi: Mountain Woods.
4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is 59

called wuqing (desireless). A person has a form naturally endowed, but should be
deprived of any qing (all desires), that is, man should be devoid of any subjectivity
and of right and wrong, likes and dislikes. That’s the right way of conducting
oneself and taking his fate. As Zhuang Zi proposed, in order to merge oneself into
the crowd, one has to rid of qing. He stressed that man is the materialization of Tao,
or a phase of the existence of Tao, which is beyond man and his calculation,
whereas, man’s qing is based on his likes and dislikes, which will create troubles.
Therefore, Zhuang Zi argued that man is composed of form and qing, demanding
discriminate treatment. Because of the form, man seeks company among his fel-
lowmen. Although man’s form dwarfs and humbles him, yet his detachment from
all desires enables him to directly communicate and contact with Tao as compen-
sation, thus becoming a great being of nobility and sublimity. The key to a life of
peaceful contentment is not to neglect one’s form, but to detach oneself from his
qing. As for wuqing, Zhuang Zi defined it as no harm to one’s true self from likes
and dislikes.33 It can be inferred that, wuqing is a state of man with no likes and
dislikes weighing on his mind, destitute of all feelings and the notion of wisdom
and ingenuity. In this sense, one vital feature of wuqing is ignorance. Zhuang Zi
emphasized that, if all are ignorant, man will retain his instincts and true self.34
Wuqing and wuzhi(ignorance) are defined by Zhuang Zi as catering to others
without losing one’s true self.
Zhuang Zi insisted that deliberation is adverse to simplicity, wuqing and igno-
rance. Man has to be simple, desireless and ignorant without any calculated pre-
tense. In order to eradicate deliberation, Zhuang Zi advocated that clear-water-like
relationship of gentlemen. As he strongly recommended, the relationship between
gentlemen is as pure as water, while that between small men (petty-minded) is as
sweet as wine. Gentlemen’s friendship is plain and natural for it is freed from the
burden of personal judgment as to right and wrong, gratitude and resentment.35
What Zhuang Zi meant by simplicity is discarding all external over-elaborate for-
malities and all the shackles of hypocrisy to bring one’s true innate self into full
play.
Mind that Zhuang Zi never denied that man is born with feelings. In his eyes,
Tao gives man his appearance and heaven gives him his form, with his feelings
inseparable. That’s human nature, defying any reduction or enhancement. If so,
why did Zhuang Zi urge people to be wuqing (desireless)? What he meant by
wuqing is to remain natural, not to interfere in the natural evolvement of Tao with
worldly sorrow and joy, right and wrong. The principle of wuqing led Zhuang Zi to
draw such a conclusion: filiality in its true sense means to make life comfortable for
one’s parents in any circumstance; loyalty in its true sense means to get any task
done to set the king at ease; joy and sorrow elude man who’s keen in his

33
Zhuang Zi: Morality Replenished and Verified.
34
Zhuang Zi: Horse Hooves.
35
Zhuang Zi: Mountain Woods.
60 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

self-cultivation; he who knows that life is hard, about which nothing can be done,
and is still contented, is the embodiment of true virtue.36

4.4.4 Sitting Forgetting (In Oblivion) and Fasting


of the Mind

Zhuang Zi held that the state of inaction, uselessness and wuqing can be reached by
persistent practice of meditation, a state in which one is like a corpse, his mind is
unruffled, and his simple thoughts return to the original true; even though, he is
neither reserved, nor muddleheaded nor ignorant. Without an acute mind, you can’t
communicate with him.37 This special state is what Zhuang Zi called sitting in
oblivion, which he further explained in “The Great Ancestral Teacher” like this:
“one first feels as if his strong limbs gone, unseeing and unhearing, and then he
feels like rising above his body, untethered from wisdom, and finally becomes one
with the grand Tao.”38 Zhuang Zi held that, sitting in forgetting allows man to
discard happiness, anger, sorrow and joy, to transcend the boundary between right
and wrong, beautiful and ugly, oblivious of gains and loses, thus, to reach spiritual
nothingness. That’s called “fasting of the mind”. In this state, one is unaware of
material things, heaven, and even of his own existence.39 According to Zhuang Zi,
he who forgets his self is surely carefree, wandering of his own free will and acting
in agreement with the Tao of heaven, just the way ancient recluses did—when
Fortune and Fate are in their favor, they return to the pure state of oblivion,
traceless; otherwise, they adhere to their true self, reserving tranquility of mind and
biding their time in great clam and patience.
Zhuang Zi emphasized that, he who forgets his self is the perfect man, the
divine, the virtuous, or the true man, who acts according to the order of nature when
alive, who upon death evaporates into nothingness like all things.40 Happy and
self-contented, he is dependent on nothing and unhindered by anything, who feels
no cold in winter, no heat in summer; who is oblivious of his surroundings, looking
composed, detached, simple and righteously stern. He can be frigid as autumn,
warm as spring. His delight and anger alternate like four seasons rotate naturally.41
He responds simultaneously to things outside, yet conceals his true spiritual self to
any observing eye.42 He is one with all things, transcending the limitations of form
and life into eternity, acquiring absolute spiritual freedom—excursion into freedom.

36
Zhuang Zi: This World of Ours.
37
Zhuang Zi: Exploring the Unknowable Up in the North.
38
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
39
Zhuang Zi: On Cultivating the Mind.
40
Zhuang Zi: On Restrain One’s Desire.
41
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
42
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is 61

Sitting in forgetting and fasting of the mind share one thing—forgetting, a vital
cultivation of Zhuang Zi, as well as a primary way of respecting life and accepting
fate. In his works, there are related terms like forgetting one self, forgetting family,
and two phases of forgetfulness, just to name a few. In order to truly abandon
humanity, justice and propriety, one must go through the two phases of forgetting.
The first is to forget right and wrong. Zhuang Zi remarked allegorically that, fishes
on dry land striving to moisten each other with their saliva, had better forget their
previous life in rivers and lakes. Instead of eulogizing the wise Emperor of Yao and
criticizing the cruel tyrant of Jie of Xia, you’d better forget them all, driving them
into the embrace of Tao.43
It naturally follows that, in human contact, it’s better to forget right and wrong,
adapting oneself to the ever-changing Tao than to either demonize or deify others
with the criteria of right and wrong to beget grudges and enmities. In view of this,
Zhuang Zi put forward the ideal interacting principle for common people to follow:
without differentiating right and wrong, ancient saints lived freely, in the realm
where “I” and the other live their respective ways without interference. Apparently,
this notion is echoed in “All Under Heaven”.
Furthermore, only forgetting right and wrong doesn’t suffice for it’s just the first
phase of forgetfulness. The second phase of forgetfulness includes forgetting one
self, others, and family, even to the extent of forgetting what’s to be forgotten. The
key to total forgetfulness is to forget one self.44 In the chapter “Heaven and Earth”,
Zhuang Zi declared, “Forgetting all things outside oneself, and even nature, is what
it is meant by forgetting one self. He who forgets his self is one with nature.” As
Zhuang Zi expected, he who forgets his self blurs the boundary between right and
wrong, and enters the realm of total forgetfulness, merging himself with all worldly
matters. He is oblivious of his self, others and even his own family.
In Zhuang Zi’s point of view, Zengzi is unforgetful of his family and is still
burdened in his contact with others, though he has already left fame and money far
behind. Family is man’s greatest love, and also his greatest hindrance. If one is
forgetful of his family, he is in the state of total forgetfulness, enjoying absolute
freedom.
In fact, what Zhuang Zi meant by total forgetfulness can be summarized as
“losing oneself in Tao”: fish, born out of water, can only be happy in water, and
man, born out of Tao, can only be happy in Tao. Just as fish loses itself in water,
man loses himself in Tao. In this sense, Zhuang Zi repeated that the unconventional
man is conventional in the eyes of nature, for the principle of the Tao of heaven is
contrary to that of worldly men. Thus, in interacting with others, man’s consider-
ation of his self and others is destructive to the naturalness of Tao. Given this logic,
in any kind of interaction, total forgetfulness is a must for being in accord with the
ever-changing Tao of heaven.

43
Zhuang Zi: My Most Revered Master.
44
Zhuang Zi: On Leveling All Things.
62 4 On Respecting Life and Accepting Fate

Furthermore, total forgetfulness defined by Zhuang Zi is the manifestation of the


basic principle of harmony and simplicity in life of peaceful contentment. To
Zhuang Zi, in seeking harmony, one is forgetful of all. He was in full conviction
that in simplicity that’s unintentional or purposeless, man does not contend with
others, who is neither fettered by right or wrong, fame and money, nor hindered by
humanity and justice, grudges and enmities, who is unaffected by honor and dis-
honor, praise and censure, and who is transmundane, free and easy. Forgetful of all
and having it all, that’s the way of Being and taking fate as Zhuang Zi aspired for.
Most typical of life philosophy of Taoism, Zhuang Zi’s theory of respecting life
and accepting fate is among schools of life philosophy prevalent in the period of the
Spring and Autumn and Warring States. Others are Confucius’ Stochastic Destiny,
Mencius’s Modified Doctrine of man’s destiny by heaven, and Mo-tse’s
cause-effect theory of destiny by heaven. Zhuang Zi’s philosophy of fate stands out.
Both Confucianism and Mohism argue that man’s fate is predestined by heaven,
but the two schools differ as far as the way of predestination is concerned.
Confucianism holds that, man’s fate (poverty or prosperity, ephemerality or long-
evity) is heaven-decided randomly in the unseen world, thus unpredictable and
unrelated to man’s morality and action; that is, there is no causal link in-between. In
contrast, Mohism asserts that heaven makes judgment about man’s diligence or
laziness, good or evil and then accordingly rewards man with a fate he deserves.
Confucianism stresses that one’s destiny is unchallengeable, unalterable, so people
have to be cautious and hold it in awe so as to live a life of peaceful contentment;
while Mohism stresses that people should exert themselves to follow heaven’s will,
praying for heaven-sent felicity and longevity. Different from the above two is
Zhuang Zi’s theory of respecting life and accepting fate. Fate is the natural
evolvement of Tao: on the one hand, Tao mothering myriad things is fathomless,
vast and eternal, and on the other hand, Tao is forever changing, always in motion.
Man is small in the universe, enjoying no privileges, no superiority of any kind over
other things. Man’s birth out of qi is arbitrary and man’s form is just one form of
existence of the ever-evolving Tao. As far as fate is concerned, man and things, you
and me, he and I, all share the same fate—all is in the ever-transforming process,
now as a person, now as a thing, now a butterfly, now Zhuang Zi. As for beautiful
and ugly, long-lived and short-lived, poor and rich, noble and humble, they are all
relative and indistinguishable.
Such an understanding of fate distinguishes Zhuang Zi’s attitude toward fate
from previous schools of thoughts. Confucianism advocates a worldly life for man,
pursuing reputation and high morality; when profit and justice are unobtainable at
the same time, man is supposed to sacrifice for justice, or die for the sake of
humanity. Mohism is for utility, holding that, in one’s lifetime, man should crave
for wealth, felicity, nobility and good fortune. Unlike Confucianism and Mohism,
the theory of respecting life and accepting fate aims at unconditional life and
spiritual freedom, holding that fishes in dirty gutters moistening each other with
their salvia would be better off if forgetful of their previous joyful freedom in rivers
and lakes. Therefore, gentlemen should strive for a friendship that is as pure and
mild as water, getting rid of the fetters of conventional rites via ignorance, inaction
4.4 On Taking Fate as It Is 63

and wuqing. Here, Zhuang Zi highlighted man’s innate nature and purity, which is
of great value. He depicted an idyllic picture in which man and nature are one as
recorded in “Abdicating Kingship”: “I am housed in the whole universe, dressed in
soft furs in winter, and ko-hemp cloth in summer. In spring I plough the field and
sow seeds and in autumn harvest enough to feed myself. At sunrise I get up to
work; at sunset, I go home to rest. What a carefree life between the sky and the
earth! Of its unspeakable pleasure only I am aware.”45 In this fairy scene, man and
nature are close to be one; man labors and rests to the beats of nature, released from
any kind of bounds, physical or mental. This is what Zhuang Zi called “liberating
one’s nature.” The idyllic picture speaks of a happy harmony between man and
everything in nature writ large as recorded in “Horses’ Hooves” as follows:
Man’s innate nature was preserved best in ancient times, when man acted solemnly, with
undivided attention; when mountains bore no path, and rivers were un-bridged and no boats
were sailing on water; when man’s dwellings were all connected, animals and birds were
together, and plants and trees were flourishing. There was a time when man played around
with beasts and birds in the wild, or climbed trees to peep into nests. In ancient times, when
man’s innate nature was preserved best, man and all other living creatures co-inhabited,
interdependently.46

In that kind of Eden, man was naive and simple, and nature was unpolluted or
undestroyed. Man lived among all other things, merging into each other. Zhuang
Zi’s words ring endearingly thought-provoking and inspirational in the modern era
like ours, when the relationship between man and nature is drastically deteriorating,
when man is driven further and further away from his natural abode.
According to the theory of respecting life and accepting fate, humanity, justice,
propriety and law are all hindrances to man’s freedom, and the requirement of
humanity and justice means destruction of human nature. Similarly, felicity, nobility,
longevity and kindness bring man no real happiness but sorrow and exhaustion.
Obviously, the theory of respecting life and fate is strongly against utilitarianism.
What’s more, Zhuang Zi unswervingly defended his own integrity and dignity,
uninfluenced by personal gains, never bowing to either eulogy or slander. That’s
why Zhuang Zi blurred the boundary between right and wrong, didn’t allow likes
and dislikes harming his innate nature, and thus lived a full life. Nevertheless, more
importantly, he neither swam with the tide nor followed the bad examples of others
and thus preserved his virtuousness and nobility. It teaches people that in one
lifetime, there is surely something loftier, something more glorious than good for-
tune, longevity, profit and reputation. Great power and colossal wealth not neces-
sarily make man happy. What’s vital for man is spiritual freedom, free from worldly
cares and expectations. Meanwhile, Zhuang Zi’s interpretation of fate is conducive
to cultivating man’s sanguineness and transmundaneness, to helping man to live a
life of pizzazz and romance. Due to this, some modern scholars claim that Zhuang
Zi’s life philosophy is meant for a life of arts and aesthetics.

45
Zhuang Zi: King Yao’s Abdication.
46
Zhuang Zi: Horse Hooves.
Chapter 5
The Destiny Theory of Separation
of Heaven from Man

Is Heaven united with man or separated from it? If the latter is the case, what role
does Heaven play, however slight, in man’s destiny? While the destiny theory of
separation of Heaven from man holds true that Heaven is independent of man, it
also elucidates that man’s destiny from the perspective of relevance between them.
This theory suggests that Heaven and man have different roles to play; nature
cannot dominate man’s fate, nor can man go against cosmic patterns or principles.
Good fortune should come if man follows Heaven’s way and take initiatives,
whereas misfortune shall befall if man does the opposite. Xun Zi (312 B.C.–230 B.
C.) figures dominantly in the theory of separation of Heaven and man during the
pre-Qin times.

5.1 Discourse on Heaven

Confucian scholars are interested in discussing Heaven, so is Xun Zi. In fact, he


wrote a book, Discourse on Heaven (also translated as Discourse on Nature),
exactly to express his ideas about it and its relationship with man. Heaven to him is
not the dominator over humans as Confucius and Mencius have defined it, but more
like the whole natural world that includes the shift of constellations and the alter-
nation of four seasons. As for the relationship between Heaven and man, Xun Zi
believes the two are not united as a whole but come close to unity amid separation.

5.1.1 Heaven Equals Nature

In defining Heaven, Xun Zi departs radically from the ideas of Confucius and
Mo-tse who considered Heaven a mysterious master in the unseen world or an
anthropomorphic god with preferences and wills. He equates Heaven with nature,
66 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

its movements and changes. He says, “The constellations follow their revolutions;
the sun and the moon shine alternately; the four seasons present themselves in
succession; yin and yang foster and transform; wind and rain spread out every-
where; myriad things obtain what is congenial to them and comes to life, receive
what is nourishing to them and grow to completion. We do not see the process
taking place but see only the effects. This is what is meant by being spiritual. We all
know that the process has reached completion, but none understands the formless
forces that bring it forth. Hence it is called Heaven.”1 Constellations revolving
around the earth, the sun and the moon shining over the earth in succession and four
seasons alternating periodically—these are nature’s movements and changes, dur-
ing which myriad things are given life and nurtured by the interaction between yin
and yang and the grace of wind and rain. In this sense, “Heaven” means nature
along with its movements, changes and functions. Xun Zi emphasizes that though
nature is the force behind all the diversity and variety, it has no will to mete out; it’s
simply how it works. According to Xun Zi, “to bring to completion without any
action, to obtain without any effort—such is the work of Heaven.”2
Xun Zi tries not to deify or anthropomorphize Heaven. He claims, not once, that
“the formless forces of Heaven and the process taking place” are invisible to
humans. Compared with the definition given by Confucius and Mencius, Xun Zi’s
concept of Heaven as nature makes it less mysterious and more tangible. The
relationship between Heaven and man is then carried into the naturalistic domain.

5.1.2 Heaven’s Rule Is Independent of Man’s Will

Xun Zi stresses that Heaven’s existence, movements and changes, as well as its
fostering of all beings and things, have nothing to do with human efforts. It runs its
course by its own rules. To explain it, Xun Zi says, “The Way of nature (tian) has
constancy. It does not exist for the sake of Yao (sage-emperor) nor does it cease to
exist because of Jie (wicked king).”3 That is to say, whether man likes it or not,
whether human society rises or falls, it will not change Heaven the least bit because
its existence is independent of man’s will. This is just like the fragrant thorough
worts and angelica growing in remote mountains. They will never cease to give off
fragrance though they can’t be seen.4 Xun Zi points out, “Tian (Heaven or nature)
does not lessen winter because people hate the cold; Di (the ground) does not lessen
its breadth because people hate the distance…Tian has a constant way and di has a
constant measure”5 Heaven runs its courses constantly and does not change along

1
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
2
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
3
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
4
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
5
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
5.1 Discourse on Heaven 67

with the events in human society. What controls Heaven is and will always be its
inherent laws.

5.1.3 All Anomalies Are just Celestial Events

Xun Zi upholds that, since the existence and movements of nature are nothing but
natural activities independent of humans, various anomalies, which show them-
selves through transformations of yin and yang, signal no good or ill luck; there-
fore, it is acceptable to wonder at anomalies but unacceptable to fear them. Their
presence does no harm when the ruler is virtuous and politics is in order whereas
their absence does no good if the ruler is fatuous and politics is in chaos.

5.1.4 Heaven Cannot Decide the Rise or Fall of Human


Society

In Xun Zi’s view, Heaven, controlled by its own rules and free from any human
efforts, can’t determine the development of human society. He states explicitly that
Heaven and Earth adhere to their constant courses regardless of the passage of time
and the natural law remains the same as spring is always the time for birth, summer
for growth, autumn for harvesting and winter for storage. Peace shall prevail when
countries are ruled by sagacious emperors such as Yu, but chaos shall run rampant
when countries are ruled by fatuous ones. It is clear that not Heaven but humans
themselves have a final say in the rise or fall of human society and that all the
successes and failures come from their own efforts. Xun Zi further develops his
understanding of Heaven, pointing out that praying for rain in a drought or for
divination has no influence on the state of Heaven or the fate of humans because
they are just governmental gimmicks to fool common people
From the analysis above, we can identify two basic points in Xun Zi’s attitude
towards Heaven: firstly, he takes Heaven as the origin of the universe. Xun Zi
attributes all phenomena in the natural world (including anomalies) to the work of
nature, thus proving that everything in the universe, as well as human beings, is just
a product fostered by yin and yang. He strips Heaven of mystery and sacredness.
Secondly, Xun Zi highlights the separation of Heaven from man. On the one hand,
Heaven/Nature is non-activity, not intervening directly in human affairs; on the
other hand, vicissitudes in human society have nothing to do with Heaven. Just as
Heaven runs its course by its own law and will not change due to human efforts, it
cannot determine where humans will go. In Xun Zi’s case, Heaven and man are two
68 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

independent systems. In conclusion, Xun Zi’s exposition of Heaven, an alternative


expression of ontology of Heaven, lies at the heart of his philosophy.

5.2 Discourse on Man

What is man? What characteristics are uniquely human? What brings about
humanity? To answer these interesting questions, Xun Zi explores the differences
between humans and animals from multiple perspectives, trying to give a final
definition about humanity. Human nature, in his view, falls into three categories:

5.2.1 “Man Has Energy, Life, Intelligence


and Righteousness”

Xun Zi classifies the entities in the universe into four types: the first type is entities
that possess energy but no life, such as water and fire; the second one is entities of
plant age, possessing both energy and life, such as grass and trees; the third one is
entities of animal scope, possessing energy, life and intelligence, such as birds and
beasts; the last category is human beings, possessing energy, life, intelligence and
righteousness. Xun Zi explains that the four classifications signify different orders
of the world, among which the latter is always superior to the former in terms of
richness and complexity. Man belongs to the last type; therefore, “he is the noblest
being on earth” and the most complex one in the world. To make it clear, he writes:
“Fire and water possess energy but no life; grass and trees possess life but no
intelligence; birds and beasts possess intelligence but no righteousness. Only
humans possess energy, life, intelligence and righteousness, hence the noblest
species in the world.”6
Xun Zi further points out that, among energy, life, intelligence and
righteousness—the four elements that make up human beings, man shares the first
three with other beings (although maybe at different levels. For example, humans
are smarter than animals), but keep righteousness to himself. Righteousness dis-
tinguishes humans from animals, making humans the noblest beings on earth;
therefore, it is man’s essential attributes. Xun Zi says in Encouraging Learning,
“Righteousness must never for an instant be given up. To pursue it is to be human,
to give it up is to become a beast.” Xun Zi’s claim reminds people of Mencius’
words: “Slight is the difference between humans and beasts.” and “Whoever is
devoid of the sense of shame is not human.” Those words also show the consistency
of Confucianism in using morality as a demarcation between humans and animals.

6
Xun Zi: On the Regulation of a King.
5.2 Discourse on Man 69

5.2.2 “People Are Able to Form Society While Animals


Are Not”

Xun Zi notes that humans may be inferior to animals with regard to his body and
physiological functions, for man is not as strong as the ox or as swift as the horse,
yet he makes the ox plough fields and the horse pull carriages. He makes animals
work for him. Why does the ox or the horse lead a toilsome life while a man
swaggers around? The fundamental reason is that “humans are able to form society
and animals are not”.7 For Xun Zi, the feature of being gregarious is where animals
fade next to humans. Energy and strength multiplies when individuals form groups,
and humans can conquer all things. Xun Zi writes, “Where there is harmony there
will be unity; where there is unity there will be strength; where there is strength,
there will be power to conquer all things.”8 He highlights the impossibility for
humans to live in isolation because they are social animals. First, humans form
society because they need emotional substance and they do it out of their love for
their own kind. Xun Zi holds that in the cosmos he who possesses blood and breath
has intelligence and he who has intelligence is able to love out of his instinct. For
example, if big birds or beasts wander off, they will return along the same way after
several days or even months; a brambling about to leave the group will look back,
lamenting in sorrow. If so for animals, what becomes of humans, the noblest beings
on earth with finest energy and blood? Their emotions are the strongest, the deepest
ones. Xun Zi says, “Among all creatures that have blood and breath, there is none
that has man’s intelligence; therefore, man’s sympathy for the death of his kind
remains unexhausted even till death.”9 It is this instinct of loving his own kind that
drives humans to form families, countries and communities. The Second, judging
from the material needs of humans, they form society because it is necessary for
their survival. Xun Zi thinks that economic exchanges and ethical relationships
come along with constant interactions between humans, so they must form groups.
Humans need so many supplies that they have to form a certain network and trade
skills or products with others; otherwise, it will do good to nobody and eventually
bring misfortune to the whole human race. In this sense, Xun Zi cries, “It is hard for
man not to form society”.10 It is clear that man has to live harmoniously with others
to survive. Meanwhile, only when the ties are close can humans have their power
and intelligence enlarged, their value recognized and their places in the universe
raised. In this sense, “being able to form society” marks a basic difference between
humans and animals, making man a master of all beings and things.

7
Xun Zi: On the Regulation of a King.
8
Xun Zi: On the Regulation of a King.
9
Xun Zi: Discourse on Rituals.
10
Xun Zi: The Wealth of a Nation.
70 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

5.2.3 “What Makes Humans Human… Their Ability


to Distinguish”

Xun Zi believes that what separate humans from animals is not the differences of
their bodies—“Man has two feet and no fur”,11 but the ability to make distinctions,
which Xun Zi thinks is man’s essential characteristics. Here are some of his words,
“Birds and beasts have fathers and sons among them but not the intimacy of the
two; they have males and females but not the division of the two. Thus the Way of
man always involves making distinctions.”12 In other words, distinctions may be
made in animals between fathers and sons, males and females but not in terms of
closeness and seniority; therefore, animals are just animals; however, when it comes
to humans, fathers and sons are intimate and distinctions are made by rank, age and
gender, so humans are humans. On this account, making distinctions is a human
nature. Because making distinctions is important for humans, Xun Zi values cer-
emonies and ritual practices, so much so that he writes a book, Discourse on Ritual
Principles, to specifically discuss the root, role and functions of rituals. He
emphasizes that rituals arise out of the need for making distinctions, such as dis-
tinctions between the ruler and his subjects, elder brother and younger brother, men
and women. It is fair to say that Xun Zi understands the “making distinctions” as a
human nature and his emphasis on rituals have influenced the construction of his
ideological system. In contrast to Confucius’ and Mencius’ moral philosophy
whose core is righteousness, it is Rites that lies at the heart of Xun Zi’s moral
philosophy.
From Xun Zi’s definition of human nature-righteousness, forming society and
making distinctions, we can see that he tries to approach this issue from sociality
and morality. He treats human as social beings instead of some living creatures.
Those efforts are consistent with his attempts to distinguish humans from animals
and identify traits uniquely human. After so much arduous work, Xun Zi gives a
final definition of human: Human is a being that lives within a certain society (to
form society), taking up a certain position (to make distinctions), and observing
moral rules (righteousness). This is an excellent expression of human nature that
ever comes out in his times, a heartening gain on human’s self-examination. Xun Zi
focuses more on traits that are uniquely human than on traits shared by both humans
and animals. Yet Zhuang Zi’s theory about human nature is based on the common
essence-the commonalities between humans and animals. He takes Dao (the Way
of Heaven) as “Maker”, “Initiator of Transformations”, putting human and other
creatures of Dao, flora and fauna so to speak, in the same group of “things”.
Though Zhuang Zi makes such a classification in an effort to urge people to respect
their original nature and recover their original simplicity, he writes off human’s
individuality and dignity. Contrary to this, Xun Zi’s definition of human nature

11
Xun Zi: Against Anthroscopy.
12
Xun Zi: Against Anthroscopy.
5.2 Discourse on Man 71

clarifies the rift between human and animals. It shows the consistency of the moral
complex of Confucianism and is an inevitable conclusion with the difference of
human and animals being the focus.
It must be noted that Xun Zi’s concentration on human nature does not mean
excluding human instincts. Xun Zi admits that human is born with various desires,
such as “desiring food when hungry, desiring warmth when cold, desiring repose
when toiling, liking profit and disliking harm”13 and those desires are instincts we
were born with. To Xun Zi, xing primarily refers to human desires. In Xun Zi’s
parlance, “‘In born nature’ is the consequence of Heaven. ‘Emotions’ are the
substance of that nature. ‘Desire’ is the response to these emotions.”14 Human
desire is one of the main parts of human nature, which is partly recognized by Xun
Zi as a means to respect and protect human. He remarks, “Even a lowly gatekeeper
cannot keep from having desires, for they are the inseparable attributes of human
nature.”15 Xun Zi then states that human desires should be satisfied, if not fully, as
much as possible. Nevertheless, Xun Zi follows strictly his definition of human and
identifies distinctions between humans and animals, and he does not take inborn
desires as the essence of human, but highlights their lurking evilness. He cries, if
man follows his nature and indulges in his emotions without any control, a society
will sink into violence and chaos. This is the source of his assertion that the nature
of man is evil. Xun Zi defends human desires on the one hand; on the other hand, he
urges people to transform their inborn natures. To achieve this end, he advises
people to “never stop learning”. Learning the essence of righteousness is one way to
be distinct from animals and draw near to sage hood, and the help from good
teachers, friends, elders, emperors and rituals will also benefit you. In Xun Zi’s
view, one can reach perfection only when his inborn nature and acquired nature
work in perfect coordination; he then says, “Only when inborn nature and artifice
(acquired nature) are combined can a true sage emerge.”16
From the analysis above, we can see that Xun Zi draws boundaries between
humans and animals by manifesting the superiority of humans with sociality and
morality, putting them above all other creatures; in addition, he cuts off the ties
between humans and ethereal, unfettered gods by showing humans as having
desires and emotions, pointing out that a human is just a blood-and-flesh creature
loaded with seven emotions and six pleasures. That is to say, a human is a com-
bination of social and natural attributes, mental and physiological mechanism. Of
course, due to the values and ways of thinking of Confucian moralism, Xun Zi only
chooses the former definition to explain human nature, but his attention to the latter
one has opened up a horizon for people to improve themselves. To some extent, the
double definitions of man sow the seeds for Xun Zi to further explore man’s
destiny, values and accomplishments.

13
Xun Zi: Against Anthroscopy.
14
Xun Zi: Call Things As They Are.
15
Xun Zi: Call Things As They Are.
16
Xun Zi: Discourse on Rituals.
72 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

5.3 The Destiny Theory

Based on the ontology of Heaven and the relationship between Heaven and man,
Xun Zi proceeds to decode man’s destiny. In exploring the relationship between
man’s position in the universe and his destiny, between power and life, Xun Zi
states from two perspectives: being the product of nature, man should abide by
natural laws; but man has independent values and functions, they should take
initiatives. Xun Zi not only confirms the inevitability of receiving blessings after
one observes natural laws and moral rules, but also notices some chance factors’
influence on man’s destiny.

5.3.1 Man Is the Product of Nature and Must Abide


by Natural Laws

According to the ontology of Heaven, Xun Zi holds that Earth and Heaven are the
roots of the universe, claiming that “Heaven and Earth are the root of life”.17 As for
humans, “form becomes whole and spirit is borne” by the nourishment of Nature.18
Likes and dislikes, joy and anger, sorrow and happiness come along with sensory
organs, such as ears, eyes, nose, tongue, body and the lord of the body-heart. By
this token, Nature endows human not only with physical and mental activities but
also with material supplies for them to survive.
In order to manifest the close relationship between Heaven and man, and make
humans observe natural laws, Xun Zi fixes everything about human in the frame-
work of nature: eyes and ears are providential sensory organs, likes and dislikes
providential emotions, hearts (cardio-mental faculties) are providential thinking
organs; the ability to make distinctions, the possibility to receive supplies are
“heavenly care and nourishment” and going along with natural laws is “heavenly
governance”. All this verifies the fact that man is just a product of Heaven, chained
by nature eternally. Good results shall come if humans abide by natural laws, but
bad ones shall befall if man goes against it. This is why Xun Zi remarks, “Respond
to them (natural laws) with peace and order, and good fortune will result. Respond
to it with disorder, and disasters will follow.”19 Only practices following natural
laws can bring blessings and measures running counter to it will inflict harm on
people. For Xun Zi, though Heaven and man are independent of each other, they are
closely knit as well, so human can’t violate natural laws. This is the prerequisite for
human behavior and a fate human cannot get rid of. In this sense, human can never
form an independent group that is self-reclusive and self-sufficient. Xun Zi

17
Xun Zi: Discourse on Rituals.
18
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
19
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
5.3 The Destiny Theory 73

approaches the inevitability of man’s destiny from the perspective of the relation-
ship between Heaven and man.

5.3.2 Living in a Certain Social Group, Man Must Obey


Social Ethics

The definition of human prompted by Xun Zi, should it be forming society or


making distinctions, makes rituals a pillar in social norms and moral principles,
therefore obeying social norms is also part of man’s destiny. Xun Zi thinks that
righteousness, being a fundamental trait distinguishing human from animals, is a
social norm and moral principle itself. Since righteousness is the main criterion for
forming and making distinctions, human can be decent only when they meet and
part in compliance with rituals.
Xun Zi’s assumption that the nature of man is evil has also made ethical norms
such as rituals necessary and urgent. According to his logic, men are born with
desires which, if not satisfied, cannot but lead men to seek satiation. If in such
seeking men observe no rules or laws, contention will emerge; with such contention
comes chaos. People should abide by moral ethical norms and use moral principles
to guide their behaviors. Such moral constraint is ethical norms whose core is
believed to be propriety, loyalty, faith, love and righteousness.
Regarding to the importance of rituals, Xun Zi says, “Ritual is the means by
which one rectifies himself.”20 He believes that all practices, from one’s
self-cultivation, daily human interaction to the governance of a state and the han-
dling of political affairs, should be guided by ritual principles. Only when every-
thing is done in accordance with rituals can order and harmony prevail. For
example, “Emotion, will and considerations will be sensible if they are motivated
according to rituals… Harmony will be achieved if our food, clothing, dwellings,
and actions all follow rituals…Appearance, manners, bearings and presence will be
elegant if they are guided by rituals.”21 Therefore, sages will “consolidate rituals in
the imperial court…then virtues of loyalty, honesty, benevolence and altruism will
prevail among ordinary people”.22 Xun Zi says something to the effect that rituals
are important, “No human being can survive without rituals; nothing can be
achieved without rituals; no country can be stable without rituals.”23 Since man
lives a life in a certain social group, he cannot be completely free in his social
intercourse. This is to say, even if no limit is imposed by Heaven, man still lives in
a world where his every behavior is bound by morality and ethics. Under such a
circumstance, he who obeys rituals and moral norms can settle down and continue

20
Xun Zi: Personal Cultivation.
21
Xun Zi: Personal Cultivation.
22
Xun Zi: The Functions of Confucianism.
23
Xun Zi: Personal Cultivation.
74 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

his pursuits; he who goes against rituals and moral norms will end up in disgrace
and ruin with nothing accomplished. The similar disaster will be inflicted on a
country if it runs with no respect for rituals.

5.3.3 At the Macro Level, Man Can Govern His Own Fate

In terms of Heaven-man relationship, Xun Zi highlights the need for humans to


obey natural orders; in terms of man-man relationship, Xun Zi highlights the
necessity for human to obey moral norms. In this sense, man is not fully free or
detached; Xun Zi, nevertheless, does not agree with the idea of simply subjecting
oneself to natural laws and rejecting morality as Zhuang Zi and his followers
uphold.
Regarding to Heaven-man relationship, Xun Zi criticizes Zhuang Zi, saying,
“Zhuang Zi was blinded by nature and was insensitive to man.” For him, the right
attitude toward the relationship should be to obey natural law and take initiatives.
Humans should observe the law and use it to transform nature in the service of
mankind. Therefore, he calls upon people to take actions, and puts forward a
glorious thought, “Grasp the law of nature and make use of it.”24 Xun Zi hopes to
make “Heaven and Earth function and the myriad things serve”25 through human
efforts, achieving the goal of “controlling things outside of one’s own category to
nourish and care for one’s own”, namely, transforming and utilizing nature in the
interest of humankind.
Xun Zi concludes that man can govern his own destiny since the destiny, should
it be weal or woe, fortune or misfortune, comes from his own efforts. He expounds
it from positive and negative aspects: positively speaking, blessings shall come as
long as man takes actions initiatively without violating natural laws. In this situa-
tion, even Heaven cannot inflict calamities on human. Xun Zi remarks, “If you
strengthen agriculture and use resources sparingly, then Heaven cannot make you
poor. If you take care of your body and take actions at the appropriate times,
Heaven cannot make you sick. If you cultivate your virtue and are not distracted
from your goal, then Heaven cannot bring you to disaster.”26 Negatively speaking,
misfortune shall befall if man goes against natural laws or gets lazy. In this con-
dition, even Heaven cannot remedy the situation. In this sense, Xun Zi says: “If
agriculture is neglected and resources are wasted, then Heaven cannot make you
rich. If you do not take care of your body and rarely take action, Heaven cannot
make you healthy. If you turn your back on virtue and act rashly, then Heaven
cannot bring you fortune. Therefore, even though floods and droughts have not
occurred, you will experience famines. Though cold and heat have not arrived, you

24
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
25
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
26
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
5.3 The Destiny Theory 75

will be ill. Though anomalies have not occurred, you will experience misfortune.”27
The two examples illustrate a common point: the misfortunes or blessings, life or
death, good luck or bad luck result from man’s own choices, and have nothing to do
with natural calamities or divine interventions. Xun Zi upholds that since man can
govern his own fate, he can rectify his human nature as well. He believes that
though man’s nature is evil, it can be remedied by conscious actions. Xun Zi argues
that a sage of ultimate virtue is not better than common people at birth and his
inborn nature is evil too. That is to say, sages are not born different. What makes
them different from the mediocre bunch is their valuable quality—persistence in
“transforming inborn nature and taking conscious actions”. The success of sages
makes Xun Zi believe that common people can achieve sage hood by accumulating
learning to transform inborn evilness. To be specific, there are two ways to trans-
form the evil side of human nature. The first way is to accumulate learning to
become a sage; the second one is to fraternize with good teachers and helpful
friends. The good words and positive actions of Emperor Yao, Shun, Tang and Yu
will exert a leavening influence on people, helping them to follow the right path. It
is due to the coordinated function of external and internal factors that man reaches
perfection and sublimation.

5.3.4 At the Micro Level, Man’s Destiny Is Coincidental

Xun Zi believes that man can decide his own fate generally. If you observe natural
laws and moral norms, you will have a good result; if you violate natural laws and
moral norms, you will have a bad result. Destiny is all about choices. However,
Xun Zi does not rule out the influence of chance factors on destiny. Generally
speaking, a man of talent and virtue should live by an official’s salary, but if destiny
plays tricks on him, having his talents unrecognized and unappreciated, he will end
up regretting all his life. If Jiang Ziya had not met King Wen of Zhou, he might be
penniless and frustrated till death; If Confucius had met an enlightened emperor, he
would not bother to utter “knowing the futility of (doing something) yet doing it
anyway.” Meanwhile, he who engages in self-cultivation should get “right liveli-
hood”, but any accident might put an end to his life. Under some circumstances, a
minor incident can reverse one’s fate: it might carry you into heaven; it might
plunge you into hell. It seems out of this consideration that Xun Zi sighs, “Being
recognized or not depends on the opportunity; death and life have their determined
appointment.”28 Many learned men out there cannot meet their talent scouts while
many men of mediocre talents advance rapidly in their career ladders. In the vast
universe, among all the living creatures, how many of them can die a natural death?
Regarding to this, Xun Zi gives the definition of destiny with a touch of sadness,

27
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
28
Xun Zi: Past Lessons To Be Learned.
76 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

misery and mystery: “Coincidences are destiny.”29 Taking life as unpredictable, he


explains that King of Chu is followed by a thousand chariots, but this is not because
he is wise; a gentleman eats a simple diet of beans and water, but this is not because
he is foolish. These are coincidences. This is destiny as it is. It is all about
coincidences.

5.4 Master of Destiny

Xin Zi divides human into the superior and the inferior, the high and the low, the
rich and the poor as Confucius and Mencius do, which means people of different
social ranks cannot have equal rights in managing social affairs or controlling
destiny. However, since human is the noblest being under the sun, what kind of
man is qualified to have control over his destiny? To whom should such a heavy
duty be entrusted? In general, Xun Zi admires and worships three groups of men:
sages, teachers and emperors, who are beyond the reach of ordinary people. The
places and areas where they play a role are different.

5.4.1 Sages Are of High Moral Integrity

Xun Zi says, “Sagehood consists in a thorough understanding of the natural rela-


tionship between men.”30 Sages understand the theory of everything, including all
laws of ethnics, so they should be mentors of man’s destiny. To be specific, sages
are excellent models for common people and all moral principles and behavior
norms are formulated by them; therefore, he says, “the sage transforms nature and
conscious actions arise. Conscious actions arise and then rituals and standards of
righteousness emerge. Rituals and standards of righteousness emerge, order and
standards are formulated.”31 Xun Zi then takes sage as the model for human
behaviors, constantly urging people to learn from sages, transform their nature and
rouse them to activity. In this way, their inborn evilness should be changed.

5.4.2 Teachers Are Men Who Are Erudite

Sages are the model for common people to follow, but not everyone has the
privilege to live in the same times as them. To solve the problem, Xun Zi advocates

29
Xun Zi: Call Things As They Are.
30
Xun Zi: Enlightenment.
31
Xun Zi: Evil Nature.
5.4 Master of Destiny 77

people to comprehend sages’ words and imitate their deeds. He says, “In learning,
nothing is more profitable than associating with those who are learned…If you
make use of the erudition of others and the explanations of gentlemen, then you will
become honored and may find your way anywhere in the world.”32 Xun Zi believes
that under the leavening influence of earnest instructions from good teachers,
humans can overcome their own evil nature and attain perfection. He comes to the
conclusion, “Man who is not instructed by a teacher or tempered by laws is advised
to develop human nature; man who is instructed by a teacher and tempered by laws
will focus on accumulating learning.”33
Based on this understanding, Xun Zi puts forward the thought of valuing
teachers and respecting masters. He says, “If a nation is to rise, teachers must be
honored and education respected. Once teachers and education are cherished, ritual
principles and precepts of moral duty will emerge.”34 This means teachers are the
key to the prosperity of a country. If teachers and masters are cherished, the country
will rise, otherwise, it may fall. With the right guidance and instruction of virtuous
teachers, he who is intelligent will quickly get a thorough understanding of the
world; he who is brave will quickly become powerful; he who is talented will
quickly succeed; he who is sensible will quickly know everything; he who is
eloquent will quickly be able to tell right from wrong. It is teachers that open up a
right way for talent-cultivation and get double results with half efforts. It is teachers
that save people from robbery, theft, disorder, and absurdity.35 “Teachers and laws
are valuable to human.”36

5.4.3 An Emperor Is the Noblest Being of a Country

Xun Zi has always emphasized the employment of both rituals and laws. If the
education of rituals and laws is expected to be performed by sages and teachers,
then the punishment of laws is expected to be performed by emperors. For him, “An
emperor is the noblest being of a country”.37 The emperor is the noblest and the
most respected man of a country, whose authority and leadership is also beyond
powerful. Xun Zi remarks, “An emperor is like the source of government and
common people are like water. If the source is limpid, the water will be limpid; if
the source is muddy, the water will be muddy”.38 The emperor determines the fate
of a country.

32
Xun Zi: Encouraging Learning.
33
Xun Zi: The Functions of Confucianism.
34
Xun Zi: Primary Things To Do.
35
Xun Zi: The Functions of Confucianism.
36
Xun Zi: The Functions of Confucianism.
37
Xun Zi: On Recruiting Talent.
38
Xun Zi: The Way of a Monarch.
78 5 The Destiny Theory of Separation of Heaven from Man

In a word, Xun Zi has entrusted man’s destiny to sages, teachers and emperors.
Choosing these people to represent human destiny manifests Xun Zi’s sage com-
plex and his philosophical conception of emperors. At the same time, we can see
that Xun Zi makes his choice according to social hierarchy, and that his explanation
of man’s destiny fails to be immune from social hierarchy.
It is obvious that Xun Zi expounds man’s destiny from the perspective of the
relationship between Heaven and man, where Xun Zi differs from other thinkers.
He emphasizes the separation of Heaven from man rather than the unity of them.
This philosophy about destiny can be termed the Destiny Theory of Separation of
Heaven from Man. This theory assumes that Heaven and man have different roles to
play: Heaven’s role is to care and nurture; man’s role is to govern. Heaven is unable
to dominate man’s destiny and man cannot plan for Heaven or change its rule. So to
speak, they are independent of each other, which allows human to govern their own
fate. However, the separation of Heaven from man here does necessarily mean
detachment or opposition. The premise of separation is unity and unity is what
separation aims at. To be specific, Xun Zi highlights “Knowing the different roles of
Heaven and man” because man is part of nature “whose form becomes whole and
spirit is born” by the nourishment and care of Heaven. Being products of nature,
human can “grasp the law of nature and make use of it” without violating natural
orders. Man never can go against the Way of nature. Observing natural laws and
acting with initiative is bound to work well and violating it is doomed to work ill.
This is something non-negotiable.
For integrating reality with Heaven-man relationship, Xun Zi is hailed as the first
philosophers in pre-Qin times who conducted a rational examination of human. He
does entrust human destiny to human in place of intangible gods. Generally
speaking, human gets what they deserve: obeying natural laws, taking action ini-
tiatively and respecting rituals bring good outcomes and the opposite invites bad
ones. The intrinsic causal relationship between human destiny and their own
behavior has somewhat been recognized.
Different from his contemporaries, Xun Zi’s interpretation of destiny has iden-
tified some unpredictable factors beyond human control, namely, humans cannot
get rid of the power of Heaven to fully control their own destiny no matter how
advanced the science and technology is or how developed society is. In fact, man’s
fate is half determined by himself and half by nature; half by his own efforts and
half by external factors; half by the inevitable and half by the occasional.
Within the context of this theory, man’s destiny is the disorderly accumulation of
human efforts and Heaven, a curious combination of the inevitable and the occa-
sional. Responding to this insight, Xun Zi suggests making no excessive demands
on the uncontrollable and not giving up on the controllable. In his parlance, “A
superior man is respectfully attentive to his self, and does not admire heaven.”39
Xun Zi encourages people to rise to challenges and tests with a peaceful mind, thus
being their own masters.

39
Xun Zi: Discourse on Heaven.
Chapter 6
Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

If the fate of mankind is preordained, then what about people’s physiological


structure and moral emotion? If mankind is rewarded or punished by Heaven, what
is the evidence? These are essentials of Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction,
which connects the fate of mankind to Heaven. Heaven has its reasons, showing
mercy or inflicting penalty, and thus decides a man’s fate. Heaven gives mankind
not only his body shape, but his soul, sentiment and morality. Therefore, mankind is
a replica and mimic of Heaven, and should act according to its will at all times, in
order to achieve “unity with Heaven”. Those who remain unified with Heaven are
rewarded; those who do not are punished. All these proceed through the interaction
between mankind and Heaven. In the history of Chinese philosophy, Fatalism of
Heaven-mankind Interaction is represented by Tung Chung-shu.

6.1 Heaven-Based Theory

Tung Chung-shu believes Heaven spreads immensely and endlessly, and endures
throughout all eternity. It’s the source and basis of the universe. In this sense, he
claims: “Heaven and earth are the origin of all things, birthplace of our ancestors.
They are vast and borderless, and last forever. Heaven sends out bright light to help
mankind see clearly. Earth produces darkness, and yet is lit by stars and sun.” In
other words, Heaven and Earth are the origins of all things, so mankind and other
beings in the world are all conceived from Ch’i of Heaven and Earth. Obviously,
such assertion resembles that of Confucius, Mencius and other philosophers in
escalating the authority of Heaven. The difference is, Tung Chung-shu combines
theories of the Yin-Yang school and natural science to demonstrate the formation of
four seasons and four directions, and vividly describes how Heaven rears all things.
For instance, he believes Heaven has its Yin and Yang, and generates four seasons,
four directions and five elements. Namely, “The Ch’i of Heaven and earth unite as
one, and is divided into Yin and Yang, classified into four seasons, and listed as five
80 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

elements.” Four seasons and four directions provide time and space for the
development of all things, and five elements further promote such development by
influencing the formation of four seasons and four directions. In the process, Tung
Chung-shu specifically explains the formation of four seasons: wood is in the east
and presides over spring; fire in the south and over summer; mental in the west and
over autumn; water in the north and over winter. When Yin and Yang move to a
certain direction, they join forces with a certain element, and create a certain season.
In his view, Heaven and earth, Yin and Yang, four seasons, four directions and five
elements come first, and then arise all things in nature, proliferating and thriving. In
this sense, he says: “The changes between Heaven and earth are that all things
sprout in spring, flourish in summer, wither in autumn, and hide in winter.
Therefore, Ch’i of Heaven and earth is essential and invisible, and yet all things
depend on it.”
In a word, “Tao of Heaven is to raise all things.” Heaven rears all things in the
universe, including mankind; mankind and other things come into being due to
Heaven’s favor. Heaven is the source and basis of all things. Without Heaven, there
will be no things, no mankind, no universe. Therefore, Tung Chung-shu claims:
“No Heaven, no beings. Heaven fathers all things, and all things are created by
Heaven.”
Tung Chung-shu further emphasizes that it is not accidental that Heaven rears all
things. It is intended by Heaven, and reveals Heaven’s will and volition.
Firstly, Heaven nourishes all things in a timely and orderly way, following the
rule of harmony. Tung Chung-shu says: “Tao of Heaven is timely and orderly, has
its limit and measure, and changes within regulation. Yin and yang never appear at
the same place at the same time, but it’s still subtle and far-reaching, superb and
exquisite, virtual and yet full.” Tao of Heaven is a harmony of change and per-
manence, fineness and remoteness, solid and void. When Heaven creates all things,
it is the rule of harmony that makes possible the alternation of four seasons and the
concord of five elements, so all things are able to coexist in harmony. For instance,
different features and functions are vested in different time periods by Heaven, and
thus spring, summer, autumn, and winter are distinguished, and supplement each
other to form a whole year. In his words, “Tao of Heaven is to make all things
sprout in warm spring, flourish in hot summer, wither in chilly autumn, and hide in
cold winter.” Warm, hot, chilly and cold, varied weathers have the same aim. They
are Heaven’s way of completing a year.”
Secondly, when creating all things in the universe, Heaven sticks to the principle
of differentiation, and coordinates interests of different parties. Tung Chung-shu
claims: “Heaven never gives twice. Those with horns will not have sharp teeth.
Those possessing something large will not have the same thing small. This is fate.”
That is to say, Heaven gives and takes in a reasonable way, ensuring differentiation
and distinction among all things. For instance, Heave have given horns to rams and
stags, so talons and fangs won’t be given to them; Heaven have given wings to
birds and poultry, so two feet instead of four are given to them. Heaven treats
mankind in the same way—if someone lives on his salary, Heaven forbids him
making a living through labor. Thus, all things have an advantage and a
6.1 Heaven-Based Theory 81

disadvantage, so that they could coexist in the universe without being wiped out by
others or wiping out others. It’s Heaven’s will that all things in the universe live
together in harmony.
Thirdly, Heaven favors mankind particularly, allowing them to maintain phys-
ical and mental harmony, and unify wealth with righteousness. Tung Chung-shu
claims: “Heaven creates mankind, and gives them righteousness to cultivate the
mind, wealth to nourish the body. Without righteousness, mind won’t find peace.
Without wealth, body won’t stay healthy.” Heaven gives mankind body and mind,
so mankind is born with the need for righteousness and wealth. Moreover, Heaven
is quite generous in meeting man’s needs: First, Heaven creates cereal, silk, fowls
and beasts to clothe and feed mankind. Second, Heaven establishes rites to satisfy
mankind’s psychological desire and moral demands. Namely, “Apparel and
accessories made from awe-inspiring materials, are the reasons why rites thrive.”
According to Tung Chung-shu, all things are blessed by Ch’i of Heaven and earth,
but mankind is far superior, for they are blessed by essential Ch’i. Heaven favors
mankind particularly, and offers them everything, which marks the huge difference
between them and other things.
In Tung Chung-shu’s opinion, Heaven has a will of its own, and creates mankind
and other things following the principle of harmony, so that all things are born into
a harmonious environment. Heaven’s will and desire are to coordinate their rela-
tionship and make them coexist in harmony. Thus his Heaven-based Theory
becomes a theory of preordained harmony, where all things are created by Heaven.
Although Heaven’s will and desire are reflected in the process of creating all
things, Tung Chung-shu declares that Heaven is intangible and inconceivable, and
leaves no trace, even in the creation process. Such statement renders Heaven occult
and inaccessible. This inaccessibility, in turn, enhances the mysteriousness and
sacredness of Heaven. Tung Chung-shu further points out that Heaven never
reveals its intention by words, which makes the will of Heaven difficult to com-
prehend. He asserts: “Heaven never speaks, yet mankind has to speculate its will;
Heaven never acts, yet mankind has to follow its rules”. That is to say, although
Heaven is intangible and inconceivable, it expects mankind to speculate its will and
follow its rules. The problem is whether mankind is capable of such missions? He
answers this question with “mankind is a replica of Heaven”. In explanation of this
assertion, Tung Chung-shu not only classifies mankind and Heaven as the same, but
highlights the preordained harmony between them, and establishes a set of prin-
ciples to regulate mankind’s behavior, in order to achieve unity of mankind and
Heaven.

6.2 Human Taoism

As to the relationship between mankind and Heaven, Tung Chung-shu believes:


“Heaven makes mankind who he is. Heaven rears mankind, hence man becomes
man. Heaven is thus a great-grandfather to man.” While he emphasizes Heaven’s
82 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

supremacy and identity as the source of all, he deems Heaven and mankind are very
much of a kind. That is to say, “in terms of kind, they are the same”. This assertion
has two-fold meanings: First, mankind and Heaven are of a kind, so mankind is
special, compared with other things. To be specific, they have the same form and
feature—whatever Heaven has, mankind has it; whatever Heaven does, mankind
does it. Secondly, Heaven is the source of all things and nurturer of mankind, so
mankind and Heaven are after all not equal; Heaven is the prototype, mankind is the
replica. This is what we call “mankind is a replica of Heaven”.

6.2.1 Mankind’s Body and Physiology Replicate Heaven

Tung Chung-shu believes mankind’s body and physiology replicate those of


Heaven, so certain numbers match, which is reflected in three major aspects: First,
mankind’s growth cycle matches that of Heaven. Tung Chung-shu believes, the
largest number of Heaven is ten, for it takes Heaven ten months to rear all things. It
also takes mankind ten months from conception to birth. Therefore, they have the
same growth cycle. He declares: “The largest number of Heaven is ten. Everything
between Heaven and earth could be described by ten. The growth of things is
completed in ten months. Ten is where the number of Heaven ends … Mankind is
born in ten months, matching the number of Heaven. Thus Tao of Heaven is to rear
things in ten months, and mankind is born in ten months, which is consistent with
Tao of Heaven.” Secondly, mankind’s form matches that of Heaven. Tung
Chung-shu points out that mankind’s form is in intriguing harmony with Heaven.
“Mankind is a perfect studying material to solve the mystery of Heaven.” Mankind
has four limbs, each of which has three sections. Three times four equals twelve.
Twelve sections support each other and the body stands. Heaven has four seasons,
and each lasts three months. Three times four equals twelve. Twelve months passes
in succession and a year ends.” In his view, man’s limbs match the number of
month. As a matter of fact, all parts of human body are in accordance with the
number of Heaven. For example, mankind’s bone has three hundred and sixty
sections, matching the number of days in one year; Mankind has blood and flesh,
matching the depth of earth; Mankind has good sight and hearing, matching the
images of sun and moon; Mankind has orifices and blood veins, matching the
images of rivers and valleys … In a word, mankind is a replica of Heaven, so their
body structures and physiological features resemble the features of Heaven. Third,
mankind’s physiological manifestations and patterns match signs of Heaven. Tung
Chung-shu points out that mankind’s habit of sleeping at night and working in the
daytime actually stems from natural rhythm—the alternation of day and night.
Meanwhile, all of mankind’s physiological manifestations and patterns are
Heaven-given. For instance, in cloudy or rainy days, yin rages, and yin-diseases like
rheumatism will return; in a year of drought, yang thrives, so does yang-diseases
like carbuncles and boils.
6.2 Human Taoism 83

6.2.2 Man’s Emotion and Physiological Manifestation


Replicate Heaven

Tung Chung-shu claims mankind’s body replicates Heaven, and man’s spirit,
including emotion, morality and will, matches the number of Heaven. Typically,
Heaven has four seasons, and mankind has four kinds of feelings, happiness, anger,
sorrow and joy. Since mankind’s emotions follow the law of Heaven, the outlet for
emotions should match the time of Heaven. Man’s happiness, anger, sorrow and joy
stem from and correspond with four seasons, so the outlet for emotions should also
take place in proper season. As it’s warm in spring, hot in summer, cool in autumn,
and cold in winter, mankind’s emotions should correspond with four seasons
according to their yin and yang, and mankind should give vent to different emotions
in corresponding seasons. Specifically, happiness originates in the warmth of
spring, so it should be expressed in spring; joy originates in the hotness of summer,
so it should be expressed in summer; anger originates in the coolness of autumn, so
it should be expressed in autumn; sorrow originates in the coldness of winter, so it
should be expressed in winter. In this sense, he suggests: “mankind’s happiness,
anger, sorrow and joy match the warmth, coolness, hotness and coldness of Heaven.
Happiness is warm, so it corresponds with spring. Anger is cool, so it corresponds
with autumn. Joy is pure yang, so it corresponds with summer. Sorrow is pure yin,
so it corresponds with winter. These four types of Ch’i is not only possessed by
mankind, but by Heaven, so they are to be constrained, not abolished. Constrain
them, and everything goes well. Abolish them, and disturbance arises.” Tung
Chung-shu further points out that the appearance of and outlet for four emotions
depend on Heaven, so mankind cannot willfully suppress or vent them. Only by
expressing happiness, anger, sorrow and joy in corresponding seasons can harmony
be assured; otherwise, disorder will lead to turbulence. This is not only a general
rule for venting personal emotions, but an ultimate guideline for kings to pro-
mulgate and implement administrative measures such as reward and punishment.

6.2.3 Human Nature Replicates Heaven

Tung Chung-shu claims that mankind is born in compliance with Heaven, so


mankind’s body, mind, emotion, and even human nature follow the law of Heaven.
Specifically, Heaven has its yin and yang, which determines that human nature is
good or evil. Based on this thought, Tung Chung-shu declares mankind has a
personality, and connects this personality with yin and yang of Tao of Heaven.
Moreover, he asserts human nature does not change, for goodness and evilness is
given to mankind by Heaven.
84 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

6.2.4 Mankind’s Morality Stems from Heaven

Tung Chung-shu believes mankind’s morals and behavior follow the law of
Heaven, and concepts like three principles and five virtues, loyalty and filial piety,
are inspired by Heaven. For instance, when he explains “Five virtues of Tao of
King stem from Heaven”, he says human-heartedness, righteousness, propriety,
wisdom and faithfulness in human society originate in Five Elements of Tao of
Heaven, so five virtues corresponds with Five Elements. Moreover, Tung
Chung-shu testifies the legitimacy of filial piety and loyalty with the relationship
among Five Elements. He claims there exists a father-son relationship between
wood, fire, soil, metal and water, each of which in turn produces the next, and
classifies this relationship as grant-and-receive: “Wood produces fire” suggests
wood and fire has a father-son relationship, where wood is the father, and fire is the
son. “Wood produces fire, and fire provides nourishment for wood” means father
gives life to his son, and son should support his father, which requires the son to
take good care of his father. “Metal produces water” means metal is used up and
water hides it. Namely the son should bury his father after he dies, which requires
the son to pay final respect to his father. Obviously, “filial piety is fully justified”.
Since filial piety stems from Heaven, Tung Chung-shu claims: “The Classic of
Filial Piety said that ‘if one knows how to fulfill filial responsibility, he knows
clearly how to serve Heaven’. Serving Heaven and father are the same in etiquette”.
Tung Chung-shu also defends loyalty with the relationship between Five Elements.
To this end, soil, of Five Elements is especially praised. According to him, although
soil doesn’t preside over one season like wood, fire, metal and water, it presides
over all four of them. Therefore, “soil is the center of Five Elements”. It is “vir-
tuous”, and “a capable assistant to Heaven”. He specifies that the virtue of soil is
loyalty, for it serves Heaven with all its heart. Mankind should serve their king
exactly alike, and be virtuous. In light of this, Tung Chung-shu concludes: “The
most precious merit in sages is loyalty. Loyalty is the virtue of soil.”

6.2.5 Mankind’s Language and Idea Reveal Heaven’s Will

Tung Chung-shu claims mankind thinks and speaks for a reason. Sages voice
Heaven’s will, so mankind has languages and ideas. Heaven’s will brings authority
to languages and designations, so mankind should behave in accordance with his
designation. Only in this way could mankind carry out his own duties, and better
serve Heaven.
In Tung Chung-shu’s view, if all things are created by Heaven, and mankind’s
fate is predestined by Heaven, “mankind is a replica of Heaven” reaffirms this
predestination from physiological, psychological and moral aspects. More impor-
tantly, “mankind is a replica of Heaven” not only makes the unity of mankind and
Heaven possible, but indicates how mankind should look upon fate. Through the
6.2 Human Taoism 85

interaction between mankind and Heaven, Tung Chung-shu claims the unity of
mankind and Heaven is mandatory. Namely, Heaven has tight control over
mankind.

6.3 Interaction Between Mankind and Heaven

Tung Chung-shu believes the supremacy of Heaven determines the resemblance


between mankind and Heaven, while “mankind is a replica of Heaven” confirms the
feasibility of this resemblance. In this sense, he stresses the inevitability of unity
between mankind and Heaven, and specifies ways of achieving this unity.

6.3.1 Things of One Kind Have a Connection

Tung Chung-shu points out when gong tone on string instruments is plucked, other
gong tones respond; when shang tone is plucked, other shang tones respond. In a
word, things of different kinds repel each other, but things of the same kind have a
connection, for they agree and interact with each other. He explains that this
connection not only occurs among five tones or horses, but between mankind and
Heaven. More importantly, since “man is a replica of Heaven”, mankind and
Heaven are of the same kind, so there exists interaction between them. Tung
Chung-shu believes Heaven has its yin and yang, and mankind also has his yin and
yang, so yin and yang is the intermediary between mankind and Heaven. For
instance, “yin of Heaven and earth arise, yin of mankind follows; yin of mankind
arises, yin of Heaven and earth follow. Namely, “Heaven has its yin and yang, and
mankind has his yin and yang, too. Yin of mankind immediately follows yin of
Heaven and earth, and yin of Heaven and earth immediately follow yin of man.
They operate exactly alike. The same goes for yang of mankind and yang of
Heaven and earth. Based on this thought, Tung Chung-shu points out that the
interaction between Heaven and mankind are achieved through the chaotic Ch’i in
the universe.
Yin and yang pervade among Heaven and earth, nourish mankind just as water
nourishes fish; mankind cannot live without Ch’i of Heaven and earth, just as fish
cannot live without water. In the vast universe, Heaven and mankind interact with
Ch’i as the medium; Mankind influences Heaven, and Heaven influences man.
More importantly, Ch’i of Heaven and earth ensures that man’s behavior conforms
to the law of Heaven; on the one hand, Heaven passes its preordained harmony
down to mankind through the nourishment of Ch’i, and even award or warn the
king of man. On the other hand, man’s behavior is fed back to Heaven through
Ch’i; Heaven thus has control over man, and guides, awards or punishes them
accordingly. In Tung Chung-shu’s opinion, the connection between Heaven and
mankind determines Heaven’s control over man’s behavior. Ch’i of Heaven and
86 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

earth has an impact on man, but stability or disturbance of human society also
influences Heaven. Based on this thought, Tong Chung-shu declares that all phe-
nomena in the universe that seem natural are in fact bound to happen, for they are
products of the interaction between things of the same kind.

6.3.2 Propitious Omen and Cautionary Scourge

Man and Heaven interact through Ch’i of yin and yang, and thus all natural phe-
nomena are no longer natural, but closely related to human activities. They are
products of the interaction between mankind and Heaven. Tung Chung-shu con-
cludes that the appearance of all propitious omens or natural disasters is intended by
Heaven, and they are awards or punishments for mankind’s behavior.
Firstly, Tong Chung-shu believes all things in the mortal world are designed by
Heaven. For instance, if Heaven wants someone to ascend the throne, some omen,
beyond the reach of mankind’s power, would naturally come. This is called
reception of Heaven’s instruction. He says: “if something beyond the capability of
mankind is done by mankind, like capturing a Kylin in the west, it’s an omen of
Heaven’s instruction.” All men swear allegiance to the someone, and the sincerity is
appreciated by Heaven, so Heaven grants a propitious omen to make him king.
Likewise, if a wise king rules the country with a kingly government, Ch’i of
Heaven and earth will be pacified, and wind and rain will come in their time, apart
from the frequent appearances of propitious omens. Thus Tong Chung-shu claims:
“King is the beginning of humanity. If the king is wise enough, Ch’i will be
pacified, wind and rain will come in their time, auspicious star and Yellow Dragon
will appear. If the king is incompetent, the weather will change, and Ch’i of yin,
yang and four seasons will be in disorder. When three sovereigns and five emperors
dominate their country … Hence Heaven brings out sweet dew, alkanet, yechon,
timely wind and rain, flourishing grain, wandering phoenix and Kylin.” Therefore,
the sage-king is supposed to be simultaneous with mythical creatures, propitious
omens and rare treasures. Namely, “if an emperor is about to rise to power, aus-
picious phenomena will present themselves”. There is nothing mysterious about
their appearance, for “things of one kind come together”. In addition, he empha-
sizes that kings and emperors are all sons of Heaven, so they must serve Heaven as
if they are serving their own fathers, and sacrifice to Heaven on the occasion of
major events, such as the beginning of the year, the beginning of the month, and
war.
Secondly, Tung Chung-shu points out that if rulers are dissolute and corrupt, and
abuse penalty to hurt ordinary people, an evil Ch’i will arise. If public resentment
keeps growing, yin and yang will be imbalanced and calamities will occur. What are
calamities? What’s the relation between calamities and Heaven? Tung Chung-shu
explains that the sudden changes of all things among Heaven and earth are called
peculiarities, slight ones of which are known as disasters; in most cases, disasters
come first, and peculiarities follow. Disaster is warning of Heaven, while
6.3 Interaction Between Mankind and Heaven 87

peculiarity acts as deterrence. In other words, if the king is morally failing, Heaven
will send disasters as a warning; if warning is not enough, peculiarities will be sent
as deterrence; if the king is still not intimidated, all sorts of calamities will present
themselves. In this sense, calamities are not only Heaven’s warning and punishment
to the king, but Heaven’s gesture of mercy to remedy the king’s fault.
According to Tung Chung-shu, all calamities are caused by the interaction
between mankind and Heaven. Based on this thought, he finds proof that all
calamities in nature are related to the behavior of mankind (represented by the king
and the emperor).
All sorts of calamities are caused by misbehavior of mankind, specifically, the
disharmony between mankind and Heaven. Therefore, to remedy and avoid
disharmony, mankind should adjust his own conduct, in the hope of conforming to
the law of Heaven.
Thirdly, in light of this theory, Tung Chung-shu proposes a system of rites to
pray for rain or stop the rain. Since calamities are caused by the imbalance between
yin and yang, and Ch’i among Heaven and earth interacts with mankind, he
believes mankind is able to affect weather by adjusting his own conduct, and thus
praying for rain after a long drought or stop the rain in floods is possible.
Specifically, “Serious drought is the result of yang’s victory over yin.” Drought and
flood are both caused by the imbalance of mankind and Heaven and the interaction
among things of one kind, so the secret of praying for rain or stopping the rain is to
seek balance between yin and yang: Yang overcomes yin, and causes drought, so to
pray for rain is to activate yin with yin; Yin overcomes yang, and causes flood, so to
stop the rain is to activate yang with yang. He explains: “Those who know activate
yin with yin to pray for rain, and activate yang with yang to stop the rain. They
simply know and are not Gods.”

6.4 The Kingly Tao

According to Tung Chung-shu, both “mankind is a replica of Heaven” and “things


of one kind interact” determine mankind should obey the law of Heaven, and voice
Heaven’s will, which are also mankind’s missions preordained by Heaven. Tung
Chung-shu highlights Heaven’s fondness for kings and kings’ role in the com-
munication between Heaven and mankind’s Tao. To meet this demand, he gives
king a specific definition, and stresses king’s responsibility for achieving unity with
Heaven, and thus king becomes a representative and even the first person
responsible. Conditioned by this intention, Tung Chung-shu gives the following
definition: “Three strokes linked by a vertical in the middle, is named Wang (King).
Three strokes represent Heaven, earth, and mankind. The vertical links them all,
and makes communication possible. The one thing capable of such mission among
Heaven, earth and mankind is king.” Namely, the designation of king represents the
connection between Heaven’s Tao and mankind’s Tao, and king shoulders
unshakable obligation and responsibility to the unity of Heaven and mankind.
88 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

Based on this principle, he finds a new way of understanding Ch’un Ch’iu, and
discovers esoteric meanings from the perspective of the relationship between king
and Heaven (instead of mankind and Heaven): “The pattern of Ch’un Ch’iu is
having civilian follow king, and king follow Heaven … Therefore, the gist of Ch’un
Ch’iu is to have civilian obey king, and king obey Heaven.” Having king follow
and obey Heaven is the hidden meaning explored by Tung Chung-shu, and also his
primary principle of Heaven-ordained-fate. The nature of this principle—“having
king follow and obey Heaven”, is the manifestation of “mankind is a replica of
Heaven” and “mankind interacts with Heaven”. Hence, Tung Chung-shu shares two
opinions in the elaboration of Ch’un Ch’iu: reverence for Heaven, and king’s
obedience to Heaven, and attempts to specify how Heaven and mankind interact in
the political area through king. In this sense, king is vitally important to the unity of
Heaven and mankind and the interaction between them. Achieving unity with
Heaven is not only an individual behavior expected from civilian, but also an act of
state and an administrative measure executed by king. Based on this notion, Tung
Chung-shu points out that in order to keep unified with Heaven, king must act
according to his standing, establish policies and measures and arrange political
activities in compliance with the law of Heaven and the number of Heaven, striving
to achieve unity with Heaven from political principles to selection of officials.

6.4.1 Statecraft Stems from the Law of Heaven

Tung Chung-shu points out: “Tao originates in Heaven.” That is to say, the ruling
order in human society stems from Heaven, and the ruling policy is established
according to the will of Heaven. How on earth is the will of Heaven, then? He
claims: “The beauty of benevolence is its derivation from Heaven, so Heaven is
benevolent.” According to Tung Chung-shu, Heaven is kind and benevolent, and its
clemency is primarily reflected in the “nurture of all things”—Heaven creates all
things, and nourishes them, cautiously maintaining the circle of life. Meanwhile,
Heaven favors all things, and never rewards or punishes anyone with no reason. All
this suggests Heaven prefers benevolence over penalty, and “employs benevolence
instead of penalty” in the nurture of all things. He claims the “preference for
benevolence over penalty” is the will of Heaven, so king should obey Heaven’s
will, and moralize all civilians, govern and secure the country by means of ethics.
Hence, he emphasizes that king must be benevolent to his country, for “the will of
Heaven lies in infinite goodness”; Meanwhile, Heaven employs benevolence and
sometimes resorts to penalty, so king should also resorts to penalty sometimes.
Obviously, this ruling principle is “benevolence-primary, and penalty-secondary”.
In this sense, he claims: “Education is the major way of governance, while penalty
is the minor one.” Hereby, Tung Chung-shu figures out Heaven’s “preference for
benevolence over penalty” from Heaven’s preference for yang over yin, and thus
deduces “benevolence-primary and penalty-secondary”, which provides heavenly
support for the Confucian argument that benevolence is given priority over penalty.
6.4 The Kingly Tao 89

6.4.2 The Administrative Measures of a Country Complies


with Heaven

Tung Chung-shu claims: “That the act of king matches the law of Heaven, is called
Tao.” As the framer and executor of administrative measures, king has to follow
Heaven’s will at all times, and obey the law of Heaven. To be specific, the
administrative measures adopted in human society originate in the Tao of Heaven.
Heaven has four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, and king has four
ways of government, beneficence, rewards, punishments, and executions. In his
opinion, Heaven nourishes all things through four seasons, and a wise king, who
rules his country according to heavenly Tao should employ four ways of govern-
ment to match four seasons; Four seasons enable all things to sprout in warm
spring, flourish in hot summer, wither in chilly autumn, and hide in cold winter, so
king should employ beneficence to match the warmth of spring, employ rewards to
match the hotness of summer, employ punishments to match the chill of autumn,
and employ executions to match the coldness of winter. Tung Chung-shu explains
and emphasizes that four ways of government adopted by king and four seasons
controlled by Heaven are of the same kind, and make a perfect match. Therefore,
four ways of government are indispensable, just as each season is indispensable;
four ways of government cannot interfere with each other, just as four seasons
cannot exchange their positions. This principle determines that king has to employ
four ways of government in his reign, and employ them wisely to avoid mutual
interference.

6.4.3 Selection and Assignment of Officials Follow


the Number of Heaven

Tung Chung-shu believes king selects and assigns officials according to the will of
Heaven. Specifically, the time when officials are selected and the number of officials
selected should match the number of Heaven. Heaven has four seasons, so king has
four times of selection; Each season has three months, so king selects three people
each time. Tung Chung-shu further points out that not only the time and number
matches the number of Heaven, but the assignment of officials and their interre-
lationship originate in the heavenly Tao. Take Five Officials as an example,
heavenly Tao has five elements, and mankind has Five Officials; Just as heavenly
Tao nurtures all things through five elements, king cannot achieve supremacy
without Five Officials. Thus, Five Officials stem from five elements of heavenly
Tao, and matches the number of Heaven. Based on this principle, he relates Five
Officials in human society to five elements of heavenly Tao: Firstly, Five Officials
originate in five elements, and each official matches one specific element: wood is
Sinong, fire is Sima, soil is Siying, metal is Situ, and water is Sikou. Secondly, the
duty and norms of Five Officials and their interrelationship follow the law of Five
90 6 Fatalism of Heaven-Mankind Interaction

Elements. The interrelationship of five elements has two aspects: Firstly, two
neighboring elements inter-promote each other, such as wood produces fire, fire
produces soil, soil produces metal, metal produces water, and water produces wood.
Secondly, two segregative elements overcome each other, such as wood overcomes
soil, fire overcomes metal, soil overcomes water, metal overcomes wood, and water
overcomes fire. Since Five Officials in human society are assigned according to five
elements of heavenly Tao, their interrelationship should comply with that of five
elements. Only if Five Officials carry out their duties and five elements
inter-promotes, society can be governed. Based on this notion, he claims the
interrelationship between Five Officials is inter-promoting or inter-resisting, and
thus concludes a mechanism of stability and instability in human society: The first,
the inter-promotion of Five Officials is to guarantee social harmony and stability.
According to Tung Chung-shu, Sinong (wood) favors benevolence, and supervises
farming. Sinong is conducive to the government (fire), which is called “wood
produces fire”; Sima (fire) favors wisdom, recommends elites and exterminates
desperados. Sima maintains social order and pacifies officers (soil), which is called
“fire produces soil”; Siying (soil) favors allegiance, faithfully serves king, and
terrifies all hostile enemies. Siying fulfils major governance mission, which is called
“soil produces metal”; Situ (metal) favors righteousness, and has each man do his
part according to his social standing (water), which is called “metal produces
water”; Sikou (water) favors rites. King and officials, elders and youngsters, have
separate roles. Hundreds of workmen produce tools for agricultural officials (wood),
which is called “water produces wood”. The second, the assertion of inter-resistance
between Five Officials leads to the inevitable chaos in the whole country. Tung
Chung-shu believes if Five Officials become treacherous, sinister, divine, vicious,
and rebellious, the country will be doomed. This is called inter-resistance between
five elements. To be specific, Sinong becomes treacherous, and won’t supervise
farming. Farmers revolt, and Situ (metal) kills farmers (wood), which is called
“metal overcomes wood”; Sima becomes sinister, and abuses power. Law enforcer
(water) kills Sima (fire), which is called “water overcomes fire”; Siying becomes
divine, misguides tricks his master into evilness. Famers (wood) revolt against king
(soil), which is called “wood overcomes soil”; Situ becomes vicious, murders
people and starts wars at will. Sima kills Situ, which is called “fire overcome
metal”; Sikou becomes rebellious, breaks the law and gets away with murder. Siying
kills Sikou, which is called “soil overcomes water”.
King establishes a variety of rules, and makes unifying with Heaven a political
principle of the whole country, and a common fate shared by all men including
king. At this point, mankind truly becomes a replica of Heaven—not only man-
kind’s physical form and internal affection, but mankind’s morality, laws, behavior
and act, submit to Heaven’s arrangement. Thus, mankind’s mission given by
Heaven when all things are created is reflected in all respects of mankind, especially
king, which renders mankind completely unified with Heaven. Hence, Tung
Chung-shu concludes: “Following heavenly Tao and self-cultivating, is called
Tao.”
6.4 The Kingly Tao 91

Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction carries on and develops the theories of


Stochastic Fatalism and Rightful Fatalism. The statement about the will and
morality of Heaven of the former obviously is a copy of the latter, while the
statement about Heaven’s full control over human society is more advanced than
the latter, which renders Heaven more mysterious, enhances Heaven’s authority and
supremacy, and thus sets a theoretical premise for Heaven’s constant care for
mankind. Meanwhile, Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction absorbs a variety of
ideas from the Legalist School, the Yin-Yang School, medical science, etc., and
have more abundant theoretical source.
To interpret how “mankind is a replica of Heaven”, Tung Chung-shu elaborates
on mankind’s physical features, psychological phenomena, and the relationship
between mankind’s behavior and nature. He sees how mankind relies on nature as
an element in the vast universe, and makes all types of assumption and speculation
about the harmony between mankind and Heaven. Since ancient times, mankind is
accustomed to working at sunrise and resting at sunset, which suggests that man-
kind’s behavior is in harmony with nature. Thus, mankind’s physical feature and
cycle are somehow related to nature, which is confirmed by modern medicine and
scientific research. The occurrence of various seasonal diseases and endemic dis-
eases also proves their subtle connection. Besides, no one can deny that the changes
in the weather and nature have an impact on mankind’s feelings. In this sense, Tung
Chung-shu’s views are partially justified. Therefore, the explanation and exposition
of mankind’s fate in Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction seem well-grounded
and specious to mankind, and convince them such is the fact.
If the recognition of the connection between mankind and Heaven is the theo-
retical feature of Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction, a total disregard for their
differences and contrasts is the theoretical flaw. During the probe into mankind’s
fate, Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction overlooks the differences between
mankind and heaven, and denies that human society has any special rules different
from nature. This theory makes mankind a passive follower and server, and denies
mankind’s initiative and creativity. According to Fatalism of Heaven-mankind
Interaction, mankind remains unifies with Heaven, so mankind can never control
his own fate. Since the relationship between mankind and Heaven is exaggerated,
Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction claims all connections between them are
certain and inevitable, which enhances Heaven’s mysteriousness and mankind’s
fear. Later, this theory transforms into prophesy and superstition, becomes part of
secular superstition, and has a widespread and profound influence on traditional
Chinese culture and civilians.
Chapter 7
Natural Fatalism

Is the fate of man determined by Heaven or by other forces? If it is Ch’i that


determines the fate of man, is it predestined the moment he is born? Natural
Fatalism provides explanations. Natural Fatalists assert that Heaven and earth create
man, but they are not meant to do that. Whether man will be lucky or not
throughout his life is invariably determined by the nature of the original Ch’i
endowed at birth. Those who endowed with thick original Ch’i will live a long life,
and those who endowed with thin original Ch’i will die young; superior original
Ch’i will endow a man with honorable life whereas inferior original Ch’i with
humble life. The fate of man consists of the fate of country and the fate of an
individual, the former is superior to the latter. Whether man behaves well or not will
not influence his fate at all. The quality of original Ch’i and the fortune of man’s life
are reflected on his body when he is born, so the body can be an indication of the
fate of man. Wang Ch’ung is a representative of Natural Fatalism.

7.1 The Original Ch’i of Nature

Wang Ch’ung, Chinese philosopher, believes that original Ch’i is the origin and
Ch’i explains the fate of man and all other beings. In his opinion, human is created
by Heaven and earth. The process is as natural as that of a human couple giving
birth to their baby. In this sense, Wang does not believe that Heaven and earth
intentionally create man, as proposed by Fatalism of Heaven-mankind Interaction.

7.1.1 Man Is Created by Heaven and Earth

According to Wang, Heaven and earth create man, but it is a natural thing without
any intention. He further explains that human is not fond of other species, neither
94 7 Natural Fatalism

does Heaven. Man to the heaven and earth is what louses to man. Man don’t like
louses, similarly, Heaven and earth are not willing to create man. As for the details
of how Heaven and earth create man, Wang says: “Heaven and man follow the
same doctrine, and have similar likes and dislikes. man doesn’t like other species,
Heaven is unwilling to mate with man. The birth of man is similar to the birth of
louses. Man doesn’t like louses, and Heaven has no desire for man. The reason is
that different species are endowed with different natural characters, so they have no
passion for each other. Heaven and earth make a couple. The former releases Ch’i
to enable the latter to breed all living beings. Man passes on Ch’i to their
descendants generation after generation. Some of them are endowed with superior
Ch’i and become saints, because all that they take in is pure Ch’i from Heaven.”
Wang believes that to Heaven and earth, man is not different from other creatures,
and is created unintentionally. As the son of Heaven and earth, man enjoys as much
favor as other things—neither man enjoys any preference, nor should other living
beings be trampled on. In other words, man belongs to those living beings, so their
fate are identical.
Based on the above opinion, Wang Ch’ung criticizes Tung Chung-shu’s view
that Heaven and earth create man intentionally. According to Tung, Heaven creates
man, and then creates all other things in nature to support man. However, Wang
argues that cereals provide food, and silk and hemp provide clothing, which
actually reveals their nature. Man is intelligent enough to makes use of these things,
which is not an arrangement of Heaven. If Heaven creates cereals and silk merely to
support man, then it is regarded as a farmer or a weaver. At first thought, Tung
praises the kindness of Heaven, and yet it is actually blasphemy.

7.1.2 Heaven Operates in a Natural Way

Wang Ch’ung believes that original Ch’i is the origin of the universe. He
emphasizes that Heaven, earth, man and all other things are made of original Ch’i.
The light Ch’i goes up to form Heaven, and the heavy Ch’i goes down to form
earth.” Heaven and earth are nature made of original Ch’i.” Furthermore, every
change between Heaven and earth owes to the effect of original Ch’i. “It seems that
nothing between Heaven and earth has fixed form. Only original Ch’i which forms
seasons and weather is divine.”
What is Heaven and earth? They are original Ch’i, and made of original Ch’i.
Then what is original Ch’i? Wang gives his answer: “The reason why Heaven
operates in a natural way lies in original Ch’i. It has no desire, letting things take
their own course.”It means that Heaven and earth, made of original Ch’i, have no
desire, neither. In this sense, when Heaven creates all things in the universe, it
works without any intention.
Wang Ch’ung not only explains the non-action of Heaven and earth in the view
of their formation, but also logically proves that Heaven has no desire. In his words,
eyes and mouth are organs of desire, because eyes tend to see beauties and mouth
7.1 The Original Ch’i of Nature 95

wishes to eat delicacies. Inside his heart, man has desire, which is expressed as the
lust for beauties and delicacies. To satisfy all kinds of desires, man must have done
something. On the contrary, without eyes and mouth, there would not be any desire
for beauties and delicacies, which means man will not have motivation to do
anything, and thus they will cease to take action. By this token, those who have
desires must have eyes and mouth, whereas those who don’t have eyes or mouth
must be calm and content. On this basis, Wang testifies that Heaven and earth as a
whole have no organ or desire: the essence of earth is soil, which does not have
eyes or mouth, so earth has no eyes or mouth neither. Since heaven and earth make
a couple, they have the same formation, which means Heaven has no eyes or
mouth.
Without such organs of desire, Heaven and earth will not have the motivation to
take any actions. Human and other living beings are born during the natural
operation of Heaven and earth. Specifically speaking, Heaven releases original Ch’i
which forms all things in the universe, which, however, is not intended by Heaven.
Wang further gives a counter-evidence that the creation of the living beings needs
hands. But would it be possible that Heaven has so many hands to create all things
in the universe? The only one conclusion is that Heaven and earth do not mean to
create man.
From the perspective of the Naturalistic ideology, Wang Ch’ung is convinced
that Heaven is the original Ch’i which has no desire at all. It will not affect or judge
human affairs, nor will it interfere with the governance of an emperor or the
behavior of an individual. Particularly, Wang criticizes such sayings as calamities
are a sign of warning and condemnation from Heaven, or a man killed by thunder
must have infuriated the heaven. Some philosophers, led by Tung Chung-shu, hold
the theory of correspondence between Heaven and man, asserting that if the
emperor governs the country in an improper manner, Heaven will bring calamity to
the country as warning and condemnation, just like the emperor punishing his
officials. However, Wang Ch’ung retorts that since Heaven neither has any desire
nor takes any action, it will by no means condemn human. If Heaven warns or
condemns man, it has desire. This opinion ridiculously disobeys the natural ide-
ology. Meanwhile, Wang points out the logical fallacy of Heaven-condemnation
view: Since the emperor is assigned by Heaven, why does Heaven create a fatuous
emperor instead of a wise one so that it saves repeated warning and condemnation?
In addition, Heaven-condemnation view advocates that the emperor should reward
for good deeds in spring or summer whereas punish bad behaviors in autumn or
winter. If the emperor implements reward or punishment at improper time, Heaven
will make spring and summer hotter and autumn and winter colder. Wang is again
object to this opinion: it does not make sense that Heaven intensifies the weather to
encourage the emperor instead of changing the weather to help him realize his
mistakes. In conclusion, Wang believes that Heaven-condemnation view is false
tale made up in a corrupted society where the emperor governs the country unjustly,
officials and common people resent each other, calamities arise now and then and so
many people lose themselves.
96 7 Natural Fatalism

In Wang’s time, it is widely believed that if a man feed others with unclean food,
he will be killed by thunder. Wang disagrees with this saying. He says that human
belongs with all things among Heaven and earth. Heaven has no idea of the diet of
other living beings, nor is it clear about the diet of man. Those who feed dogs and
pigs with rancid food will not be killed by Heaven. Similarly, those who feed other
people with unclean food will not be killed, either.
Wang further emphasizes that thunder destroys nothing and kills no one on some
occasions, which means thunder does not actually indicate the wrath of Heaven. It
is purely coincidental that someone is killed by thunder. “A man is killed because of
the rumbling sound on his head.” As a matter of fact, “thunder is fire. If one
identifies the body struck by thunder, it can be found that the struck part is charred
and the body gives off a smell of fire.” According to Wang, these signs indicate that
thunder is a form of fire other than wrath of Heaven. In this sense, it is impossible
that thunder is Heaven’s weapon to kill people when it is infuriated.

7.2 Natural Fatalism

Wang Ch’ung believes that man and all other beings have their own fates, so they
have different experiences. The fate of man is invariably determined by the quality
of original Ch’i endowed when he is created. It is fate that determines one man has
different experience from another and one may be successful in doing something
whereas the other may not.

7.2.1 Hylozoism

Wang Ch’ung is strongly convinced of the existence of fate. In his opinion, man as
well as other things is endowed with original Ch’i at their birth. Since some are
endowed with more Ch’i, some less, some heavier, some lighter, some superior, and
some inferior, they present in different forms. Some become man, some become
animals; some are as large as an elephant, while some are as thin as hair; some live
a long life whereas some die at a young age. All these differences are owing to fate.
Furthermore, Wang uses a metaphor to give a deeper explanation. A group of ants
are crawling on the ground, and then a man steps on them. Those ants that are
stamped die, but the others survive. It is fate that determines life and death.
Similarly, man has to undertake several tasks, but whether they can be finished
successfully is determined by fate.
The fate discussed here is some destiny that determines success or failure. “Fate
is the master of success and failure. It is a naturally coincident destiny, not being
influenced by any other things.” Fate comes to everyone unexpectedly. Neither
Heaven nor any unknown god could master it. Wang explains that the gaps between
swords and plows, between girders and bridges, between candles and grasses are all
7.2 Natural Fatalism 97

occasional. No one is able to make it clear why one thing is quite different from
another. On this basis, Wang further points out that man, as well as other living
beings, are mastered by fate. It is widely accepted that Wu Zixu and Qu Yuan, two
famous patriots in ancient China, committed suicide because they were framed by
their fellow officials and wronged by their emperors. However, the truth is: they
were destined to suffer the disasters. It is just accidental that their fellow officials
framed them up and the emperor happened to believe those slanders. It seems that
all the coincidences are arranged in advance, while as a matter of fact, everything
comes naturally.
Then Wang makes a deeper exploration of the fate of man which he believes
consists of two parts: the fate of the country and the fate of an individual. The
former refers to the common fate of a group of people, which determines the rise
and fall of a country. In Wang’s view, whether a country flourishes or declines is all
up to its fate.
The fate of man refers to the fate of an individual, which determines the lifespan
and social status of an individual. Wang says that “all his life, man is faced up with
fate and fortune, adversity and prosperity. Fate determines whether a man is rich or
poor, and gentle or simple… If a man is fated to be rich and noble and accumulates
wealth as he deserves, he will live a comfortable life for a long time. On the
contrary, if the fate of a man is poor and humble and receives unfortunate wealth, he
will always live in pain, and suffer a series of disasters.” In this sense, the fate of an
individual is determined by both the fate of country and the fate of man. However,
“the term of the nation has a limit, so does man’s fate.” When the two contradict
with each other, for example, the country is to prosper while the individual is to
perish, or the country is to collapse while the individual is to thrive, what will
happen then? Wang Ch’ung says: “the fate of the country prevails against that of
the individual.” Wang Ch’ung cites historical facts to prove his point: “The state of
Song, Wei, Chen and Zheng were stuck by disasters in the same day. All the people
in the four countries may not be unfortunate at that time, and yet they suffer
disasters together, which are obviously meant for the whole country.” Historical
records say that the state of Song, Wei, Chen and Zheng were struck by fire in the
same day, and all people in the four states were killed in that fire. There are so many
people in the four states that not all of them are doomed to die. However, no one
survives, so it’s meant for the country. In the Spring and Autumn period, the
captives of the defeated army were covered by straws and scattered all over the pit;
At the time of famine, plagues prevailed and starving people were everywhere.
Emperor Gaozu first uprose in Fengpei, where most people were given high
positions. These people are not necessarily all fated to be noble. Bai Qi, general of
the Qin Dynasty, killed four hundred thousand soldiers of Zhao in a pit in
Changping. All these people, old and young, are not necessarily all doomed to die.
The reason why their life ends in war is that the fate of the country prevails against
that of man.
Wang Ch’ung further points out that man’s fate could be divided into the fate of
life and the fate of wealth and honor. The fate of life, also known as longevity,
determines natural properties, such as how long man lives, when man dies and how
98 7 Natural Fatalism

man dies; the fate of wealth and honor, also known as officialdom, “signifies man’s
prospects”. The fate of officialdom determines social properties, such as whether a
man is noble, rich or given a chance. According to Wang Ch’ung, the relation
between the fate of life and the fate of officialdom is: “the former prevails against
the latter”.
Base on the above arguments, Wang Ch’ung claims that the fate of the indi-
vidual could be divided into the fate of strength and life and the fate of accidental
encounter, which refers to those who die from gunshot wound, in a fire or collapse,
or get drowned. The fate of accidental encounter could be further divided into
consistent fate and accidental fate. What are those then? Wang Ch’ung explains that
consistent fate means man’s fate is closely related to his own behavior, and acci-
dental fate means man is fated to be caught up in an accident. Wang Ch’ung says:
“Man with accidental fate suffers great misfortune.” Man with accidental fate does
good deeds and yet ends in tragedy, which is unexpected. The tragedy comes from
the outside and costs man his life. In short, accidental fate is a fate with unexpected
accidents. Wang Ch’ung points out that: “Man who suffers accidental incidents or
misfortune is fated to suffer”. Therefore, all the accidents and misfortune in man’s
life is intended by Heaven, and doomed to happen. But some question this opinion
and say that Bai Qi buried alive four hundred thousand captives in Changping, and
all people in Liyang were drowned in the lake that suddenly appeared after the city
collapsed, so are their fates all identical? Wang Ch’ung defends himself by saying:
“In such a big world with so many people, those in the city of Liyang and the pit of
Changping died together, which is actually not a big deal. People fated to be
drowned all go to Liyang; People fated to be crushed to death all stay in
Changping.” Moreover, he further illustrates his point from the prospect of
pre-given Ch’i: “Accidents such as war, fire, and flood, are determined by fate, but
may not occur on a fixed date. If we specify one hundred as a measure of lifespan,
those who die before one hundred years old do not have enough Ch’i … Those with
short fate are susceptible to diseases and short-lived. Those who die at birth get
injured in the womb, for their Ch’i is thin. Those with slightly vigorous Ch’i do not
live as long as he is destined to. They do not suffer accidents, but die for shortage of
Ch’i, because their Ch’i is used up. They have identical fate with those who die at
birth, and cannot live to one hundred years old for lack of Ch’i.”
The fate of strength and life refers to the fate created by Ch’i with varied
thickness, which is also known as rightful fate. Wang Ch’ung explains: “Rightful
fate renders man good fortune from the beginning. Those who are kind and
innocent receive blessings without doing any good deeds, have rightful fate.” Thus,
those with rightful fate are born lucky, and able to obtain blessings without efforts.

7.2.2 Fatalism

Wang Chong believes man has fate, and this fate is preordained and unchangeable.
Like all other things, man is made from Ch’i. Since Heaven-given Ch’i varies, man
7.2 Natural Fatalism 99

is thus distinguished from animals, the rich from the poor, the noble from the
humble, and the strong from the weak. Having natural Ch’i, one can be man or
animal; if man, one can be noble or humble, rich or poor; one can be rich and
possess a large fortune, one can be poor and beg around for food, one can be noble
and of high rank, or one can be humble as a slave. This is not determined by
Heaven’s endowment, but rather, Ch’i of man varies, so does his character and fate.
Hence, he emphasizes that man’s fate is sealed the moment he is created and
receives Ch’i. Firstly, man’s lifespan is determined by Ch’i. It depends on whether
this Ch’i is solid, sufficient, strong and superior—one with firm and robust Ch’i
long-lived, while one with flimsy and weak Ch’i short-lived. Secondly, man’s
social standing is determined by Ch’i. As regards how Ch’i renders man rich, poor,
noble or humble, Wang Ch’ung explains that all the stars across the sky have an
order of size and importance, so Ch’i created by them differs. Those who receive
Ch’i of nobility will be born noble, and those who receive Ch’i of humbleness will
be born humble.
Since man’s lifespan and social standing are determined by pre-given Ch’i,
Wang Ch’ung claims that man’s fate is sealed the moment he receives Ch’i and
cannot be changed. As regards man’s lifespan, he explains: “Man receives Ch’i
from Heaven, then his lifespan and physical form are determined, just as potters
make crockery ware from earth, and smelter workers use stirrers made from copper.
After the wares take shape, their sizes cannot be changed; after man comes into
being, his lifespan cannot be prolonged or reduced. Ch’i generates character, and
character determines fate. Ch’i and physical form are interrelated, while life and
death are determined by Ch’i. Physical form cannot be changed, so is lifespan.”
According to this theory, man has limited lifespan, and his preordained standing is
hard to change. In his words: “The poor works hard to get rich, but after he acquires
some fortune, his life will come to an end; The humble intends to rise in social
status by virtue of his talent, but he will be dismissed shortly after he joins the
nobility. One becomes rich and noble for his talent and effort, yet it’s not in his fate,
just like the maximum a container can hold, or a hand can lift. If a container can
hold one liter, no more things should be added into this container, or things will
spill; if one can lift three pounds, no more weight should be given to him, or he will
fall.”
In a word, Wang Ch’ung believes man’s natural fate and social fate are all
determined by pre-given Ch’i. Given man’s position between Heaven and earth, it’s
impossible to change Ch’i. Man’s fate is completely up to the Ch’i he receives. Man
has no right and power to change it. This theory is Wang Chu’ung’s Natural
Fatalism.
Wang Ch’ung further points out that in real life, man’s fate can be divided into
two types: crises and opportunities. Crises refer to accidental disasters, which are
caused by force majeure.
Wang Ch’ung believes all crises come from external environment. For example,
all things sprout in spring, yet there is no guarantee that they will bear any fruit.
Cows and horses can destroy their roots, knife and sickle can cut their stems. All
kinds of accidents can render them fruitless. If a mouse steps on man’s food, it will
100 7 Natural Fatalism

be discarded. A gentleman does good deeds, and yet suffers from crises, just like
sterile plants and discarded food. These accidents have nothing to do with things
themselves.
Opportunities refer to good fortune. Wang Ch’ung explains that apart from
crises, man’s fate generally differs on account of opportunities. For example, Yi Yin
and Jizi are both of great talent. However, Yi Yin made it to chancellor, and Jizi
lived as a slave. Their fate differs so much, for Yi Yin encountered a wise king—
Cheng Tang, while Jizi met a fatuous tyrant—King Zhou of Shang. Therefore,
Wang Ch’ung claims that opportunities directly influence man’s fate, and whether
this fate is auspicious or not has nothing to do with man’s talent and morality.
Wang Ch’ung further emphasizes that opportunities are determined by timing
instead of his talent or morality. Thus, one with great talent and virtue does not
necessarily have the opportunity to be noble, while one with little talent and virtue
does not necessarily lack the opportunity and remain humble. Anything is unpre-
dictable. In Wang Ch’ung’s opinion, whether one has opportunities or not is not
determined by his talent or theoretical knowledge, but the likes and dislikes of the
man he talks to. For instance, Shang Yang tried three times to persuade Duke Xiao
of Qin to advocate legalist philosophy. The first two times, he quoted the theory of
emperors, and was dismissed. The third time, he proposed the theory of Hegemon,
and was adopted. Using the theory of emperors to convince Hegemon won’t work,
even though it’s refined; the theory of Hegemon is what Duke Xiao needs, even
though it’s still crude. For the same reason, savages likes what the horseman says,
even though what he says is undesirable; savages will not like what Zi Gong says,
even though what he says is full of righteousness; A lai (an ancient musical pipe)
player plays folk music to please the king of Yue, for the king dislikes court music.
All these tell the same story: Whether one’s proposition can be accepted is not
determined by the proposition itself, but the preference of the one he talks to; The
talented won’t wait for the sages, but the one he serves should be wise. Therefore,
whether one has opportunities or not is not determined by him, but by the one he
meets. Crises and opportunities all come naturally. A lucky man will have unex-
pected opportunities; an unlucky man begs for an opportunity and yet none will
come. Wang Ch’ung tells the following story:
Once upon a time, a man of Zhou wishes to serve the king. Despite his lifetime
efforts, he never has his dream come true. Now he is old and pale, and one day cries
on the street. Someone asks: “Why are you crying?” He replies: “I’ve never got the
chance to serve the king. Now that I am old, I won’t get another chance.” Someone
continues: “Why haven’t you got the chance?” He replies; “I learnt all about history
and classics when I was young, but the king preferred to employ the elderly. The
next king likes to employ warriors, so I started to learn the art of fight and war. Yet
the king died shortly after I completed my training. The current king recently come
to the throne and likes to employ youngsters, but I am too old to win a chance. So I
was never appreciated and never will.”
According to Wang Ch’ung, Natural Fatalism is consistent with the theory of
crises and opportunities. Whether the Ch’i one receives is auspicious or not is
reflected in the crises or opportunities he has in his life. If someone is born noble, he
7.2 Natural Fatalism 101

is destined to have opportunities; If someone is born humble, his opportunity is


denied. Therefore, all seemingly accidental incidents are actually bound to happen.

7.3 Awaiting Fatalism

The logic of Ch’i-related original Ch’i Naturalism is that the fate of all things is
determined by Ch’i given at birth, so it has nothing to do with how one behaves in
his later life. Since man cannot change his fate through efforts, he need not hold
useless ceremonies, such as sacrifice and divination, but awaits his destiny. In this
sense, Awaiting Fatalism is the inevitable conclusion of Natural Fatalism.
Therefore, Wang Ch’ung claims man’s fate is preordained, and lets man await his
destiny.

7.3.1 Good Deeds Has Nothing to Do with Fate

According to Natural Fatalism, Wang Ch’ung firmly denies the possibility of


changing one’s fate through efforts and good deeds, especially for a country. Its fate
is unrelated to the morality of the king or the state policy, but related to the stars
across the sky, and eclipse of the moon and the sun. Specifically, the cycle of solar
eclipse is forty-two months, and the cycle of lunar eclipse is fifty-six months. Solar
eclipse and lunar eclipse have definite numbers, which determines the fate of the
country. Therefore, the rise and fall of the empire are related to the movement of the
stars, not the king or the policies he establishes. In the past, “Cyan Ch’i appeared on
the sky, and the kingdoms of Song, Wei, Chen, Zheng were all struck by disasters.”
These four kingdoms had different ways of government, and not all of them made
huge mistakes. Besides, the capital of Liyang sank into water overnight, and the
government officials were not necessarily all treacherous.
The books in the Han Dynasty keeps records of the interaction between Heaven
and man, which include a statement that the morality of the king is able to touch the
sky and change the country’s fate. Yet, Wang Ch’ung disagrees and claims that a
country perishes like a dying man. If a man is going to die, monsters come out; if a
country is going to perish, it’s going to perish. The fate of the country depends on
its term, not its government. Therefore, the Yin kingdom didn’t fall because its time
had not yet come, not because of the efforts made by Emperor Gaozong. He further
points out that man (including king) cannot change the country’s fate, not even their
own fate. Whatever happens in one’s life is determined by fate. Besides, it’s fate
that renders man rich, poor, noble or humble, not character or talent. Just as fate can
be classified into three categories: fortunate, normal and unfortunate, character also
has three categories: “good, average and evil”. A fortunate man is not necessarily
good, and an unfortunate man is not necessarily evil. These phenomena make fate
and character departed from each other.
102 7 Natural Fatalism

The departure between fate and character suggests that fate is not a consequence
of one’s behavior. It’s purely accidental that man who does good deeds is blessed,
and man who does bad things gets into trouble. There is no direct link between
whether man is rich, poor, noble or humble and whether he is virtuous. Hence,
Wang Ch’ung rejects the notion that one who does good deeds will live a long and
rich life. The books recorded that during the reign of Emperor Jinggong of Song,
Antares was surrounded by Mars. Emperor Jinggong was terrified and summoned
Minister Ziwei: “Antares was surrounded by Mars, why?” Ziwei replied: “Mars
represents the punishment of Heaven. Antares represents the territory of Song. Your
Highness is in danger. But it could be transferred to the chancellor.” Emperor
Jinggong denied: “Chancellor governs the whole country. Transferring danger to
him is not auspicious.” Ziwei said: “It could be transferred to civilians.” Emperor
Jinggong denied: “If civilians all die, how can I still be king? I would rather die
myself.” Ziwei said: “It could also be transferred to the crop.” Emperor Jinggong
denied again: “If civilians starve, they will starve to death. If a king only cares about
his own survival, no one will treat him like a king. Maybe it truly is my fate. You
don’t have to say another word.” Ziwei stepped back, bowed to the north, and said:
“Congratulations, your Highness. Heaven is high above, but still hears everything.
Your Highness made kingly statements three times. Heaven will reward your
Highness three times. Tonight Mars will move three she (thirty miles) and your
Highness will get another twenty-one years of life.” Emperor Jinggong asks: “How
do you know that?” Ziwei replies: “Your Highness has three merits, so Heaven will
give your Highness three rewards, and Mars will move three times. The kingly
statements make Heaven remove seven stars. One star represents one year. Three
times seven equals twenty-one. So Your Highness gets to live for another
twenty-one years.” Later that night, Mars really moved three she, and Emperor
Jinggong really got twenty-one more years. Yet, Wang Ch’ung disagrees, and says
that if Mars really moved for the kingly statements of Emperor Jinggong, would it
still surround Antares if Emperor Jinggong made three abusive statements? Three
abusive statements cannot make Mars re-surround Antares, how can three kingly
statements make Mars move three she? If Emperor Jinggong got another
twenty-one years of life due to three kingly statements, would he got another
thousand years of life for hundreds of kingly statements? In fact, the movement of
Mars and the twenty-one more years of life are not blessings of Heaven, but are
preordained by the fate of Song and Emperor Jinggong. As far as he is concerned,
Heaven is so high above that it cannot hear what Emperor Jinggong says. The form
of Heaven is Ch’i, which has no mouth and no eyes. How could it hear anything?
Wang Ch’ung further points out that if those who do good deeds will get more
years of life, and those who do evil things will die shortly after, why didn’t the most
morally corrupted kings ever, Jie and Zhou, You and Li, die earlier? Thus, blessings
or trouble are not brought about by one’s virtue. The books also recorded that when
Sun Shu’ao, chancellor of Chu was young, he saw a snake with two heads, so he
killed and buried it. Then he came back home, saw his mother, and cried. His
mother asked him why, and he answered: “It’s said that whoever sees a snake with
two heads will die. I just saw one, and fears that I might die and leave you, so I
7.3 Awaiting Fatalism 103

cried.” His mother asked: “Where is it now?” Sun Shu’ao replied: “I fear someone
else might see it, so I killed and buried it.” His mother said: “I hear Heaven rewards
those who do good deeds for others. You won’t die, for Heaven will reward you.”
As expected, Sun Shu’ao didn’t die, and made it to chancellor of Chu. Wang
Ch’ung explains that other people saw a snake with two heads won’t die, so the
survival of Sun Shu’ao is not because he buried it. Stones are created to be solid,
and orchids are created to be fragrant. The assertion that Sun Shu’ao is wise to bury
the snake denies the possibility that fate is preordained. In fact, whether man is rich,
poor, noble or humble is unrelated to his wisdom.
According to Wang Ch’ung, Heaven cannot give man blessings, wealth, health
or a long life. On the other hand, it cannot put man into trouble, either. Another
record in the books tells the following story. Zixia lost his son and his sight. When
Zengzi came to offer his condolence, Zixia cried bitterly: “God, I’m not guilty. Why
do you punish me?” Zengzi became angry: “How can you say you are not guilty? In
the past, we served Confucius together in the middle of Zhu River and Si River, and
then you moved here to live your remaining days. Your behavior made people in
this area question Confucius. This is your first sin. Your parents died, but you didn’t
notify other people. This is your second sin. Your son died, and you cried yourself
blind. This is your third sin. You tell me whether you are guilty or not?” Zixia threw
away the stick, and bowed: “It’s my fault. I live in solitude for too long.” Wang
Ch’ung disagrees and says: “Losing one’s sight is like losing one’s hearing. They
are not sins. Zixia’s son died, so he cried so much, had a stroke, and lost his sight.
It’s not the result of Heaven’s punishment.”
In a word, Wang Ch’ung claims that Heaven cannot reward or punish man, give
blessings or send troubles. So what happens to man is determined by fate and
fortune, not his behavior. In this sense, he emphasizes that one’s efforts and virtue
cannot change or influence his fate—a virtuous, talented and learned man is not
necessarily noble, while a not so virtuous, talented and learned man is not neces-
sarily humble. This is what we call “blessings to those without merits” and “dis-
asters to those without fault”. These two are the same in nature, and both controlled
by fate.
Wang Ch’ung emphasizes that if a man is preordained to be poor and humble, he
will “get into trouble” even after he becomes rich and noble; If a man is preordained
to be rich and noble, he will “receive blessings” even after he becomes poor and
humble. All these are beyond mankind’s control. Wang Ch’ung cites an example
that if one is destined to be poor, he will die shortly he gets rich, even though his
wealth is acquired by his own efforts; if one is destined to be humble, he will be
dismissed from his position shortly after he makes it to high official. Though he
earns his wealth and nobility through his own efforts, he do not have the fortune to
enjoy them, just like the volume of a container and the weight a man can lift—A
container can hold one liter and one liter only, or the liquid will spill; A man can lift
one jun (fifteen kilogram) and one jun only, or he will fall. This suggests that man
has no control over fate, so any attempt to change fate is of no avail.
104 7 Natural Fatalism

7.3.2 Sacrifice and Divination Are Unrelated to Fate

Wang Ch’ung not only denies the possibility that man’s morality can change fate,
but opposes the attempt to change fate by means of sacrifice, divination, etc. He
writes chapters like Relief to specially elaborate on this matter.
Sacrifice is to offer things like food, livestock and jade to ghost and spirit among
Heaven and earth, and pray for blessings. Wang Ch’ung points out that Heaven is
the light of the sun, the moon and the stars. Formed by Ch’i, Heaven and earth have
no mouth and no eyes, so how can they enjoy the sacrifice? Man is formed by Ch’i.
After man dies, his spirit dissipates. The essential Ch’i that constitutes the spirit is
light and goes straight to Heaven, while the foul Ch’i that constitutes the body is
heavy and descends to earth. This suggests that ghost doesn’t exist. Even if ghost
and spirit are able to perceive the mortal world and eat, they should not eat at all or
eat something different, just like those who wish to become immortal through
cultivation. Now, man simply sacrifices what he eats and what he likes, which is
unacceptable to ghost and spirit. If Heaven do not accepts the sacrifice and has
nothing to ask for, it won’t do man any good or bad. As a matter of fact, the reason
why man has blessing and misfortune is that man has the feelings of happiness and
anger; That man wants something and obtains it, renders man happy and is called
blessing; That man wants something but cannot obtain it, renders man angry and is
called misfortune. Ghost and spirit do not have the feelings of happiness or anger,
so even if man frequently sacrifices to them, they won’t feel anything. How could
they bring blessing and misfortune to man, then? Based on the above analysis,
Wang Ch’ung concludes: “All men under Heaven are fated to be noble or humble,
fortunate or unfortunate, short-lived or long-lived. Sacrifice cannot bring blessing,
and blessing is not brought by sacrifice.”
Wang Ch’ung further points out that divination, like sacrifice, cannot help man
seek blessing or avoid disasters. It’s supposed to see through Heaven’s revelation
with turtle shell and milfoil, and thus foretell man’s fortune. He explains that
divination is to ask Heaven whether man is fortunate or not, and yet it’s impossible
for man to communicate with Heaven, mainly for three reasons: The first, Heaven
has no ears or mouth. Wang Ch’ung believes that communication requires ears and
mouth, so where is the ears and mouth of Heaven? If man has no idea, how could he
ask Heaven any questions? Take the communication between men as an example. If
something is not said close to one’s ears, it won’t be heard, and if one cannot hear
anything, he cannot reply. Similarly, man does not know where Heaven’s ears and
mouth are, so he is unable to ask any questions, and Heaven is unable to reply with
anything. The second, Heaven is high above. Wang Ch’ung points out that even if
Heaven has ears and mouth, it cannot hear what man says, just as man in the attic
looks at the ants on the ground and sees nothing. Ants are too small to make
themselves seen. The third, Heaven and man have different languages. Wang
Ch’ung believes that Heaven and man not only have different forms, but speak
different languages, so they cannot communicate with each other. Men of different
nations have language barrier. For example, when men of siyi set foot on the land of
7.3 Awaiting Fatalism 105

Huaxia, they could only understand each other with the help of translators, so did
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Besides, Heaven and man have different
forms, how could Heaven possibly know what man says? Therefore, “Man does not
know what Heaven does, how could Heaven know what man does? Heaven is so
high above that it cannot hear what man says; The Ch’i of Heaven is like cloud and
mist, so how could it understand what man says?” Thus, Wang Ch’ung completely
denies the possibility that Heaven foretells man’s fortune, and claims that Tao of
Heaven is natural and acts not. Heaven cannot speak or hear, let alone offer rewards
and punishment.
What’s more, an augur normally uses turtle shells and milfoil to predict one’s
fortune. Wang Ch’ung points out that turtle shells and milfoil are all dead things
and cannot predict anything. People alive can only answer questions of the living,
not the dead. Yet, an augur uses shells of dead turtle and stems of withering milfoil
to inquire of living Heaven. How could he get what he wants?
In a word, Wang Ch’ung believes that sacrifice and divination are the same as
benevolence and diligence, and cannot change man’s fate. Those who stick to the
rules and do good deeds are not necessarily blessed, while those who remain
cautious every step along the way cannot avoid disasters. Since man’s fate is
beyond his control and determined by fortune, man needn’t fight against fate, but
follow each of Heaven’s arrangement.

7.4 Cognitive Fatalism

Wang Ch’ung believes if man follows Heaven’s arrangements, he has to know what
that arrangement is, which is, in fact, not that hard, with the aid of proper means. He
says: “People say it’s hard. But it’s not. How? Observing physical structures.”
Wang Ch’ung predicts one’s fate with physical structures, which is known as
physiognomy. It’s a method of foretelling one’s fate by observing his physical
structures, such as bones, appearance, and body type. According to him, “Man’s
fate is preordained by Heaven, but some sighs are revealed by his physical struc-
ture. Those who observe these sighs will know their fate, just as those who observe
a bucket will know the volume.” As to the signs, Wang Ch’ung explains that:
“Signs are what physiognomy is all about.” Signs are the embodiments of phys-
iognomy. The reason why physiognomy helps predict fate is that: Man is created by
original Ch’i, and his fate is determined thereafter; Different Ch’i creates different
physical structures. Therefore, observing one’s physical structure helps predict his
preordained fate. Thus, Wang Ch’ung claims: “Man receives Ch’i from Heaven,
and takes shape on earth. Observe his shape on earth and you will know the true
fate of him.”According to him, this approach is like knowing the difference of
plates and vessels by observing their shapes. Based on this notion, Wang Ch’ung
writes physiognomy specially to elaborate on how he foretells fate by observing
physical structures, namely, his physiognomy.
106 7 Natural Fatalism

7.4.1 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Fate

Wang Ch’ung believes man is born with signs, signs of his fate, and indicators of his
wealth, standing, fortune, and lifespan. Man’s lifespan is determined by original Ch’i
given at birth. Different men receive different Ch’i and thus have different physical
structures. Therefore, man’s lifespan could be told by observing physiognomy. In
this sense, he says: “Therefore, man’s lifespan is determined by Heaven, but
physiognomy reveals some hints in physical structure.” He further emphasizes that
physiognomy not only tells man’s lifespan, but whether he is rich and noble or poor
and humble. For example, the physical form and structure of the rich and noble
varies, and yet they have one thing in common: they are “of a kind and with the same
Ch’i. Character and physical form supplement each other, and thus shows some
resemblance.” These people all receive fate of nobility from Heaven, and have good
fortune on earth, so their physiognomy is the same. “The signs of fate differ, some in
the shapes of man or other things, some in auspicious omen, and some in light and
aura.” He further points out that sages, generals and ministers in ancient times have
unique physical structures, which signify their wealth and nobility. For example,
Huang-di has bulging brow ridges like that of a dragon; Yao has special eyebrows
with eight colors; Shun has an eye of two pupils; Yu has cochleae with three holes;
Tang of Shang has arms with two elbows; King Wu has eyes on his head, so he sees
the sun above without raising his head; Confucius has a head like an upside-down
roof, high in the rim and low in the middle.

7.4.2 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Morality

Wang Ch’ung believes fate determines man’s wealth, standing and lifespan, while
character determines man’s morality. Character has its signs just like fate, so a
man’s character can be told by his physical structures and appearance. For example,
Fan Li learnt by the long-neck-and-pointed-mouth appearance of King Goujian of
Yue that he only befriended others in trouble, not in victory, so he fled to Qi shortly
after. Then, as expected, Wenzhong, another official was killed by King Goujian.
The luck of Fan Li and the misfortune of Wen Zhong confirm that physiognomy
foretells man’s morality, and verify Wei Liao’s prediction that Qin Shi Huang “is
ambitious and ruthless, treats others with respect when he is poor and humble, but
will despise others after he seizes power” according to his “Roman nose, long eyes,
prominent chest and voice of a wolf”.

7.4.3 Physiognomy Foretells Man’s Marriage

Wang Ch’ung emphasizes that only people with identical fate could marry each
other. If a rich and noble man marries a noble and rich woman, their baby must be
7.4 Cognitive Fatalism 107

rich and noble. If the man and woman are of different kinds and have varied fate,
the man is doomed to die first. He cites the marriage of Minister Huang Cigong as
an example, and that of Wang Zhengjun, aunt of Wang Mang, as a counter-
example, to verify and illustrate his point.
Wang Zhengjun was destined to be queen, and yet she married a man who was
not fated to be king, so her fiancé must die, even before they got married.
Afterwards, she married King of Zhao, and he died too. In the end, she turned to
Nangong Dayou, who practiced physiognomy and said she was preordained to be
queen. Later, she was married to Prince Liu Shuang. After King Xuan died, Liu
Shuang became king, and Wang Zhengjun became queen. It suggests that if people
with different fates get married, one with noble fate will sentence the other to death.
The former two husbands of Wang Zhengjun don’t understand that people with
identical fate could get married. Wang is destined to be queen, but they are not fated
to be king, so they die. Then, Wang Ch’ung cites the example of Huang Cigong to
explain the role of physiognomy in marriage from another aspect. Once, Huang
Cigong was in a carriage with a man expert at physiognomy, and saw a seventeen-
or eighteen- year-old girl. The man said this girl was destined to be rich and noble,
and married to high officials. Huang Cigong stopped the carriage, and gazed at the
girl. After knowing she is a daughter of the Wus, he married her. Later, Huang
Cigong became rich and noble, and made it to the minister. If Huang Cigong is
fated to be humble, he would die like the former two husbands of Wang Zhengjun.
In a word, Wang Ch’ung believes man’s lifespan could be foretold by phys-
iognomy and texture of one’s skin, which turns out to be true in every case. He
gives many examples to prove his point.
Wang Ch’ung firmly believes in physiognomy. He says the reason why someone
makes wrong judgment is that he do not understand “the phase lies in the inside, on
the outside, in the physical form, or in the voice and tone”, so they don’t grasp the
fundamentals of physiognomy—“observing the outside and neglecting the inside,
focusing on the physical form and ignoring voice and tone”. Physiognomy, if
practiced correctly, could foretell man’s fate, so man is able to follow Heaven’s
arrangement.
Natural Fatalism explains that man’s life-span, wealth, and standing is given at
birth, which is partially reasonable and partially arbitrary. Bioscience and genetics
prove that the twenty-three pairs of chromosomes have taken shape when man is
still in the womb. Man’s body, appearance and intelligence are directly related to
chromosomes. As to physique and lifespan, many diseases are genetically deter-
mined. Those with fine physique more probably live longer, while those with poor
physique more probably die earlier. Mental diseases are also genetically deter-
mined. Emotional intelligence is not shaped by mere social environment, but clo-
sely related to genetics; those with cheerful mentality are more likely to succeed,
while those with poor mentality are more likely to fail. In this sense, man’s fate is
determined at the very beginning, which justifies Wang Ch’ung’s point of view.
Yet, why someone has bad genes, while others have better ones? Apart from
variation, inheritance is a crucial reason. Therefore, except for accidental factors
like variation, man’s inborn quality is mainly determined by genetics. Wang
108 7 Natural Fatalism

Ch’ung abandons the inevitable factor of pre-given Ch’i, and regards it as com-
pletely accidental, which is obviously one-sided. Moreover, inborn quality makes
longevity and success possible, not certain. As health and longevity require
pre-given genes as well as constant care, success and wealth require sweat and
efforts. In this sense, only sincerity creates true heroes, for no one could easily
succeed. If one gives up and stops fighting, he won’t be favored by Heaven, or any
chance of success. However, Wang Ch’ung considers wealth and standing as
pre-ordained fortune, which is obviously one-sided.
As to how man’s fate is pre-ordained, Original-Ch’i Naturalism explains:
Naturally. To be specific, Ch’i can be classified as vigorous and weak, noble and
humble, thick and thin, pure and chaotic, so man’s fate differs in longevity, standing
and wealth. Whatever kind of Ch’i man is given determines his fate and whatever
chance he will encounter in his life. This theory denies the myth that man’s fate is
given by Heaven (Heaven with will or morality, not Heaven in nature) or God and
the interaction between man and Heaven, and attempts to reveal man’s fate from
man’s physical structures.
Natural Fatalism claims that the pre-ordained fate is reflected in the opportunity
and misfortune man experiences in life. All the opportunities, damages and mis-
fortune come naturally and unexpectedly, for there is no god or any other things
forcing it to happen. A giant tree is in full blossom. When a strong wind blows,
some petals drop into the river and get swept away by water, some fall on the
ground, some float into the toilet, and some fly into the hall of a wealthy family. In
fact, man’s life is similar to that of the petals: some become rich and noble, while
some never have his dream come true and remain depressed all his life, which is
purely accidental. Moreover, unexpected natural calamities and man-made mis-
fortunes will change the life of thousands of people, and increase the contingency in
man’s life. Wang Ch’ung pays special attention to the influence of accidental
incidents on man’s fate, which is reflected in his emphasis on fortune and mis-
fortune, opportunity and crisis, etc. With the development of technology and the
progress of human civilization, a man strides forward from the realm of necessity to
the realm of freedom, and becomes increasingly adept at controlling his life. Apart
from natural disasters like drought, flood, snow slide, earthquake, collapse of the
buildings and cancer, man-made misfortunes such as nuclear explosion and air
crash bring about more and more unexpected disasters. In this sense, man can never
get rid of accidental incidents and escape the influence of chances. In this respect,
many arguments of Natural Fatalism are of profound significance.
Natural Fatalism claims that all beings with life including man, plants and
animals have fate. Similar to man, the fates of plants and animals are also reflected
in opportunities and crises. Unlike to plants and animals, man’s fate could be
divided into that of the country and that of the individual, with the former deter-
mining the latter. This reveals the sociality of man, and the close interrelationship
between man’s fate and society, community, country, and others, and demonstrates
the complexity and diversity of man’s fate. That the country is prosperous, then
people live in peace, and that the country is ruined, then people starve are common
sense. Fate of the individual depends on the fate of the country. Without the country
7.4 Cognitive Fatalism 109

and nation, there’s no future for the individuals. Besides, opportunities and mis-
fortunes mentioned in Natural Fatalism rely on the preference of the other party,
such as the king; Apart from accidental changes in nature, damages also include
false charges, slander, and set-up from others. This suggests that man’s sociality
determines man’s fate, and reveals the interplay between their fates. The discussion
in Natural Fatalism about the relation between the fate of the country and that of the
individual presents a new topic never mentioned before in Chinese fate theory,
coordinates man’s universality with individuality, and highlights man’s social
existence.
Generally, Natural Fatalism considers all the circumstances an individual
experiences, even trivialities and accidents, as pre-ordained. Those who are blessed
will obtain what they want without efforts; those who are doomed won’t escape
from their fate. All these are inevitable. As to fate, man can do nothing but follow
Heaven’s arrangement. Basically, Natural Fatalism tells man to wait for what’s
coming to them, and accept their fate, which is proved by Wang Ch’ung’s attempt
to predict man’s fate by physiognomy, which is to better understand fate and follow
Heaven’s will, not to change or control fate.
In mode of thinking, Natural Fatalism attempts to grasp man’s fate through the
double chains of accidentality and inevitability. Man is created from the original
Ch’i, so man’s fate is, without doubt, determined by the original Ch’i. Those with
noble Ch’i will become noble, those with humble Ch’i will become humble, those
with thick Ch’i will live a long life, and those with thin Ch’i will die earlier, which
is also without doubt. However, if all men receive original Ch’i at the very
beginning, why does some receive noble Ch’i, some receive humble Ch’i, some
receive thick Ch’i, and some receive thin Ch’i? There are no established rules or
regulations. All things happen by chance. In real life, opportunities, crises and
damages are unrelated to intelligence and morality, and human efforts have nothing
to do with one’s fate. All these happen by chance, too. In general, Natural Fatalism
exaggerates the accidentality and weakens inevitability. The latter signifies order
and certainty, while the former signifies circulation and uncertainty. The emphasis
on accidentality leads to the mysterious consequence that fate will be regarded as
incomprehensible and uncontrollable, and to Awaiting Fatalism in the end.
Chapter 8
Subjection to Destiny

If Heaven can’t give birth to matter or man, where does man come from? If man isn’t
from above, how does his destiny unfurl? Subjection to Destiny expounds on these
issues and man’s destiny. According to Subjection to Destiny, Heaven and Earth is
the general name of Mother Nature, and can’t give birth to matter or man. Like
matter, man comes into existence under the force of nature, without noumenon or
dominant entities. Man and matter come into being as the result of natural principles,
without any difference in size, self, origin and appearance. Man is born and dies
according to the law of nature, making the joy of having a baby or the sadness of man
dying unnecessary. Every case of loss or gain takes place according to the law of
nature. As long as one doesn’t become emotionally attached, everything will follow
its natural course and everyone will live a carefree life. In the history of Chinese
philosophy, the representative scholar of Subjection to Destiny is Guo Xiang.

8.1 Individualization

Guo Xiang is famous for his Zhuang Zi with Annotations, whose title shows his
ideological proximity with Zhuang Zi. As a metaphysician, Guo inherited Zhuang
Zi’s Taoist advocacy for nature and non-interference by humans, while renouncing
the Taoist view that the Way of Nature is the essence of the world and gives birth to
everything. Based on this, Guo pointed out that Way of Nature could not give birth
to anything, like Heaven or Earth. Everything comes from Nature and follows the
course of Nature, with no noumenon. This is the theory of individualization.

8.1.1 Neither Heaven nor Earth Can Give Birth to Anything

According to Guo’s assertion, neither Heaven nor Earth as physical entities can give
birth to anything, unlike the amorphous Way of Nature. Heaven and Earth have
112 8 Subjection to Destiny

existed for aeons due to their non-interference in Nature. In this regard, Guo said
that because Heaven and Earth never interfere their existence is timeless, or a time
for rest is sure to come. Heaven and Earth follow the course of nature by
non-interference and ignorance.
Guo added that Heaven and Earth are all-encompassing and embody the general
nature of everything in the universe. Therefore, Heaven and Earth must rely on
ordinary items and follow the course of nature or non-interference. Eagles fly high,
swallows can live on the wall of a house, the wood made of toon can exist for a
long time, and bacteria live short lives, all because the law of nature cannot be
altered by interference. Non-interference lead to natural existence and such is the
correct way of nature. Therefore, following the course of nature is the right way to
ensure the growth and development of everything. To seize the six factors in nature
is a good way to safely stay the course amidst change. In the eyes of Guo Xiang,
Heaven and Earth is the general name and environment of everything. It cannot be
dependent from everything and exist on its own. Regarding this, he said, “Heaven
and Earth have no physical entity, like the sigh or breath of man which exists on its
own.”1 Regarding this, Guo makes the following analogy: “Heaven and Earth exist
like the sound of nature, the latter of which is not a concrete physical existence but
the beating or clashing of bamboos’ cavity. The sound of nature is so-called
because it comes from nature and non-interference by man. Since Heaven can’t
exist on its own, how can it give birth to everything?”

8.1.2 Individualization of Everything’s Self-existence

Guo denied the claim that Heaven, Earth, and the Way of Nature can create matter.
Then where does everything in the universe come from? How was everything
created? In Guo’s view, everything is born by nature in different ways. Matters on
the Earth are diverse and each may take on a distinctive look and timeline. Such
strange combinations seem to be controlled, but if we try to trace the source of the
control we find it doesn’t exist. This means that everything is born out of natural
forces and free from interference. Guo added that everything exists for a reason,
which is traceable and traces back to deeper reasons. If this goes on infinitely, the
emerging conclusion is that everything is free from interference and comes from
individualization, without any ultimate cause. This is to say that all things interact
with each other and are mutually causative. Such interaction makes it impossible to
trace the ultimate cause. Moreover, one thing can be influenced by one thing and be
the influence of another thing, as a result of the Way of Nature. It can be seen that
Heaven, Earth and everything in between exists on its own and is free from external
interference. The law of nature boasts pervasive influence.

1
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
8.1 Individualization 113

Based on this understanding, Guo came to the following conclusion: everything


comes into being without any cause or obligation, lives on its own and becomes an
individual entity. He exemplified his point with the analogy of shadow and the light
shade on its periphery. It’s universally known that shade on the periphery of sha-
dow comes from an entity exposed to light, and the entity has a physical form,
which must be borne out of natural cause. Is there a creator of such physical
entities? If there is no creator, there is no physical entity; if there is a creator, it
cannot endow everything with physical forms. Hence the conclusion: there is no
creator, and everything is borne out of natural causes.
From the perspective of individualization, Guo rejected the ideas regarding
existence, non-existence, Heaven and Earth with physical boundaries, or the Way
of Nature free from physical boundary, as the essence of the universe or the
dominant force of everything. Guo believed that everything comes out of natural
causes and is free from interference.2 Starting from the belief that everything has no
noumenon and is borne out of natural causes, Guo added that what drives the
change of Heaven and Earth is a formless force, and that the birth, death and change
of everything on Earth follows the course of nature. It means that everything is
engulfed in a web of constant and subtle change, where death and birth are free
from external causes and obey the law of nature.3 Guo believed that the change of
everything may be explicit or implicit, hence the coexistence of death and birth. In
fact, there is no portal connecting death and birth, which still stands as a truth after
ultimate exploration. If there is such a portal, where is it? The only rational
explanation is that people regard non-existence as the portal and everything goes in
and out of existence, meaning the portal doesn’t exist and that there’s no ingress or
egress. Everything acts in accordance with natural causes.
Individualization explains the source of everything, and determines the pre-
condition of man’s destiny from the perspective of noumenon. This theory explains
the causative relationship between everything in the universe, magnifies this rela-
tionship, and eventually owes the birth, death and change of everything to the
unalterable force of nature. This negates the authority of deities and God, and
plunges man into an abyss of confusion.

8.2 Inherent Attributes

Based on Individualization, Guo proposed the idea of Inherent Attributes. Guo


believed that the difference between all things in the universe are driven not by
deities but by natural causes. It’s a shared truth that everything comes out of natural

2
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Ze-Yang with Annotations.
3
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Geng Sangchu with Annotations.
114 8 Subjection to Destiny

causes. In this regard, Guo said, “Everything is different in its unique way”,4 which
means that everything in the world exists for a reason and is different in nature,
corresponding to another one of Guo’s sayings: “Everything makes sense and has a
sound cause for existence.”5 Based on the idea that everything is borne out of
nature, Guo asserted that everything has an inherent attribute. “Everything has an
inherent attribute related to its very essence”, “Everything has an essence with a
logical and rational cause.”6 Then, what is the essence of everything? The essence
that Guo referred to is inherent attributes endowed by nature. According to Guo
Xiang, everything has inherent attributes, which are different and lead to different
abilities and limits of every individual existence. The limit and ability of each
individual has been predetermined. Take weight-lifting as an example: If it is in
your genes to excel at this sport, even a heavy load of weight will not make you
sweat or tire you out. If it is not in your genes, even a normal load weight will serve
to crush you flat on the floor. This means that everything has inherent attributes,
which may make something easier if it is your forte and less so if it is beyond your
ability. In the words of Guo Xiang, “The inherent attributes of everything are
diverse. If they are sufficient, the whole world will benefit.”7
Based on the above understanding, Guo said that everything has sufficient
inherent attributes, which may be properly utilized to lead a carefree and pleasant
life. For instance, the different lengths of two wind instruments lead to different
sound delivery. Despite such difference in tone, length and vocality, each wind
instrument is properly used to its utmost. One cannot tell which is better for
accompaniment. Similarly, as long as one knows its place and uses its talent to the
utmost, an eagle isn’t necessarily superior to a tiny bird.
In Guo’s view, if inherent attributes are given full play, all things can be good
and beneficial; if not, everything can be reduced to mediocrity and even evil. The
effort to distinguish big from small, long from short, life from death, beautiful from
ugly, right from wrong, dream from reality, is superfluous. Moreover, such effort
proves futile, stupid and brings endless trouble and harm to life.
Firstly, the distinction between Heaven and human.
Individualization shows that everything, man included, comes from individu-
alization and is free from noumenon, which negates the view that Heaven gives
birth to human and the possibility of imbalance between human and Heaven.
Moreover, Guo referred to the uniformity of attributes between Heaven and human,
both borne out of nature, or “Both Heaven and human come from nature.”8 In this

4
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
5
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
6
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
7
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Free and Easy Wandering with Annotations.
8
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
8.2 Inherent Attributes 115

sense, Heaven and human have their distinctive and inherent natures, and are but
one. Based on this, Guo proceeded to claim that no distinction shall be made
between Heaven and human, nor there any ranking of superiority. Human and
Heaven are but one.
Secondly, the distinction between short and long, between many and little.
Guo Xiang believed the adequacy of everything in the universe is borne out of
and follows natural courses. Judgment shall come from nature, not from any
external criteria. Do not compete or compare in terms of physical attributes. A crane
has long legs while a duck has short legs, both of which are the manifestations of
their compliance with natural courses. Given this, it’s not necessary to cut short
what is long or lengthen what is short. In this sense, there is no distinction between
long and short, nor should people care about such distinction. The same is true of
many and little, as there is no specific demarcation between them and both
adjectives are relative terms. Many is not many and little is not little if nature makes
it so. For instance, every man has five fingers on one hand, and a sixth finger will
not be considered callous or superfluous, not borne out of natural courses and cut
off, for this is not the right thing to do. In fact, both callosity and superfluity are
borne out of natural courses, not unwanted parts of the human body. Since the sixth
finger is borne out of natural courses, it is not superfluous.
Thirdly, the distinction between big and small.
Guo believed that everything exists for a reason, based on a set combination of
conditions. Moreover, “A well-endowed person cannot be reduced to mean exis-
tence, and a less-endowed person can’t not aim high.” The sizes of all things are
diverse and determined by nature, just like there is a unique reason for the existence
of all things. Viewed from this perspective, it’s impossible to distinguish benefits
conferred by difference in size. In the same fashion, a large animal and a small one
(like an eagle and a cicada) possess their respective natural attributes, which lead to
their difference and their compliance with nature. The two animals above are dif-
ferent due to nature, not conscious distortion of natural traits. Though they are
vastly different in size, they can find their own niches and live free lives as long as
they live out their nature. There’s no need to say which one is the better of the two.
In Guo’s view, size is determined by gene and difference between species. The
problem is that the physically big regard a smaller size as appropriate and the
physically small regard a larger size as sufficient, an idea later dismissed as obtuse
by Guo. The size of everything is predetermined, making envy or jealousy futile.
According to Guo, a hundred rivers can’t compare with an ocean and a hundred
oceans can’t compare with Heaven. We can’t say that Heaven and Earth are big and
an ocean is small, like we can’t say an ocean is big and a hundred rivers are small.
This is because everything has its predetermined capacity and size. Those with a big
size or capacity have enough for their use, and those with a small size or capacity
have nothing superfluous in their physical entities. If our deduction proceeds in this
fashion, all things having enough for their own use shall have an appropriate name,
like the tip of a feather and the top of a towering mountain; everything having
nothing superfluous in its physical entity also shall have an appropriate name, like
Heaven, Earth and rice. Guo believed this to be the only correct way to examine
116 8 Subjection to Destiny

everything and difference, or the negligence of tiny difference will lead to difficulty
in observation.9 If we observe everything in this fashion, nothing is absolutely big
or small, and people won’t care about the difference in size.
Fourthly, the distinction between ego and others.
Guo said that all things under Heaven are related to one another, interchangeable
and unstable. For instance, I am myself to me, but another person to others; I may
see a problem in one way, and others may see it in another way. We complement
each other. In the meantime, “All things know themselves individually and have
little knowledge of others, which is not an ultimate sign of success. Therefore,
saints don’t flaunt their traits to outshine others.”10 In fact, ego and others are
closely related each other, like two lips and teeth. What others do may help one
individual. Therefore, there is no fixed limit to ego and other, as they are mutually
inclusive and dependent. Based on such an understanding, Guo called for people to
go beyond the difference between ego and other, and make both concepts invisible.
Guo said, “Everything is self-sufficient, and there is no distinction between right
and wrong. All things depend on each other, and there is no distinction between ego
and others. If the two distinctions are gone, there is no definition of wrong and
other, and this leads to a world of similarity and commonality.”11
Fifthly, the distinction between right and wrong.
Guo said, “All things are borne out of natural courses, and are therefore natural
in their own existence. Everything is different, so nothing can be the absolute
yardstick for measurement, which means there is no right or wrong.”12 This sen-
tence means that everything has a reasonable side and an unreasonable side, plus a
right side and a wrong side. On the one hand, everything comes from individual-
ization and nature determines its sole property as reasonable; on the other hand,
everything is different and therefore nothing is always right. This means that right
and wrong are relative terms. Different perspectives lead to different judgment, and
there is nothing absolutely right or wrong. The distinction between right or wrong
comes from subjective judgment. The judgment of right or wrong stems that from
man’s receptivity to sameness and rejection of difference. Based on such an
understanding, Guo said, “Everyone deems right what is similar and wrong what is
different… However, nothing has fixed properties, and I can’t be right all the time.
The judgment of right or wrong is never fixed. What I deem right may, in others’
view, prove wrong. This means I don’t see what others see. Therefore, the obser-
vation of the Way of Nature will lead to little subjective misjudgment. Make sober
and unbiased judgment, treat the similar and the different alike.”13 According to

9
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Autumn Floods with Annotations.
10
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
11
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
12
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Autumn Floods with Annotations.
13
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Autumn Floods with Annotations.
8.2 Inherent Attributes 117

Guo Xiang, the judgment of right or wrong can go on forever. If only the right is
allowed to survive, the world will be devoid of what is wrong; if what is wrong is
deemed right, there will be nothing right. If so, it is a world of solely right or a
world of solely wrong. In his view, the best way to resolve the challenging dis-
tinction is to follow the course of nature and make no contrived distinction.
Sixthly, the distinction between beautiful and ugly, between different and same,
between virtue and vice, between important and insignificant, between dream and
reality.
Guo believed that nothing under Heaven requires distinction, such as that in
length, size, quantity, ego, beauty, difference, value, virtue and aspiration.
Moreover, importance and insignificance are relative and not absolute, depending
on man’s needs. If one thing is needed badly, it is important; if not, it is
insignificant. It means that the value of something is dependent on man’s needs,
which is not related to the thing in question. Based on this, Guo said, “Nothing is
important or insignificant, and the value of everything depends on needs.”
In the eyes of Guo Xiang, virtue and vice are relative terms. One thing may look
virtuous one way but malevolent in another. In the case of benevolence and
malevolence, benevolence is considered an act of virtue, which is why many people
their sacrifice lives for it. But for life itself, it is not an act of benevolence. If you
can’t treat your body with benevolence, why talk about benevolence to others?
As to the relativity between dream and reality, Guo asks of a dreamer dreams
that he is dreaming: Which is the dream? The dream of the dreamer or the dreamer
dreams himself dreaming. There may even be cases of dreams within dreams,
which are not different from the sober state in which he knows he had a dream after
waking up. We can see that dream and reality are relative and not essentially
different.
Guo said that the distinction between beauty and ugliness is the most
talked-about topic among people. Though beauty is a different notion in different
people, everyone sees beauty in what he considers beautiful. Since everyone looks
at something as a form of beauty, everything is beautiful.
At this point, Guo Xiang proceeded from ubiquitous beauty to ubiquitous
rightness, and clarifies his interpretation of Inherent Attributes with the following
sayings—“Treat difference as a natural, ubiquitous phenomenon” and “Treat
sameness as a natural, ubiquitous phenomenon”, and also that everything is dif-
ferent and the same. Furthermore, from the perspective of Inherent Attributes, Guo
believed that everything is free from mundane definitions like size and longevity,
and everything should follow its natural course and not be subjected to competition,
envy or admiration.
Guo’s take on Inherent Attributes manifests the inherent nature of everything,
and advocates the respect for natural attributes as well as individuality. At the same
time, he magnified the relative difference between everything and regarded every
difference as free from reason or distinction. This relativistic ideology is a pre-
condition and foundation of Guo’s further elaboration on destiny.
118 8 Subjection to Destiny

8.3 Man and Destiny

According to Guo Xiang, Individualization and Inherent Attributes explain the


origin and mutual relationship of all things, describe the world as it is, and elaborate
man’s destiny in the universe. Moreover, his discussio of the source of man and
everything is to offers a metaphysical picture of man’s living status. In this sense
and from the perspective of Individualization and Inherent Attributes, Guo dis-
cussed the issue of man’s birth, death and destiny, and proposed a systematic
system of destiny philosophy.

8.3.1 Man’s Living Status

Guo believed that everything, including man, is not borne out of the Way of Nature,
Heaven or Earth, nothingness or existence. Man is borne out of individualization. In
this sense, he said emphatically, “Giving birth to everything is difficult, which
comes only from individualization as a natural phenomenon.”14 Guo’s idea that
man comes from individualization refers to the belief that the birth of man is a
purely natural process, free from the manipulation or domination of any celestial
deity, noumenon or artificial effort. Based on this knowledge, Guo explored man’s
living status.
Firstly, life and death happen by the convergence of qi.
Guo believed that time never stops its procession and that all things are in a state
of constant movement and change. The mode of change, however, cannot be
understood, since it can be man or an object. If it is man, what is the reason? It is the
work of nature. Moreover, man comes into existence, has four limbs, five sensory
organs and several bones/bone structures, not due to Heaven, Earth, Way of Nature
or your will, but by following the course of nature. Similarly, nothing in man’s life
can be maneuvered, and even your body doesn’t belong to you. The reason is
simple: if your body belongs to you, you should be able to determine its physical
beauty and longevity, which is the opposite of the truth. Just as you can’t reject the
accumulation of qi to form your physical being, the dissipation of qi, resulting in
your death, cannot be stopped. It is for this reason that your body and life comes
from qi accumulation and dissipation, which is the natural transformation of qi and
not your business. This means that the birth of man and other living creatures is not
the outcome of interference, but the result of individualization. Viewed from the
perspective of the changing universe, man isn’t the result of human transformation,
but one of the million transformations. Since man comes from qi accumulation and
all one seems between qi accumulation and dissipation is man, how can one say that
man is a happy living creature and the rest of the animal world is devoid of

14
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
8.3 Man and Destiny 119

happiness? If we cast aside man’s prejudice, we may realize that the birth and death
of man, in the vast ocean of the universe, is of ephemeral significance and duration.
What man used to be is not what he is now, hence the need to nourish his body and
continue his life, like the difference between fire before burning wood and after
burning wood, and using wood to continue the existence of fire.
Secondly, the difference between birth and death is like that between implicit-
ness and explicitness, and that between dream and reality.
According to Guo Xiang, death and birth are the accumulation and dissipation of
qi, making the two essentially similar. Concretely speaking, qi only accumulate or
dissipate, instead of disappearing. Therefore, the human body, born as qi accu-
mulates and deceased as qi dissipates, is not restrained by life or death; just like
everything else on Earth. The only thing that exists is the change of physical being,
between man and non-man. In this sense, birth and death are different only like
implicitness and explicitness, or dream and reality are different. The accumulation
and dissipation of qi and the mutual shift between existence and non-existence is
impossible. Once the physical being of man is formed, its transformation is endless,
between the form of man and other forms. When the physical being is gone, it is
death; when the physical being is formed, it is birth. The shift in between is like that
between dream and reality. When a man is dreaming, he thinks he is awake, without
realizing that being awake is not dreaming. In fact, life and death is relative, which
take different forms if viewed from different perspectives. For instance, the living
see life as life, the dead see life as death, and the dead see death as life. In this way,
“The change between life and death is like the change between four seasons.
Though life and death seem different, they are suitable as they follow the course of
nature.”15
Thirdly, the difference between life and death stems from nature.
Guo Xiang not only offered a philosophical account of life and death, but also
proved the consistency between life and death in essence as both are the result of qi
movement. The difference is compared to that between implicitness and explicit-
ness, and that between dream and reality, where distinction is difficult. Moreover,
Guo traced back to the source of difference between life and death, and said that it
came from nature, and the difference is enhanced by the preference of man.
Concretely speaking, people have to die in the end, so they treasure life. If people
take no preference for or aversion to life or death, the difference does not exist. In
Guo’s words, “People are emotionally attached to life as they will die in the end;
they dislike death, and therefore they treasure and enjoy life. The absence of
preference or aversion will lead to zero difference between life and death.”16 In his
opinion, the ultimate sadness of man is not the death of the human body, but the
death of the heart. If people see the heart’s death as death, they will be enslaved by

15
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
16
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
120 8 Subjection to Destiny

death and ensuing sorrow. This is the ultimate form of sadness. In this train of
thought, the heart should refrain from death if one wants to live a happy life, and the
best way to do so is to forget the difference between life and death and to forget
self-existence. Only in this way can one “forget self-existence, take no aversion to
death, and live a happy life wherever one goes. Once you have an open heart, take
action whenever an opportunity arises, and you can have an ample mind. You
should learn to adapt to any circumstances you are in, forget the chronological
sequence, and you can follow the Way of Nature.”17 In the eyes of Guo Xiang,
when you have the ability to adapt to any circumstances and forget the chrono-
logical sequence, you have blurred the line between life and death.
Fourthly, treat life and death as one.
Coming from the perspective that everything results from the movement of qi,
Guo Xiang believed that life and death are not diametrically different, and that life,
death and everything in between should be regarded with equal weight. In fact,
form, life, death, and aging are merely diverse manifestations of qi, which leads to
the realization that the living individual is a mere form of physical existence. In this
fashion, a kind person treats life and death equally and kindly. Moreover, since the
shift between life and death can’t be avoided, we should “treat life kindly without
blaming death.”18 Moreover, Guo said that people should not show excess delight
in life or undue sorrow in death, or avoid the unavoidable. Instead, people should
follow the course of nature, since getting too occupied with physical existence and
life is useless. To clarify the status of life, Guo proceeded to point out that the
duration of man’s life depends on the transient transformation of qi. Guo said,
“Man’s life is short like the time it takes a horse to run through its stable. Constancy
never lasts, change always ensues and never stops for a second.”19 As for the
transience of life, man’s existence is passive and helpless: when one is born, he
doesn’t know how it is before birth; when one is dead, he doesn’t know how it is
after death. “I’m borne out of natural courses”. Like it or not, the dead are engulfed
in death, and the living are embraced by life. Everything is in constant change, and
man can neither predict nor participate in it. Given this, people should have an open
mind to it, and see life and death as trivial and natural as night and day. Enjoy
daylight or nightly darkness as it may come your way, adapt to every circumstance
that presents itself, and live a natural and leisurely life.
In regards to achieving this ideal, Guo said, “Things change, just like peoples’
emotions.”20 Circumstances change, and so do peoples’ minds. This is how people
should look at life and death. When one is alive, he should enjoy every minute of
life; when one is dead, he should enjoy peace. In this way, life and death may look

17
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
18
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—The Sign of Virtue Complete with Annotations.
19
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Tian Zifang with Annotations.
20
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
8.3 Man and Destiny 121

different, but are essentially the same as both fulfill man’s wish. In fact, life and
death are like dream and reality. Nobody wants to be interrupted when in sleep. It is
the law of nature that man is bound to die, and nobody shall live in eternity. People
may betray the orders of parents, but never the order of life, the shift between day
and night, and that between yin and yang. With this in mind, why not follow the
course of nature and adapt to every circumstance that you may encounter?
In summary, man’s existence in the universe tells man to be open-minded about
life and death. “Change is the driving force of every human being, who should not
be bothered by life and death. The change of man’s physical features is the daily
renewing of man’s physical being, the last stage being death.”21 This will enable
man to go beyond geological, chronological and physical boundaries to be free
from death and be bound up with nature. Then, all worries and confusion related to
life and death can be resolved.

8.3.2 Life and Death, Fortune and Misfortune Are All


Written in One’s Destiny

Guo believed that everything in the universe, including man, comes from and dies
due to individualization. Individualization is the force of nature, free from divine
intervention or domination. Therefore, he said, “Man is born according to the Way
of Nature.”22 Everything is born in this way. Destiny is what determines the life of
man and everything in the universe. In this regard, Guo said that everything about
man may be seen accidental, but essentially inevitable. Everything happens or
exists for a certain reason, which means that everything is in the hand of destiny. To
be specific, everything in man’s life stems from destiny’s force, not pure coinci-
dence: Heaven and Earth are big, species abound, but I meet you at this place in this
moment, not anywhere else at any other time. This is destiny. The movement and
encounter of man are never constant, but change with the force of nature and
destiny. The governance or collapse, the rise or fall of a nation is not determined by
human effort, but follows the course of nature, which is destiny still. It can be seen
that every action and encounter that man has, like the rise or fall of a nation, is in
the hand of destiny.
Furthermore, Guo believed that since destiny stems from the movement of qi, it
is free from man’s ideological manipulation. Therefore, destiny is imposed on man,
and in essence a force majeure which cannot be altered by human effort. Destiny
cannot be changed by Heaven, Earth or state orders. In his own words, “Destiny is
the driving force of every change in man’s life, which is in force every day and

21
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
22
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—The Sign of Virtue Complete with Annotations.
122 8 Subjection to Destiny

night. It cannot be wiped out or stalled.”23 Therefore, when it comes to destiny, man
should “do what he is destined to do and not do what he is not destined to do.”24 On
this basis, Guo does not consider life subject to man’s ideology and coming from
natural courses. Guo proposed a natural attitude towards life with no conscious
desire to alter destiny.
Guo’s adherence to individualization offers a portal to clarify the status of man’s
life, and manifests destiny’s mandatory influence on man. These beliefs combined
with the idea of Inherent Attributes leads Guo to suggest that individuals dismantle
the distinction between life and death, and live without conscious desire to alter
destiny. One can attain a free life by subjecting oneself to destiny. This is Guo’s
attitude towards life and code of conduct, an inevitable result of individualization.
On this basis, he proposed a natural attitude towards life, featuring no conscious
desire to alter destiny.

8.4 Subjection to Destiny

Following the train of thought of Individualization and looking at man’s status of


living, Guo proposed a natural attitude towards life.

8.4.1 Freedom from Emotion

In the eyes of Guo Xiang, man is most likely to be restricted and affected by
emotion. To be specific, man may encounter all sorts of unimaginable disasters and
misfortune. If one understands all these to be natural and predestined, he can have a
peaceful mind and be free from remorse or regret. “A falling tile may fall and hit a
person, but he shall not blame it, for it is not an object of emotion.”25 This shows
that the cardinal principle to live in the world is to cast away preference, aversion,
sadness and delight, and be free from emotional restraints. The reasons are as
follows: firstly, preference and aversion cannot benefit man’s life, but may mar it,
making neither worthy; secondly, everything exists and disappears without any
effect of emotion. Since nobody is borne out of emotion, why should one invest so
much emotion in life? Third, sadness and delight, loss and gain, fortune and mis-
fortune are not borne out of emotion, and only with a heart free from emotional
bondage can one live a happy and carefree life. This means that one must subject
himself to destiny if he wants to be free from emotional bondage. This is Guo’s take
on human dealings free from emotion.

23
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—The Sign of Virtue Complete with Annotations.
24
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Ze-Yang with Annotations.
25
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Mastering Life with Annotations.
8.4 Subjection to Destiny 123

8.4.2 Freedom from Conscious Desire to Alter

According to Guo, everything in the universe is borne out of and follows natural
courses, free from emotional bondage. People walk and see without emotion at
work. Feeling without the bondage of emotion makes people capable of doing
things in a more natural manner. One’s ability or inability is not determined by
onself. Likewise, man is not borne out of emotional bondage. People once tried to
imbue Li Lou (an ancient Chinese with marvelous visual capacity) and Shi Kuang
(an ancient Chinese with marvelous audial capacity) with emotion, but failed. Both
became wise without emotional bondage. They are not the only cases in point;
anything or anyone with a certain strength or weakness in their physicality will lack
that strength or weakness if infused with emotion. Everything follows the course of
nature, which cannot be altered by either emotion or awareness. Based on this, Guo
suggests that people look at things with a humble attitude, or in his own words,
“Feel the world with your eyes and ears, not with heart, and invest yourself in such
feeling, and you will look at things with a humble attitude.”26 To look at things with
a humble attitude is to have no conscious desire to alter things, which is not doing
anything but letting things follow their natural course. Therefore, Guo added,
“Those who are capable of looking at things with a humble attitude can let things
take their natural courses, so spiders can spin their webs, and people can do their
jobs.”27 Here, Guo proposed maintaining the natural attributes of all things and
without letting conscious acts tamper with their natural qualities.
Based on this understanding, Guo said, “everything waves or swings, but short
of a desire to alter.”28 Neither waving nor swinging alters things’ natures as there is
no desire to alter. Only when individuals harbor no desire to alter can everything
live in infinity and eternity. Guo said, “Only when all things take their natural
course without forced awareness or emotion can everything live in infinity and
eternity.”29 On the contrary, if there is forced awareness or emotion at work, things
will deviate from nature and lose their natural status of living. In Guo’s opinion, the
world is inhabited by innumerable kinds of species, and some things are possible
while the rest are impossible. For instance, there are all sorts of musical sounds, but
a most dexterous and skillful orchestrator may leave out some notes; those who play
the flute or stringed instruments only want to highlight a handful of notes. So,
foregrounding some notes will leave out others, and sounds may show in their
entirety when the need to foreground some is left out. Therefore, one may expe-
rience something, enjoy something and travel several parts of the world. However,
he loses something to experience and enjoy, and will be unable to travel to certain
places. The need to foreground will lead to inevitable loss. Viewed from this

26
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—In the World of Man with Annotations.
27
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—The World with Annotations.
28
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Heaven and Earth with Annotations.
29
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
124 8 Subjection to Destiny

perspective, “A conscious desire deviates from the Way of Nature, and fore-
grounding may harm the overall balance.”30 Therefore, a sagacious man is seldom
driven by a conscious desire to alter.

8.4.3 Subjection to Destiny

Guo believed that an individual must subject himself to destiny if he does not want
to be driven by the conscious desire to alter. Subjection to destiny is the funda-
mental attitude and principle of Guo’s take on destiny, occupying a prominent place
in his philosophy of destiny. Guo delves deep into this topic and enriches it with his
ideas. Generally speaking, subjection to destiny refers to giving play to capability
and doing what one is born to do.
Firstly, give play to capability and make no contrived effort.
Guo believed that all things, man included, have their own distinct capabilities..
We should give full play to this endowed capability and make no contrived efforts.
Spiders and dung beetles look ugly, but their skills of web-knitting and ball-rolling
require great craftsmanship. Spiders and craftsmen have their respective, varied
skills, but they all knit webs. Guo said, “Those that excel at using talented people
can give full play to their talents. In this way, people can realize their value and live
contented lives, and the world is in a good place. If we give play to people’s talents,
the code of conduct may as well be abandoned and great craftsmanship will come
along.”31 In his view, giving play to one’s capability without making contrived
effort is subjection to destiny, which is to let things follow their natural course
without making any effort. This has a twofold meaning: First, Guo emphasizes that
subjection to destiny is to let everything take its natural course without making
contrived effort. “Talents or capabilities are utilized fully, everything is in a good
place, and nature reigns.”32 Broadly speaking, subjection to destiny is “to make
sure every individual assumes a certain role in society, and every animal lives on its
inherent capability.”33 Narrowly speaking, the individual’s subjection to destiny is
to not look beyond what the eyes can see, not listen beyond what the ears can hear,
not do what is beyond one’s capability, not know what is beyond one’s realm of
knowledge, and not possess what lies beyond one’s reach. Only in this way can all
beings have good vision, hearing, skill, connection and moral integrity. Take horse
riding as an example: A good rider knows a horse’s strength. A fast horse runs a
thousand miles while a slow one runs 300 miles, but you may ride a good horse or

30
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—First Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
31
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Rifling Trunks with Annotations.
32
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
33
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Free and Easy Wandering with Annotations.
8.4 Subjection to Destiny 125

drive a slow horse. In this way, “a horse’s capability can be suitably utilized, be it
slow or fast, to travel long distance.”34 On the contrary, if a rider overtaxes a
horse’s capability, it will most likely die of exhaustion. Guo emphasized that
subjection to destiny is inaction and abandoning one’s capability. Take horse-riding
as an example, subjection to destiny is not asking more than what a horse’s inherent
attributes can offer, instead of not using the horse at all.
Secondly, let all things take their natural course and do not interfere.
Guo said that subjection to destiny is to let everything take its natural course and
not interfere, which is to not interfere with man’s thoughts or actions. In his
opinion, letting everything take its natural course will allow all things to realize
their true value, and honor will go to everything; so people should not interfere. The
reasons are twofold: first, everything comes from individualization, and “charac-
teristics of everything are borne out of natural courses and cannot be avoided.”35
This is like the coexistence of yin and yang, Heaven and Earth, right and wrong,
chaos and order, where one entity can’t be wiped out without destroying the other.
It is for this reason that people want good fortune, avoid misfortune, and pray for
good luck whenever a disaster strikes. None of this, however, can be allowed to
bound up your thoughts. Why bother to manipulate one’s destiny? Second, Guo
believed that individual capabilities of all things come from nature, which can’t be
altered or manipulated by human thoughts. Therefore, nothing can be changed by
what man says, hears and sees. Moreover, man’s action may mar the movement or
development of everything, deprive everything of its natural traits and lose its
vitality. Therefore, Guo said, “Everything has its natural traits and capabilities,
which shall not be negated or violated.”36 If contrived effort is made, pain will
follow. It is in this sense that Guo said, “Between Heaven and Earth, man is the
strongest species to disrupt the world of the living with his wide spectrum of
emotions. Loss or gain, hot or cold, the rise and fall of a dynasty and the success or
failure of a single endeavor weigh on man.”37

8.4.4 Connecting with Nature and Forgetting Everything

Guo said that to act without subjective interference and let everything take its
natural course, one must eliminate the difference and opposition between all things
ideologically and treat them fairly; this goes for treatment of Heaven and man, other
and ego, small and large, right and wrong, vice and virtue, intimacy and indiffer-
ence, beauty and ugliness, dream and reality, longevity and premature death, and
life and death, which is in essence connecting with nature.

34
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Horses’ Hoofs with Annotations.
35
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Perfect Happiness with Annotations.
36
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Free and Easy Wandering with Annotations.
37
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Let It Be and Leave It Alone with Annotations.
126 8 Subjection to Destiny

Furthermore, Guo believed that one must learn to forget oneself in order to
cultivate the self, improve and be truly connected with nature, thus letting every-
thing follow its natural course. To forget everything is to leave an open mind and be
free from memory. In regards to this, he said, “Those who learn to forget everything
will forget the origin and source of everything. Internally, they won’t feel their
presence; externally, they won’t realize the existence of Heaven and Earth. Then
they connect with the changing world and have a better knowledge of it.”38 In the
eyes of Guo Xiang, forgetting everything is to forget Heaven and Earth and to leave
everything behind, including one’s physical existence. Those capable of this will
stand still like a withered tree trunk or like ash, moving nimbly like withered leaves
or floating dust. Only in this way can one have an open mind free from worry and
discomfort. Here, Guo emphasizes that to forget everything is essentially to forget
oneself, as “if one can’t forget himself, he can’t forget anything more. If he can
forget himself, he will enter into another realm of knowledge!”39 According to Guo
Xiang, the trickiest part of forgetting everything is to forget oneself. If one can
forget about oneself, nothing else seems challenging. Following this train of
thought, we can infer that once one forgets oneself, “one can have a clearer picture
of the dubious and the strange, and live in a world where everything finds its place
and everyone has a niche. If everything has a place for itself, is there still a
measuring stick for right or wrong?”40 This is to say that if man can forget himself,
he is no longer bound by death or aging, by which he is connected to nature, and he
can forget vice and virtue, sorrow and delight, and be unrestricted by mundane
affairs in living a carefree life. Freedom from joy or sorrow means subjection to
nature: This forms the basis of Guo’s take on living a happy and healthy life in the
world and is the focus of his philosophy of destiny, in which we can see traces of
Individualization and Inherent Attributes.
Guo’s Subjection to Destiny is similar to and originates from Zhuang Zi’s
Respect for Life and Destiny. Similarly, in the discussion of man’s life, man is
considered the passive recipient of grand shifts in the universe and free from
subjective initiatives. Once man is born, he cannot change his destiny, which is
bound for death at last. He cannot do anything about the world but subject himself
to destiny and nature. Man should be free from excessive thoughts, actions and
emotions.
Proponents of the idea of Subjection to Destiny, like former thinkers, cannot free
themselves from inevitability, coincidence and man’s destiny. Generally speaking,
Subjection to Destiny replaces coincidence with inevitability, and sees man’s life
and the whole universe as an absolute entity where man’s interference and par-
ticipation are impossible. Man, therefore, can only accept whatever comes. Unlike

38
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of The Great and Venerable Teacher with
Annotations.
39
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Heaven and Earth with Annotations.
40
Zhuang Zi with Annotations—Second Volume of Discussions on Making All Things Equal with
Annotations.
8.4 Subjection to Destiny 127

former theories of destiny, Subjection to Destiny tries to explain man’s destiny with
dual simplicity and multiplicity, and emphasizes the value of individuality in
“letting all things take their natural course and live on inherent capability.” Based
on this logic, everything is different in size or length, and may be right or wrong.
There is no absolute noumenon or universal measuring stick for judgment.
Therefore, when discussing fortune or misfortune and loss or gain, one must
understand that everything comes from man’s emotion. Man should be free from
emotional bondage, make no contrived effort and not compete or indulge in envy.
The natural attitude towards life proposed by Subjection to Destiny offers a
soothing perspective for making sense of unsavory or unexpected accidents.
A positive interpretation of such accidents makes people open-minded and at peace.
However, the idea that inaction is the ideal response in situations that are not yet
concrete goes beyond the founding principle and theory of knowing about destiny.
Chapter 9
Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

If the life and death of man and everything are inconstant and beyond control,
should man feel sorry for himself and take a hedonist approach to life? The logic of
natural and hedonist subjection to destiny is as follows: If tomorrow is the end of
time, today is your carnival day to indulge in all pleasures before it’s too late.
Advocates of the hedonist subjection to destiny believe that Earth and Heaven can’t
give birth to anything, and all things are borne and die of natural causes that are
written in destiny. People cannot predict or alter destiny; instead, they can only
accept what destiny has to offer with subjection. This subjection to destiny calls for
a carefree, natural and hedonist approach to life within the accepted boundaries of
destiny. To be truly carefree and unlimited by restrictions, man must follow the
course of nature and see the world and himself as one. In China’s history of
thoughts, the representative of Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny is Zhang
Zhan.

9.1 Subjection to Destiny

Zhang Zhan believed that Heaven, Earth and everything in between didn’t exist in
the very beginning. At first, the whole universe was in a mess of qi that later
organized into Heaven and Earth; the accumulation and dissipation of qi created
man and everything. In this sense, Zhang wrote, “When the chaos of qi was not
divided, Heaven and Earth were but one, and everything took one form; when qi
was divided, Heaven and Earth came into existence, so did everything. All this is
the result of excess or deficiency of qi.”1 From Zhang Zhan’s perspective, Heaven
and Earth are the product of qi just like everything else in the universe: Earth is the
accumulation of qi while Heaven is the dissipation of qi. He believed that the space
between Earth and infinite universe is Heaven. Earth and other celestial bodies
1
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
130 9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

came out of qi accumulation, surrounded and supported by the Great Void, floating
in the infinite space of the universe. Everything in the universe is wrapped up
between Earth and Heaven. This is to say that between Earth and Heaven is
everything, and the Great Void wraps up Earth and Heaven. The Great Void is
infinite, while Earth and Heaven have boundaries. In the infinite Great Void, Earth
and Heaven are not the biggest entity, but rather small and infinitesimal. Zhang
offered an explanation, “Earth and Heaven wrap up moonlight, starlight, sunlight
and everything in the universe. But any physical entity has a physical limit, and
what is the limit of Earth and Heaven? Compared to the Great Void, Heaven and
Earth are infinitesimal.”2 In this logic, Heaven and Earth are physical entities in the
Great Void, with physical limits and incomparable to the Great Void; on the other
hand, Heaven and Earth are of special significance for every physical entity, and the
relationship is shown below: “Heaven and Earth are the general name of everything
in the universe; and everything is the alias of Heaven and Earth.”3 This means that
though Heaven and Earth are larger than everything, they are the general name of
everything. Heaven and Earth, however, are but one form of physical existence.
Therefore, Heaven can’t be the reason why everything exists and cannot give birth
to everything. The reason is simple, “Heaven can’t give birth to itself, let alone
everything.”4 Since Heaven and Earth can’t give birth to everything, where does
everything come from? Zhang’s answer is that everything comes into existence or
dies out of natural courses, not subject to the manipulation of the Creator.
Moreover, Zhang asked, “Why would the Creator think of creating everything?
Everything comes out of natural courses. Thin as it seems, qi accumulates and leads
to physical entities, which don’t disappear into thin air. Therefore, physical entities
change and age, leading to temporary existence and death. This is a marvelous work
of nature.”5 To be specific, the accumulation of qi gives everything a physical
entity, everything changes according to conditions subtly; the dissipation of qi
makes everything explicit implicit, and the physical entity will die and vanish. This
is a natural law obeyed by everything and even Heaven and Earth.
Furthermore, Zhang emphasized that the natural principle that no being (man
included) can run from is destiny. This shows that destiny is an unpredictable
natural principle, inevitable and unchangeable. This natural principle is a force that
determines what happens to nature, society and every human being. Birth, life,
death, longevity, wealth and fortune are all determined by destiny. Destiny cannot
be predicted or escaped. Zhang wrote, “Natural principles are not determined or
affected by external factors.”6 Destiny, as a natural principle, cannot be altered or
manipulated by any force, human force included. Instead, destiny is driven by
natural principles. Zhang wrote affirmatively, “These are all driven by nature and

2
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tang Wen with Annotations.
3
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
4
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
5
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Emperor Mu of Zhou with Annotations.
6
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—The Yellow Emperor with Annotations.
9.1 Subjection to Destiny 131

not subject to human efforts.”7 Destiny is the external force that exists beyond
man’s physical boundary and yet it controls the fortune and luck of every human
being.
Furthermore, destiny is driven by nature and is beyond man’s control. If man can
learn about destiny, then, in the face of destiny, man never knows where he is going
and can do nothing about it. Man’s ability, wisdom and moral integrity cannot affect
or alter his destiny. Following this logic, Zhang posits that if nothing were deter-
mined by destiny, the benevolent and intelligent would live long lives, the evil and
stupid would not live long, the hard-working would become rich and those who
splurge will become poor. The truth is that things do not always come to pass in such
ways. This proves that the life, longevity and the wealth of man are all determined by
fate, irregardless of his moral integrity, intelligence, ability and diligence.
Based on this view of destiny, Zhang asked people to abandon making futile
efforts to change their destinies and resign themselves.. He said, “Those who follow
the order of destiny and do not go against it will be left undisturbed by ghosts, other
human beings and deities. If one acts according to his destiny rather than going
against natural principles, avoids trouble, he can be smart enough to avoid vicious
accidents and enjoy a blissful life.”8 Based on this, Zhang pointed out that sub-
jection to destiny calls for abandoning the thought of longevity, right and safety.
Instead, one should follow his destiny, not concerning himself with longevity, right
and safety, for these whimsical thoughts will make one irrational and out of
compliance with his nature.
Based on this, Zhang mentioned his view on the best approach to destiny, “Do not
alter your life according to external factors. Let things come and go without letting
them bother you” by “making no effort whatsoever, either real or contrived.”9
Zhang Zhan offered a metaphysical explanation of the origin of man and
everything, explored the working mechanism of destiny, and proposed his approach
to destiny and all matters in the world: Make no contrived effort. These ideas
together form the main content of his philosophy of destiny.

9.2 Hedonist Approach to Destiny

Destiny is not determined by human thoughts and cannot be fully understood by


humans. Starting from this point, Zhang Zhan advised people to follow destiny
without forcing any unalterable change in it. On the one hand, he advised people to
be subject to destiny; on the other, he advised people to take a hedonist approach to
destiny. Based on the former, Zhang offered the hedonist approach within the
accepted boundaries of destiny. The ideas of subjection to destiny and the hedonist

7
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Power and Destiny with Annotations.
8
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Power and Destiny with Annotations.
9
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Power and Destiny with Annotations.
132 9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

approach seem contradictory, but this is not so in essence. According to Zhang,


some people abuse their power and don’t do what they were appointed to do; some
pursue vainglory, go against their true nature and do not realize their true selves.
Man should not go to extremes when it comes to life and destiny. People live and
should subject themselves to destiny without making mischievous attempts to alter
it; moreover, people should live carefree lives and not go against their nature. The
former is subjection to destiny and the latter is the hedonist approach to destiny,
both of which are important. If one goes to one extreme, recklessness may ensue
and cause chaos, reduce longevity and harm man’s life. Zhang said that man is in
nature slothful and wants to enjoy. Therefore, a living person should abandon the
bondage of mundane restrictions, and enjoy freedom and joy. Regarding this,
Zhang Zhan proposed a systemic set of hedonist approaches to destiny, which
became a highly specialized part of his philosophy of destiny.

9.2.1 Life Is Short, Enjoy Every Minute

Zhang believed that opposition exists in the universe, and the whole universe is in a
constant cycle of birth and death. In this cycle, the only unchanging rule is that what
gives birth to everything has no life and what gives form to everything has no form.
For physical entities, life is against death, form against void, and every life with a
form has but a transient life. Concerning this, he said that man and everything are in
such a cycle of life and death. “Life is short compared to the aeons of death.”10
Moreover, it takes far less time to form a human body than for it to be reduced into
invisibility after death. Therefore, man should grasp every minute to enjoy life, for
time waits for no man. From Zhang Zhan’s perspective, life is short and man’s life
is just the temporary accumulation of qi, which gives spirituality to man. As man’s
existence is the result of temporary accident, qi will dissipate and vanish into the
void. Therefore, man should seize every hour, abandon moral restraints, not con-
sider posthumous fame, enjoy life wherever it may take him and realize every desire
while still alive. Furthermore, as sloth and joy are written in man’s genes, man
should give himself a break, live happily, and not be confined by worry. Since the
joy of life consists in food, clothes, amorous adventures and melody, people should
not be too restricted by ritual, justice and accepted measuring sticks of propriety.

9.2.2 Life, Longevity and Wealth Are All Pre-determined


and Unalterable

Zhang Zhan pointed out that the life and wealth of man in his living days is
determined by destiny, unpredictable and unalterable. Given this, man is often

10
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Yang Zhu with Annotations.
9.2 Hedonist Approach to Destiny 133

obsessed with longevity and permanent wealth and worries himself sick attaining
them. Instead, man should learn to adapt whatever the conditions may be.
Furthermore, it is stupid and vain for man to live in pain just to live long or rich. In
this regard, Zhang Zhan emphasized that some people don’t learn to indulge
themselves in joy due to the fear of death, which is unnecessary because “Man is
borne out of natural courses, doesn’t know why he is born, and knows that life
cannot be rejected; he doesn’t know why he will die, and he knows that death can’t
be escaped.”11 This is to say that life cannot be rejected just like death cannot be
escaped; both are principles of nature. In the cycle of life and death, man doesn’t
know the cause of life or death, so neither can be altered by him. Knowing this, why
bother yourself with the futile need to change life or death? Zhang Zhan further
wrote, “The reason of life and death is beyond man’s knowledge and control. The
reach of nature is boundless and non-discriminatory. Every man should follow his
destiny and not work hard to alter it.”12 In the eyes of Zhang Zhan, man comes into
being with the accumulation of qi and disappears with the dissipation of qi. Life and
death, safety and danger; all is in a constant cycle of alternation. The living won’t
live forever, and the dead won’t remain perennially dead. In this sense, there’s no
fundamental difference between life and death, between safety and danger.
Based on this, Zhang Zhan taught others to face the transience of life with
indifference, and encouraged people to “seize every day without thinking too much
about life’s origin or destination.”13 Since man is doomed to die one day or another,
man should embrace having an open mind about life without obsessing over life
and death, and man should adapt to whatever conditions that may befall him. In this
regard, he notes that “Everything in the universe has a physical entity and changes
with every passing minute. As change is happening at every second, why should
everything stick to one pattern of unaltered existence? Therefore, what one or one
thing used to be is no longer what he or it is now, in the blink of an eye. The passing
of life and the dissipation of qi never occurs in a short time. Stupid people will
resort to methods of manipulating change and luck to avoid the blunt of changes.
Aren’t such efforts lamentable and stupid?”
In summary, Zhang Zhan claims that man’s life and longevity are determined by
his destiny, which is unpredictable and unalterable. All efforts to lengthen longevity
are futile. Therefore, man shouldn’t be daunted by the idea of death or delighted by
life. “Man doesn’t have to look back or think ahead all the time. Detachment from
the living present is the mark of an individual’s fine moral fibers.”14 Man should not
be attached to life, and the only way to detach is to cherish and enjoy life and adapt.

11
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
12
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Power and Destiny with Annotations.
13
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—The Yellow Emperor with Annotations.
14
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Yang Zhu with Annotations.
134 9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

9.2.3 Life Should not Be Too Restricted by Rituals


and Ethics, and Man Should Learn to Enjoy

Zhang Zhan believes that if man learns the truth about destiny and knows that life is
not up to man and not a source of emotional attachment, one can regard life and
death with equal weight and learn to enjoy every minute of life regardless of worry
and concern. It is in this sense that Zhang wrote, “When man is not attached to life
and waits for the time of death, he will not feel attached to the world of the
living.”15 Furthermore, Zhang believed that detachment from life is the highest
form of moral integrity. When man learns the truth about destiny he will treat it in a
calm fashion. Zhang wrote, “If man knows his destiny and accepts with a peaceful
mind, he will be undaunted by death and can learn to enjoy peace. He will no longer
feel pain and can die without suffering.”16 Knowing one’s destiny, according to
Zhang, refers to treating fortune and fame with a cool, detached attitude. He
explained that the significance and meaning of life lie not in fortune and wealth, but
in living with alacrity. One person may possess unchallenged prestige, but he is
miserable if he cannot enjoy every minute of life. Such a life is meaningless. Zhang
said, “A man may be the richest of all mankind but he might never enjoy life. Such
a life will only be miserable and painful.”17 On the contrary, if a person can learn to
enjoy life, his life is worth every minute even if he doesn’t live long. Or in Zhang’s
words: “Do what your nature feels most comfortable to do and enjoy every minute
of life. Life may be short, but you enjoy every minute of it. If you become burdened
with courteous rituals and rigid ethical measuring sticks, you will live a painful life
even if you live long.” With two opposing examples, Zhang tried to tell people that
man should be free from bondage and follow his nature. If a man is too meticulous
and cautious or subjects himself totally to ritual and ethics, his life becomes
meaningless. He wrote, “Those with a sound mind know that nothing is constant.
Wealth may come in your way temporarily, but it is not the result of your effort.
You may treat your friends or family members kindly and offer help, but their
departure or leaving you is beyond your control. Moreover, good friends don’t
come along frequently, just as with all other good things. Should man be restricted
by the pursuit of fame, fortune and the adherence to ethics and rituals?”18
The Hedonist Approach to Destiny has a marked tinge of hedonism, and is a
special school in China’s ancient philosophy of cultivating moral perfection without
contrived effort. An overview of Zhang Zhan’s thoughts may reveal the consistency
between the hedonist approach to destiny and his general take on destiny. The
hedonist approach to destiny may well be said to be the result of Subjection to
Destiny. Since life comes out of natural courses without rhyme or reason, life itself

15
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Yang Zhu with Annotations.
16
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
17
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Yang Zhu with Annotations.
18
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Yang Zhu with Annotations.
9.2 Hedonist Approach to Destiny 135

is a beautiful mistake. Why get obsessed and attached to the inconstant and
ridiculous thing that we call life?

9.3 Natural Subjection to Disposition

Based on the understanding that destiny is unalterable and life and death are not
determined by human efforts, Zhang Zhan suggested that man should enjoy his
living days opposed to reckless ways of living. The reason for this is simple: A man
cannot enjoy his days if he lives recklessly and indulges every impulse of his mind.
There is a limit to the enjoyment one can feel in life. Specifically, the hedonist
approach to life proposed by Zhang refers to enjoying every day based on his living
conditions, his destiny and his staying within the bounds of his own capability.
Zhang suggested the hedonist approach to life on the one hand, but with the other
he revealed the necessity of natural and unaffected subjection to destiny. Only by
following one’s disposition and destiny can one enjoy his living days, without
going beyond his capability.

9.3.1 Unaffected and Natural Subjection to Destiny

Zhang outlines the difference between disposition and emotion, which are inher-
ently different: disposition is an endowed trait. Therefore, a pure and perfect dis-
position requires no good looks; if one is cautious and not easily saddened by
external loss, impersonal matters will not bring any harm. Unlike disposition,
emotion is an acquired desire. Desires differ from person to person, and from organ
to organ. Regarding this, Zhang wrote, “Disposition is an endowed trait, and good
disposition brings harmony; therefore, one should follow his disposition and live a
happy life. If one goes wherever his emotion takes him, he is bound to encounter
barriers.”19 The reason is as follows: “The combination of a physical entity with
pure manipulation of emotion will lead to poor harmony between bone and flesh,
and one’s physical integrity may be marred.”20 Based on this, Zhang suggested a
quiet mentality, a serene mind and an unaffected subjection to disposition. He
wrote, “Man is born as a noble species, indifferent to external matters. When the
notion of existence and non-existence is forgotten, everything else is considered
whole, making everything and everyone inconsequential in existence.”21 In
Zhang’s view, a dynamic and active attitude of pursuit is to strive for knowledge
and make things happen, while a static and stoic attitude is to remain unenlightened

19
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—The Yellow Emperor with Annotations.
20
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—The Yellow Emperor with Annotations.
21
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
136 9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

and without drive, the latter of which is intentional. If one is interested in fame but
dares not speak out about it, that is not a lack of enlightenment or driving force to
action. The true essence of being unenlightened and not driven to make things
happen is to have a serene mind and a talking mouth.
Zhang Zhan further explained that a perfect man isn’t someone who never
speaks or acts. Such a man is no different from the rest of mankind in terms of
appearance. The difference between a perfect man (a sage) and an average man is
inner peace, totally free from the distinction of right and wrong, benefit and harm,
other and self, life and death, internal and external. Therefore, a perfect man can say
what he wants to say and do what he wants to do. According to Liezi Notes—
Yellow Emperor Notes, “A perfect man acts great like the vast sky, and can remain
still like the unmovable ground. He walks freely like flowing water and is some-
times silent when necessary. A great man can be both great and still, silent and
eloquent. His greatness stems from an absence of contrived effort and his com-
pliance with nature… A peaceful mind will feel the course of nature and change,
and a man with such mind will feel the power of the world and go with the flow of
time.” In the eyes of Zhang Zhan, everything on Earth has its distinctive disposi-
tions and scope of adaptation, beyond which life is impossible. Such scope, how-
ever, doesn’t exist in the case of a perfect man. As a perfect man shares the same
space as the Great Void, the physical entity that encompasses everything in the
universe, he is free from the need to distinguish between himself and other things
and free from any sort of limitation. Therefore, he can live and travel freely in any
place under any circumstance. This shows that unaffected and natural subjection to
disposition is the cardinal principle of following destiny, and an important portal to
enjoying every living day. A perfect man benefits from this and becomes a saint.

9.3.2 Mental Voidness

Zhang Zhan believed that the supreme status of unaffected and natural subjection to
disposition is mental voidness, which refers to a mentality that sees everything as
nothing. Regarding this, Zhang explained, “A man, who is not inherently intelligent
and ingenious, is considered capable of mental voidness if he has no preference or
repulsion. He looks for no distinction between himself and others.”22 This shows
that mental voidness refers to freedom from like or dislike, and is marked by lack of
contrived effort to make distinctions and an ability to adapt to whatever may come
one’s way. Only with mental voidness can one possess an unaffected mind.
Furthermore, Zhang Zhan said that saints are all paradigms of mental voidness,
capable of handling everything with an unaffected heart in both speech and action.
Regarding this, he wrote, “The mind of a saint is programmed to perceive the void.
When he speaks about something, he says what is true, not out of his interpretation;

22
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Confucius with Annotations.
9.3 Natural Subjection to Disposition 137

when he knows about something, he knows what is true, not out of his under-
standing. A saint doesn’t speak much, but is not considered weak in speech; a saint
thinks every day, but never to a fault. Therefore, a saint says what he knows and
knows what he needs to know.”23 In this light, supreme sainthood status is marked
not by speaking or knowing nothing, but by speaking what needs to be spoken and
knowing what needs to be known with an unaffected heart and mental voidness. In
this way, one goes beyond the distinction of speech and silence, knowledge and
ignorance, and achieves the status of mental voidness.
Zhang Zhan valued voidness. Zhang’s Emphasis on Voidness has two basic
concepts: the Great Void, and the Ultimate Void. The Great Void refers to the
infinite space of the universe and falls under the scope of cosmogony; the Ultimate
Void refers to the entity of the universe, plus a denotation that everything and man
are but one, which is the supreme status of a consummate saint. The Ultimate Void
is equating oneself with everything in the universe, or in Zhang’s words, “The
Ultimate Voidness of oneself is to mesh oneself with the world.”24 Zhang
emphasized that when one reaches the status of mental voidness and unaffected
subjection to disposition, one will no longer be enslaved or burdened, bothered by
wisdom or the prospect of death, trapped by interest or obsessed with the distinction
between beauty and ugliness. Instead, a man will go beyond worldly worries
unrestrained, ridding himself of interest and opening himself up to everything in the
universe. The distinction between right and wrong will be blurred, the obsession
with life and death obliterated, dream and reality realigned or interchanged. Life
will be filled with joy and freedom from pain; A man would never have to make
contrived efforts and would do what he liked within the accepted norm of behavior.
This status of sainthood describes something truly transcendental and marvelous.
To summarize Zhang Zhan’s thoughts on this topic: He believed that on the one
hand, saints can be free from dilemmas or trial and tribulation and achieve great
delights. On the other, saints live in the world just like everybody else and are not
necessarily free from mundane affairs and settings. They are dedicated to what they
do, following their instincts and disposition while never obsessing over one thing or
period. Saints never utilize their wisdom to maneuver or force people out of their
own lives. Therefore, the only difference between a saint and an average man is the
resolution of dilemma and a harmony between stillness and dynamism. Furthermore,
saints reach such a high status of being because they are free from emotional bon-
dage, and have mental voidness. This shows that even average men could, with
unaffected subjection to disposition, possess mental voidness, be unaffected by
catastrophic events and unhurt by external affairs. They live carefree lives. Based on
this, Zhang Zhan wrote, “Voidness and quietude do not stem from manifest in one’s
facial expression or assume any external presentation. Rather, it stems from that
conviction that it is in my nature to pursue and get what I want, as it follows the
course of nature. Anything following the course of nature is characterized by

23
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Confucius with Annotations.
24
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—The Yellow Emperor with Annotations.
138 9 Natural and Hedonist Subjection to Destiny

voidness and quietude, which in turn ensures its integrity; anything that fails in its
course of development is characterized by excess motion that results in the loss of its
niche.”25 This is Zhang’s main tip for the average man on his journey to develop into
a saint, and is also the crux of his philosophy of life.
Man’s destiny is random. Some become rich thanks to family inheritance, while
others do so with a windfall. However, it is not fair to say that man’s destiny is
irrelevant to personal action and effort. Apart from pure luck, most people establish
themselves with personal effort and work. The success of an individual is dependent
upon external conditions, interpersonal factors, and himself – his learning, moral
fiber and conduct. If the emphasis on destiny and man’s futility to fight destiny is
too much, man will live as his mind takes him or abandon himself without any
conscious effort to alter his life. The natural and hedonist subjection to destiny is in
itself self-abandonment. In such a status of living, man makes no free choice and
does not pursue what he wants, despite being free from human emotions. So what is
the joy you pursue by living an unrestrained and hedonist life?
Apart from the negativity and decadence, the natural and hedonist subjection to
destiny shows that a quiet and flat life is what man should truly aspire to, and inner
peace is the greatest peace and blessing of mankind. Following the logic of random
destiny, one may find that the natural and hedonist subjection to destiny is not
confined to unbridled merry-making; instead, it outlines the point that one should
enjoy within the accepted boundaries of destiny, free from the fear of destiny and
bleak helplessness. It invites people to live happily in a given condition. These
points demonstrate that the natural and hedonist subjection to destiny has a realistic
take on destiny: It is unlike both the whimsical attitude of Subjection to Destiny and
the Confucian ideal of moral measuring sticks and strict compliance. Man should
not be too ambitious or obsessed with dignity; instead, man should keep a calm
mind. Man should accept whatever comes his way with readiness and inner peace.
This natural and hedonistic approach to destiny allows believers to see reality as it
is, and to live without avaricious thoughts. Though the approach may sound
resigned, it is exemplary of the expansiveness and open-mindedness of the Wei-Jin
Period (220 A.D.–589 A.D.). Moreover, the approach mirrors the salient individ-
uality required to think about the philosophy of life. But just as one sees the
liberating force of the approach, one should also be wary of its negative aspects.

25
Lieh Tzu with Annotations—Tian Rui with Annotations.
Chapter 10
A Natural Attitude Towards Life
and Health

Does man live forever or for a limited period of time? Can man become immortal,
staying young forever and living for eternity? The natural attitude towards life and
health offers an affirmative answer and reveals the secret ingredients to longevity,
ideal physical maintenance and becoming immortal. Subscribers to this belief think
that Heaven and Earth are merely the place and space for man’s existence, neither
of which could give birth to or manipulate man’s life. On the one hand, Heaven and
Earth outshine everything in size and age. On the other, life, wealth, fortune and
grace are all predestined, long before reincarnation and qi accumulation. Man is
born to follow the course of destiny according to the Natural Attitude Towards Life.
Just as medicine can influence man’s health, longevity and physiology, man’s body
can be tended and nurtured after birth to ensure immortality and the ascension to
Heaven, hence the Natural Attitude Towards Health. The most representative
proponent of the Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health is Ge Hong of the
Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 A.D.–420 A.D.).

10.1 Taoism, Metaphysics and Unification

As a theorist in Taoism, Ge Hong followed the pre-Qin Taoist emphasis on Taoism


and metaphysics as the fundamentals of the world. Moreover, he subscribed to
Laozi’s notion that “Everything is metaphysics, which is the key to all wonders in
the universe”, and combined Taoism and metaphysics as one fundamental. He
claimed, “Metaphysics is the origin of Nature and everything in the universe.”1 If
regarding Taoism as the universe’s fundamental is to abide by Laozi’s thoughts,
elevating metaphysics to be the world’s fundamental is a novel attempt by Ge
Hong, and, moreover, the basic feature of Taoist theories. This shows his con-
nection to Laozi’s thoughts, and his different outlook of value and ideological
1
Baopuzi: Discussions on Metaphysics.
140 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

orientation. Moreover, Ge combined Taoism and metaphysics as one, and named it


Metaphysic Taoism. He related metaphysic Taoism to the longevity of everything,
especially that of man. In Ge’s view, unification is in essence the same as Taoism,
metaphysics and metaphysic Taoism, despite the difference in names. Therefore,
unification is the ontological soil and ultimate basis of the existence of everything in
the universe. Just as unification can clarify the sky and tranquilize the Earth, it can
give birth to man. Following such this train of thought, man can only preserve life,
qi and eternal life by maintaining and protecting unification. This means that uni-
fication is vital to man’s longevity and physical wellbeing, and forms the onto-
logical basis of Ge’s allegation that man may live forever and become immortal.
Based on the understanding that metaphysics, Taoism and unification are the
fundamentals of the world, Ge said that Heaven, Earth and everything in the uni-
verse exist due to metaphysics, Taoism and unification, rather than to Heaven or
Earth. He pointed out that average man sees the enormity of Heaven and Earth and
the smallness of everything in comparison, and thus believes that Heaven and Earth
are the origin of everything. This is not the truth. Take the human body as an
example; though one’s belly and back wrap up one’s internal organs, organs do not
grow out of back or belly. Though one’s skin is rich in blood and qi, they are not
what make skin. For another instance, “Average man sees the enormity of Heaven
and Earth and the smallness of everything in comparison, and believes that Heaven
and Earth are the origin of everything. Lice appear on my body, but do I give birth
to them? I don’t, and I am no parent of lice and lice are no children or grandchildren
of mine.”2 The relationship between Heaven, Earth and everything in the universe
is like that between me and lice: Just because Heaven and Earth are home to
everything does not mean they gave birth to everything. Forests do not come out of
mountains, but rely on them; fish and turtles live on water but are not borne out of
water.
According to Ge Hong, though Heaven and Earth precede everything chrono-
logically and contain everything spatially, it is far from sufficient to say that
everything is borne out of Heaven and Earth. In fact, Heaven and Earth are borne
out of metaphysics, Taoism and unification. Under the influence of the universe,
Heaven and Earth were borne out of nature. The birth of everything in the universe
is driven by natural laws. During this process, Heaven and Earth are simply an
impersonal, inactive and non-intelligent existence. Based on the premise that
Heaven and Earth are non-intelligent and incapable of giving birth, Ge Hong
proceeded to claim that Heaven and Earth could not determine the wealth, longevity
and fortune of man. Whether man could become immortal or live long is totally
dependent on inherent physical qualities, not Heaven or Earth. Regarding this, Ge
said that what saints do marks the acme of moral integrity. If Heaven is capable,
why doesn’t it make saints omniscient, powerful, authoritative, or allow them to
live longer than 100 years old? The lamentable aspects of saints are proof that
Heaven cannot do everything. Similar proof of this is as follows: Bo Niu and Zi

2
Baopuzi: The Difficulty of Immortality.
10.1 Taoism, Metaphysics and Unification 141

Xia, two disciples of Confucius, were both kind people. Yet, Bo was sick and Zi
was blind, which means that they met bad fortune. Do Zhi and Zhuang Qiao were
hardened thieves, but they lived long and met no bad fortune. These are all solid
proofs demonstrating that Heaven is not always capable of action.
Furthermore, Ge Hong said that if Heaven were behind everything (including
man’s destiny) in the universe, everything would be perfect and successful. The
truth is that the universe is a mixture of virtue and vice, success and failure. This
proves that everything comes out of natural courses, not Heaven. Following this
train of thought, Ge came to the following conclusion, “If man and everything come
from Heaven, they must be perfect and successful, and man would be free from
trouble and beauty would never fade. Since even Confucius and Mencius weren’t
free from mundane worries or pitfalls, it’s easy to see that everything comes out of
nature rather than Heaven or Earth.”3
In addition, Ge Hong emphasized that a man’s parents are distant from his being.
I, for example, took after my parents, who gave birth to me and were the most
intimate to me. But after giving birth to me and nourishing me, they couldn’t render
me eternally strong or free from sickness and aging. If even people as close to me as
my parents could not benefit me in such a way, how could the distant Heaven and
Earth know me or protect me?
According to the line of thinking outlined above, Heaven and Earth cannot give
birth to man or control man’s destiny. Man is borne out of Taoism, metaphysics and
unification, all closely integrated with man’s life. This basis of Ge Hong’s phi-
losophy of destiny consolidates the theoretical foundation of preserving one’s life
and health by abiding by unification.

10.2 A Natural Attitude Towards Life

Based on the understanding that man is borne out of metaphysics, Taoism and
unification, Ge Hong proceeded to explain the origin of man’s life. His explanation
focuses particularly on the mechanism of destiny. Moreover, he proposed a whole
set of approaches to destiny. The following chapter elaborates on Ge Hong’s natural
attitude towards life.

10.2.1 Immortality, Wealth and Longevity Are All Destined

Ge Hong said that man is the most intelligent being in the universe. Man is different
in terms of vice, wisdom, beauty, height, romantic fidelity and temperance, with
varying degrees determined by one’s inherent qualities. The differences between

3
Baopuzi: The Difficulty of Immortality.
142 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

men depend on difference in individual destiny endowed at birth. In this sense,


inherent qualities lead to differences between men. Ge Hong wrote that “Man is the
most intelligent species. Balance is wherever there is superior intelligence. The
wisdom and folly, vice and virtue, beauty and ugliness, purity and impurity,
romantic fidelity and unfaithfulness, the difference in the desires of individual
hearts; these all exist, in just the same way that man and Earth are distant and
different, and ice and coal are different.”4
Ge Hong believed that man’s longevity is predestined. To be specific, longevity
is determined by the specific arrangement of constellations in the instant the embryo
is formed. Similarly, man’s wealth or fortune is also determined by the constella-
tions. The height, fortune and literary/military excellence of constellations deter-
mine the difference in mens’ destinies. He explained that man’s destiny differs due
to different constellation arrangements. Moreover, the destiny of every man can be
interpreted by the spirits of constellations without exception or deviation. By this
logic, the moral integrity or social status of man is determined by the spirit of
constellation, just as saintly Lao Zi and Confucius respectively attained immortality
and did not attain immortality as a result of destiny.
Moreover, Ge Hong claimed that immortality was predestined. Those predes-
tined for immortality can aspire to it; those not predestined can never attain it. This
shows that predestined propensity for immortality is a precondition of being
immortal. In other words, the propensity for immortality is predestined, which is
evident knowing that Confucius met the immortal Lao Zi, but was unable to attain it
himself. Confucius explained that smart, visionary individuals could know a great
deal while knowing nothing about immortality, while mediocre individuals could
know and even achieve immortality. Isn’t such a coincidence the result of destiny at
work? Ge Hong further explained that those who attained immortality were pre-
destined to do so. Immortality was randomly implanted in the accumulation of qi at
birth, making select individuals more prone to believe in immortality. When these
people grow old, they are drawn to the idea of immortality and pursue it. On the
contrary, those not destined for immortality will denounce its attainment as
supernatural even in spite of evidence proving it existence. They will not pursue or
believe in immortality and can never rise to it.
It is noteworthy that destiny, which determines man’s fortune, longevity and
immortality, is a natural existence not destined by Heaven. In his eyes, man is born
between Heaven and Earth, like metal is melted in incinerators, and Earthenware is
built in a stove. Man’s destiny and fortune are not determined by Heaven, just as
metal or Earthenware are not made by what they are made in. Ge Hong wrote the
following line in his book Baopuzi—Sai’nan on this basis: “Inherent qualities
determine one’s kindness and are unalterable by Heaven. Just like metal and
earthenware take shape in incinerators and stoves without being created by them,
the sharpness of metal and the physical quality of Earthenware is not determined by
what they are made in.”

4
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
10.2 A Natural Attitude Towards Life 143

Based on the understanding that man’s fortune is the result of natural courses, Ge
proceeded to negate the view that prayer and sacrificial ceremonies could dispel
misfortune. In his book Baopuzi—Daoyi, Ge wrote, “Fortune could not be invited by
kneeling for good luck, just as misfortune could not be averted by praying. If life
could be lengthened by spending a great fortune on health and sickness could be
averted by grand sacrificial ceremonies, the rich would live long and the nobility
would be free from sickness.” By this logic, man’s destiny is predestined and
endowed, determined eventually by the essence of constellations one’s birth is related
to, and not by Heaven, Earth or any human efforts. It is for this reason that no human
efforts, be it sacrifice or prayer, can alter destiny. This is the logical conclusion of
Ge Hong’s attitude towards destiny and defines the following subjection to destiny.

10.2.2 Follow the Course of Destiny and Feel no Worries

By Ge Hong’s logic, destiny determines man’s fortune and luck. Man’s moral
integrity, talent and effort cannot change his luck, gain, wealth or nobility. Ge Hong
claimed, “Man’s luck is predestined; his wealth is not related to his power of
speech. The focus of losing or gaining lies in balance, and nobility cannot be
measured. Destiny cannot be asked for, and what has to happen in your life cannot
be deliberately averted.”5 This means that man’s destiny cannot be altered by
human effort; fortune or misfortune will appear whenever destiny wills it.
Therefore, man should wait for the course of destiny to emerge without making
contrived effort to alter it. If man goes against time and destiny, he will encounter
disgrace of misfortune. Though man’s destiny is predestined, the luck and fortune
of man depends on himself; in short, all depends on man’s attitude toward destiny.
If man knows his destiny, finds his place and delights in following the course of
destiny, he will live a happy and worry-free life; if he does not, he will be plagued
by danger, remorse and disaster. Based on this, Ge Hong entreatied people to know,
accept and give in to their individual destinies. He wrote that “Man’s fortune and
luck are predestined.”6 How should man follow the course of destiny? Regarding
this, Ge said, “Man’s fortune is predestined, and man should follow his destiny.
Take fortune and misfortune as natural phenomena without asking too much.”7 We
can see that following the course of destiny is to follow the course of nature without
obsessing over fate or lamenting unalterable circumstances. Here, Ge emphasized
the need to follow the course of destiny in everything and to adapt to situations.
Dignity and fortune are determined by destiny, meaning that only through regarding
fortune and misfortune, wealth and poverty, good luck and bad luck as the same can
man be free from emotional bondage and live a long and truly happy life.

5
Baopuzi: Extended Metaphor.
6
Baopuzi: On Jokes.
7
Baopuzi: Communication.
144 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

10.3 Longevity

As demonstrated above, Ge believed that everything in man’s life is predestined


and unalterable by man’s efforts. Man should make no contrived efforts to alter
destiny, but must follow the course of destiny. Despite this, Ge Hong didn’t mean
that people should passively wait for the last call of nature. He believed that man’s
destiny is pre-determined, but man’s efforts can define how destiny unravels itself.
For instance, being immortal is predestined, and those with such destiny can
become immortal and vice versa. The point here is that immortality is only written
in one’s destiny, but one doesn’t necessarily become immortal, as immortality
depends on later efforts. Regarding the relationship between predestined immor-
tality and the actual rise to it, Ge Hong said that “Those who pursue immortality are
firm believers with predestined propensity for immortality. There are people pur-
suing immortality who end up without it, but there are none that attain immortality
without asking for it.”8 This is to say that predestined immortality is only a nec-
essary precondition of becoming immortal, which in itself does not suffice to make
one immortal since subsequent pursuit and cultivation of one’s mind is needed.
Whether one can eventually become immortal does not depend solely on destiny;
other factors like conviction in the pursuit, enlightenment from mentors and
appropriate cultivation methods are involved. In this sense Ge Hong claimed that
man’s fortune depends on himself and that neither people nor Heaven can be
blamed for any misfortune. King Wen of the Zhou Dynasty (周文王) buried the
bones of those killed in action and won respect for kindness; Emperor Zhou of the
Shang Dynasty (商纣王) carved out the heart of the faithful official Bi Gan and his
kingdom suffered reproach. Honor comes from the respect of the people, who can
bring calamity to disgraceful people. You win either respect or disgrace, no matter
how much you do it.9 According to Ge Hong, man should follow the course of
destiny without making contrived effort in external and trivial affairs like honor,
gain, adversity and wealth. As for internal affairs like longevity and immortality, Ge
Hong suggested lasting effort. Ge Hong’s philosophy of destiny actually empha-
sized longevity and immortality as the ultimate goal. Regarding longevity, Ge said,
“The supreme virtue of Heaven and Earth is life, which in itself means letting
everything live on. The most secret and important aspect of Taoism is how to
achieve longevity.”10 Moreover, Ge said that the joy of life is common to every
man, and nobody, even saints like Confucius, delights in the thought of death. Even
Zhuang Zi, who considered life and death as one thing, gave up the idea of being an
official for fear of becoming an ox in his coming life and borrowed rice from a local
official in charge of rivers. Ge Hong said, “Man exists due to qi accumulation, and
everyone prefers life to death.”11 This is quite the opposite of Zhuang Zi’s casual

8
Baopuzi: Active Pursuit.
9
Baopuzi: The Way of A King.
10
Baopuzi: Active Pursuit.
11
Baopuzi: Medical Supremacy.
10.3 Longevity 145

and comfortable attitude towards death. Death to Ge Hong seems morbid and grim,
and the idea of it caused him to sig involuntarily and made his heart beat faster than
usual. All this testifies to the greatness and urgency of longevity, and reinforces that
nothing is more important than averting death and pursuing longevity. Compared
with longevity, everything else looms small and trivial. Longevity seems the ulti-
mate priority. Furthermore, based on the value and significance of immortality, Ge
Hong developed an increasing desire for immorality and elaborated on the possi-
bility of man’s longevity and immortality from multiple perspectives.

10.3.1 The Existence of the Immortal

Ge Hong believed that even though not everyone has seen the immortal, such a fact
only proves the ignorance of man and not the non-existence of the immortal. It is
for this reason that not seeing the immortal doesn’t mean that the immortal don’t
exist in the universe. In fact, what man can see or know throughout his life is
limited. “Man’s eyes can only see a hundred steps into the distance. If man sees
what he sees as existing and what he does not as non-existing, many things don’t
exist.”12 What’s worse, “If one sees little, he will consider many things bizarre.”13
The immortal man and average man are different, and average man cannot trace the
immortal. Even if he encounters someone who seems immortal, he is too insensitive
or ignorant to perceive. All this shows that man should not deny the existence of the
immortal as he cannot see or know anyone immortal.
Ge Hong said emphatically that though average man may not see the immortal,
there are plenty of ancient records about the immortal which proves their very
existence. “Records by previous saints show over a thousand people with immor-
tality, all with names and individual acts. All these records are true.”14 Therefore, in
Baopuzi, Ge Hong offered multiple examples of rising to immortality.

10.3.2 The Diversity of Universal Existence

Ge Hong believed that man’s cognitive limit entitles him to a limited scope of aural
and visual perception. In fact, the universe is huge and home to an innumerable
number of existences, and the immortal are one of them. It is in this sense that Ge
wrote, “Though man has good eyes, there is something tangible that cannot be
perceived; though man has good ears, there is something making sound that cannot
be fully heard. Though man has agile feet, there are places not yet visited by man.

12
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
13
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
14
Baopuzi: Folk Traditions.
146 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

Though man is an intelligent species, what he knows is much less than what he
doesn’t know. The universe is filled with different things, and the immortal are just
one of them. Records of the immortal abound. How can one say that immortality
doesn’t exist?”15 According to Ge Hong, man knows too little: How can one be
sure that the immortal exist in a way not yet perceived or grasped by man? More
importantly, though most things in the universe have a limited time of existence,
some beings such as the immortal live forever. Whenever there is life, death will
follow. But there are always exceptions, and one cannot and should not rush to
generalize. Just as buckwheat doesn’t grow like other crops that are planted in
spring and grow in summer, and just as pines and cypresses are different from other
plants that grow exuberantly in spring and wither in winter, and as turtles or cranes
live longer than average animals, among the unlimited number of people there may
be a special kind of people that are different from average man in that they live
forever.

10.3.3 The Alteration of Matter

Ge Hong believed that man’s body and physical condition can be altered. According
to his explanation, with a certain way of transformation, vulnerability may be
transformed into strength and durability. As a supreme, intelligent being, man
possesses extraordinary wisdom, and can absolutely nurture his body to alter his
physical conditions and live longer. In this regard, Ge Hong explored multiple
perspectives to discuss the changeability of physical conditions: The first, burning or
smelting can solidify soil into pottery, and turn corruptible tree wood into charcoal
that can be stored forever. All these point to the theoretical possibility that matters’
physical conditions can be altered to ensure its long existence. Following this logic,
we can conclude that man can live longer by ingesting medicine and exilir. The
second, one’s longevity is related to health preservation. “A well-nurtured pig lives
longer, a good horse dies early if it travels on perilous roads, a cold worm adapted to
a cold environment lives longer, trees stay exuberant longer if they grow with
sufficient sunlight in a warm place. If trees live in an unfavorable location, they will
wither and die, covered in condensed frost; if they live in a sunny location, they will
grow exuberant and luxuriant.” This proves the close relationship between animals’
or plants’ lives and the environment. When man understands this, he can avert
harmful factors to live longer. Third, man’s wisdom enables himself to live longer
than plants or other animals: For instance, man can take medicine to live longer or
elixir to become immortal. Moreover, man can imitate the daily behavior of turtles or
cranes to cultivate himself and rise to immortality. Ge Hong believed in the possi-
bility of attaining immortality by preservation, pointing to the examples of Laozi and
Peng Zu. In his eyes, Laozi and Peng Zu were all human beings, but their

15
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
10.3 Longevity 147

immortality sufficed to prove that man could transcend the natural division between
life and death, and live equally long.

10.3.4 The Wonder of Magic Power

Ge Hong believed that medical practice could bring people back from death, and
that the practice of immortality could make man immortal. Rudimental surgical
procedures could open man’s head or belly and bring him back to life. The practice
of immortality is marvelous and capable of making man live forever and immortal.
Ge Hong wrote, “The immortal nourish themselves with medicine and lengthen
their lives through the practice of immortality, which makes them insusceptible to
internal or external diseases. They can live in a state of constant youth and remain
physically unchanged, which is not difficult considering they practice proper
methods of immortality.”16 Based on this, Ge Hong pointed out that man’s death
can be boiled down to two factors: external harm and internal disease. Few people
die without the involvement of some sort of disease. Following this logic, we can
assume that man can attain immortality if he could fend off these two factors.
The practice of immortality, according to Ge Hong, corresponds with dealing
with external harm and internal diseases, including external cultivation, doing good
deeds, ingesting exilir and practicing qi. Here, Ge emphasized the role of elixir,
which he referred to as indestructible and insusceptible to burning. If a man drinks
it, it can strengthen his body and make it strong like elixir. Just as salt can stop meat
from rotting, elixir can prevent the human body from rotting.

10.3.5 The Method of Pursuing Immortality

Ge Hong said that the rise to immortality calls for proper methods. He emphasized
that the failure to achieve immortality does not make immortality impossible; it
only means that one isn’t using the proper methods. This also explains the
infinitesimal chance of achieving immortality despite the huge number of average
people pursuing it, and proves the possibility of obtaining it. He then discusses the
proper methods of pursuing immortality: “The average man doesn’t believe in the
possibility of attaining immortality and doesn’t want his life lengthened. Emperor
Qinshihuang and Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty both pursued immortality but
didn’t achieve it, due to incorrect attitude or methods. How can one say that
immortality is impossible?”17 According to Ge Hong, the fact that the two emperors
didn’t attain immortality does not prove its illegitimacy, but only illustrates that

16
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
17
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
148 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

there are wrong methods of pursuing immortality. The key to attaining it lies in
ambition and not wealth, which is why the two emperors failed. Furthermore, Ge
Hong emphasized that wealth doesn’t necessarily facilitate the pursuit; often times
it can even frustrate it. Top-ranking officials cannot renounce mundane desires and
live carefree lives, which frustrates their pursuit of immortality. “Looking back, one
may find that most people attaining immortality are poor people, not those with
high position.”18 Meanwhile, Ge Hong pointed out that the pursuit of immortality is
complicated and painful, which is daunting for the average man. The gradual
pursuit of immortality in spite of its increasing difficulty, along with unwavering
fidelity and ambition, a good mentor and sufficient experience may be enough to
gain immortality; all of this combined makes for an endeavor beyond the average
man. It is for this reason that few ever attain immortality.
In summary, Ge Hong believed firmly in the existence of immortality and
proved the possibility of physical longevity from multiple perspectives. In dis-
cussing his firm conviction in immortality, Ge Hong also revealed the arduous
process of its pursuit. Measured in light of man’s anticipation of longevity and
against the morbid idea of death, the pain or sweat of pursuing immortality means
nothing. Based on this, only a select few of the small number who pursue
immortality actually attain it, and Ge Hong believed in and delighted in this pursuit.
Moreover, he proposed a whole set of approaches to immortality and longevity
based on the belief that man could rise to immortality.

10.4 Approaches to Immortality

For the average man who prefers life, the belief in immortality is important. Even
more important is learning to escape death, enjoy longevity and rise to immortality.
As a theorist in Taoism, Ge Hong not only elaborated on the chances of attaining
immortality, but also offered approaches to immortality. The following is his
approach to immortality.
With equal interest in Taoism and Confucianism, Ge Hong stressed the signif-
icance of feudal ethics in the rise to immortality, quoting good deeds as its pre-
requisite. In accordance with the Taoist emphasizes on death, he believed that the
supreme form of good deeds is to do no evil and only good deeds: on the one hand,
good deeds and evil deeds counterbalance each other, and no evil deed is too small;
on the other hand, the amount of good deeds is related to the type of immortality
one can attain, so no good deed is too small, and one must do goods frequently.
Doing good deeds consistently is important, but not sufficient, as it marks the
beginning of the rise to immortality. Apart from good deeds, a suitable approach is
required. So what is the specific method of attaining immortality? Ge wrote, “The
approach to immortality requires internal cultivation, which heals diseases and

18
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
10.4 Approaches to Immortality 149

lengthens life. If a man could exterminate the external evil factors he lives with, he
will be free from interference.”19 According to Ge, the pursuit of immortality calls
for both internal and external cultivation. Externally, one must be free from desire
to avoid spiritual or physical harm. If man succumbs to carnal desires, he will be
lost in indulgence and pleasure; if man succumbs to mundane desires, he will be
engulfed in the pursuit of fortune and fame. These endless pursuits mean certain
trouble, and unless they are eliminated they will bring harm to one’s body and
mind. This would make the pursuit of immortality impossible. Therefore, Ge Hong
claimed emphatically that “The pursuit of immortality is characterized by freedom
from desire, a peaceful mind and introspection.”20 In his eyes, those who pursue
immortality must have a clear mind free from mundane desires and excess pursuit
of fortune and fame. Those obsessed with fortune and fame can never rise to
immortality. Similarly, those who attain immortality have a free mind and do not
involve themselves in mundane affairs.
To summarize, Ge Hong believed that eliminating mundane and carnal desires
was similar to doing good deeds as the prerequisite for cultivating oneself for
immortality. Those dedicated to immortality must free themselves from desire. Ge
also emphasized the point that the freedom from desire and the consistency of good
deeds do not suffice to make one immortal. The method of internal cultivation
counts more, which can be complicated and boiled down to preserving unification,
qi and ingesting elixir or medicine.

10.4.1 Preserving Unification and Qi

Based on the understanding that unification is one of the fundamentals of every-


thing and gives birth to man, Ge Hong constantly emphasized that unification was
important to man’s health preservation and longevity and claimed that the con-
formity to unification was crucial to longevity and immortality. Later, he divided
unification preservation into two types: Preserving the physical unification and
preserving the spiritual unification. The former can preserve health and longevity
and help avert harm, while the latter can split man’s attention and manipulate deities
or ghosts by reciting special lines. This shows that preserving spiritual unification is
subtler and easier than preserving physical unification.
Ge emphasized the efficacy of preserving unification because unification, as
man’s ontological foundation, is true master of man’s body. Therefore, man must be
dedicated to preserving unification before he can have a good life. In Ge’s own
words, “If man knows preserving unification, his life will be free from trouble and
full of good luck. The lines for preserving physical unification are specific and real:
rub one’s face with animals’ blood on an auspicious day, bind the deal with white

19
Baopuzi: Implicit Signification.
20
Baopuzi: On the Immortal.
150 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

silk and silver ingots, and carve the words on written contracts. However, miscel-
laneous rumors about the lines came out and its efficacy was reduced in practice.
Man preserves unification, and unification preserves man. Therefore, with unifica-
tion, blades cannot hurt man, harm cannot find its way to him, and success may be
won in adversity and caution may be taken in success.”21 Having established that
unification is the true master of man, man and unification, though looking different,
can essentially be seen as the same. Therefore, man and unification can preserve and
protect each other. In such mutual preservation, man and universe become integrated
ontologically, and exist as long as unification. Based on this, Ge Hong emphasized
that the unification of man’s spirit and thinking can fend off evil matter and con-
tribute to man’s longevity. Meanwhile, he said that preserving unification can only
lengthen longevity; it cannot bring immortality. If man wants immortality, he must
preserve qi and energy. In Baopuzi-Weizhi, there are two lines, “Elixir and wonder
liquids are essential to immortality. They are costly, and beyond average peoples’
reach. The most valuable and important component of preserving unification is qi
and energy.”, and “The pursuit of immortality lies in knowing its essence—qi and
energy. An appropriate dosage will suffice.” Here, Ge said that the fundamental of
preserving energy is to have a quiet mind free from desires, and to keep one’s body
from external consumption, as “the key to health preservation lies in not harming the
body.”22 Furthermore, Ge said that external attraction is the most grave threat to
man’s health. Therefore, a man pursuing immortality must preserve energy, so that
“He may cultivate himself between Heaven and Earth, and eliminate his self in
human dealings.”23 Moreover, Ge Hong stressed qi cultivation as he believed qi to
be the basis of everything in the universe and the source of man’s vitality. Qi is like a
dam; once it is solid in structure, water may gather in greater volume. Otherwise,
water will leak and flow. Qi is essential to life, and once qi is used up, life is over.
Based on this, it is fair to say that man’s longevity and life quality depend on qi. Man
needs to know how to use qi, store physical energy, avert evil and live long. Ge Hong
also stressed that the eventual result of qi cultivation is the natural control of breath,
which may gather more vitality and make people immortal. He believed that if man
could develop a natural control of breath, he could depend on no food but air and live
long. He firmly believed in the miraculous effect of controlling breath to survive
without food; moreover, he collected extensive relevant evidence of this.

10.4.2 Ingesting Elixir and Medicine

Ingesting elixir and medicine refers to the use of herbal medicine as the medicinal
primer and of elixir as the main medicine. Ge Hong said, “Ingesting elixir is

21
Baopuzi: Physical and Spiritual Unification.
22
Baopuzi: The Right Approach to Immortality Under Supervision.
23
Baopuzi: Medical Supremacy.
10.4 Approaches to Immortality 151

preserving unification, restoring energy, maintaining good control of breath and


lengthening your life. All these are important guidelines to abide by.”24 According
to his words, “Eating the right food is of overarching importance in preserving
health.”25 Therefore, the key to longevity and immortality lies in ingesting the
correct medicinal primer and elixir, in addition to preserving unification and
nourishing one’s qi. Ge advocated herbal medicine as a powerful usher capable of
eliminating disease and toning up the body. He wrote that “Man should eat herbal
medicine to make up for lost essence.”26 In his eyes, “A small dosage of medicine
may lengthen one’s life, and learning the approach to immortality may ward off evil
factors; both are capable of leading man to perfection.”27 We can see that the
pursuit of immortality starts with cultivating physical health and toning up your
body. This shows that ingesting herbal medicinal ushers is essential in the pre-
liminary stage of pursuing immortality.
It is noteworthy that only Ge Hong proposed that herbal medicine made an
important part of the foundation for attaining immortality. Ingesting elixir is a major
part of pursuing immortality. Elixir is a major path to immortality, hence Ge Hong’s
emphasis on ingesting it. Because elixir is essential to attaining immortality, Ge was
crazy about it and loved it. Moreover, Ge Hong introduced nine types of elixir,
along with their names, use, dosage and effects:
The first elixir to ingest is Dan Hua, which is to be taken for 7 days.
The second elixir to ingest is Shen Fu or Shen Dan (Wondrous Elixir), which is
to be taken for 100 days. It can also be applied beneath man’s foot and comes into
effect if man walks on water. Man only needs to ingest 3 spoons of this elixir to
eliminate all parasites inside him and cure all diseases.
The third to ingest is Shen Dan, which is to be taken with 1 spoon each time for
100 days. After ingesting it, one can see fairies, fairy ladies, and deities in charge of
mundane affairs in human form.
The fourth to ingest is Huan Dan, which is to be taken with 1 spoon each time
for 100 days. Apply it above man’s eyes, and ghosts will leave him alone.
The fifth is Er Dan, which is to be taken for 30 days. Ghosts and fairy ladies will
come and serve you.
The sixth is Lian Dan, which is to be taken for 10 days. If burned with mercury,
it will turn into gold.
The seventh is Rou Dan, which is to be taken with 1 spoon for 100 days. Its
combination with liquids from Que Peng (a concave acupoint below the neck and
above Ju Gu) will restore the fertility of a 90-year-old man. If burned with lead, it
will turn into gold.

24
Baopuzi: The World of Average Man.
25
Baopuzi: Admonitions on Alcohol.
26
Baopuzi: Magic Medicine.
27
Baopuzi: Implicit Signification.
152 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

The eighth is Fu Dan, which is to be taken for 1 day only. If shaped like a jujube
and held in hand, it will scare off all ghosts. If used to write Chinese characters on
doors, it can scare spirits, ghosts, thieves, wolves and tigers.
The ninth is Han Dan, which is to be taken with 1 spoon for 100 days. It will
invite fairy children and ladies to serve you, and make you fly without effort or
wings.28
Ge Hong wrote that “Nine types of elixir are essential to longevity.”29 Moreover,
he believed firmly that ingesting wonder liquids and elixir would entitle man to be
flexible and capable of everything, making him immortal. Ge pointed out that the
immortal may rise to Heaven or stay on Earth, according to the amount of elixir
ingested. It is in this sense that Ge Hong wrote, “The residence of the immortal
either in Heaven or on Earth is determined by one’s preference. If one wants to stay
on Earth, he can take half the dosage; if one wants to rise to Heaven, he shall take
the whole dosage. When immortality materializes, one needn’t worry about death.
The choice of either flat ground or famous mountains as residence shouldn’t be a
source of worry.”30 This saying affirms the significance of elixir in the rise to
immortality, as one will have the absolute liberty to choose between average living
or immortality, and between rising to Heaven or living on Earth. In this sense, the
nine types of elixir are wondrous, which is why every believer of immortality is
obsessed with alchemy.
What on Earth are the nine types of elixir that Ge Hong talked about? Baopuzi
offered an answer in one line, “The only thing topping medicine is cinnabar, next is
gold, then silver ingot.” Cinnabar is made up of sulphur and mercury, and it can be
reduced to mercury, which is why cinnabar is called Huan Dan (Elixir of
Reduction). Nine rounds of smelting make the elixir Jiu Dan, also called Ninth
Elixir or Wondrous Elixir. Jin Dan is the combination of wonder liquids and
Wondrous Elixir also called Wonder Medicine, Supreme Medicine or Big
Medicine. The truth is surprising and disappointing: Elixir is poisonous, made up of
poisonous mercury. Anyone with the sense of a horse knows that such chemical
elements can only hurt life, to speak nothing of lengthening it. This is also why
most people pursuing longevity, including emperors, end up less healthy, poisoned
or dead.
The Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health (hereafter referred to as the
attitude) is characterized by aloofness towards fortune and fame and by the
emphasis on man’s life. This reveals the fact that man, above all, is a natural
physical entity with a body, entitled to a passion for life. Right to life is the most
important right of man, which should be respected and cherished. Every other right
should be secondary to the right to life. In this aspect, the attitude blazes new trails
amid the mainstream consciousness of pursuing moral perfection and spiritual

28
Baopuzi: Exilir.
29
Baopuzi: Exilir.
30
Baopuzi: The World of Average Man.
10.4 Approaches to Immortality 153

freedom in ancient China, and provides an alternative to man’s pursuit. This also
shows man’s good wish to cherish his life and uphold the value of living. In fact, a
look at China’s history will show that Chinese people are programmed to pursue
immortality, with a particular passion for longevity and immortality. As early as the
Warring States period (476 B.C.–211 B.C.), immortality became a hot issue, and
many stories in Han Feizi involved medicines of immortality and reflected its
popularity. In the Qin-han period (221 B.C.–220 A.D.), the passion for immortality
got stronger; Qin Shi Huang and Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty were crazy about
immortality. The craze was also present in the Tang and Qing Dynasties. Taoism
arose from the need to pursue longevity and immortality. As a Taoist, Ge Hong was
versed in medical science, and he elevated the ideological importance of removing
sickness and preserving health, and proved the legitimacy of medically lengthening
man’s life and ingesting elixir to achieve immortality and longevity. This is an
answer to the long-standing outcry for immortality from the Warring States period,
and a metaphysical reflection and elevation of man’s outlook on life.
To ensure the eternity of life, the attitude emphasizes man’s physical health,
medical science and medicine. Taoism’s rise in the Eastern Han Dynasty is related
to medical science, as removing diseases and averting misfortune had been a major
draw that produced more disciples in Taoism. For Ge Hong, medical science plays
an important role in proving the legitimacy of immortality and in explaining the
attainment immortality by cultivation. In this sense, the attitude is a good example
of applied Chinese medical science.
Due to the need to lengthen life, the attitude emphasizes that human body is an
integral and organic system, whose health is ensured by balance. Regarding this, Ge
Hong said that the five flavors are mutually interactive, and should be balanced, as
they each correspond to man’s five vital organs. Ge wrote, “The intake of five
flavors should not exceed the normal amount. Too much acid will hurt the spleen,
too much bitter food will hurt the lung, too much spice will hurt the liver, too much
salt will hurt the heart, and too much sugar will hurt the kidney.”31 Here we see the
interaction between five vital organs, and the need to balance the interaction by the
balance of five flavors. These views are similar to those found in The Inner Canon
of Huangdi (黄帝内经). In fact, Ge Hong was a famous doctor and wrote several
books on medical science. Moreover, Ge Hong noticed the relationship between
food, emotion and longevity summarized many health tips. His methods of health
preservation seem reasonable even today.
Ge’s methods of health preservation focus on prevention and daily preservation
and conform to the Chinese medical philosophy of curing a disease not yet man-
ifest. Regarding health preservation, Ge exaggerated the function of elixir, and
emphasized the clever use of food as a way of daily treatment. Regarding food
treatment, he proposed many sound health tips, including “Getting drunk and

31
Baopuzi: The Right Approach to Immortality Under Supervision.
154 10 A Natural Attitude Towards Life and Health

vomiting is harmful; lying on bed after a rich dinner is harmful”, “Eat when you
feel hungry and don’t eat a lot; drink when you feel thirsty, and don’t drink a lot.
Too much food leads to accumulation of trash in the human body, and too much
drink leads to phlegm” and “If you don’t eat enough, your body will get easily cold;
if you don’t drink any wine, you will be affected by wind.”32

Baopuzi – The Right Approach to Immortality Under Supervision.


32
Chapter 11
The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

If human destiny is determined, then what are the factors that determine it apart
from Providence or Heaven which judges a person by good and evil? The statement
“Destiny lies in righteousness” has managed to interpret destiny from a new per-
spective. This statement claims that human beings, like all other living things on
Earth, are derived from Heaven and Earth. Heaven, which gives birth to human
beings and all other living things, is the one of righteousness and li (principle).
Therefore, Heaven, Tao and li are one. Heaven and Earth give birth to living things
by producing qi (matter). A person’s destiny is determined by both li and qi, so
destiny is also the destiny of Heaven. In this sense, Heaven, li and destiny are one,
and a person’s destiny exists in righteousness and li. In the history of Chinese
philosophy, two top advocates of “Destiny lies in righteousness” are the Two
Chengs: Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao.

11.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven

The Confucian school has great passion for Heaven, which has made “Destiny
determined by Heaven” the main content of the Confucian ontological philosophy
and discourse. As the inheritors of the Confucianism, the Two Chengs explore
human destiny based on the previous “Destiny Determined by Heaven” theory of
traditional Confucianism.

11.1.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven

Following the traditional theory of “Destiny Determined by Heaven”, the Two


Chengs assert that human beings’ status, age and moral conscience are all destined
by Heaven. In this sense, Cheng Yi states, “Destiny is to Heaven what human
156 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

nature is to human beings. A person’s status and age are his destiny, so are his
humanity, justice, propriety and wisdom.”1 In this statement, Cheng Yi affirms that
human destiny is determined by Heaven, interpreting a person’s status, age and
moral conscience all as the result of his destiny. This argument is not new. Instead,
it is quite similar to those of Mencius and Confucius. The only difference is that,
while recognizing the inherent uniformity between destiny and human nature,
Cheng Yi makes a distinction between them, stressing that the destiny and human
nature have different focuses. However, it is not inappropriate to conclude that the
Two Chengs’ “Destiny Determined by Heaven” theory is simply cliché. In their
view, Heaven determines destiny by constantly manipulating a person’s behaviors
and experiences. For instance, about Confucius’ meeting with Nanzi, the history
has witnessed all kinds of judgments. The Two Chengs comment that it is just as
what should happen. Besides, Nanzi wants to meet Confucius out of good inten-
tions. How could the sage possibly refuse her? Zilu is displeased with their meeting.
Confucius pledged that “Heaven would not allow me to refuse the meeting”,
meaning that “I meet her by the will of Heaven”.2
In the Two Chengs’ view, a person’s destiny is manifested through all his
experiences. This means that experiences are destiny, or rather each experience is
arranged by destiny and is destined to happen. According to Cheng Yi, a person’s
destiny is endowed by Heaven. People will have his destiny in accordance with
Heaven’s will. Just as the shadow comes with the form and the sound comes with
the crash, a person comes with his inevitable destiny.
Based on this logic, a person can never alter his destiny since everything is
inevitably determined by Heaven. Nor could a person change his life span, meaning
that it could not be increased or decreased. From this perspective, those Taoists’
attempts to take elixir for longevity are futile and pathetic. Therefore, Cheng Yi
comments, “How foolish are those who seek longevity by taking elixir. A person’s
life span is determined by Heaven. No one can increase or decrease it. How pathetic
it is to seek longevity this way!”3

11.1.2 Destiny Are Predetermined

A person’s destiny is determined by Heaven. This viewpoint of the Two Chengs


has no fundamental difference from the one of Confucius’ or Mencius’. However,
how does Heaven determine destiny? How come that people’s destinies vary so
much if they are all determined by Heaven? Their answers to these questions make
the Two Chengs different from their predecessors. To be specific, they explain the

1
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XXIV.
2
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume III.
3
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XXV.
11.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven 157

variety of people’s destiny in the real world by introducing two concepts—li and qi.
They focus on the similarity of people’s destiny as well as the differences.
The Two Chengs believe that li and qi cannot be separated from each other when
applied to a specific thing. Cheng Hao calls this “no shen (li) could exist without qi
and no qi could exist without shen”.4 In other words, all things consist of tangible qi
and intangible shen (also called li or Dao). For a specific thing, li and qi can never
be separated from each other. Only when li and qi are combined is it possible to
generate human beings and other living things. However, li and qi have different
functions. “Qi is always tangible, while Dao is always intangible.”5 The Two
Chengs state that, human beings, like all other living things, consist of li and qi.
Therefore, a person’s destiny depends on the nature of li and qi that he has acquired.
This makes the Two Chengs divide destiny into two kinds, destiny determined by li
and destiny determined by qi.
About the theory of destiny determined by li, the Two Chengs believe that all
things including human beings are formed by li. Li is the ontological basis of
human beings and other beings. For this reason, Cheng Yi asserts, “Animals have
senses, but plants do not, so they naturally have different natures. However, they are
all formed by Heaven and Earth, so they have the same li.”6 According to his
argument, human beings are similar to animals and plants because they are all
formed by li. However, someone wonders about this. Since all things on Earth have
the same li, they should have the same nature as well. How come they have such
different natures, especially among human beings? Why do their destinies have
differences such as humility and nobility?
In the Two Chengs’ explanation, both human beings and matters are formed by
li, so they should have possessed the same nature. However, the li which forms
them is different, either primary or secondary. Human beings are formed by the
primary li, while other beings are formed by the secondary li. Similarly, in the real
world, some people are wise, others are slow-witted; some people enjoy health and
longevity, while others have bad health and live a short life. This is because they are
formed by different li. People who are formed by the primary and strong li are
intelligent and longevous; while those who are formed by the secondary and weak li
are born slow-witted and live a short life. According to this theory, both the dif-
ferences among human beings and those between human beings and other beings
are caused by the differences of li. All human experiences can be explained by li.
Since human beings and all other beings are formed by both li and qi, the Two
Chengs develop not only the theory “destiny determined by li”, but also the theory
“destiny determined by qi”. Moreover, when they explain the differences between
people and other beings and the different human destinies, they resort more to the
“destiny determined by qi” theory. The Two Chengs believe that qi, like li, is also
an essential element for forming things. That is why they claim, “The beginning of

4
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XI.
5
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume VI.
6
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XXIV.
158 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

all things is qi. Gradually they develop forms and then transform their forms. Qi
disappears as their form develops.”7 These key ideas lead to the “destiny deter-
mined by qi” theory by the Two Chengs. This theory makes them firmly believe
that qi a person acquires determines his destiny. In this sense, a person’s qi is his
destiny. Based on this belief, the Two Chengs assert that, qi one acquires deter-
mines his life span. They also point out that qi determines the differences among
human beings by the interaction between qi of good and evil and qi of Heaven and
Earth.
This means that qi can be good or evil, though people are all endowed with qi.
Those who acquire good qi would be longevous; while those who acquire evil qi
would be short-lived. This is the destined law of life. They state more that the nature
of qi also determines one’s moral character as well as his life span. The Two
Chengs assert, “The nature is qi, and qi is the nature. This is man’s inborn nature. It
is not that a person is born with both good and evil nature. Some people are good
since childhood, while some are evil. This is determined by qi he was endowed
with.”8 In their view, people are formed by qi, so they were born with it. The reason
why people show the difference of good and evil behaviors is that qi they were
endowed with determines all. For instance, human beings, animals and plants are all
formed by qi. It is the quality of qi they were endowed with that makes them what
they are. Furthermore, all human beings are formed by qi. Qi’s purity makes them
different. In Cheng Yi’s words, “Those who were endowed with pure qi would
become saints, while those who were endowed with turbid qi would become
simpletons.”9 How does the purity of qi determine one’s aptitude? Cheng Yi
explains, “pure qi is good, while turbid qi is evil.” This means that qi, as the
forming materials of human beings, determines one’s aptitude. Thus, for a person,
pure qi would make him intelligent, kind and noble, while turbid qi would make
him turbid, evil and fool.
In conclusion, the Two Chengs on the one hand claim that li determines a
person’s destiny, and on the other hand state that one’s life is determined by qi. In
their viewpoint, Heaven and Earth form human beings and all things with li.
Nothing can exist if there is no li of Heaven and Earth. Li is the ontological basis for
human beings and things. Meanwhile, li is only the spirit of all things. It cannot
serve as the forming materials. That’s why the constitution of things also requires qi
to develop forms.
Since human destiny is determined by li and qi, then what is the relationship
between li and qi in determining human destiny? The Two Chengs answer, “The
righteous li and evil qi are always competing with each other. One wanes, the other
waxes. Their ratio determines whether one would be gentle or petty. If li grows, we
naturally know that evil qi decreases. Those who have no evil qi would become a

7
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume V.
8
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume I.
9
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XXII.
11.1 Destiny Determined by Heaven 159

virtuous person.”10 The Two Chengs insist that li and qi together determine one’s
destiny. However, there is a distinction between them. To be specific, they
emphasize the good of li and the evil of qi. They consider li and qi as two opposing
factors based on their view on the nature of li and qi. They point out that the process
of becoming a “Virtuous Man” means that the righteous li is defeating evil qi until
the latter vanishes. This means that they hold different attitudes towards li and qi
although they consider both necessary. One is to be preserved, while the other is to
be diminished. Furthermore, the righteous li justifies the legitimacy of strengthening
morality. Evil qi confirms the necessity and urgency of strengthening morality. By
confirming the legitimacy and urgency, the Two Chengs make people believe that it
is important to accumulate the li of Heaven and to diminish evil qi. One would
become a truly wise man or a virtuous man once evil qi vanishes and righteous li
becomes purified.

11.2 The Oneness of Heaven, Li, Dao, Nature, Destiny


and Mind

As the inheritors of Confucianism, the Two Chengs support the “Destiny determined
by Heaven” theory. As the pioneers of Neo-Confucianism, the Two Chengs refer to
Heaven as Heaven of Righteous li, different from previous ones. For this reason, the
Two Chengs highlight the uniformity between Heaven, li, Dao, nature, destiny and
mind. It is also within the logical framework and the value of the uniformity that the
Two Chengs find the basis for one to settle down and fulfill his destiny.

11.2.1 The Oneness of Heaven, Li and Dao

The Two Chengs inherit the traditional theory and believe that Heaven is the origin
of all things on Earth. According to them, Heaven is merely a boundless area. Things
are not formed because of Heaven’s likes or dislikes. Nor are they designed out of
Heaven’s will. As a matter of fact, Heaven and Earth naturally move themselves; all
the things are naturally formed. On this basis, the Two Chengs state that the Way of
Heaven is the natural law. This natural law is li, and li is the natural law.
The Two Chengs state, “Heaven has created infinite things.”11 This Heaven is
not the unknown supernatural Heaven or Heaven with intentions, but is Heaven of
righteous li. In this sense, li, Dao and Heaven are actually the same though they
have different names. They can be regarded as the same concept. For this, Cheng Yi
points out, “The ways of Heaven change, and all things are generated. They all have
their own kind and nature. What Heaven gives is destiny; what all things on Earth

10
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume I.
11
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume VI.
160 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

acquire is its nature.”12 In his view, all things on Earth including human beings are
generated by Heaven and its natural laws. This natural law is called Dao. That
means all things on Earth are generated by Heaven, also referring to li and Dao.
The Two Chengs propose the philosophical Heaven of righteous Li and the
oneness of Heaven, Li and Dao. This has developed a different mode of thinking
and value system for the Confucian School. Moreover, it provides new foundations
for one to settle down and fulfill his destiny. To be specific, Heaven and Dao that
Two Chengs refer to are also called the li of Heaven, which in reality corresponds to
the ethical and moral principles based on the Three Cardinal Guides and Five
Constant Virtues.
Furthermore, after examining Two Chengs’ thoughts on the li of Heaven, it is
easy to find that they consider the li of Heaven as the ontology of the universe. They
use the li of Heaven to interpret human beings’ destiny and nature. This labels the
ethics and morals as human beings’ inborn nature so that people can obey the Three
Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues as if this is their nature to do this.

11.2.2 The Oneness of Heaven, Li, Destiny, Nature


and Mind

From the belief that Heaven generates all the things, the Two Chengs assert that a
person’s destiny is in the hand of Heaven, thus Heaven and destiny are one. In this
sense, Cheng Hao claims, “The command of Heaven is what Heaven gives to all the
things.”13 He thinks that destiny is what Heaven commands. All the things on Earth
receive the order and form its own nature. Thus, Dao requires them to follow their
own nature and obey God’s will. Heaven, destiny, nature and Dao have the same
substance though they have different names.
Moreover, the Two Chengs state that both the destiny given by Heaven and a
person’s endowed nature manifest themselves as the mind. Heaven, li, nature and
mind are actually the same. This suggests that a person’s mind, nature, destiny and
li have the same substance though they have different focuses and angles.

11.2.3 “To Fully Understand Li, to Fully Develop One’s


Nature and to Fulfill One’s Destiny Are the Same.”

Based on the idea of a person’s mind, nature and Heaven are the same li, the Two
Chengs claim that Dao is in a person, not out of him. The reason they say this is
because they think Dao is an inborn human nature.

12
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume I.
13
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XI.
11.2 The Oneness of Heaven, Li, Dao, Nature, Destiny and Mind 161

Based on the belief that Dao is a person’s born nature, that one cannot seek for
Dao out of human nature, that what determines human nature is his mind, the Two
Chengs state, “A person’s mind is governed by Heaven. If you know all about his
mind, you would know his nature. This can only be learnt from the inside of him,
not the outside.”14 In their view, just like that li, nature and destiny are the same, to
fully understand li, to fully develop one’s nature and to fulfill one’s destiny are the
same. This means that they have the same connotation and are performed simul-
taneously. In other words, these three things are consistent in terms of space and
time. Furthermore, since these three things are the same, one has to fully understand
li and fully develop one’s nature before he could fulfill his destiny. This is the
ontological basis and logical framework of the Two Chengs’ philosophy of destiny.

11.3 Destiny Determined by Righteousness

The Two Chengs believe that a person’s nature and destiny is the same as li, and
that to fully understand li, to fully develop one’s nature and to fulfill one’s destiny
are the same. Based on these ideas, they connect righteous li to the destiny and
assert that destiny is li and that “a person’s destiny is determined by the righteous
li”. They put forward two ideas so that people know how to settle down and fulfill
their destiny. That is to fulfill one’s destiny through righteousness.

11.3.1 To Preserve One’s Destiny

The Two Chengs do not intend to suggest changing one’s destiny, but rather to
make people preserve and fulfill his destiny. To be specific, they claim that one
should accept his destiny since everything in his life is destined to happen. One
should thus let it be when faced with life or death, wealth or poverty. In their
opinion, one’s destiny is determined by the amount of li and qi he was endowed
with, about which he could do nothing. Hence, people should accept his destiny and
keep an open mind to life and death, humility and nobility. On the contrary, if one
cannot take it easy, he would suffer as he tries to master his own destiny, fortune
and misfortune. For these reasons, Cheng Yi is critical of some of Confucius’
disciples who go into business to make money and to change his life conditions. He
thinks that going into business means insubordination to destiny. The act of doing
business for money and wishing to change their living conditions is a violation of
one’s destiny. He wants to change Heaven’s arrangements for him by his own
deeds. This practice is impossible, even dangerous, the immediate consequence of
which is that one cannot fulfill his destiny. The Two Chengs comment, “People all

14
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume II.
162 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

know that one’s destiny cannot be altered, but I have never seen such a man who
can face danger with no fear and face wealth with no envy.”15 The basic principle
of the Two Chengs’ philosophy is to accept destiny. This includes the reconciliation
to poverty and lowness. Just like Mencius has said, “Neither wealth nor honor can
corrupt him; neither poverty nor humility can make him swerve from principle;
neither threats nor forces can subdue him.”16

11.3.2 To Know One’s Destiny

The Two Chengs stress that people should know about his destiny before he could
accept, obey and fulfill his destiny. They on the one hand say that life and death,
poverty and wealth, intelligence and folly are governed by destiny. On the other
hand, their statement is somehow reserved, stating only how to fulfill one’s destiny,
not how to know the end of one’s destiny. The Two Chengs state, “One shall know
the end of li and his own nature, but not his own destiny. One’s destiny can only be
fulfilled.”17 It is clear that they want people to “fulfill his destiny”, not to “know the
end of his destiny.” Their purpose is to make people hold different attitudes towards
different destinies mentioned earlier. Moreover, the Two Chengs propose specific
ways for people to treat different destinies. They think that there are generally two
different attitudes, narrow-minded or broad-minded, to poverty and wealth,
humility and nobility. Those who are narrow-minded care too much about poverty
and wealth. They are implying that people shall broaden their mind and ignore the
differences between rich and poor. They should live their life with virtues. It is clear
that they are trying to classify destinies into the destiny of poverty and wealth, and
the destiny of humility and nobility. For the former one, people should just accept
it; for the latter one, people should strive for nobility through their virtues. In other
words, what the Two Chengs try to make people reconcile with is their living
conditions, economic conditions and social status. As for life and death, rich and
poor, grace or disgrace, people should just obey his destiny. Based on this, they
state, “A person’s nobility or humility depends on himself; a country’s order and
disorder depends on its governance. Such things cannot be ascribed to destiny.”18
Different from their attitude to destiny on life and death, the Two Chengs deem that
one should strive for the perfection of his morality and spiritual pursuits. One
should not accept his destiny on morals and ethics. Based on this understanding,
they emphasize that there is only one kind of destiny, the one endowed by Heaven.
As for the death caused by rebellion and defying one’s superiors, it is not destiny.
Cheng Yi comments on this, “There is only one kind of destiny. If one does not

15
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Essence Volume, On Nature.
16
Mencius: Teng Wengong.
17
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume II.
18
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Essence Volume, On Politics.
11.3 Destiny Determined by Righteousness 163

seek for something but it happens to him, this is his real destiny. If one is put into
prison and dies, this is not destiny.”19 In response to this argument, some people
raise the question, “Those who died in prison surely did not fulfill his real destiny.
Isn’t it still destined to happen?”20 Cheng Yi replies, “A sage would only tell people
to accept himself. They never talk about destiny.” People would ask again, “Does
that mean those in prison did not die because of his destiny?” Cheng Yi answers,
“Mencius only said that this is all destined to be. He never said it was destiny.”21
Now that they talk only about one’s real destiny instead of his non-destiny,
stressing that one can only accept his destiny and cannot change his destiny, how
should people distinguish between destiny and non-destiny? Cheng Yi answers,
“The desire of one’s mouth, eyes, ears and nose is caused by human nature. Yet,
one shall not seek for but follow his own destiny. As for the four cardinal virtues:
humanity, justice, propriety and wisdom, Heaven endows people with different
amounts of them. However, human nature enables us to learn more about virtues.
Thus, a gentleman never says too much about destiny.”22 The Two Chengs state on
knowing one’s destiny to make people realize that one shall not pursue for phys-
iological needs because all this has been destined. Instead, one should only pursue
for moral improvement and spiritual life. They say this so that the poor do not crave
for wealth and status. It is clear that the destiny that one should accept is only the
destiny about one’s life span and economic state. In this regard, the Two Chengs
assert that one cannot alter his destiny, and people should not try to change his
status or the hierarchy. However, this is only one aspect of the argument. In another
aspect, one should also pursue moral improvement apart from accepting his social
status and reconciling with poverty and lowness. That means he should consider
becoming a sage as his divine mission in spite of the inherent differences. They call
this the alterable part of destiny. This is their dual purpose about knowing one’s
destiny.

11.3.3 “Destiny Lies in Righteousness”

The Two Chengs, on the one hand, instruct people to be obedient and submissive
whether he is rich or poor, noble or humble; on the other hand, they exhort people
that one’s destiny is alterable. In the context that “Human nature enables one to learn
and change”, they advocate that one’s nobility cannot be attributed to destiny. Their
philosophy has given prominence to morality in the process of dealing with destiny,
making morality the cardinal principle and the method of dealing with destiny. This
principle and method, in their words, is “destiny lies in righteousness”. In their

19
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Foreign Volume.
20
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XI.
21
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XVIII.
22
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XIX.
164 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

views, those average people and the lower people tend to believe that human destiny
has already been determined, while those sages only search for the destiny by Dao or
Righteousness, whether their destiny is determined or not. For those sages, they only
focus on righteousness instead of destiny because “destiny lies in righteousness”.
Furthermore, The Two Chengs explain that righteousness does not emerge from
your deeds, but exist in your human nature. A person’s destiny is equal to human
nature, and righteousness lies in human nature. Thus, one’s destiny coexists with
Righteousness, which means that “destiny lies in righteousness”. To be specific, the
phrase “destiny lies in righteousness” contains two connotations:
Firstly, “people should only behave by righteousness, irrespective of advantages
and disadvantages, safety and danger”.
“Destiny lies in righteousness” demands people to behave by righteousness,
irrespective of advantages and disadvantages, safety and danger. The Two Chengs
think that it is natural to seek advantages and avoid disadvantages for the average
people. However, to these sages, the only criterion for their conducts is based on
righteousness. If it is a righteous deed, then you should do it. If it is not, then you
should not, which, in their views, is the meaning of destiny. Based on this logic, to
govern a nation and its people requires precautions. As for the consequences, one
should take it easy. Being unperturbed when confronted with calamity, one should
just conduct by righteousness. In other words, destiny lies in the process of con-
ducting righteousness.
Secondly, “behave by righteousness, irrespective of the consequences, be it
success or failure”.
“Destiny lies in righteousness” demands that people should act by righteousness
instead of giving up though they know that nothing can change the outcome. Just as
the Two Chengs have said, “If a person is in trouble and he knows that nothing can
change the outcome, then he gives up, is this the right way to fulfill one’s righteous
destiny?”23 The Two Chengs indicate that for those who could reach the state of
“destiny lies in righteousness”, they never care about the advantages and disad-
vantages. Instead, they would only conduct by righteousness. Though they know
that the outcome is irretrievable, they conduct themselves by righteousness all the
same. Cheng Yi gives some examples to explain this. Confucius had been aware
that Huantui was incapable of plotting against him, why, did he disguise himself
when going across State Song? Shun had foreseen his brother Xiang was plotting to
murder him, why did he still love his brother? The duration of a dynasty has already
been determined, why does the monarch strive to manage his country? Yu and Ji
did not go home when they were busy saving lives. They knew that those starved or
drowned to death had their own destiny, why did they still save them? What is the
reason behind all these? People shall learn from them that “ways can run parallel
without interfering with one another”.24

23
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Essence Volume, On Studies.
24
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: Posthumous Works of the Chengs, Volume XVIII.
11.3 Destiny Determined by Righteousness 165

Thus, the statement “destiny lies in righteousness” emphasizes the relevance


between destiny and righteousness. Besides, it also proposes using righteousness as
the principle to deal with destiny. Since righteousness turns to be the only standard
to judge and estimate one’s destiny, the end result of “destiny lies in righteousness”
is that righteousness replaces destiny. It means that people should focus only on
righteousness instead of destiny—at least not caring about the differences of rich
and poor, nobility and humility. If there is destiny, becoming sages is the only
destiny.

11.4 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness

As mentioned, the Two Chengs stress the correlation between destiny and righ-
teousness. When they discuss destiny, righteousness is always mentioned. In this
process, they pay attention to the difference between destiny and righteousness.
According to their definition, righteousness means that a person ought to do
something or not, while destiny means the gain and loss, the fortune and misfor-
tune. By this definition, the difference between destiny and righteousness becomes
evident. Thus, for a person, all of his deeds and experiences can be attributed to
righteousness and destiny.
The Two Chengs add that one has to bear a thorough understanding of destiny
and righteousness to adapt to society. Righteousness indicates the principle that
people should do something or not, while destiny indicates the outcomes of peo-
ple’s deeds. Righteousness and destiny have something in common, but also some
conflicts. When they are in conflict, what should people do? The theory “destiny
lies in righteousness” provides people with solutions. The end result of “destiny lies
in righteousness” is to practice righteousness and virtue, which means that destiny
is replaced by righteousness. The Two Chengs also give the following answers to
how people should handle the relation between destiny and righteousness in real
life.

11.4.1 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness

The Two Chengs indicate that destiny and righteousness are both indispensable to
people’s conducts. Meanwhile, their status is different. When judging and choosing
one’s conducts, or handling the relation between righteousness and destiny, one
should put righteousness in the first place. Therefore, they advise people to act
primarily by righteousness, supplemented by the principle of destiny. Righteousness
is always the motivation and purpose of one’s actions.
The Two Chengs indicate that people shall act primarily by the principle of
righteousness, supplemented by the principle of destiny. As they have sighed,
“Most people know there is destiny, but few of them can face dangers with no fear.
166 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

Only those sages can treat destiny with ease.”25 The Two Chengs explain that most
people think that sages enjoy poverty and detest wealth, which is against human
nature. In fact, sages also delight in wealth and dislike poverty. It is just that they
hold on to righteousness and accept his destiny. They don’t try to alter their destiny.
The Two Chengs conclude that to treat destiny with righteousness is the standard
for judging whether a person is gentle or petty. Similar to the “Destiny Lies in
Righteousness” theory, the Two Chengs use the excuse that poverty and wealth,
humility and nobility have been destined so that people would stick to righteous-
ness. This shows that they try to make people at ease with poverty and wealth.
When people have to choose between righteousness and profits, they should always
stick to righteousness to preserve their destiny.
According to the standard of the Two Chengs, people who know their destiny
and feel unrest about it are the most low ones, equal to villains. People who can
treat destiny with ease but have no other pursuits are the average ones. The sages
are people who regard righteousness as his only pursuit, overlooking the existence
of destiny. Apparently, the Two Chengs praise the third kind of people, and criticize
the first ones. While the second kind of conducts are the conducts of most people,
the Two Chengs still encourage people to attain the third state by cultivating
morality. As a matter of fact, the two aspects: “to preserve destiny by righteousness”
and “to preserve one’s integrity” are the specific methods to attain the third state.
Cheng Yi calls this state “to accept one’s destiny and place”. He is eager to teach
people how to attain this state. He says, “To accept one’s place and destiny means
to attain the mean. One shall accept his own status, not fawning on his superiors,
nor bullying his subordinates, not repining at Heaven, nor blaming other people. To
stay plain and simple, to stay modest, these are the ways to accept one’s destiny and
place.”26 Furthermore, the Two Chengs put forward some specific methods and
principles such as “to preserve one’s destiny with righteousness” for people to
change from a humble person to an average one, then to a sage.

11.4.2 To Fulfill Destiny by Righteousness

According to Two Chengs, destiny is put forward by the sages for the average
people and the lower people. It aims to tell them to preserve destiny by righ-
teousness. However, a sage should not be content with securing his destiny. They
interpret that “to fulfill destiny with righteousness” means to replace destiny by
righteousness, then mentioning nothing about destiny any more. Once people attain
this state, they would consider only how their deeds conform to righteousness,
considering nothing about destiny. The Two Chengs give an example to explain
this. A gentleman has both righteousness and destiny. As Mencius said, “You

25
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Saying Volume VI.
26
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Saying Volume VIII.
11.4 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness 167

would get it if you seek it, while you would lose it if you abandon it. This act of
seeking helps one to get since the thing it seeks lies within oneself.” This saying is
about righteousness. At the same time, Mencius mentioned, “One might as well
seek it, but the outcome is determined by destiny. This act of seeking is not
helpful.” This is a saying about destiny. For sages, there is no destiny but righ-
teousness in their mind. Therefore, “one shall not get the throne of a nation by
conducting evil deeds or killing innocent people.27 It is about righteousness and
ignoring destiny. Similarly, “Wealth is desired by all. If one can have wealth by
righteousness, then he shall pursue it though he might lose his reputation; if one
cannot have it by righteousness, then he shall reconcile with poverty to keep his
integrity. It is not that people must enjoy poverty and lowness, it is just that the
righteousness cannot be abandoned.”28 Based on this belief, the Two Chengs only
talk about righteousness rather than destiny. They are actually using righteousness
in place of destiny. The Two Chengs instruct people, “When a gentleman is in
trouble, he should keep his integrity, giving no attention to other beings. If he has
kept his integrity and the problem cannot be solved, then this is his destiny. If a man
does not keep his integrity and abandon himself, though he escapes by good for-
tune, this is still evil. Thus, one shall not do anything about the righteous destiny.”29

11.4.3 To Maintain Oneself and Keep Righteousness

The Two Chengs point out that the best way to handle the relationship between
destiny and righteousness is to “preserve one’s destiny with righteousness” and to
“fulfill one’s destiny with righteousness”. This state is not easy to attain. This is the
state only saints can attain. However, this is a state that everyone must strive for,
and people can attain this state by constant efforts. In their view, the approach to
achieve this state is to strengthen self-cultivation. Most importantly, one should
maintain himself. To maintain oneself means to cultivate one’s morality. In
Mencius’ words, this means cultivating one’s noble spirit. In their opinion, human
beings live between Heaven and Earth which is full of primordial qi, just like fish in
the water. Thus, a man shall conserve qi to live, like a fish has to conserve some
water to survive.
Thus, on the basis that righteousness replaces destiny, the Two Chengs conclude
that the way to fulfill one’s destiny is to cultivate one’s morality. In this way, they
not only follow the traditional ethics of the Confucian school, but also introduce a
moralization of destiny philosophy. Then they are able to replace destiny philos-
ophy with moral cultivation.

27
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Foreign Volume VIII.
28
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Saying Volume VI.
29
Collection of the Two Chengs’ Thoughts: the Essence Volume, On Human Beings.
168 11 The Theory of Destiny in Righteousness

As is mentioned, the Two Chengs’ destiny philosophy is not like Confucius’


destiny philosophy which makes Heaven a mysterious force and insists that
Heaven’s secrets cannot be revealed. In a way, the Two Chengs enhance the
transparency of Heaven by stating that the law of Heaven is li, and the key idea of li
is the moral principles and practices based on the Three Cardinal Guides and Five
Constant Virtues. This is actually an exaggeration of the philosophy of ethics from
an ontological perspective, making the li of Heaven the ontological basis and the
prerequisite of one’s survival. This means that their suggestion for people to fulfill
one’s destiny is not to fear Heaven, nor to be disillusioned by destiny. In fact, the
secret that Two Chengs reveal to people is that one should match Heaven with their
virtues, in their exact words, “to preserve one’s destiny by righteousness” and “to
fulfill one’s destiny by righteousness”. In other words, the Two Chengs highlight
the patterns of moral behaviors and the value of morality. Through expounding the
moral cultivation attitude towards destiny, they point a way for people to settle
down and fulfill his destiny, and to become a saint.
In inheriting the value of Confucian moralism, the Two Chengs have always
used righteousness as a standard to examine destiny. Based on this theory, they
focus not on the humility and nobility, the poor and rich of destiny, but on the
relationship between destiny and righteousness. This results in the interpretation of
their destiny philosophy as the relationship between destiny and righteousness.
Also, they remove destiny from moral pursuit and accession to saints because of
their favor of righteousness.
To be more specific, the Two Chengs use righteousness to replace destiny. Their
primary purpose is to make people focus on righteousness rather than destiny when
these two concepts are in conflict. This actually means that it is people’s destiny to
follow the patriarchal system and morality. Thus, moral cultivation and spiritual
pursuit become the only connotation of destiny and the only way to fulfill one’s
destiny. On the one hand, the Two Chengs involve destiny so people could be
content with poverty and do not crave for fame, wealth and status. On the other
hand, they want people to be devoted to Dao and to be positive, to live their life
with righteousness. This is the main idea of “destiny lies in righteousness” and “to
fulfill one’s destiny with righteousness”. The Two Chengs use righteousness to
examine destiny. Their different attitudes towards righteousness and destiny show
their dual purposes, to make people accept their destiny in the material aspect and to
pursue moral improvements unremittingly.
There is some significance in its logical framework, thinking mode and social
influences. The Two Chengs assert that the li of Heaven is the origin and that it is
manifested by human destiny. This is actually strengthening the necessity of moral
principles based on the Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues, which in
turn reinforce the spiritual sovereignty and governance of human minds. These
assertions establish a basis for the Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming
Dynasties which is a trinity of ontological philosophy, philosophy of human nature
and moral philosophy. This has led to the theoretical trend back then. After the Two
Chengs, other Neo-Confucian scholars all consider human nature and destiny as a
dual concept. The Two Chengs use the “endowed qi” concept to explain the
11.4 To Preserve Destiny by Righteousness 169

differences between humans and animals and the differences between human
beings. Henceforth, destiny of human and destiny of li have become two parallel
aspects. For instance, under the influence of the Two Chengs, Zhang Zai talks about
human nature as the nature of Heaven and Earth and the nature of qi. For another
instance, Zhu Xi states that the nature of destiny and the nature of qi have con-
tributed to human nature. Besides, Zhu Xi also says, “there are two kinds of
destinies,” which is similar to the Two Chengs’ statement.
Chapter 12
The Duality of Fate Theory

If we presume that fate does exist, then, is there one kind of fate or multiple kinds?
Shall people treat different kinds of fate the same, or differently? The Duality of
Fate Theory elaborates on these questions. This theory insists that, humans are born
with li (rational principle) and a benevolent nature. It is the fate of humans to pursue
the Heavenly Principle, the Command of Heaven. However, the union of various qi
(vital force) and li results in variations in each person’s fate: longevity or premature
death, rich or poor, noble or humble, innocent or corrupted, and kind or evil. These
pairs of opposite results of fate have different sources and qualities, thus shall be
treated differently. Although little attention shall be given to the fate that decides
one’s wealth and longevity, we should take seriously the fate that shapes one’s
judgment on the good and evil, and the right and wrong, as well as the Heavenly
Principle (tianli) and human desires. In the history of Chinese philosophy, Zhu Xi is
one of the representatives of the Duality of Fate Theory. According to his episte-
mology, to “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers, and exercise control over
excess human desires” should become a common pursuit and common fate of the
entire human race.

12.1 The Theory of Principle as the Supreme Ultimate,


and the Outlook on Principle & Vital Force

As a compiler of all Neo-Confucianism concepts, Zhu Xi is a strict adherent of the


Theory of Principle as the Supreme Ultimate. According to him, li (principle) is the
supreme ultimate of the universe. Just as Heaven is endowed with li so it becomes
Heaven, and Earth is endowed with li so it becomes Earth; and so are all objects and
living creatures. In this sense, Zhu Xi claimed that: “Everything amidst the universe
comes from li. Heaven becomes Heaven when it has li. Earth becomes Earth when
it has li. And everything born in Heaven and Earth cultivates their own nature
172 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

following li.” This statement of Zhu has twofold meanings: first, li is the ultimate
source of the world, everything in the universe originates from it and they just exist
as their products and manifestation; second, li produces all things and endows each
of them with its distinct nature. It indicates that, just as the roots of all beings go
back to li, we could only find the ultimate explanation of human nature and fate in
li—the supreme ultimate of the universe. It can be concluded that Zhu’s theory of
human nature and fate is metaphysical. In order to grasp the essence of Zhu Xi’s
theory of nature and fate, we must start from his ontology that li produces all
objects and living creatures.
What exactly is li, the supreme ultimate of the universe highly promoted by Zhu
Xi? How does li produce everything in the world? To answer these questions, we
should first review his definition and analysis of li.

12.1.1 The Characteristics and Rules of Li

li is the first scope of Zhu Xi’s philosophical system, and one that Zhu discussed
quite often.
In Zhu’s philosophy, li has the below characteristics and principles.
Firstly, li exists before Heaven and Earth, and has absolute eternity.
Zhu Xi held that, li, as the supreme ultimate of the universe, is an absolutely
eternal existence. It is manifested in two aspects: first, before Heaven and Earth
came into being, li already was as it is. In this vein, Zhu argued that, “li existed even
before Heaven and Earth. Because of li’s pre-existence, Heaven and Earth came
into existence. If li doesn’t exist, Heaven and Earth, and all objects and living
creatures would not have a bearer, and thus would not have come into existence.” It
indicates that, li enjoys a transcending status over everything else in the world
regarding time order. On this basis, Zhu went on to argue li’s existential supremacy:
li is the supreme ultimate of the universe, thus everything is a product of li. Second,
li exists eternally, beyond Heaven and Earth, and all creatures. It stays unaffected by
worldly activities. Even when the universe doesn’t exist anymore, li still exists. Zhu
noted: “Even if mountains and rivers all come to destruction, li exists eternal.” In
Zhu’s philosophy, li is an absolute existence.
Secondly, li is perfect, and one and only.
Zhu Xi stressed that, li as the supreme ultimate of the universe, is paramount and
one and only. Zhu borrowed the example of “the Moon has its reflection on ten
thousand rivers” from Buddhism to make his point. The Heavenly Principle is one
and only, just as the moon in the sky; the Heavenly Principle is manifested in all
objects and living creatures, just like the same moon forming countless reflections
on rivers and lakes, which is to say, despite of the multifarious qualities and
appearances of things in the world, they all have the same root cause, and are all a
reflection and manifestation of the Heavenly Principle. They don’t merely reflect a
part or a perspective of the Heaven Principle, but the whole of it. In this vein, Zhu
repeatedly claimed:
12.1 The Theory of Principle as the Supreme Ultimate, and the … 173

The whole of taiji (the Supreme Ultimate), is reflected in every being.


taiji exists in every person and every physical object.
To accentuate the supremacy of li as well as to separate the li as the supreme
ultimate of the universe (one li) from the li that all creatures are endowed with (ten
thousand li), Zhu Xi named the former taiji (the Supreme Ultimate). He held that:
“taiji is the totality of the li of all things in the world.”
Third, li is broad, pure, and embodies supreme kindness and tranquility.
Zhu Xi held that li, as the supreme ultimate of the universe, has no form, trace,
measurement, or unnaturalness. It is silent, pure, broad and clear. Zhu described
that: “li has no emotion, measurement, or unnaturalness…it is a pure and broad
world. It has no form or trace, and it possesses nothing unnatural.” According to
Zhu Xi, just because li is lack of emotion, measurement and unnaturalness, it is pure
and translucent; and just because that li is lack of impurity, restlessness and evil
thoughts, it is a world of supreme kindness and beauty.
Overall, Zhu Xi attributed absolute, eternal and holy qualities to li., distin-
guishing it from everything else. In this vein, Zhu called li as “tianli” (the Heavenly
Principle).

12.1.2 The Theory on Creation by the Union of Li and Qi

Based on the above three principles of li, all of which stress the unique quality of li
and its status as the Supreme Ultimate, we can see especially from the third prin-
ciple that, the purity and uniqueness of li also implies its inadequacy and inability to
produce the unnatural. Though Zhu Xi did not take it as a deficiency of li, it makes
people wonder: “Since li is formless and absolutely tranquil, how is it possible for li
to produce a world of form and dynamics? To solve this problem, Zhu Xi came up
with the concept of qi (vital force). According to Zhu, li is not the sole element that
produces all things. It must have qi as its medium and means: On the one hand, li
has to adhere to qi so it is not a formless void; on the other hand, as qi possesses
vibrant and active qualities and the abilities to form and produce, by combining
force with li, it can endow all things with form. Based on the above mentioned
reasons and the indispensable role of qi in creation, Zhu Xi turned his theory of li as
the Supreme Ultimate to a theory of qi as the Supreme Ultimate—precisely
speaking, a qi endowment theory—pointing out that all things come into being
because of qi’s ability to produce things.
All objects and living creatures including humans come into being with qi.
Heaven and Earth also come into being because of qi. Without qi, nothing would
ever exist.
On the one hand, Zhu Xi held that everything comes into being because of li; on
the other hand, he noted that the broad and tranquil li cannot exist by itself but
combines force with qi to create all things. Every person and every physical object
174 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

is a product of the union of li and qi. To every specific thing, li and qi operate in
mutual dependence and never exist in separation. In this vein, Zhu Xi repeatedly
claimed:
Where there is li, there is qi. They never exist in separation.
There is no qi without li, or li without qi.
It should be noted that, on the one hand, Zhu Xi stressed the mutual dependence
and inseparability of li and qi in all things; on the other hand, he insisted on the
basic-specific, or the dominant-subordinate relationship of li and qi. In his opinion,
though everything is made up of these two elements, they are not equal. First, the
order of the functions of li and qi cannot be reversed in creation—li is the basic, and
qi is the periphery (the specific). Zhu Xi pointed out that, “li, the Principle which is
beyond physical form, is the supreme ultimate of creation; qi, the medium that has
physical form, is the means of creation. All creatures come to being and obtain their
nature because of li, then they obtain their form because of qi. Though nature and
form are unified in one, the distinction between the Principle and the medium is not
to be confused.” On this basis, li is the principle and source of creation, and qi is the
substance and medium of creation. This basic-specific relationship should not be
confused. Second, after things are created, the dominant-subordinate relationship of
li and qi should not be confused either—li is the dominant power and qi the
subordinate. In Zhu Xi’s own words: “li exists in what qi forms, yet li is ultimately
the dominant power.” It shows that, li and qi co-exist in any specific object, but li
plays a dominant role and qi is subordinate to li. This dominant-subordinate rela-
tionship of li and qi is like “a person riding a horse.” More importantly, the
relationship of li and qi that Zhu Xi argued not only applies to the phenomenal
world, but also to ontology and the fundamental. Zhu Xi firmly believed that li
comes before qi—“If we trace the root of things, li comes before qi.” Though to the
phenomenal world, li and qi always “come in pair” and are “inseparable,” they are
distinct elements that don’t blend.
It shows that, in Zhu Xi’s opinion, the union of li and qi produces things, and he
stressed the basic-specific and dominant-subordinate relationship of li and qi,
indicating that they are not equal but one leads the other. It indicates that Zhu Xi is
not a dualist but a monist that insisted on the supremacy of Heavenly Principle and
considered li as the supreme ultimate. Therefore, strictly speaking, his theory
should be called qi endowment theory, instead of the theory of qi as the Supreme
Ultimate, because in his philosophical system, qi is never the root cause.
Zhu Xi’s reasoning about creation by the union of li and qi establishes a
metaphysical framework for him to further study all creatures especially human
nature and fate. His analysis of the relationship of li and qi leads to his approach to
human existence and prosperity. Under the same ontological framework, he further
elaborated on human nature and fate.
12.2 The Duality of Fate Theory 175

12.2 The Duality of Fate Theory

Zhu Xi noted that, just as everything else in the world, human beings are created by
the union of li and qi, and human nature and fate are also determined by these two
elements combined. He claimed that: “The creation of human life is due to the
union of li and qi.” We shall see that: first, there are two kinds of human fate—the
fate of li and the fate of qi; second, qi is the determinative factor in fate.

12.2.1 Human Fate Is Determined by Li and Qi, Which Are


Both Indispensible

Zhu Xi’s theory about human fate springs from his theory about the union of li and
qi. Based on his initial idea that li and qi never exist in separation and li needs to
adhere to qi, Zhu Xi further noted that, the Heavenly Principle endows humans with
fate, and the fate is settled by qi. Zhu Xi thought that, just as li and qi are both
indispensible in the creation of humans, the Heavenly Command and temperament
(qizhi) are also both indispensible to human fate, and the former depends on the
latter, as Zhu repeatedly noted. The Heavenly Command has no adherence without
temperament—the Heavenly Command is like water, which must have a container;
to the Heavenly Command, temperament is its container.
Zhu Xi explained human fate by analyzing li and qi. Are li and qi mutually
implicative and jointly constitutive elements of human fate? Or do they separately
condition two distinct fates in one person? To Zhu Xi, the answer is self-evident. As
li and qi are distinctly independent from each other, their power on human fate is
also entirely different, which results in the dual reality of human fate. The one
determined by qi is about one’s wealth, origin, and longevity; the one determined
by li is about one’s purity of heart, integrity, intelligence, and morals. Zhu Xi
asserted that: “Fate has two kinds, one is about one’s wealth, origin and longevity;
the other is about one’s purity of heart, integrity, intelligence and morals. One is
determined by qi, and the other is determined by li.” With the presumption that li
and qi constitute human fate, Zhu Xi maintained that, a person shall accept both
kinds of fate and follow them rightfully. He said: “The unchanging fate comes from
li, the changing fate comes from qi. Both are what Heaven confers and shall be
followed…This is the law of yin and yang, prosperity and decline, and waxing and
waning, which determines most of everything. Now people talk about the fate of
Kangjie, saying that every event and every object has an unalterable fate—it is too
superficial.” According to Zhu Xi, the fate determined by either qi or li is conferred
by Heaven, just as all things are brought into being by the union of li and qi. li and
qi are commands from Heaven. To take a step further, how do li and qi give
commands? How is it possible for human beings to grasp the commands?
The so-called fate, is the principle instilled in a person before his or her birth.
Zhu Xi attributed all sensual experience and activities of human beings to the
176 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

Heavenly Principle. He stated that: “People’s capabilities of speech and action are
all ordained by the Heavenly Command.” This is to say, fate is like a command, and
humans are born with li and qi, thus shall follow what li and qi commands. Zhu Xi
stressed that, both kinds of fate are conferred by Heaven, thus are the ground for
humans to settle and prosper upon. Just as there is either life or death, human beings
must follow what their fate confers without any alternatives.

12.2.2 Li Is Undifferentiated, and Qi Endowment Is


Differentiated

Human fate is determined by and comprised of the same li and qi, thus shall be
identical. How has each individual and each physical object such distinct fate? Zhu
Xi explained that, li is undifferentiated to every person and every physical object,
but the union of li and qi results in the multitude of fate. It implies that the
determinative factor of fate is qi. To explain the fate of humans and physical
objects, Zhu Xi maintained that, “fate has two kinds.” However, he emphasized
more on the fate determined by qi, and attributed the diverse fate of humans and
objects to qi. In fact, by explaining the diverseness of fate, Zhu Xi went on to
formulate his qi fate theory.
Zhu Xi argued that, the process of qi producing all creatures is like a millstone
turning around ceaselessly, which produces things of various sizes. In this vein, as
all creatures are endowed with qi of different thickness, they have different fate. By
the same token, every person and every physical object come into being with qi,
and qi’s dynamics, convergence & dispersion, as well as its production of things,
result in different qualities of the qi embodied in each person and physical object:
thick or thin, fine or crude, straight or crooked, clear or opaque. Therefore, besides
addressing that li is undifferentiated, Zhu Xi also claimed that the qi is
differentiated.
In this logic, since every person and every physical object come into being with
qi, and qi is the constitutive substance, the different qualities of qi must reflect and
manifest on people and things. This is the case. Zhu Xi pointed out that, the
different qi endowment results in different fate. “qi can be clear or opaque, and qi
endowment can be straight or crooked. Only humans are endowed with straight qi.”
Animals and plants are endowed with “crooked qi.” As a result, animals grow wild,
and plants grow upside down with their bigger ends toward the earth and their tail
skyward. Neither animals nor plants have knowledge. Even among the animals
which do have knowledge, they only know in part. For example, birds know filial
piety, otters knows sacrifice, dogs know to defend, and cattle know to farm. Only
humans are endowed with straight qi, therefore, humans have round heads like the
sky and stand straight. Humans possess mental faculties and knowledge. Human is
capable of everything and knows everything. Though all people are endowed with
straight qi, variations in each person’s qi—fine or crude, clear or opaque—result in
12.2 The Duality of Fate Theory 177

the wise and the foolish, the innocent and the corrupted, and the virtuous & the
wicked. Based on this theory, Zhu Xi asserted that, “qi is the basis; quality (zhi), is
what becomes the form. Just as ore of the gold, bud of the wood…the qi of yinyang
and the five elements spreads between Heaven and Earth. The superior qi forms
humans, the inferior qi forms objects. The superior ones endowed with superior qi
are sages and worthies; the inferior ones endowed with superior qi are the fool and
the wicked.” Zhu Xi considered all the different realities in the world as qi-deter-
mined fate. Zhu Xi’s framework and theoretical focus both place extra emphasis on
human fate. This is also why Zhu Xi tirelessly noted that different qi endowment
leads to the variety of fate.
Zhu Xi affirmed qi’s determinative role in producing differences between
humans and objects as well as between individuals including one’s longevity,
origin, wealth and intelligence. Therefore, the multifarious fate of human beings are
determined by qi. Also, all the biological characteristics, temperament and talents,
morality and conducts, and life experience of humans can reflect and be explained
by qi.
The fate in Zhu Xi’s contextual framework refers to what Heaven confers as
rightness and wrongness, not a godly personality that controls and instructs. Zhu Xi
explained human experience by analyzing the sufficiency and deficiency of qi.
Some people ask, sages are endowed with the pure and balanced qi thus shall be
adequate in all aspects, why was Confucius impoverished? Because of bad luck or
the deficiency of qi? Zhu Xi explained that, Confucius’ qi was inadequate—the
pure qi in him made him a sage, but didn’t give him wealth. For each individual, if
the qi a person has is long, then he or she has long longevity, vice versa. Confucius
was endowed with pure and bright qi, thus he became a sage, but as he also had low
and thin qi, thus he was poor. Inferior to Confucius, Yan Yuan had short qi, thus he
was poor and died prematurely. Zhu Xi firmly believed in the determinative power
of qi and attributed all strange phenomenon to the working of qi.
It shall be noted that, according to Zhu Xi, people’s experience is determined by
their qi endowment, and everything is preordained and unalterable, so his qi fate
theory has strong fatalism connotation. In fact, the fate he talked about is com-
pletely contingent, without the law of causality or any rule to follow. In his
understanding, the qi fate is so contingent and erratic, while pre-ordained, like
gambling or the changing of weather. It shows that, in essence, the qi fate theory is
a kind of mysterious fatalism. It is as simple as this: the pre-existing qi determines
one’s fate, so everything is preordained and unalterable.
Zhu Xi considered the qi fate as “the unalterable”, with the purpose of having
people following and accepting their fate. Since everything is pre-ordained by
Heaven, in what way does Heaven endow humans with fate, and how should
humans accept their fate? Regarding the saying from The Great Learning that “the
Heaven will appoint him as the master of hundreds of millions of people”, Zhu Xi’s
students asked the question—how does Heaven make the appointment? Zhu Xi
replied: “Where the collective wish lies is fate.” This answer affirms that fate in
essence is collective wish. This saying demonstrates the intrinsic relationship
178 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

between fate and heart, and also lays the premise for the argument that people shall
be dedicated to one’s fate.

12.3 The Duality of Human Nature Theory

By exploring fate, Zhu Xi attempted to not only understand the issue itself but also
find guidance in real life situations. Although exploring the root cause of fate is
indeed important, how we treat and act upon our fate becomes more critical: Zhu Xi
went on to explore the relationship of fate and nature. Based on the premise that the
Heavenly Principle is of the highest good, and qi varies in quality, Zhu Xi came up
with the following statement as the guiding principle of treating our fate: “Follow
what the Heavenly Principle confers, and exercise control over excess desires.”

12.3.1 The Connection Between Fate and Nature Versus


the Separation Between the Two

In Zhu Xi’s opinion, fate and nature are intrinsically connected, as fate is
Heaven-endowed nature to humans, which is to say, fate and nature are both
reflection of li, essentially concordant while different in their focus. Fate, li and
nature are closely associated concepts. On this basis, Zhu Xi held that there are two
kinds of human nature which are both indispensible—the nature of the Heavenly
Command, and the nature of temperament (qizhi). To him, human are brought into
being due to the union of li and qi. Without qi, li cannot converge and has nothing
to adhere to; without li, qi cannot operate on its own and has nothing to adhere to.
Therefore, li and qi shall be considered together in understanding human nature so
as not to go extreme.
It should be noted that, though Zhu Xi stressed the inseparability of the nature of
the Heavenly Command and the nature of temperament, he did not treat these two
evenly. Instead, he always emphasized the difference between these two. Though
the nature of the Heavenly Command is instilled in every person, we could find in
the union of li and qi the following phenomenon: “The nature of the Heavenly
Command, must be revealed in temperament. Yet the qi instilled in each person
could be clear or opaque, straight or crooked, and the all-good Heavenly Command
also could be shallow or deep, thick or thin—this shall be called nature.” Bases on
this statement, Zhu Xi came to two conclusions: first, the nature of Heavenly
Command is reflected in each person and each object equally, which is always
straight and kind; second, the qi endowment has various qualities, which results in
kind or unkind nature of temperament. Zhu Xi thought that, the huge difference
between humans and everything else is due to different qi endowment, so is the
difference between animals and plants. Plants do not speak or move, monkeys are
12.3 The Duality of Human Nature Theory 179

agile in action, beasts tread on grass, and birds perch on wood—all those phe-
nomenon results from qi endowment. The varying degrees of harshness or softness,
and shrewdness or obtuseness in the nature of different kinds of beasts, birds, or
plants, are also due to qi endowment. In Zhu Xi’s opinion, the qi endowed in
different animals and plants determines their nature, so are thunder, lightening,
storm and other natural phenomenon. Human beings are no exceptions either. Zhu
Xi claimed, “A person could smile, speak and know things, how so? There comes
storm and thunder out of the void, how so? It is the interaction of yin and yang,
ghosts and gods. What is visible to us are the skeleton and the flesh, while it is the
dynamics of yin and yang inside and out working.” Zhu Xi attributed the various
human faculties to qi endowment. He adopted the concepts of the variations in qi
endowment and the dynamics of yinyang and five elements to explain human nature
and temperament.
Zhu Xi’s outlook on human nature is similar and concordant with his expla-
nation of human fate: he not only pointed out the intrinsic relationship between
human fate and human nature but also went beyond the “duality of fate” to analyze
human nature in two facets. On the other hand, he had an entirely different outlook
on human nature and human fate—to accept your fate while change your tem-
perament. Though he insisted on the duality of fate, he insisted that we should
accept and follow our fate while firmly believing that fate is unalterable. Though he
acknowledged that the nature of temperament and the nature of the Heavenly
Command are instilled in us when we are born, he stressed that, the nature of the
Heavenly Command is of the highest good, while the nature of temperament varies
in its quality, so we shall try to alter the unkind nature of temperament to have it
aligned with the nature of the Heavenly Command. This statement makes people
wonder: Since both human nature and fate are due to qi endowment, why does one
change, and the other does not? Actually, Zhu Xi’s definition and double treatment
of nature and fate results that from his outlook on the relationship between li and qi.
All his reasoning points to the same principle: “Follow what the Heavenly
Command confers, and exercise control over excess human desires.”

12.3.2 The All-Good Heavenly Principle, and the Varying


Degrees of Goodness of Temperament

Zhu Xi attempted to explain the nature and fate of all objects and living creatures by
the union of li and qi. In the development of his theory, Zhu acknowledged the
inseparability of li and qi while stressing the basic-specific, dominant-subordinate,
and initial-subsequent relationship of li and qi as well as the view that they are
distinct elements that don’t blend, noting that li and qi have different nature thus
shall not be confused. Zhu Xi adopted various metaphors from different perspec-
tives to analyze and explain the different union of li and qi, and the nature of the
180 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

Heavenly Command and the nature of temperament, showing his intention to treat
these two nature differently.
Firstly, pearl and water.
li, the nature of the Heavenly Command is like pearls; qi, the nature of tem-
perament is like water. The pearl metaphor originates from Buddhism. It is common
for philosophers to describe the Heavenly Command as pearl including Zhu Xi. In
the pearl-water metaphor, li and the nature of the Heavenly Command are of the
highest good, just like the translucent and shining pearl. qi and the nature of
temperament have varying degrees of goodness, just like the pearl-containing water
could be clear or opaque. This metaphor implies that, the purity of water determines
the brightness of the pearl in the water. On this basis, if the brightness or dullness of
the pearl is like the wisdom or foolishness, and the shrewdness or obtuseness of a
person, the cause would be the purity of the water.
Secondly, the sun and gaps.
The nature of the Heavenly Command is like the sun, and the nature of tem-
perament is like gaps. Zhu Xi repeatedly noted that, the nature of the Heavenly
Command is like the beaming sunlight which is of supreme goodness and beauty.
Gaps block the sunlight, just as the nature of temperament obscures the nature of
the Heavenly Command. By using the sun and gaps metaphor, Zhu Xi tried to note
that, the nature of the Heavenly Command is like the sun, casting boundless light
that reaches every possible corner in the world; different qi endowment is like gaps
of different length, size and width. In result, the good or bad quality of qi
endowment either reveals or obscures the nature of the Heavenly Command, just
like the various gaps either facilitate or hinder the sunlight.
Thirdly, water and container.
li and the nature of the Heavenly Command are like water; qi, and the nature of
temperament are like a container. Zhu Xi repeatedly used this metaphor. Water is
clear and undifferentiated, however, container varies in its size, color, and smell etc.
It indicates that, the Heavenly Principle and the nature of the Heavenly Command
are both of supreme goodness, just as the clear and undifferentiated water; different
qi endowment is like water containers of different capacity, color and smell. The
conclusion is self-evident: for the same river, the water contained in a spoon, a
bowl, a bucket or a jar also has different qualities. The same clear water looks
different in containers of different colors—white, black, or green; the same clear
water has pleasant or unpleasant smell, and it could be pure or muddy. It shows
that, just as the quality of water depends on its container, variations in human nature
is determined by qi endowment; just as containers have difference size and color, qi
endowment has varying degrees of goodness.
Fourth, the command of the lord and devotion to one’s duty.
Zhu Xi noted that, the nature of the Heavenly Command is like the command of
the lord, the nature of temperament is like the devotion to one’s duty. The one who
has strong devotion to his/her duty has good qi endowment, and vice versa. In this
sense, Zhu claimed that: “The Heavenly Command, is like the command of the
lord; nature, is like the one who receives the command; qi, is like a person who can
be devoted or not devoted.” If the metaphors of pearl & water, the sun & gaps, and
12.3 The Duality of Human Nature Theory 181

water & container emphasize on the thesis that the nature of the Heavenly
Command is all-good, but the nature of temperament varies in its kindness, then,
the metaphor of the command of the lord and the devotion to one’s duty emphasizes
on the dominance of the nature of the Heavenly Command over the nature of
temperament. Besides, Zhu Xi also used other metaphors to make his point such as
water and sauce/salt metaphor, light and mirror/water metaphor, etc.
Furthermore, the reason why Zhu Xi spent so much efforts to use metaphors to
explain li and qi, the nature of the Heavenly Command and the nature of tem-
perament, is because he regarded those relationships as critical. Different metaphors
have different focus—the pearl and water metaphor focuses on nature; the sun and
gaps metaphor focuses on capacity; the water and container metaphor focuses on
both nature and capacity; the metaphor of the command of the lord and the devotion
to one’s duty focuses on the dominance-obedience and principle-actuality rela-
tionship, etc. However, just as the reason for repeated enjoinment is deep caring, the
various metaphors adopted by Zhu Xi showed his attention to the below principles:
first, the nature of the Heavenly Command is undifferentiated, reflected in each
person equally good and without any obstruction. Second, qi endowment varies in
its smoothness, and the varying degree of goodness in different persons is due to
different qi endowment.
Zhu Xi thought that, qi endowment determines whether one’s actions are good
or bad, as well as one’s disposition and tolerance. He noted that: “li is undiffer-
entiated in all things, while it varies in each person whether it is fine or crude, small
or big.” Regarding Zhu’s theory of the Heavenly Command and qi endowment,
some people raised the following question: since one’s temperament can be inno-
cent or corrupted, does the nature of the Heavenly Command also have such
distinction? Zhu Xi affirmed that, the nature of the Heavenly Command is “identical
for all,” “white qi endowment varies” since qi can be bright or dark, thick or thin.
Zhu Xi further pointed out that, the nature of the Heavenly Command which is
of supreme goodness and the nature of temperament which has varying degree of
goodness could be found aligned in a small group of people—the people whose qi
endowment is also good as the Heavenly Command become sages. To the majority
of people, the nature of the Heavenly Command and the nature of temperament are
opposite forces—the nature of temperament is evil due to the bad quality of qi
endowment. To those people, the nature of the Heavenly Command determines
one’s good actions, and the evil nature of temperament determines one’s bad
actions, resulting in the struggle of kindness and evilness. The only solution to
extricate oneself from such struggle is to change one’s temperament. Specifically,
the change of one’s temperament means constantly bettering one’s temperament to
make it align with the nature of the Heavenly Command.
Furthermore, to achieve such alignment, Zhu Xi introduced a set of practices
centered upon cultivating the mind, investigating things, and extending knowledge.
Now Zhu’s fate theory and philosophy of human nature fall upon real-life practices,
encouraging people to turn their nature to moral practices. Accordingly, Zhu’s fate
theory and human nature theory also evolved into epistemology and practice theory,
namely work theory.
182 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

12.4 The Theory of Eliminating Desires and Retaining


the Heavenly Principle

As mentioned above, Zhu Xi’s nature and fate theory is an ontological effort based
on the thought that li and qi are mutually dependant while the former is dominant
and the latter is subordinate. Just as the duality of fate—the unchanging and the
changing, human nature is two-sided, reflected in the nature of the Heavenly
Command and the nature of temperament. Furthermore, the above argument
focuses on actuality, while the attitude toward nature and fate is a matter of values.
Regarding the latter, just as the relationship of li and qi determines the duality of
and variations in human nature and fate, Zhu Xi’s moral judgment on the qualities
of li and qi is the theoretical premise of his treatment of nature and fate. If the
Heavenly Principle determines that it is the goal of human race to transcend
worldliness and obtain intelligence, then qi made this pilgrim path full of obstacles.
If we agree that the goodness of li provides sufficient reason for “follow what the
Heavenly Principle confers,” then the badness of qi necessitates “exercise control
over excess human desires.” Thus, “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers,
and exercise control over excess human desires” become Zhu Xi’s ultimate
methodology as well as the one and only way to transcend worldliness and obtain
wisdoms.
Zhu Xi thought that, li is the supreme ultimate of the universe and also the
existential embodiment of human fate and nature. This belief drives Zhu Xi to think
about creation, human nature and fate from the perspective of li. In the same vein,
he blended li, nature and fate. In his opinion, the question of how to figure out li-
endowed human nature and fate goes back to the question of what exactly li is.
What exactly is the Heavenly Principle that is of supreme holiness and beauty. He
responded that: “li is benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.” Since li
is the moral principle and code of conduct centered on benevolence, righteousness,
propriety and wisdom, the attempt to consider it as the supreme ultimate of the
world and the embodiment of human race is to accentuate the holiness of moral
principles, taking moral principles as the common nature of humanity. To quote
Zhu’s original words: “li is universal and undifferentiated in the world, yet can be
utilized after acquired.” To him, every person has the innate tendency of supreme
kindness, thus is instilled the potential to obtain wisdom, which is the Command of
Heaven. In other words, the supreme status and supreme kindness and beauty of li
promises a noble nature and bright future of humans who are endowed with li. This
same nature is to fully develop one’s benevolence, righteousness, propriety and
wisdom, with the ultimate goal of obtaining wisdom. This is also Zhu’s judgment
and treatment of human nature and fate. Nevertheless, Zhu Xi not only set forth the
ultimate values and goals of human life, but also introduced a set of methodology
and practices.
12.4 The Theory of Eliminating Desires and Retaining the Heavenly Principle 183

12.4.1 Proper Treatment of the Duality of Human Fate


and Nature

When using li and qi to explain human nature and fate, Zhu Xi always marked their
difference—li is of supreme kindness and purity, while qi has varying degrees of
goodness. He stressed that, the nature of the Heavenly Command, revealed by li, is
pure kindness and remains the same in everyone and everything; the reason why
there are evil people is because bad qi endowment, and it has nothing to do with
li—“There are kind and unkind people, because there are clear or opaque qi.”
Specifically speaking, humans are endowed with straight qi so they become
humans, different from other creatures or objects which are endowed with crooked
qi. Now the question is, since every person is endowed with straight qi, how come
there are good and evil people? Zhu Xi replied that: “Although the qi in all humans
are straight qi, qi varies in its brightness and thickness. qi has form. All things with
form have varying degrees of goodness. It indicates that, the various human nature
and fate are due to the kind or unkind qi endowment. In Zhu Xi’s study of human
nature and fate, qi usually has negative effect, since the disparity in human fate and
the bad quality of human nature all result from bad qi. The reason why Zhu Xi
advocated li while stating that li has to adhere to qi, is to give justification to the
existence of different social class and status, and encourage people to accept their
fate. Therefore, in order to explain in detail every person’s fate, talents, and pro-
fession, Zhu Xi considered human nature and fate in two facets to distinguish
them—the potential nature, and the actual fate. Everyone is benevolent in nature, as
nature is based on li. Human fate has the distinction of good & evil, as fate is based
on both li and qi.
To have human nature and fate perfectly align with the Heavenly Principle
would be the ultimate goal of human race, which is to pursue the Heavenly
Principle, extend knowledge so as to become sages; the way to become sages is to
change one’s temperament, exercise one’s will, and strengthen one’s morals. The
various qualities of qi also determines the efforts needed to better one’s qi—the
lower one’s qi endowment, the more efforts it takes to better it. For those who have
bad qi endowment, they have to “spend a hundred times efforts than others” to work
on themselves to truly change their temperament. In a nutshell, “follow what the
Heavenly Principle confers, and exercise control over excess human desires.”
Zhu Xi considered fate in two kinds: one is about being poor or rich, noble or
humble, life and death, long longevity or premature death; the other is about being
innocent or corrupted, straight or crooked, wise or foolish, virtuous or wicked. The
former emphasizes social status and longevity, and the latter emphasizes morality
and the nature of good & evil. These two fate have different nature—one is
determined by qi, and the other is determined by li, while humans are supposed to
treat both as the right fate to follow. However, Zhu Xi had different ways to look at
these two kinds of fate: to the former, he encouraged people to accept their fate
under the condition that they already know their fate.
184 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

Zhu Xi held that, people usually feel unfair if their fate is inferior. However, the
whole reason why your fate is marked by premature death or unpleasant events,
while others’ are longevity and fortune, is totally due to qi endowment. Zhu Xi
suggested we should take it as it is and not try to alter it. To expand on that, since
one’s wealth and origin are also due to this kind of fate, Zhu Xi implied that the
social hierarchy is also due to qi endowment, thus we shall understand it and accept
it. In this sense, the qi endowment theory encouraged people to be content with who
they are. Meanwhile, to justify the practice of accepting one’s social class, Zhu Xi
called what goes beyond our qi endowment as excess human desires, which are bad
in nature. He suggested that we accept our qi endowment, and “exercise control
over excess human desires.”
Regarding the fate that determines whether a person is innocent or corrupted,
straight or crooked, wise or foolish, virtuous or wicked, Zhu Xi suggested that we
accept the Heavenly Principle itself instead of the specific qualities mentioned
above. According to him, we should take seriously the different qualities: On the
one hand, for the ones with bad qi endowment, Zhu Xi encouraged them not to
belittle themselves but to look up to the sages, and to “spend a hundred times efforts
than others”; on the other hand, Zhu Xi advised people to take advantage of the
innocent, straight and wise qi, and expand beyond that. We shall see that, the
process of accepting one’s fate is actually a process of expanding the Heavenly
Principle, which is “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers.”
In all, Zhu Xi advocated the duality of fate, focusing on the good and evil,
innocent and corrupted, wise and foolish, instead of on good or bad fortune. The
former focuses on the “exercise control over excess human desires” part, and the
latter focuses on the “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers” part. These
practices are at the core of Zhu Xi’s fate theory and are ways to strengthen and
perfect one’s morals. His theory on human nature and fate boil down to one
sentence—“Exercise control over excess human desires, and follow what the
Heavenly Principle confers.”

12.4.2 Preserve the Heart, Investigate Things, and Extend


Knowledge

Zhu Xi distinguished two kinds of human fate and suggest that we treat them all
properly by following what the Heavenly Principle confers in order to obtain
wisdom. For both daily life and the cultivation of morals, he advocated the practice
of cultivating the mind, investigating things and extending knowledge.
Zhu Xi held that, the Heavenly Principle endows a person with nature and fate
through his/her heart. The Heavenly Principle is instilled in one’s heart just like
passing a command of fate to a person, and the fate transforms into one’s nature and
heart. Since the Heaven-endowed fate is contained in one’s heart, by preserving the
heart, one shall know and follow one’s nature, and follow and act upon one’s fate.
12.4 The Theory of Eliminating Desires and Retaining the Heavenly Principle 185

Meanwhile, he pointed that, a person is born with li, prenatally possessing the
virtues of benevolence, righteousness, property and wisdom. Thus one’s heart is
spiritual, and the universal li settles in one’s heart.
Based on this, Zhu Xi proposed to preserve the heart. To stress its importance, he
claimed that: “One’s heart is his/her ground. Only by preserving the heart can one
know things.” Zhu Xi thought that preserving the heart is the precondition of
following one’s nature, the Principle and one’s fate. He also stressed that, in order
to achieve that, we must also investigate things and extend knowledge, so that we
can maintain our innate kindness, “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers, and
exercise control over excess human desires.”
Zhu Xi held that, the human heart is innately kind and all knowing, but it is
obscured by different qi endowment thus cannot be developed into its full potential.
Zhu claimed that, in order to achieve the full development of the heart, we must
forgo excess desires and remove the limitation of one’s qi endowment. This process
shall be called investigating things and extending knowledge.
Zhu said that: “When we say investigation of things, we mean to exhaust the li of
everything.” Investigation of things means to make sense of things. To Zhu Xi,
investigating things is equal to understanding the deep meaning of the Heavenly
Principle reflected in specific things. Zhu also emphasized the universality of
investigation of things. He encouraged people to get the wildest possible exposure
to the outside world, to investigate everything including the grass, the trees, and
insects. To him, one less thing to investigate, one kind of knowledge will be
missing; one less book to read, one kind of book knowledge will be missing.
Investigation of things means “investigate one thing today, and another tomorrow;
the more you accumulate, the more interconnected every kind of knowledge
becomes.” In another word, the path to investigate things is to first expose oneself
to all kinds of things, and when your knowledge accumulates to certain extend,
everything will be interconnected as an organic whole, the Heavenly Principle thus
will be grasped.
The key of effective investigation of things is the preservation of the heart, which
is the necessary ground. Also, the ultimate goal of investigating things is to extend
knowledge which shall be carried through. Zhu stressed that, the essence of
investigation of things is not to really study plants and insects themselves but to
grasp the Heavenly Principle reflected on those creatures. An order shall be fol-
lowed in the process of investigation of things—what comes first and what comes
next, the basic and the periphery, and the urgent and the secondary. Otherwise,
“Mindlessly investigating plants and objects is like cooking sand for a meal.” It
indicates that, investigation of things is a step or a means of the extension of
knowledge, and the real purpose of it is not to exhaust the li of things themselves,
but to “exhaust the Heavenly Principle, and understand human relations.” In
essence, the investigation of things is a process of comprehending moral principles.
Zhu Xi advocated that, the extension of knowledge is the goal of investigation of
things and these two concepts “share the same ground”: they are the two facets of
the same process with different focus—investigation of things refers to the working
of the subject onto the object; extension of knowledge refers to the influence of the
186 12 The Duality of Fate Theory

object upon the subject during the process. Thus these two concepts are essentially
the same, and are “the same efforts.” In this sense, Zhu Xi claimed that: “Extension
of knowledge is about self; investigation of things is about things.” It indicated that,
these two concepts are essentially consonant and concurrent. Zhu Xi said that,
extension means “reach the extreme,” knowledge means that people are born with
foreknowledge, or “Heavenly morals and conscience.” The extension of knowledge
means “extends knowledge to the extreme, so nothing is left incomprehensible.” In
a nutshell, the extension of knowledge means completely exhausting and realizing
one’s innate foreknowledge. Zhu explained that: “The efforts of extending
knowledge are simply expanding upon what one already knows previously. What is
contained in one’s heart is more than sufficient.” This saying put investigation of
things and extension of knowledge both on an ethical ground. In reality, Zhu Xi
analyzed the extension of knowledge by studying human relations, daily life and
moral principles.
Similar with the preservation of the heart, investigation of things and extension
of knowledge are not only Zhu’s epistemology and ethical practice, but more
importantly attempts to understand and follow the Heavenly Principle and human
fate. These three concepts are the grasping of Heaven-endowed human nature and
fate—benevolence, righteousness, property and wisdom. Zhu firmly believed that,
through the preservation of the heart, the investigation of things and the extension
of knowledge, one can grasp the Heavenly Principle, his/her fate endowed by it, and
morality, so as to realize one’s nature and follow one’s fate.
In conclusion, Zhu Xi asserted that, the Heavenly Principle instills virtues in
humans including benevolence, righteousness, property and wisdom, thus all
humans share the same all-kind nature. This statement actually treats the
strengthening of morals and the practice of those virtues as the common fate of
human race, and puts moral restraints upon humans. Thus Zhu Xi’s theory on
human fate has strong moral flavor. His notions about exhausting the Principle,
realizing one’s nature and following one’s fate are practical efforts to strengthen
one’s morals. His philosophical system reflects Confucian ethical traditions. Zhu Xi
advocated the purpose of “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers, and exercise
control over excess human desires,” claiming that the Heavenly Principle is kind
and excess human desires are evil, thus cannot exist on the same ground, just as xun
(a kind of sweet grass) and you (a kind of stinky grass) cannot be put in the same
container.” In the analysis of the heart, Zhu Xi noted that there are the moral heart
and the human heart, indicating that: “sensual experience comes from the human
heart, moral experience comes from the moral heart.” According to this saying,
eating and dressing are desires out of human heart, the thought about what to eat or
wear comes from the moral heart. The moral heart originates from the all-kind
nature of the Heavenly Command; the human heart originates from the nature of qi
with varying degrees of goodness. It becomes critical to change the unkind human
heart, which will be achieved by placing the moral heart first. On this basis, Zhu Xi
took the kind part of human heart as the Heavenly Principle, and the unkind part of
the human heart as excess human desires. He thought that, the Heavenly Principle
and excess human desires are in utter opposition. The reason why people cannot
12.4 The Theory of Eliminating Desires and Retaining the Heavenly Principle 187

grasp the Heavenly Principle is because that excess human desires obscure it. We
must remove excess human desires in order to realize the Heavenly Principle, and
once it is achieved, we shall be awakened to grasp the Heavenly Principle and
become sages. This is the essence of “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers,
and exercise control over excess human desires.” Thus, Zhu Xi’s theory on human
fate turns from morals-centered ethics into asceticism and clericalism. In the late
period of China’s patriarchal society, “follow what the Heavenly Principle confers,
and exercise control over excess human desires” became a mainstream slogan and
produced negative influence upon the society after this li theory turned into official
ideology.
Chapter 13
The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man
of High Stature

Is one’s fate predetermined by Heaven or up to oneself? In what aspects can one


control fate, and how? The theory of fate being created by man of high stature
answers these questions. According to this theory, on the one hand, just like
everything else in the world, man originates from Heaven. Being saintly or ordinary
is the result of divine intervention. On the other hand, fate is not entirely prede-
termined—it comes from both Heaven and man. As a matter of fact, human heart is
the heart of Heaven and Earth, human body is a small universe. As long as one tries
to improve himself through learning and survive trials, one can change fate, or even
create a new one. Therefore, capable man of high stature never prays to Heaven for
eternity or waits to be bestowed. Instead, he endeavors to change and create his fate
with his own power. In the history of Chinese philosophy, Wei Yuan is the most
vocal representative of this theory, who has led the Chinese people to open their
eyes to the world and start the modern era.

13.1 Man Originates from Heaven and Fate Is Determined


by Heaven

In ancient China, one attributes fate to Heaven. Living in the transitional period
between ancient China and modern China, Wei Yuan also starts with Heaven in
interpreting man’s fate, stating that one’s fate is determined by Heaven. In this
regard, he inherits the ancient Chinese traditions, asserting that all people, whether
saintly or ordinary, all originate from Heaven. Furthermore, what is the origin of
human? The answer is also Heaven. He explains that one’s life is composed of body
and soul, and that one’s life, death, temperament and soul are due to the gathering
and separating, the rise and fall of “qi”. Then why does “qi” gather or separate, rise
or fall? Just because of Heaven. Therefore, man originates from Heaven. This also
190 13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature

explains the saying that a saint is born from Heaven and goes back to Heaven after
death. Only Heaven is the ultimate origin of all the living things in the universe.
Based on this, Wei Yuan says, “One originates from Heaven and goes back to
Heaven”. This is Wei’s theory of man originating from Heaven.
Starting from the theory of man originating from Heaven, Wei Yuan advocates
the theory of fate being determined by Heaven, claiming that one’s talent and
wealth are decided by Heaven. In Wei’s opinion, however different people’s lives
are, they are all predetermined by Heaven. Moreover, Wei uses various kinds of
similes to show his theory.
In Wei Yuan’s viewpoint, humans vary wildly in their intelligence and talent,
just like the vast difference between the sun and the moon, the light and electricity.
All of this can be attributed to Heaven, not human power. In other words, one is
born to be sagacious or ordinary, virtuous or unworthy, smart or dull, knowl-
edgeable or ignorant. Following this train of thought, Wei stresses that man should
respect Heaven rather than disregard it, thank it rather than ill-treat it.1 To this end,
Wei extends his theory of man originating from Heaven to the theory of fate being
determined by Heaven: man should not only believe that fate is determined by
Heaven, but also respect Heaven.

13.2 Humanistic Theory

On the one hand, Wei Yuan claims that man originates from Heaven, and Heaven
outweighs man; on the other hand, Wei pursues the unity of Heaven and man, and
that human body is a small world and the world we live in is a big human body,
moving from the theory of man originating from Heaven to humanistic theory.
What causes Wei’s shift? The key factor is ren, which means benevolence.2 Wei
believes that ren is the heart of Heaven and Earth; when one is born, he/she is
bestowed by Heaven with a seed of ren deep in his or her heart, which grows as one
grows up. As the seed of ren inside one propagates rapidly into thousands and
millions of seeds and forests of ren, one is connected to Heaven and fulfills the
mission bestowed. Here, Wei emphasizes that though the seed of ren is granted by
Heaven, yet when the one seed flourishes into forests and becomes one’s temper-
ament, ren will not be influenced by the body itself. Ren, the heart of Heaven and
Earth, fulfills man’s hearts, thus the combination of man and Heaven. The theory of
Heaven and man combining as one lays the foundation for Wei Yuan’s fate phi-
losophy and his theory of creating fate.

1
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 6), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 15.
2
Mogu-Learning (Cha. 13), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 30.
13.2 Humanistic Theory 191

13.2.1 World Is a Human Body

According to Wei’s theory of Heaven and man combining as one, human body is a
small world just like the world is a human body. Wei Yuan further explains that
man has similar physical structures with that of the world. Just as Nature has hills
and valleys, man has veins and channels, both of them can be seen as organism.
Notably, Wei also realized that geographical environment has some influence on
people’s characteristics and lifestyle. While the theory of Heaven and man uniting
as one has some shades of Taoism, the latter has the shape of geographical
determinism. Moreover, Wei considers man’s physiological function and physio-
logical characteristics to be the same as that of the physical world. In one of his
five-character poems, he expresses that “being awake or asleep is like being alive or
dead…day and night is just like the present and history…the world is a big human
body while the human body is a small world…parents are the microcosm of the
universe and the universe is like our parents in a broad sense.”3

13.2.2 Destiny Is Fate

Wei points out that people rely on the light of the sun and the moon, and man is
born with light. Human hearts are like the sun, and eyes the moon. When there is
light, man is alive; when there isn’t, man is dead. This indicates that man has great
power and magic in heart, man’s heart is the heart of Heaven and Earth; man,
Heaven and Earth are united as one. Based on this unity, Wei Yuan comes to the
conclusion that man is connected to Heaven, has the same structure as Heaven and
can change one’s fate by one’s own power.4
In his opinion, since human body is like that of Heaven and Earth, human heart
is the heart of Heaven and Earth, fate of Heaven naturally can be seen as fate of
man. For this reason, he mentions that though man knows that everything above
Earth is Heaven, man does not know that the inside and outside of one are all the
domain of Heaven. Just as described in Book of Songs, if a man of high stature
adopts the opinions of the masses, he will be a wise and respectable leader, and be
regarded as the omnipotent “Heaven” by the masses. Man’s heart is Heaven’s heart.
Man’s decision and hard work can affect timing and fate.
Based on this understanding, Wei points out that Heaven is not the only
determinant of success and failure. Heaven could surpass man; man can also

3
18 Impromptu Poems for Dong Xiaocha, Collected Works of Wei Yuan (second volume):
Zhonghua Book Company, 1976, p. 15.
4
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 2), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, pp. 5–6.
192 13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature

surpass Heaven. Specifically, “when factors relating to Heaven are uncertain, man
will win over Heaven; when factors relating to Heaven are settled, Heaven will win
over man.”5 This opinion leaves much possibility for mankind. What’s more,
looking through Wei Yuan’s thoughts, one may find that he pays more attention to
human power. For example, Wei points out that winning or losing is like a big
chess game throughout history. Timing can be good or bad, geographic environ-
ment can be safe or risky, man’s attitude can be friendly or hostile, opportunity can
be favorable or not. Due to the complicated interaction of factors like timing,
geographical environment and attitude, the ultimate ending has various possibili-
ties.6 Wei reminded people that since the results of events are undetermined, and
people’s attitude and decision is more important than timing and geography, people
should play their due role after choosing the best timing and favorable environment.
That is the key to success.

13.3 The Theory of Creating Fate

In Wei Yuan’s eyes, fate is determined by Heaven (timing), Earth (geographical


environment), Human (emotions) and situations. As different people have different
knowledge and moral awareness, they hold different attitudes towards their fate.
According to his explanation, the lower-class people can only obey the rule of the
saint, and are subject to the force of fate. The middle-class ones fare better than the
lower class, and only saintly people can enjoy fate to the fullest, which is also the
highest level one can reach in handling fate. Wei further points out that those saints
basically have two opinions towards fate: mastering and creating fate, thus the
saints fall into two corresponding categories: saints who try to master fate and those
who try to create fate.
According to Wei’s argument, Heaven grants people with different talent and
wealth when they are born, making them different in intelligence and social status.
However, talent and wealth one is born with are not the only decisive factors that
determine his or her acquired intelligence and wealth after he/she is born. On the
contrary, the postnatal training and habit are more important than his prenatal
talents. Based on this understanding, Wei attaches more importance to creating fate
than mastering fate, encouraging people not to be restricted by fate, be brave
enough to change and create fate.

5
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 15), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 76.
6
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 16), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, pp. 78–79.
13.3 The Theory of Creating Fate 193

13.3.1 The Necessity of Creating Fate

Wei points out that though man and everything else originate from Heaven, yet
Heaven alone can’t decide one’s fate. Specifically speaking, when one is born, his
“qi” could be going upward or downward, be gathering or separating, affluent or
spare, thus one can’t be perfect. One is born with and without certain things.
Meanwhile, Wei also stresses again and again that not only people born in different
eras have different talents, even people in the same era have different talents, there
is no perfect person in this world. Having limitations and weaknesses is actually not
the lack of luck, it can be seen as a need to create one’s fate. Wei particularly
mentions that even saintly people are not born perfect, they do not know many
things and can’t finish them easily, they also can’t avoid making mistakes; they
become saintly and wise people because of their own hard work. He cites King
Wen, the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, as examples to prove his opinion. “Are
saintly people born knowledgeable and capable? Why does Confucius study so hard
that he forgets to have meals? Why does the Duke of Zhou work all the night till
morning? How does King Wen write Book of Changes amid worries and sorrows?
How does Confucius manage to study Book of Changes?”7 Therefore, Wei points
out that man of high stature should treat their fate with their own effort and
intelligence, and that they create their fate rather than be afraid of fate. Similarly,
wise leaders govern their countries through education rather than luck.
At the same time, Wei believes that since man originates from Heaven and will
go back to Heaven after death, he is bound to follow the Way of Heaven during his
lifetime. How? Wei answers that, following the Way of Heaven is disobeying it. He
explains that Heaven is made of yin and yang (“yang” is the antonym of “yin” in
Chinese), with man’s participation, “yang” can be strengthened and “yin” can be
weakened. Though those behaviors seem to be disobeying Heaven, in fact they
complete Heaven, making up for the defects Heaven causes during man’s birth. So,
disobeying Heaven is actually following Heaven. This also applies to the matter of
treating intelligence and moral awareness.

13.3.2 The Possibility of Creating Fate

If Wei’s explanation of man not being born perfect by Heaven stresses the necessity
of creating fate, then his argument of man’s hearts being the heart of Heaven and
Earth stresses the possibility of creating fate. As a matter of fact, Wei Yuan asks
man of high stature to create fate because Wei believes man’s hearts have immense
power and magic. Complete sincerity can affect even metal and stone. As long as

7
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 3), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 9.
194 13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature

one focuses on what one wants to achieve and works hard for it, there’s no stopping
him.8 According to Wei’s logic, just as solidarity and strategy decide the result of a
war, one’s sincerity and endeavor are central to one’s achievement.
Along this train of thought, Wei further points out that although one originates
from Heaven, one’s life span and wealth depend largely on his attitude toward fate.
If one is optimistic about fate, he/she will prosper and live long; if one is pessimistic
about fate, he/she will be poor and live a short life. This is also the difference
between man of high stature and man without virtue.9

13.3.3 The Content of Creating Fate

Wei believes that one’s mental power can not only help one to gain skills and
knowledge, but also can help to build one’s moral awareness and intelligence. The
power of mind is so magic and great. And it is precisely the mental power that man
of high stature uses to create fate. The bigger the heart, the larger the world he
governs. The bigger the heart, the more skillful and virtuous he becomes.10 As to
intelligence and the level of knowledge, they are more the result of after-birth
learning and practice, the harder one works, the wiser and more knowledgeable one
becomes. It is in fact not what one’s prenatal talent that decides his postnatal
knowledge; quite the opposite, it’s what one does after he/she is born that matters.
The overall knowledge that one has is gained from learning and practice after birth.
It is impossible that man is born with knowledge and can harvest without sowing.
Because of this, Wei encourages people to accumulate knowledge and experience
through extensive practice.
Combining all the above factors, after weighing the various factors that affect
one’s fate ad success from the four aspects of matters and heart, law and people, the
present and history, and things and oneself, Wei Yuan then comes to the following
conclusion: matters work on one’s heart, law works for people and things can be
done by people, which stresses the interaction between heart, me and people. As to
the relationship between the past and the present, under the presumption that the
present is an extension of the past, Wei holds that one can definitely find corre-
sponding historical occasions of the present society if one is good at talking about
history. Therefore, Wei Yuan advises people to learn from the historical saints:
good timing, and working hard for both oneself and the whole world.

8
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 13), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 32.
9
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 2), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 6.
10
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 2), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 5.
13.4 Create Fate and Way to Master Fate 195

13.4 Create Fate and Way to Master Fate

To the Chinese, philosophy not only tells the truth; more importantly, it provides
people with ways to master one’s fate. Correspondingly, the ultimate philosophy of
fate is to provide people with a way to master fate. Based on the above under-
standing, Wei Yuan offers the following methods to master fate.

13.4.1 Subjection to Hardships

Wei believes that man is not born perfect by Heaven. Therefore, saintly people
disobey Heaven to follow Heaven, which is why life is full of hardships. According
to this logic, if one meets no obstacles and easily achieves what he/she wants,
he/she is actually deprived by Heaven of his opportunity to create fate. If one
always undergoes hardships and fails despite hard work, he/she is in fact receiving
Heaven’s reminder that man should never give up despite difficulties.
According to Wei Yuan’s logic of “Disobeying Heaven is following Heaven”,
man is bound to live in adversity: either Heaven leaves man with various tribula-
tions, or man does things that disobey Heaven to finally follow Heaven. Adversity
will not harm for people, it is good for people as a matter of fact. Both man of high
stature and saints become what they are in adversity. Man who creates fate never
gives up overcoming difficulties; instead, they try to take these sufferings head-on,
learn from failure and prepare themselves for the next challenge. Wei attached great
importance to adversity and finds testimony in the world of plants and animals.

13.4.2 Worry and Anger

According to the logic of Wei, adversity is Heaven’s special gift for man, dis-
obeying Heaven is following Heaven. Man grows up with worry and anger rather
than with comfort. To experience hardship is necessary for man to become suc-
cessful and create fate. For this reason, man should not give up on themselves and
complain about Heaven; instead, man should grow stronger through trials and
tribulations, become more and more perseverant and capable. Wei repeatedly
encourages people to be aware of worry and anger, and elaborates that a flourishing
world should be governed with worry and anger, not with hedonism and comfort.
Wei further states that only when people feel the pang of worry and anger can
they feel the motivation and eagerness to make the change. Intelligence comes from
the mind in the sense that only when man wants to learn can he or she gain
knowledge and intelligence. If man has no desire to learn, he or she can’t be learned
196 13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature

at all. Mothers love sons, so they will cultivate them to their full potential; man
without virtue and not caring for his or her country will not benefit the country and
the world. It can be seen that all man’s abilities, including man’s feeling of joy and
sorrow, actually originate from man’s thoughts. Therefore, to master one’s fate, one
first has to feel worry and angry, then to create and master fate.

13.4.3 Be Modest and Tolerant

In Wei’s opinion, if man wants to stand tall between Heaven and Earth, he or she
should learn from the bamboo, removing all the useless stuffing in his mind and
welcoming all the things in the world. If man’s heart is filled with complacency,
man cannot make any progress and will fall back day by day. Modesty results in
success, complacency results in failure.
In view of this, Wei pays great attention to diligence, learning and asking. Only
by diligent learning can one create fate. Moreover, one’s own wisdom is not
comparable to that of a group, if one can combine others’ wisdom, he/she will be
wiser than Yao and Shun. So, man should learn diligently and remain humble to
gain more knowledge and become more virtuous.

13.4.4 Cherish Time

The modern era is an era of salvation and of inspiration. To cheer people to


improve, Wei Yuan cherishes time very much. In Wei’s eyes, since man isn’t born
perfect, man cannot harvest without sowing. Instead, man has to cherish time,
hasten to make up for the imperfection. Besides, man has to reflect on themselves
from time to time to improve themselves, which Wei thinks is also of high
importance. Finding one’s weakness and mistakes is the key to improvement. If one
wants to create fate, one must cherish time and make use of every bit of time to
study.11 Every saintly man, worthy man and man with goals all study quite dili-
gently. If one starts to work early in the morning and has clear goals in his or her
mind, he/she will tend to achieve the goal and become successful; if not, then
he/she will not become successful. The same is true of evaluating a person, a family
and a country—by looking at their habit. During the reign of Yao and Shun, their
citizens began to work at sunrise or at cock crow. As a result, their country was in
harmony and man lived happily in a prosperous society.

11
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 3), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 9.
13.4 Create Fate and Way to Master Fate 197

13.4.5 Self-Reflection

According to Wei Yuan, man makes plenty of mistakes due to a lack of


self-reflection, which causes them to see others’ mistakes only rather than those in
themselves. On the contrary, man who often reflects on themselves could see their
shortcomings and make progress gradually.
According to Wei, self-reflection means reflecting on what one has seen, spoken,
and what one has kept in mind. Wei said, “A gentleman learns by repetition. If you
browse your learning repeatedly, it will be yours; if you recite your learning
repeatedly, you will be enlightened; if you could enhance body while enhancing
heart, you will be healthy.”12 According to Wei, honesty and respect for knowledge
precede self-reflection, plus the need to be kind and free from vice. Therefore, Wei
said, “The essence of Great Learning lies in knowing the fundamentals.
Fundamentals will give you insights into knowledge and sincerity. An ultimately
good man has no evil traits, yet he knows the good or evil traits of others. He has
the honesty to inform others of evilness and the wisdom to enlighten people with
good traits.”13
Emphasis on self-reflection indicates that Wei Yuan pays great attention to the
heart, which is in line with his opinion that at the time one is born, he/she is
bestowed by Heaven a seed of ren deep in the heart. Self-reflection on the one hand
makes heart play its role in creating fate, and on the other hand helps the seed of ren
grow into tall trees and forests, and seeds. This process is what is described as
honesty and respect for knowledge in Great Learning. To manifest his sincerity, he
proved the validity of Great Learning with The Golden Mean.

13.4.6 Take Delight in Hard Work

Wei believes that man should focus on improving themselves rather than going
after wealth, benefit, glory and pleasure. Wanting too much of the latter will only
lead to the opposite, dishonoring and destroying people. Therefore, the only way to
avoid these bad results is to put Heaven and man in the right position, handle well
the relationship between right and wrong, good and bad, and take delight in hard
work. Wei said, “If one isn’t obsessed with fortune, there won’t be misfortune. If
one isn’t desirous of something, he will have nothing to lose. If one isn’t after glory,
there won’t be disgrace or dishonor. Benefit and glory are determined by Heaven,

12
Mogu-Learning (Chap. 4), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 11.
13
Ancient version of Great Learning, Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua
Book Company, 1976, p. 138.
198 13 The Theory of Fate Being Created by Man of High Stature

while dishonor and sufferings are what man asks for.”14 Obviously, one obsessed
with the pursuit of benefit and glory may get the opposite instead. This means that
sufferings and disgrace serve right those who ask for the opposite obsessively.
Therefore, one must realize the Way of man and the Way of Heaven to be free from
disasters and sufferings.
Based on such understandings, Wei adds, “If your mind dominates yourself,
your true self will show. Yet, most people prioritize material matters, which are
realized by human efforts and put mind at last, making man oblivious of their very
existence. Saints let their minds take over, then body and five senses. In this way,
external desires can’t invade, and internal desires can’t make trouble, and there’s
none of such saints that can’t observe the Way of Heaven”15 This is Wei’s approach
to destiny, and reflects his stress on minds. The theory of fate being created by man
of high stature brings to modern China something that cannot be ignored. As
mentioned before, in traditional Chinese fate philosophy, the dominating perspec-
tive is that Heaven determines every aspect of man, therefore man can only be
subjected to Heaven’s arrangement and do nothing at all. To some extent, the long
prevalence of this theory weakens Chinese people’s characteristics, leaving Chinese
people afraid of Heaven and fate. Furthermore, Chinese people become submissive
and unreconstructed, lack self-confidence and self-esteem, gradually losing the
determination and courage and creativity to forge ahead. In a time of strong foreign
countries coveting China’s position and growing national strength, such defects
become the fatal factor that impedes China’s development. Driven by both the
thought of criticizing the collapsing Qing dynasty and the mission of rejuvenating
the country, though inheriting some of the theory of fate being determined by
Heaven, Wei Yuan no longer follows Heaven’s arrangement like his predecessors.
Instead, he stresses disobeying Heaven is in fact following Heaven. What’s more,
he puts forward the viewpoint that man should not pray to Heaven for eternity, but
change and create fate through their own endeavor. This new theory is like a roaring
thunder that awakens the Chinese nation in a lifeless era. In this sense, the theory of
fate being created by man of high stature can be seen as the expression and
reflection of Chinese people’s awakening on fate philosophy in modern China.
At the same time, the theory of fate being created by man of high stature
typically symbolizes the transition from old thought to new thought. On the one
hand, it is quite different from the ancient fate philosophy in terms of the subject of
thought: while ancient fate philosophy advocates following Heaven, the theory of
fate being created by man of high stature focuses on changing and even creating
one’s fate; while the subject of ancient fate philosophy is Heaven, which determines
man’s fate, the subject of the theory of fate being created by man of high stature is
man, who changes and creates their own fate by overcoming difficulties. On the

14
Mogu-On Governance (Chap. 16), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua
Book Company, 1976, p. 76.
15
Mogu-On Education (Chap. 7), Collected Works of Wei Yuan (first volume): Zhonghua Book
Company, 1976, p. 18.
13.4 Create Fate and Way to Master Fate 199

other hand, the two kinds of fate philosophy share the same moral base: both
theories show profound influence of moral standards. Here, the theory of fate being
created by man of high stature advises people to create and master their fate by
acquiring knowledge and showing sincerity, which is a clearer manifestation of
moral standard domination.
Chapter 14
Mind Creates Fate Theory

Is a person’s fate decided by external forces or by their own efforts? Mind creates
fate theory chooses the latter. This theory holds that the mind is the origin of the
world; the external world is merely an illusory, artificial projection of the mind. The
fates of individuals as well as countries are all formed by people’s minds.
Specifically, intensity of emotional passion and sincerity of beliefs operate through
people’s actions, determining the distribution of success, failure, humiliation and
glory. Although the fates of countries and groups are to some degree under the
influence of geographical environment, the decisive element still comes down to the
group’s social psychology, and particularly to the actions of a small number of
heroes. In the context of Chinese history, the most famous representative of mind
creates fate theory is Liang Qichao.

14.1 Causality and Karma

If fate was a topic that ancient thinkers subjected to tireless, unceasing inquiry, then
as the belief of heaven died down in the 20th century, theories of fate also gradually
faded beyond our philosophical field of view. Thus the question of fate also cooled
precipitously. Under such conditions, Liang Qichao’s passionate interest in fate is
particularly attention grabbing. What is different from ancient times is that his
theory of fate is not based upon ‘heaven’, but rather upon people themselves.
During this process, Liang Qichao integrated the principle of causality revered by
natural science with the Buddhist concept of karma, using them as the formative
mechanism and operative principle for an analysis of people’s fates.
202 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

14.1.1 Causality

Liang Qichao believed that those objects within that universe that on the surface
appeared manifold and multifarious were in fact not a disordered, arbitrary accu-
mulation. There is an order to them that can be discovered, appearing as a con-
tinuous, sequential chain of cause and effect, with a definite regularity to it. Liang
Qichao further pointed out that for a physical object, its existence and development
does not go beyond the two components of cause and effect. Cause comes before,
and effect follows afterwards. Without cause there is no effect, and with the cause
the effect must be produced. Conversely, given the effect the cause must also have
been; a certain effect is formed under the impetus and drive of a certain cause. The
speed and timing of the effect are determined by its cause. Of course, this certainly
isn’t to say that one kind of effect is always the result of one kind of cause. In many
circumstances, one kind of effect is the result of many different causes, and within
these many causes there are immediate and remote ones, intrinsic and extrinsic
ones. In this aspect, he particularly emphasized the role of remote causes, stressing
the need to consider the indeterminate remote causes. Only when they have been
considered can the entire circumstances of the object be grasped, and from this a
correct determination be made and effective steps taken.
As Liang Qichao saw it, with causality, all complicated issues became well-
ordered, conforming to causality—with inquiry, complex and messy problems could
be neatly straightened out. In light of this, he praised causality as the secret to dis-
cussing affairs and the shortcut to getting things done. Because of this, causality also
became Liang Qichao’s fundamental principle and method for investigating human
fate, and particularly the fate of countries. Utilizing this theory, he not only investi-
gated the reasons for human evolution, outlining the progressive trajectory of soci-
ety’s history, he also studied the origins of China’s poverty and national weakness.
Liang Qichao stated “the remote were several hundred thousand years in the
past,” referring to remote causes, and “the near were within the last several dec-
ades” referring to immediate causes. Under these conditions, although his identi-
fication of the roots of China’s poverty and decline being in the people was
inevitably resented for absolving the government of blame, his method of seeking
the fundamental origin of the problem from within remote and immediate causes
proved inspirational. In Liang Qichao’s analysis of humanity and human history,
geographic environment was an extrinsic cause, and heroism was an intrinsic cause.
Even more importantly, causality wasn’t just for tracing the causes responsible for
effects, one could also create causes in order to anticipate effects. Regarding this,
Liang Qichao stressed “without creating the cause, there cannot be the result, while
by creating the cause, there will always be the result. The intrinsic power and
external environment of the cause will produce all kinds of discrepancies in its
speed and timing.” In discussing creating causes, Liang Qichao was indicating the
method through which people could determine their own fates, however regardless
of whether it was creating cause or determining fate, it clearly shared its origins
with the concept of causality.
14.1 Causality and Karma 203

14.1.2 Theory of the Karmic Cycle

As causation is a necessary, inescapable law of the universe, then for humanity,


fortune and luck, wealth and status, progression and advancement are all a kind of
fate, perhaps arrived at unexpectedly or perhaps as the fulfillment of one’s ambi-
tions, in what way are these determined? Given one kind of ending, one kind of
consequence, then, what was the prior cause that created this kind of ending and
consequence? In order to answer these questions, Liang Qichao looked to the
Buddhist concept of the karmic cycle, placing it on an equal footing with causality,
and he remained thoroughly conscientious of Buddhism’s karmic retribution. As he
saw it, karma was built upon an extremely carefully epistemology, having under-
gone thorough scientific consideration. Thus it was just as applicable to the
understanding of the universe as was the concept of causality, so emphasized by
science. He believed in this unswervingly. Not only that, he presented causality as a
worldview and spiritual view, and used it in observation in order to reach an
understanding of life to much benefit. Similarly, Liang Qichao used this in analysis,
unraveling the predicaments of individuals and the fates of countries alike.
According to him, the karmic cycle states that the one who creates karma must
receive the consequences—the substance of this claim is a continuation of causality,
causal retribution. In this, the karma created is the cause, the repercussion received
is the effect. The continuation of causality, the karmic cycle, these cannot be
escaped from. For the deeds that are performed in this world, even if their reper-
cussions are not received in this life, when the next life arrives they cannot be
avoided.
Liang Qichao emphasized karma and cause neither increase nor decrease, just as
in the law of conservation of mass in physics; despite the passing of time or changes
in conditions, they won’t erode or appreciate. Therefore, he concluded: “the karma
created by all living creatures, just like the conservation of mass in physics, every
bit that is created will remain always, an indelible mark lingering on. Yet at times it
may be concealed by an external power, all trace hidden, so that a casual observer
would say it has been eliminated, unaware it persists in the boundless potential. At
some future opportunity, it will reemerge and can not be repressed”. Since the
power of karma may not be extinguished good and evil will see their consequence.
Therefore, people must not be dismissive of the karma they create. However, next
we must ask, what actually is the karma that people create? The word Karma comes
from Sanskrit. The karma referred to by Buddhism consists of three aspects of one’s
behavior: physical, verbal and mental behavior, collectively called the “three kar-
mas”. He also used the concept of karma in this capacity, and stressed that for the
entirety of human behavior, one will reap what one has sown. Before it has brought
about its consequence, karma absolutely will not fade away. Consequently karma is
referred to as “karmic power”.
The law of causality and the karmic cycle theory jointly indicate that any human
behavior will bring about a definite consequence, good and evil will see their
recompense, and good and bad luck happen for a reason. Conversely, any fate or
204 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

opportunity a person runs into and any consequences they suffer all happen for a
reason, and certainly do not arise out of thin air. Behind then, there must be a
karmic cause. From this perspective, people’s destinies are not the result of third
parties or external forces; everything is brought on by themselves. Ultimately,
everything is a result (consequence) of one’s own personal behavior (karma). This
tells us, we must forever take responsibility for our own behavior; for all of the
karma that we create, it is impossible for others to bear it for us, and of karma that
we have not created, it is impossible for others to create it in our stead. Parents
cannot make contributions for their children, nor can a begrudged enemy cast a
curse upon the target of their enmity. In the end what kind of fate a person receives
is entirely the result of their own efforts, what they have done, what they have
received, and what they have chosen. In the face of fate, all people arrive and depart
alone, and live the results of their own actions; it is entirely unrelated to external
forces. This is Liang Qichao’s theory of fate. What is worth noticing is that, in order
to explain the origins of a country’s fate and unravel its mystery, Liang Qichao
connected together individuals and communities, and the individuals living together
in the same community, transforming the karmic rewards theory from a theory of
individual karmic rewards into a theory of communal karmic rewards.

14.1.3 Communal Karmic Rewards Theory

The way that he was different from thinkers who came before him was that the reason
Liang Qichao was deeply committed to the study of fate was not concerned with
individual fates, but rather anxiety over the fates the nation and the prospects of his
country. Thus, his writings under the subject of fate didn’t discuss individual fate, but
instead studied the fate of the state, which he named “National Fate Theory”. It was
under the pressure of the dire state of China in the beginning of the 20th century, and
the personal, interdependent shock it caused, that Liang Qichao felt “the happiness of
the self must be interwoven with the happiness of the collective”, and so advanced
from studying individual behavior into expounding upon the fate of countries,
seeking a turning point for the fate of the nation. To this end he carried out an
in-depth analysis of karma, dividing karma into the two categories of “communal
karma” and “non-communal karma” (also called “distinct karma”). Through
“communal karma” and “dependent reward”, communities and countries became
subjects of karmic rewards. In this sense, Liang Qichao claimed, “yet karma has two
varieties, one called non-communal karma and one called communal karma. The
karma created by individuals is a seed planted for the individual to hold, and they
alone will later bear its rewards, called principle rewards. With communal karma, for
the karma created by individuals, the seeds are disseminated throughout society, and
it will bear their rewards, called dependent rewards.” According to the theory of
individual karma, each person’s every word and every move plant seeds which they
themselves must harvest, unrelated to other people or to society. According to the
theory of communal karma, the karma created by any individual will be disseminated
14.1 Causality and Karma 205

through the country, society or other community to which they belong. Not only will
it influence that individual’s own fate, it will also affect the other people within the
same community. Because it is this way, Liang Qichao emphasized the influence of
the individual of society and family, while also stressing the influence that the
individual exerts upon their descendants, family, third parties and society.
That is to say, people do not exist as isolated individuals, but are interdepen-
dently linked to other people and to their communities. In reality, from the moment
they are born people exist amid society, community and family, experiencing their
influence at all times. As such, the individual is the effect of the causes jointly
created by society and family; without the latter, the individual would be nothing.
Proceeding on, Liang Qichao also incorporated the concept of heredity from the
theory of evolution, as well as the concept of imitation from cultural studies, in
order to explain the mutual influences and relationships of individuals and com-
munities. Just as the physiological traits of the human body are passed on from
father to son according to the rules of heredity, with its own certain hereditary
nature, human psychology can also be inherited. As Liang Qichao put it, a person’s
disposition not only can directly influence their family members and offspring, it
can also spread to others, even spreading to the whole of society. The reason it is
like this is because human behavior consists to a large extent of imitation;
regardless of whether this be conscious imitation or unconscious imitation, it will
lead to ‘contagion’ and the spreading of habits from person to person and between
the individual and society. The result of this is that, on the one hand the individual
depends on others and on their environment for the provision of resources, while on
the other hand they also provide resources for others and for their environment. The
physical bonds and psychological dependence between others and the self, and the
individual and the community indicate that the fates of people who belong to the
same community are unified, sharing equally honor and disgrace; the entirety of the
karma they create precisely decides this community and country’s fate. In other
words, the prosperity, existence or demise of a country is decided entirely its
people’s affairs, it is the reward of the communal karma created by the entire
community, and does not hinge upon the will of heaven.
Upon this foundation Liang Qichao integrated the concepts of indirect and direct
causes from the law of causality, pointing out that the rise and fall of nations
doesn’t take form overnight, but rather happens as the result of a generation worth
of karma. Furthermore, through this kind of exploration of indirect causes he told
people that they must take responsibility for their own actions, and create good
karma and not bad karma.

14.2 Mind Creates Circumstance Theory

Liang Qichao thought that cause produced effect, and effect originated in its cause;
causal retribution determined individual luck as well as the rise and fall of nations.
With regard to individual fate, the karma one creates is the cause, and the reward
206 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

one receives is the effect. So-called fate is merely the consequences of the cause
created by one’s own behavior. From this perspective, one’s fate is created by
oneself, and is not determined by Providence or external forces. Taking it one step
further, what is the karma that people create? How are karma and cause created? By
what means do people create karma? The “Mind Creates Circumstance” theory
gives us the answer.
Liang Qichao believed that the mind was the only true existence in this world, all
else in the world was created by the mind. In other words, only the mental state
created by the mind truly exists, external states are products of our minds. He
proclaimed: “conditions are created by the mind. All physical conditions are illu-
sory, only the conditions created by the mind are real.” According to him, every-
thing in the world is illusory and ethereal, because external conditions are a
projection of the human mind, changing along with it. As for “conditions are
created by the mind”, in his work “The Mind Alone”, he expounded upon this idea
and developed it in great detail. Because every person has different mind frames,
experiences, levels of knowledge, physical qualities, and psychological conditions
and finds themselves in a different situation, when facing the same external con-
ditions, each person’s thoughts and feelings will also be worlds apart. Liang Qichao
further pointed out that the world’s objects can take ten thousand forms, or ten
thousand objects can take one form; a mountain is a mountain, a river is a river,
spring is a spring, an autumn is an autumn, wind is wind, the moon is the moon, a
bird is a bird; unchanged for ten thousand years, it is the same everywhere. And yet,
if 100 people face this mountain, this river, this spring, this autumn, this wind, this
moon, this flower, this bird, etc. their mental state will take 100 different forms. If
1000 people experience the same feeling, their mental states will take 1000 different
forms. If one trillion people or more experience the same feeling their mental states
will take a trillion or more forms. This shows that different people experiencing the
same external state will have subjective differences, and therefore display all kinds
of disparities and distinctions. So, with these massively divergent perceptions
ultimately who is right and who is wrong, what is true and what is false? Liang
Qichao didn’t set a unified standard to make such a determination rather he gave a
full throated affirmation. In this regard, he gave the following example: all the
objects seen by the person wearing green glasses are green, all the objects seen by
the person wearing yellow glasses are yellow; all the food tasted by the person
chewing Chinese goldthread tastes bitter, while all the food tasted by the person
drinking honey tastes sweet. Then, what is the true state of these objects? Are they
really green? Yellow? Bitter? Sweet? Liang Qichao’s answer was: “all objects are
neither green nor yellow, neither bitter nor sweet. All objects are green and yellow,
bitter and sweet. All objects are simultaneously green and yellow, simultaneously
bitter and sweet.” He said external objects were both green and yellow, both bitter
and sweet, they were everything at once. The reason this is such is that “green,
yellow, bitter, sweet, their distinctions are not within the object but within us.” This
is to say that properties of objects in the external world, “green, yellow, bitter,
sweet”, are not intrinsic to the object itself, but are subjective perceptions of the
mind, and are bestowed upon the object by people. What is the physical world like?
14.2 Mind Creates Circumstance Theory 207

The benevolent see it and call it good, the wise see it and call it wise, the anxious
see it and call it anxious, the joyful see it and call it joyous. In this way it seems that
“what I see is the truth in the world that I perceive”. Based upon this understanding,
Liang Qichao arrived at the following conclusions:
But does the physical world really exist? There is only the mental state.
Everything within the human world is a creation of one’s mind and nothing
more.
Following this logic, Liang Qichao proceeded one step further, claiming that the
entire physical state of the world was merely an illusion, merely a fantasy projected
by the mind; whatever mental state one had, that was the state that the physical
world would assume. For example, taking the same book, people with different
experiences or different purposes would see within it different material. The
material within the book would be different depending on the person. The variety of
emotions experienced in the external world also like this. Thus we can know that
happiness, worry, fear and joy do not exist within the external world but are entirely
of the mind. Only once we eliminate the slave within our minds can end our
servitude to the material world. Only once we reach this state of spiritual freedom
can we take control of our own happiness, worry, fear and joy, and become the
masters of our own fate.
“The mind creates circumstance” is the philosophical interpretation and psy-
chological premise of Liang Qichao’s study of fate. According to this logic, the
mind is the cause, while the circumstance is the effect. In terms of people’s fates,
people are always acting under the impetus of their minds (e.g. emotions, prefer-
ences, desires, sincerity, free will, etc.), living within the surroundings which they
have produced and transformed. This is: “the track of the universe’s evolution is
based entirely on the efforts each individual puts forth, transforming their sur-
roundings according to their wishes, and living within the surroundings which they
have created.” According to Liang Qichao’s way of thinking, the physical envi-
ronment of the natural world is composed of objects created by the human mind.
Human society and history are also products created by the human mind. Starting
from “mind creates circumstances”, Liang Qichao further claims that mental power
is the greatest power within the universe. For the individual, mental power and
consciousness determine the basis of their emotional experience; for communities
and societies, mental power promotes social progress and determines the driving
forces behind the rise and fall of societies.
First of all, Liang Qichao emphasized the crucial importance of mental power
and consciousness for the individual. To this end, he separated human existence
into two levels: physical and spiritual. While placing great importance upon the
spiritual true self, he ignored the material illusory self. At the same time, Liang
Qichao accorded much esteem upon human free will and self-advancing initiative,
asserting heaven helps those who help themselves and fate is there for each indi-
vidual to strive for and create themselves.
And because of this, Liang Qichao attached extraordinary value to the role of
individual wisdom, virtue and other such psychological features in the process of
human evolution, calling psychology the dominant force in human evolution. In
208 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

this sense he stated: “the reason humans evolve, is not merely because of material
power, but also because of psychological power. The reason creatures strive for
survival, is only to secure enough warmth and nourishment and nothing more.
People are not so, always holding their knowledge and virtue as the division
between good and bad, victory and defeat. The paths people take in following
natural evolution are each different, all because of this.” As Liang Qichao said that,
creatures compete with one another mainly for the material supplies of the external
world. However, competition between people crucially depended upon wisdom,
virtue and other psychological qualities. Those of high psychological quality, great
mental strength and sincere free will would inevitably be powerful and superior,
while the psychologically and mentally weak and devoid of free will would
inevitably be weak and inferior. Based on this standard, people’s prospects and fate
were self-evident: whether they survived or died, rose to glory or sank into disgrace,
it all hinged upon their personal abilities, because one’s fate is the result of one’s
own free will. In this Liang Qichao further explained that humans existed below the
blue sky alongside all other living things, but the way they dealt with their envi-
ronment was different: plants and animals at the most could only adapt to their
environments, whereas people could improve their environments or even create
their environments, thereby determining their own fate. Proceeding on, how could
people go about improving and creating their environments and determining their
own fate? The answer is: by means of mental power. Human mental power (free
will) is incomparably miraculous and inexhaustibly powerful, capable of continu-
ously carrying out creation.
Next, Liang Qichao stressed the role of psychology in the evolution of history,
viewing history as a product of human free will. In this he emphasized that causality
in the context of history and causality in the natural world were not at all the same
thing; the reason being “actions of human mental power are extremely free, not able
to be physically quantified”, but human mental power is extremely free, “incapable
of being completely controlled by physical or mathematical causality.” In view of
the above understanding, he simultaneously asserted that mental power is the
greatest power in the universe, while also emphasizing that mental power comprises
an unfathomable mystery; the reason humans occupy a special position in the
natural world has its roots in this. Mental power allows humans to dominate the
natural world, holding a privileged status within the universe. Even more impor-
tantly, mental power traces the trajectory of universal evolution, and provides the
means for human to produce history and dominate the universe. People rely upon
mental power to transform their surroundings and reach their desired goals, and
then live within the environment they have created. In this sense, the entire world
unceasingly changes under the transformations exerted through human mental
power, and it is precisely though this kind of person transforming their environ-
ment, humanity creates the world and dominates their own fate.
Following Liang Qichao’s logic, fate is dependent upon the mind, and the
entirety of a person’s circumstances relates to the person’s mind and is unrelated to
the will of heaven. Consequently, people can only concentrate and fully utilize their
mental capacity to help themselves, rather than seeking the help of others. Only this
14.2 Mind Creates Circumstance Theory 209

way can they gain control of their own fate. Here, he gives an example to explain; a
lone troup is surrounded and heavily outnumbered, and people are dying left and
right. If they know that there are no reinforcements coming, then they will give
everything they can, fighting bravely on the bloody battlefield, thereby transforming
defeat into victory. Actually, every disaster or fortunate event depends on a per-
son’s willpower and mental power. As for mental power’s role in the development
of society and the determination of a nation’s fate, Liang Qichao pointed out that
the reason for the progression of Western societies and the wealth and power of
Western nations “is merely that a small minority of benevolent people through
mental power made war with the evils of society, and ultimately succeeded”.
Similarly, modern China wanted to “avenge a great wrong, erase a great shame,
reform a great challenge, set a great plan, take on great tasks, even what the wise
men couldn’t plot, and what the ghosts and Gods couldn’t accomplish, could all be
accomplished though the mental power of extraordinary people.” In view of this
kind of understanding, Liang Qichao confronted the impoverished and weakened
state of early 20th century Chinese society without blaming heaven or faulting
people; in revering mental power, he entrusted his hopes for mastering China’s fate
to the modeling of a New People. He believed that in order to transform China’s
current situation and obtain passionate mental strength, it was necessary to improve
the quality the Chinese people, including aspects such as their physical condition,
moral qualities, and level of knowledge. To this end, Liang Qichao proposed a
system of “New People” views, for the purpose of cultivating the Chinese people’s
self-confidence, self-respect, self-reliance, drive for self-improvement, indepen-
dence, individuality, adventurous spirit, social consciousness, nationalism, and
autonomy, etc. He placed particular emphasis on the spiritual modeling of a new
national character, thereby placing his hopes for the transformation of China and the
authority to dictate China’s future and fate into the hands of the Chinese people.

14.3 Theory of Individual Fate

As described above, Liang Qichao thought people’s actions and fates obeyed the
principle of causality, wherein people’s actions were the cause, and their fates were
the result. In order to understand and control people’s fates, it was necessary to look
at the causes they created, that is to say their actions. What is it that determines
people’s fates? What really is the cause that sets circumstances and determines fate?
The answer is mental power, consciousness. Following this logic, the external
world and social environment are created by a person’s mind, so whatever type of
mental power they have, they will have that kind of world.
Next, how is theory created? What is it that determines people’s ideology? In
other words, what is it that determines the spirit and mental power of the world and
of history? In investigating these questions, Liang Qichao took emotions and
willpower to be the rulers of human behavior and in his hopes encouraged people to
make their own fates.
210 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

Liang Qichao believed that the fates of individuals and even countries were
determined by the karma they created, and this so-called karma is really just the
whole of their mental, verbal and physical behavior. So, what is it that determines
people’s behavior? In order to resolve this question, he appealed to voluntarism,
confirming that emotions were higher than reason, and therefore viewing emotions
as the ruler of human behavior.
Liang Qichao asserted that a person’s life is extremely free and not fixed,
inflexible or rigid. People’s actions occur from what they like and feel comfortable
with, and studying them is an emotional question. When people do something they
rely entirely on belief, depending upon emotion. Viewed like this, only emotion can
dictate people’s behavior, and reason is irrelevant. In his analysis Liang Qichao said
that emotion and reason are two completely separate things. Reason merely
explains the truth, judging whether something should be done or shouldn’t be done,
or it should be done this way or should be done that way. However, reason can’t
control emotions, and cannot carry out analysis or determination on emotions. For
example, emotions such as preferences and comfort zones determine people’s
behavior. So ultimately are each person’s preferences and comfort zones correct or
incorrect? Who is reasonable, who is unreasonable? Which kind is effective, which
kind is ineffective? These are likewise emotional questions, belonging to the
domain of belief, absolutely beyond the scope of the determinations of mathematics
or physics. Furthermore, for an individual, the ‘should’ used in reason always
brings with it connotations of ‘regret’ and condemnation, because ultimately reason
cannot determine a person’s behavior.
In light of this, Liang Qichao believed that emotions possessed a superiority and
authority with which rationality couldn’t compare. If one were to say emotion were
a majestic emperor, then reason would be his servant, in all things heeding emo-
tion’s direction. As for people’s behavior, emotion is dominant, and reason is
powerless in front of it. Upon this foundation he emphasized that emotion is a
mysterious thing; any person who tries to use reason to analyze it will be unable to
do so. This is because any person of faith regards their matters of faith with a certain
amount of foolishness, as though it were a supernatural phenomenon. They don’t
really know the nature of it, observers are even more at a loss. If another person
tries to thoroughly analyze the object of their faith, saying this is wrong and that is
wrong, unless this person has already abandoned their faith, then no matter how
they shout their voice hoarse, the other person’s arguments are it still won’t matter.
For instance, as the proverb says, “beauty is in the eye of the beholder”; if a
handsome man falls in love with an ugly woman, and feels that this ugly woman is
most beautiful woman on earth, then your golden ratio and norms of beauty are
completely inapplicable in his eyes. Then one day this handsome man has a change
of heart, and only then suddenly discovers that this woman who was in his eyes the
most beautiful woman in the world is actually an ugly woman. This is to say, reason
is absolutely incapable of changing emotion, only emotion can change emotion.
Liang Qichao summarized his thinking up to this point by saying that reason exerts
no power over people’s conduct—neither has it power to induce action, nor has it
14.3 Theory of Individual Fate 211

the power to obstruct action. Reason cannot control people’s actions, what truly
manipulates and controls people’s behavior is emotions alone.
Based upon this understanding, Liang Qichao placed high hopes upon emotion,
claiming that only with passionate emotions and concentrated love could one act
courageously, taking risks to forge ahead. In all times and places the reason that
heroes were able to perform earth-shattering feats lies in the fact that their emotions
reached a white-hot intensity, and their actions were trusted by all. “The reason
humanity evolves is only dependent upon the undertakings set off by this kind of
burning hot emotional intensity. For this kind of burning emotional intensity, I
cannot call it anything else, so I call it religion.” This is to say that when people’s
emotions burn white-hot to the point of sincerity, they will have inexhaustible force,
and thus be capable of performing heroic feats beyond the imagination of an
ordinary person. In this sense, and individual’s success or failure and a nation’s
prosperity or decline depends completely upon the people’s emotions. Furthermore,
because emotions and reason are unrelated, studying it in depth is a question of
belief. Through revering emotions, Liang Qichao came to accord great importance
to beliefs, pointing out that for a society, to have faith is to stand, to lack faith is to
disappear. Hence he arrived at the following verdict: “faith is divine, faith for an
individual is the individual’s vitality, for a society it is the society’s vitality.
Currently the greatest root of trouble for the Chinese people is the lack of faith.”
This was the reason that Liang Qichao revered the mind, just as it was his starting
point for dictating one’s fate.
Liang Qichao believed that people’s fates were determined by their behavior,
and what ultimately determined and controlled behavior was emotion, studying it in
depth is a question of faith. This indicates that a person’s fate ultimately is deter-
mined by their emotions and beliefs, unrelated to reason, and completely separate
from heaven or external powers. So, what are the emotions and beliefs that
determine a person’s fate? In brief, emotion and belief can both be referred to as
“mental power” or consciousness. In essence, emotion is emotional goodness or
wickedness, natural desires, and free will, also called “sincerity” or intensity of
emotion, etc. Belief is “hopes”, or “view of the future”. Liang Qichao particularly
emphasized the role of emotional factors such as sincerity and hope in determining
an individual’s success or failure, advancement, or gains or losses. He asserted that
a person’s success, failure, gains or loss were all determined by their emotional
sincerity.
Why did he say that success, failure, gains and loss were determined by emo-
tional sincerity? As Liang Qichao put it, in order to create, people must have
motivation. All motivations for human behavior arise from dissatisfaction or feeling
ill at ease with one’s current environment, and wanting to open up a new kind of
environment. This illustrates that the motivations human creation lie in desire—
desire to transform the current situation, desire for tomorrow to be better; in a
nutshell, a long established desire within one’s heart. Actually, the path of human
evolution is a tour of desire; not merely physiological desire and desire for the basic
requirements for survival, all religion, ethics, politics, and law originate within the
desires of human existence.
212 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

If the life of human creation is conducted under the driving force of certain
desires, then the desires that encourage people are hopes. Hope is of crucial
importance for the success of the individual as well as the evolution of society,
establishing a second world for people beyond the real world. Under the encour-
agement of hope, people can energize themselves, overcome their many difficulties,
and achieve an ideal state. And because of this, Liang Qichao cites Goethe’s words
calling hope man’s “second soul”, and asserting that in all times and places the
heroes who have produced the world as it is have all relied upon hope to develop
their glorious achievements. Considering this, he pointed out that hope is the raw
material of heroes, and the mentor that leads the world through its evolution. On
this basis, Liang Qichao noted that an individual’s hope and their success are
directly proportional; the greater their hopes the more conspicuous their achieve-
ments. Hope and the degree of civilization of a country are directly proportional; the
greater is hope, the greater is the country’s evolution. Thus, “the amount of
achievement, the degree of evolution of social organization, all depend upon the
size of their hopes, their proportional difference. The power of hope has an influ-
ence on the world which is great and large.” Up to this point, people will certainly
want to ask: can hope really hold such immense influence? Can it both turn an
individual into an unrivalled hero of great achievement, and also guide the world’s
trajectory? Liang Qichao penetratingly elucidates this mystery from two sides.
Firstly, hope supports the world of the future. Liang Qichao thought the dif-
ference between humans and animals lay in their methods of survival. People have
two worlds, and do not simply live in the world reality, but rather exist within an
idealized world. Hope belongs to the future, building a bridge from reality to our
dreams, and allows people to live for their dreams. Here he explains that people live
within two worlds: the real world and the future world. In one regard, for an
individual, the two worlds are both necessary. On the other hand, the two worlds
are each different: reality is composed of facts; it is real, established, narrow and
limited. The future world is composed of hopes, dreams; it is vast and unlimited.
This gives these two worlds very different significance for people’s lives. Even
more importantly, just as the reality of present world is the product of yesterday’s
dreams, the future world likewise depends upon the hopes of the present.
Secondly, “views of the future” cause people’s minds to imagine tomorrow,
willing sacrificing the present to purchase the future. Liang Qichao emphasized that
hopes can help people break free from small-mindedness and stubbornness, and fix
their gaze upon the limitless distant future. Thus, for the distant, future benefit they
abandon the present benefit, willingly buying the future with the present, and
thereby better judging and handling their present and future. The relationship
between the individual and society lies in placing their aims in the future, with the
present as a transition allowing them to transcend winning and losing. Not only
that, Liang Qichao stressed that in terms of a single person’s actions and success,
harboring hopes and harboring disappointment and despair are as different as clouds
and mud; the consequences produced by these two frames of mind are as far apart
as earth and sky.
14.3 Theory of Individual Fate 213

In Liang Qichao’s view, having a heart filled with hope and being enormously
proud of successes, one appreciates the enormity of the world. Hence, unafraid of
difficulty, one can overcome all challenges in one’s path, eventually reaching an
ideal state. Disappointed and hopeless, with emptiness in one’s heart, one feels
alone and unwanted in the world. Hence, hesitant and holding back, retreating from
difficulties, one never tastes the jot of accomplishment. Not only that, people’s
willpower, courage and wisdom ebb and rise along with their hopes. However great
a role hope plays a person persevering, and despair provides an equally great
setback. In fact, hope and despair are not merely opposites but in fact mutually
engendering. In view of the interlinked accompaniment of hope and despair, in
order to give a person lasting hope and unfading willpower it is necessary to
revitalize courage by taking risks and pushing ahead, and thus break free from the
successes and failures of the present, and not lose will due to momentary failure and
dejection. Liang Qichao emphasized that people live for their dreams, only one’s
“view of the future” can allow one fortitude during adversity, and reignite one’s
hopes, so that they are willing to make sacrifices for tomorrow.
From this we see that hope is of crucial importance to people, absolutely
indispensable, nothing less than a person’s ‘second soul’. Whether a person is an
outstanding talent known around the world, or an unknown outsider of mediocre
abilities, the key lies in whether their heart is full of hope. Whether they pursue their
work unremittingly, winning success and recognition, or merely drudge forward
unthinkingly accomplishing nothing, this too depends on whether their hearts are
filled will lasting hope. Here, Liang Qichao stressed that in all times and places the
wise and heroic, the faithful officials and religious leaders, politicians, inventors,
adventurers were able to bring about the world as it is and enter their immortal
accomplishments in the history books. All rely upon their second soul, hope, to
urge them forward on their path. In this sense, heroes and great persons all succeed
based on their hopes; the difference between average people and heroes lies in
whether or not they have hopes. Ordinary persons with hopes can become people,
and heroes without hope are no different from ordinary people. This makes clear
that so long as they have hope in their hearts, ordinary people can also perform
heroic undertakings.

14.4 National Fate Theory

Arising from the practical demands of national survival, Liang Qichao’s investi-
gation of the question of fate was ultimately aimed at indicating what direction
China should move in. Thus when he spoke of fate he placed particular emphasis
upon country’s prospects and fate. The fate of nations became an indispensable
component of his study of fate.
What is the world? What is society? What is history? Following the theory of
karma and the logic of voluntarism, Liang Qichao determined “history is purely a
product manufactured by individual expression”, and “history is created by human
214 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

mental power”. As human communities, the world, society, nations, the history of
governing disorder and civilizing the wild, as well as the state of our circumstances
are all determined by the communal karma of every individual person. What ulti-
mately determine the karma we create are effort, psychology and emotion. It is
worth noting that, although he repeatedly stressed that everyone plays a role in the
affairs of nations, Liang Qichao stated that each person’s role in society’s devel-
opment and human evolution is different. Some people’s influence is limited to their
time and place, while history’s rulers of nations, though their lives may have ended,
pass on institutions and laws they created as a legacy bequeathed to future gen-
erations. Generally speaking, the greater a person’s capabilities, the larger their
influence, while the smaller their capabilities are the smaller their influence. In one
world, one society or one country, whoever has the greatest ability and whose
activities extend to the broadest scope, that person naturally becomes the ruler of
that community. Who is it within a world, a society or a country that has the
greatest capability and broadest scope of activity? Liang Qichao’s answer is: her-
oes. As he sees it, the people are all stupid while the hero alone is wise; the people
sleep while the hero alone is awake. The hero is an “all knowing and all capable”
prophet, “God’s angel”, “the Creator of the human world.” Heroes naturally
become the controllers of history and the creators of the world, dictating the pro-
spects and fate of societies and nations. Thus, Liang Qichao hands nations’ pro-
spects and fate over into the hands of heroes.

14.4.1 Heroes

In recent Chinese history, Liang Qichao’s worship of heroic figures attracted


attention for its extremism. Liang Qichao had an intense hero complex, longing
daily for heroes, dreaming of heroes, letting his worship of heroes seep into his
every word. Liang Qichao not only worshiped heroes himself, he also called upon
others to rise up and worship heroes. According to him, heroes are the prime force
behind the development of history. Without heroes there would be no world as we
know it. It was in this sense that he proclaimed: “What is the world? Heroes and
nothing more; give up heroes and there would be no world.” In order to better
explain that heroes were the creators of societies’ histories and the masters of the
fates of human communities, Liang Qichao particularly expounded upon the rela-
tionships between heroes and history, heroes and current circumstances, and heroes
and the masses.
Firstly, regarding heroes and history, Liang Qichao viewed history as being
created by heroes. Because human history is created by heroes, it is the history of
heroes’ creating; human society and its history are “the product of a minority of
great persons”. Regarding this, he explained: “the great undertakings of the human
world were all discovered in the latent potential within heroes’ hearts. Although it is
known as world history, it is not unreasonable to consider it as the biography of
heroes. Because there was Luther we have Protestantism; because there was
14.4 National Fate Theory 215

Columbus there is the New World; because there as Washington, there is now the
United States of America; because there was Bismarck, there was the German
Confederation.” According to this point of view, human history is precisely the
history of heroes creating, history is precisely a biography of heroic figures. “I read
one thousand years of Chinese and foreign history, merely the crowded biographies
of one to two hundred heroes; removing these one to two hundred heroes and
history would be dim and colorless.” Liang Qichao further pointed out heroic
figures can set the atmosphere for a generation, determine the scope of a generation,
govern the disorder of a generation, and secure the safety of a nation. “As this
person lives the government acts, if this person dies the government ceases.”
Apparently, whether the history of human societies is of advancement or retreat,
prosperity or decline, this fate is grasped entirely within the hands of heroes.
Secondly, regarding heroes and current circumstances, Liang Qichao wrote: “to
say that heroes create current circumstances, or to say current circumstances create
heroes, these two are both famous sayings…heroes and circumstances are mutually
causal, mutually resultant, they continuously create cause, and continually bring
results.” Here, Liang Qichao openly stated heroes and circumstances follow each
other like an object and its shadow, without the slightest distance, “they are each
other’s cause and each other’s result”. Heroes admittedly can create circumstances,
and circumstances likewise can create heroes. In fact this is an acknowledgement
that heroic figures are a product of their circumstances, subject to the restrictions of
historical conditions and their social environment. So, how does one understand the
relationship between heroes creating circumstances and circumstances creating
heroes? In other words, fundamentally, is it heroes that create circumstances or
circumstances that create heroes? Clearly, what Liang Qichao emphasized was
heroes creating circumstances and not circumstances creating heroes. The reasons
he made this determination were twofold: first, according to Liang Qichao’s per-
sistent theory, the wisdom and ability of heroic figures came from innate talent, and
was not the product of their circumstances. Circumstances merely provided the
heroes aspirations to put these talents to use, and a stage and location to carrying out
creation. They are the basis that heroes use for creating their own circumstances and
not the material for making heroes. He also claimed: “the heroes’ abilities are the
cause, the use of conditions is the starting point, and the creation of conditions is the
result.” Furthermore, even though they are a stage and location, they are also the
product of the previous hero. As Liang Qichao saw it, “thus if there were no prior
hero, I fear the so-called circumstances would be too distant to see.” This clearly
indicates that the circumstances create heroes he spoke of occurs with the pre-
condition of heroes creating circumstances. Second, Liang Qichao held that heroes
could be separated into those “created by circumstances” and those who “create
circumstances”; whether or not they could create circumstances was the standard
for differentiating adaptive figures and pre-emptive figures. As he saw it, heroes
formed by their circumstances were merely “adaptive figures”, “people follow their
circumstances”, at best they could only be counted as “common heroes”; only
heroes who created their own circumstances were “pre-emptive figures”, the
once-in-a-blue-moon true heroes, the great heroes. Likewise, only circumstance
216 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

creating true heroes could become true masters and operators of society’s devel-
opment and the nation’s fate. This shows that what he worshipped and anticipated
were the pre-emptive figures, the circumstance creating heroes. Therefore he
repeatedly called out true heroes, great heroes. Not only that, Liang Qichao
emphasized that the lower the level of civilization in a society, the greater the effect
of a hero, especially in ancient society, “history was the biography of heroes” was
undisputable.
Thirdly, Liang Qichao specifically investigated the relationship between heroes
and the masses, considering that the broad masses of the public are merely the
followers of a small number of heroes, a passive force lead around by the nose by
the heroes. If the heroes will always be the leading roles in human history, then the
broad masses of the public will forever play just a supporting role on history’s
stage. Hence, Liang Qichao said: “What is the world? It is only heroes. Get rid of
the heroes and there is no world as we know it.” This is to say, only a small number
of heroic figures are active personalities, while the rest of the masses of people are
passive. In this way, a small number of people become historical personalities, and
their personal qualities, character, and emotions (“momentary impulses”) decide the
direction of historical progress, and becoming the driving force of historical
evolution.

14.4.2 Geographical Environment

In the early 20th century when Liang Qichao was studying on the power and
weakness, the rise and fall of the countries, and the customs and habits of the people
in the West and East, he pointed out that people’s fate was determined by the
specific geographical conditions of different regions. He thus became an enlight-
enment thinker in modern Chinese history, who systematically introduced and
analyzed the theory of geographical determinism. In 1901, in his Studies on
Chinese History, he specially discussed the relation between geography and history
and developed a complete geographical theory. Later on, Liang Qichao continued
to study on geographical environment and its influence on history and China’s
future. He wrote several articles about his views of geographical determinism,
including “Study on the General Situation of Asian Geography”, “Study on the
General Situation of Chinese Geography”, “Study on the General Situation of
European Geography”, “The Relation between Geography and Civilization”,
“Geography and Eras”, and “The Geographical Distribution of Modern Schools of
Learning”. In these articles, Liang reviewed the distinctive geographical features of
China, Asia, Europe and other places in the world, and made comparison between
them. He hoped to find the reason why China was lagging behind the other
countries and to lead a way for China’s future through analyzing China’s particular
geographical environment and the distinctive features of Chinese civilization and
culture.
14.4 National Fate Theory 217

Firstly, Liang believes that a country’s political phenomena are closely related to
the geographical environment. Therefore, why China and the West have different
political systems and phenomena can be explained with their different geographical
conditions. Take China as an example, as China has always had a vast united
territory but the government’s power couldn’t reach every corner, internal conflicts
and turmoil frequented the country. As a result, centralized governing became a
necessary choice for the monarchs; and frequent peasant uprisings were the out-
come of the influence of China’s geographical environment. This was also the
grounding for Liang’s argument why China lagged behind and his hope for China’s
future. At the same time, Liang holds that the political environment in Europe,
Africa and America are also the outcome of their geographical environment. He
also conducted a detailed analysis of this point.
Secondly, Liang thinks that culture is also greatly influenced by the geographical
environment. Different geographical environments determine different cultural
patterns and features. One, in terms of the climate, all civilizations originate from
the temperate zones. This is because in the frigid zones where people are exhausted
by trying to survive severe living conditions and have no time for other things, it is
not suitable for the development of human brains. Likewise, in the tropical zones
where there is abundant rain and sunshine and the plants and animals thrive, it is
very easy to make a living and therefore not good for the maturity of brains. This
demonstrates that people living in the frigid zones cannot make much progress
because it is very difficult to obtain food and clothes; neither can people in the
tropical zones because their life is too easy. Therefore, only those living in the
temperate zones where there is change of four seasons and different weather are
endowed with favorable natural conditions to create civilizations. Under this natural
environment, people are not able to sustain themselves if they do not work hard;
and they will be rewarded as long as they work hard.
Based on the above analysis, it can be summarized that human civilizations
mostly come from the temperate zones. Secondly as far as the landform is con-
cerned, more advanced cultures are developed in the areas with a more mild
landscape. Liang thinks that culture and civilization are created by humans’ mental
and physical power. Geographical environment influences and even decides the
cultural forms through working on people’s mind. Specifically speaking, in the
areas with overly magnificent and intimidating natural landscape such as high
mountains, torrential rivers, deep canyons and frequent volcanoes, the local people
usually become more sensitive and therefore they are hindered from rational
thinking. On the contrary, in the areas with a more mild landscape, the people have
more confidence and love for the beauty of nature, and thus become more coura-
geous to explore the secrets of nature and promote their culture. Further analysis
was made by Liang that the reason why Europe was more developed than Asia,
Africa and America was because they had different geographical environments.
Europe has more mild natural sceneries, so its science and rational thinking are
more developed; whereas Asia, America and Africa have more “scary sceneries”, so
they are more superstitious and less developed in science and ration. However, in
Europe, volcanoes, earthquakes and other terrifying natural sceneries can be found
218 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

more in the two peninsulas in the south than other areas, therefore, the most
superstitious people and the most powerful churches in Europe are concentrated in
the three southern countries of Spain, Portugal and Italy. Similarly, Liang states that
the differences between the southern and northern cultures of China are also caused
by geographical environments.
Thirdly, Liang concludes that geographical conditions also determine a people’s
national character and mentality. Different climates play a decisive role in shaping a
nation’s character. The general rule is: “People from colder regions are fierce and
those from warmer regions are gentle.” On this ground, Liang further explains that
in general “the nature of water makes people more liberal while the nature of
mountains makes people more reserved.” Therefore, the people living by the ocean
most likely have a progressive and ambitious mind.
According to this theory, in Europe, the distinctive characteristics of the three
great peoples (the Germanic, Slavic and Celtic) correspond to their geographical
environments. Liang expounds on this point in his article “Study on the General
Situation of European Geography”. Regarding the Chinese people’s character, he
gives such an explanation: China has a vast open and flat land with four seasons.
This has shaped the Chinese people’s nature of “respecting neutralism and loving
peace.” Moreover, he thoroughly examines the personality differences between
different ethnic groups and the people of different social statuses in China from the
perspective of geographical environment, especially the Hunan and Cantonese
people.
At last, Liang emphasizes that geographical environments determine whether a
country is powerful, weak, prosperous or declining. In his view, the European
civilization tops the world because Europe has more peninsulas, islands, bays and
capes and a longer coastline than other continents. “The shipping network in
Europe is much more mature than that of the rest of the world,” and this is bene-
ficial to the exchange of goods, ideas and technologies. In comparison, Asia falls
behind Europe due to its disadvantageous geographical conditions. And Africa is
less developed also because of its particular geographical features. Nevertheless,
Liang pays much more attention to the comparison between Europe and Asia with
the aim to find the secret of why the West was powerful and China was backward.
Afterwards, Liang tries to map China’s future through learning China’s geo-
graphical advantages and disadvantages. He felt uneasy when looking at the world
map: “A people’s character and a country’s rise and fall are greatly influenced by
their geographical environment. For example, the Latinos were powerful in history,
but they were not impregnable. Then to those who have the Latinos’ disadvantages
but none of their advantages, how can they sustain their development? Whenever I
am looking at the world map, I feel uneasy.”
In the research on the relations between geographical environment and civi-
lization, Liang repeatedly attributed the advanced culture in Europe to its privileged
geographical conditions. Given this argument, it is natural to infer that only Europe
was the paradise and the European people were the God’s favorite. Since China’s
backwardness was the result of its deprived land and the geographical environment
could hardly change, China could never change its fate and it would forever be less
14.4 National Fate Theory 219

developed. If this were the case, it would be counterproductive to the efforts to save
and revive the Chinese nation; and it would also be opposite to his original intention
of the geographical environment theory.
Keeping this in mind, Liang continued to discuss two issues: one, regarding
geographical environment, Europe has both advantages and disadvantages; so does
China. Therefore, China didn’t lose to the West in terms of geographical envi-
ronment. Furthermore, he underlined, it is a disadvantage that a unified centralized
ruling system was formed in China due to its special geographical environment; but
it is also an advantage of modern China to make concerted effort under one unified
system to unite its people to fight against the foreign invaders. As a conclusion,
geographical environment, spirit and mind, became the foundation to revive China
and the prerequisite for rebuilding China’s confidence and hope. Two, geographical
environment is not the only determining factor for the development of society and
history. The people’s spirit and personality also play a great role.
As a whole, when studying the human’s group fate, Liang Qichao, on the one
hand, pays attention to the correlation and consistency of the fate of the same group
of people. He claims that the similarities in people’s fate largely depend on the
geographical environment in which this group of people lives; on the other hand, he
realizes the imbalance and differences in the fate of different people in the same
society. He declares that these differences are caused by the different minds of
people and the history is made and dominated by heroes. Geographical environment
works as an external cause which focuses on the predestined non-human factors
influencing the group fate; heroes serve as an intrinsic cause that focuses on the
human factors influencing the group fate.
At the same time, these factors interact with each other, creating different results.
According to the logic of the “geographical environment decides fate” theory, a
country’s power, weakness, rise and fall and its people’s customs are set by its
special geographical environment. However, this environment already existed
before the heroes were even born and it has not changed at all. Whether there are
heroes or not does not change or influence the environment. On the contrary, a
heroic figure as a country’s member is influenced by the environment. In fact, Liang
used geographical environment to explain a hero’s growth and personality. For
example, he said, Muhammad was shaped by the hot weather and land; Martin
Luther King was brought up by the ice cold region; and Oliver Cornwell’s robust,
persistent, gloomy and calm personalities were the results of his hometown’s
unique geographical conditions.
According to the “heroes create history” theory, the countries and world are
created by heroes, therefore, all environment including natural sceneries and social
customs are the masterpieces of heroes. How the environment exists and evolves is
entirely dependent on the heroes’ free will. Maybe Liang was aware that both
theories seemed to be contradictory to each other. He then elaborated the different
roles played by the environment and people’s mind (heroes’ free will). Thereby, he
accepted that geographical environment plays different roles in the different stages
of the human history. Heroes and their free will work as a more decisive element.
They are the number one master of the human history. In this sense, Liang was in
220 14 Mind Creates Fate Theory

favor of the “heroes create history” theory. Moreover, judged by Liang’s mindset
and viewpoints, the “heroes create history” theory is more logical choice.
The main characteristic of mind creates fate theory isn’t merely in that it views
fate as a creation of mental power; even more important is the prominence of the
exploration of the fates of human communities. In expounding upon the fate of
humanity as a whole, it is noted that the geographical environments and local popular
customs of different regions will produce a profound influence upon the generation
of the whole and the direction of its fate henceforth. At the same time, through
people’s physiological and psychological generational inheritance and the trans-
mission of habits, it is shown that the fates of people within the same community are
linked as intricately as blood vessels, sharing in both honor and disgrace. Hence the
fates of individuals and families, communities and societies are linked together,
causing individual fates and the fate of the nation to become one. In the exploration
of fate, the mind creates fate theory breaks through the limitations of the individual
body and the family bloodline, and from the level of the country and nation it obtains
for the individual an everlasting spirit. The ‘secret’ of individual immortality is to use
the body of the country or community to carry the individual’s soul.
These theories trace back to the quest to save the country of the early 20th
century, and were extremely important for promoting communal consciousness and
nurturing patriotic ideology. They also gave the study of fate a new purpose and
theoretical implication. In order to better rouse the masses to collectively dictate the
country’s fate, Liang Qichao called for the development of the national character,
asserting “the fundamental meaning of establishing the nation lies in developing
individuality”. This was closely bound up with manifesting people’s consciousness,
which was a new trend never before seen in prior theories of fate. Undeniably,
regardless of whether it be the exploration of individual fate or of national fate, the
mind creates fate theory’s treatment limitlessly exaggerates people’s role in fate,
thereby rejecting the restrictions of objective rules on the fates of individuals or
communities. According to Liang Qichao, causality equates to certainty, whereas
free will is a synonym for randomness. Precisely because of this, a world and
history created by individual free will is not subject to the control of the law of
causality. These ideas of Liang Qichao’s view fate as an ideal trajectory completely
in accordance with one’s own free will. While displaying humanity’s confidence in
daring to seize control of its fate, at the same time it is difficult to avoid arrogance
and conceit, and the suspicion of being wishful thinking.
In short, from the ancient belief that human fate was inalterably determined by
heaven to the early 20th century mind creates fate theory’s assertion that fate is
created by the human mind, free of external constraints, we see the transformation
from the worship of external powers to the worship of oneself. This process reveals
the process of the generation of the Chinese people’s personality, and can be
viewed as a psychological even in the history of the Chinese people. With mind
creates fate theory as its symbol, Chinese traditional philosophy’s exploration of
human fate moved from one extreme to another. In a sense, this is the inevitable
logic of the development of Chinese traditional theories of fate.
Bibliography

Authored by Dong Zhongshu, compiled by Su Yu, and emended and commented on by Zhong
Zhe: Vicissitudes of History: a Detailed Interpretation in Book Form. Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 1996.
Authored by Ge Hong and compiled by Wang Ming: Emendation of and Annotations to the Inner
Chapters of The Master Who Embraces Simplicity, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2002.
Authored by Liang Qichao and edited by Yi Xinding: Selected Works of Liang Qichao. China:
China Federation of Art and Literature Publishing Corporation, 2006.
Authored by Liang Qichao and edited by Zhang Pingxing: Complete Works of Liang Qichao,
Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 1999.
Authored by Liang Qichao and edited by Zhang Pinxing: Liang Qichao’s Family Letters. China:
China Federation of Art and Literature Publishing Corporation, 2000.
Authored by Liang Qichao and edited by Ge Maochun et al.: Liang Qichao’s Philosophical
Essays, Beijing: Peking University Press, 1984.
Authored by Lie Zi, annotated by Zhang Zhan and compiled by Yang Bojun: An Intensive
Interpretation of Lie Zi. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1997.
Authored by Xun Zi and compiled by Wang Xianqian: A Collective Interpretation of Xun Zi.
Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1996.
Authored by Xun Zi and annotated by Zhang Shitong: Concise Annotations to Xun Zi. Shanghai:
Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1974.
Authored by Zhu Xi and edited by Li Jingde: Classified Utterances of Zhu Zi (8 volumes), Beijing:
Zhonghua Book Company, 1999.
Authored by Zhuang Zi and annotated by Cao Chuji: Tentative Annotations to Zhuang Zi. Beijing:
Zhonghua Book Company, 1982.
Cheng, Hao. and Cheng Yi.: Collected Works of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi. Beijing: Zhonghua
Book Company, 2004.
Emended and Annotated by Mo Di and Bi Yuan; punctuation provided by Wu Xuming: Mo Zi.
Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1995.
Guo, Xiang.: Collected Annotations to Zhuang Zi. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986.
Liang, Qichao. 1998. The New Citizen. China: Zhongzhou Classics Publishing House.
Shang, Binghe: Shang’s Insight into The Book of Changes. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,
1981.
Wang, Chong: Critical Essays. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1974.
Wei, Yuan: Collected works of Wei Yuan (volumes 1 and 2), Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,
1976.
Wu, Enpu: A Modern-Chinese Translation of The Four Books, Together with Annotations. Jilin:
Jilin Literature and History Publish House, 1996.
Yang, Bojun.: A Modern-Chinese Translation of Mencius, Together with Annotations. Beijing:
Zhonghua Book Company, 1960.
222 Bibliography

Yang, Bojun.: Analects with a Modern-Chinese Translation and Annotations. Beijing: Zhonghua
Book Company, 1980.
Yang, Tianyu: The Book of Rites with a Modern-Chinese Translation and Annotations.
Zhou, Zhenfu: The Book of Changes with a Modern-Chinese Translation and Annotations.
Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2001.
Zhou, Shao-hsien.: The Essence of Lie Zi. Chung Hwa Book Co., Inc., 1983.
Zhu, Xi. Answering Questions about The Four Books. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing
House and Anhui Education Publishing House.
Zhu, Xi and Lv, Zuqian. Zhu Zi’s Recent Thoughts, Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing
House.
Zhu, Xi.: Complete Works of Zhu Zi (27 volumes), jointly published by Shanghai Classics
Publishing House and Anhui Education Publishing House, 2002.
Zhu, Xi.: Intensive Annotations to Quotations from The Four Books. Beijing: Zhonghua Book
Company, 2005.

You might also like