Chapter 6

 Some of the key concepts.

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 Consistency
 In logic, two statements are said to be
“consistent” if it is possible that both are true.

 For example:
 John is 16.
 John is a musician.

 It is possible both of these statements are true,

so they are consistent.

 Note: Consistency does not mean that both

statements are true; it only means it is possible
both are true.

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 Inconsistency
 Two statements are “inconsistent” if it is not
possible that both are true.
 For example:
 John is exactly 16.
 John is exactly 21

 It is not possible both of these statements are

true, so they are inconsistent.

 Note: Inconsistency does not mean that both

statements are false; it only means it is not
possible both are true.

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 Implication
 In logic, a statement P is said to
“imply” a statement Q if the
following is the case:
 If P is true, then Q must be true.
 For example:
 P: Ann is 30 years old.
 Q: Ann is older than 21.
 P implies Q in this case.

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 Equivalence
 In logic, one statement P is
“equivalent to” a statement Q if and
only if the following is the case:
 P implies Q and also Q implies P.
 In other words:
 If P is true then Q is true and if Q is
true then P is true.

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 For example
 P: Ann is taller than Joe.
 Q: Joe is shorter than Ann.

 In this example, P implies Q and Q

implies P. Since they imply each
other, they are equivalent.

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 Necessary Truth
 In logic a statement is said to be “necessarily
true” if it is not possible that it is false.

 In other words, there are no possible

circumstances in which it would be false.

 Examples:
 All squares have four sides.
 All bachelors are male.
 If Ann is taller than Bob, and Bob is taller than
Charles, then Ann is taller than Charles.

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 Necessary Falsehood
 In logic a statement is said to be
“necessarily false” if it is not possible that
it is true.

 In other words, there are no possible

circumstances in which it would be true.

 For example:
 Some squares have six sides.
 Some triangles have nine sides.
 Jan is 16 and it is not the case that Jan
is 16.

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 Contingency
 A statement is “contingent” if it is not necessary, in other words, it is
neither necessarily true nor necessarily false. Thus a statement is
contingent if and only if it is possible that it is true and it is also
possible that it is false.

 In other words: There are possible circumstances in which it would be

true and there are possible circumstances in which it would be false.

 These statements are all contingent:

 Bananas on average are 39 cents per pound in Seattle today.

 It is 60 degrees outside right now.

 John Lennon was born in October 1940.

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 Ideals
 Examine many sides of a controversial
issue before making your mind up; don’t
just study or listen to one side.

 Treat others with respect when arguing

or disagreeing with them. Listen to what
they have to say, try to understand their
viewpoint (and expect them to treat you
the same way).

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