Virtual Machine Tool

Y. Altintas1 (1), C. Brecher2, M. Weck2 (1), S. Witt2

1
Manufacturing Automation Laboratory-The University of British Columbia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vancouver, Canada
2
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering, Chair for Machine Tools
Aachen University of Technology, Aachen, Germany

Abstract

This paper presents current state of Virtual Machine Tool Technology and related ongoing research chal-
lenges. The structural analysis of machine tools using Finite Element models and their experimental cali-
bration techniques are presented. The kinematic analysis and optimisation of machine tool elements are
discussed with sample examples. The interaction between the control of the feed drives, cutting condi-
tions and machine tool structure is presented. Multi-body dynamic models of the machine, which allow
integrated simulation of machine kinematics, structural dynamics and control techniques, are discussed.
The interaction between the machine tool, controller and cutting process disturbances are discussed with
sample examples. The simulation of machining operation and its impact on the dynamics of the machine
tool and CNC are elaborated. The paper presents both the summary of current and past research, as well
as research challenges in order to realise a fully digitised model of the machine tool.

Keywords:
Simulation, Machine Tools, Virtual Prototype

1 INTRODUCTION the design. Instead, the design processes of modern

The goal of present manufacturing technology is to pro-
duce even the first part correctly in a shortest time and
most cost effective way. Since the product complexities
increase and the competitive product life cycle times are
reduced, the realisation and testing of physical prototypes
become major bottlenecks for the successful and eco-
nomically advantageous production of modern machine
tools [54], [114].
Presently, the machine tool builders can no longer afford
the time- and cost-intensive manufacturing and testing of
physical prototypes to detect weak spots and optimise
machine tools employ “virtual prototyping” technology to
reduce the cost and time of hardware testing and iterative
improvements of the physical prototype. The virtual pro-
totype of a machine tool is a computer simulation model
of the physical product that can be presented, analysed
and tested like a real machine. Iterative changing of a
virtual model of the machine tool during the design proc-
ess and exercising design variations until the perform-
ance requirements are achieved, reduce the whole prod-
uct development time and cost significantly. The advan-
tages and the potentials of time savings by virtual proto-
types are illustrated in Figure 1.

V2
V1

PHYSICAL CHANGE OF CHANGE OF SETTING-UP

CONCEPT DESIGN TESTING
PROTOTYPE DESIGN PROTOTYPE OPERATION

TRADITIONAL DEVELOPMENT TIME

DEVELOPMENT TIME WITH VIRTUAL PROTOTYPES TIME SAVING

VIRTUAL
PROTOTYPING
VERIFICATION
START OF PRODUCTION

PHYSICAL
PHYSICAL SETTING-UP
CONCEPT DESIGN TESTING
PROTOTYPE
PROTOTYPE OPERATION

V2
V1

Figure 1: Comparison of the traditional design process and the design process with virtual prototypes.
If the possibility of comprehensive simulations during the
entire design process is not available the optimisation of
physical prototypes is often based on trial and error based
on the past design experience, which leads to a costly
and lengthy development process.
In the virtual prototype approach, engineers are able to
realistically simulate the kinematic, static and dynamic
behaviour of the whole machine tool system including the
cutting operations. Thus it is possible to quickly analyse
multiple design variations until achieving an optimised
prototype which satisfies the machining requirements in
the best possible manner. The virtual design engineering
is enabled by the use of high performance computer
technology and software engineering tools.
The virtual prototypes are not only helpful for the design
process but also for the virtual initial start-up of the ma-
chine tool or the simulation of the machining operations
on the digital model of the machine tool.
This paper presents the design, analysis, optimisation
and operation of machine tools in a virtual environment.
The paper is organised as follows: The concept of virtual
machine tool design and testing is presented in Section 2.
Finite Element, kinematics, structural analysis and optimi-
sation of the machine tool elements are explained. The
simulation model of the CNC system is presented in Sec-
tion 3. Trajectory generation, axis control laws and tool
path simulation with collision detection are discussed. The
simulation of machining operations is given in Section 4.
The predictions of cutting loads as well as the stress-
temperature simulation in the chip and tool wedge are
explained. Section 5 covers the integration of process and
machine tool simulation, which is the ultimate goal in
realising a complete digital model of the machine tool
during machining of a part. The present research chal-
lenges which has to be solved for the full realisation of
virtual machine tool system are discussed in Section 6.
The paper is concluded by assessing the effectiveness
and future trends in “Virtual Machine Tool and Machining
Systems”.
2 THE VIRTUAL MACHINE TOOL
Modern machine tools are very complex mechatronical
systems. The capability and efficiency of a machine tool
are mainly determined by its kinematics, structural dy-
namics, computer numerical control system and the ma-
chining process as shown in Figure 2.
Product
Mechanics Process
Requirements on
requirements Machine Tools
Fx „ high static and
dynamic stiffness
„ high dynamic
properties of
Control Loop
the feed drives
„ high accuracy
„ low path
deflections
Figure 2: The mechatronic system “machine tool”.
To ensure that the first physical prototype of the machine
tool meets the requirements in the best possible way, it is
essential that every design step is evaluated with simula-
tions of the virtual prototype.
2.1 Integrated design of modern machine tools
Initiated mainly by the automotive and aircraft industry,
the development of modern software tools for the simula-
tion of product properties has been enhanced significantly
in recent years [114]. Advanced software and hardware
systems allow design engineers to evaluate and optimise
critical product characteristics with virtual prototypes be-
fore the first physical prototype is built. A wide range of
software tools is available for the different design-stages
of a machine tool [114], [124] as shown in Figure 3.
Calculation of Finite-Element-Analysis Coupled flexible
Components and Optimisation Multi-Body-Simulation
Multi-Body-Simulation
z y
x ∆
Control Loop
F Drive (1)
∆
F(t) Control Loop
FE-Beam-Model of the Spindle Fx F Drive (2)
∆
Control Loop
M Drive (3)
1. Eigenfrequency f=331 Hz
3D-CAD Design and Matching of Simulation
Design
Kinematics Optimisation Re
and Measuring
a 2
t 1 Simulation
Compliance [um/N]
1
ep
lis
2 Measuring
atio
Con
n
acceleration
y-axis [mm]
Phase
x-axis [mm] Frequency [Hz]
Figure 3: Integrated development of modern machine
tools with virtual prototypes.
Computer aided design and kinematics studies
During the concept stage, simplified simulation models
can be used to estimate the influence of general design
parameters on the machine performance. The kinematic
configuration or the geometry and widths of guideways
can be given as examples for general design parameters.
Especially the machine tools with parallel kinematics the
kinematic behaviour needs to be simulated and optimised
during the early design stage. The machine tools with
complex kinematic configuration are much more sensitive
to slight variations of geometric parameters than tradi-
tional cartesian machine tools, and thus offer huge poten-
tial for optimisation. The 3D-CAD-Model of the machine
tool is exported to a kinematic analysis software environ-
ment. The optimisation of the kinematic behaviour and the
simulation with rigid multi-body simulation during the early
design stages are illustrated in Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
Finite-Element-Analysis
The Finite-Element-Analysis (FEA) is used to calculate
static stiffness or dynamic characteristics of the machine
tool, e.g. natural-frequencies and mode shapes. Powerful
optimisation methods, which are based on the Finite-
Element-Method, are used effectively to find optimum
design variants under given restrictions, e.g. the minimi-
sation of masses of moving machine components or the
maximisation of the static stiffness. The Finite-Element-
Analysis as well as the application of structural optimisa-
tion methods are discussed in Sections 2.4 and 2.5 .
Coupled flexible Multi-Body-Simulation
The development of high speed machine tools requires
light-weight design in combination with sufficient stiffness
of the structural components. Moreover, the machine
control must be capable of dealing with the high-speed
position changes at acceptable accuracy. Therefore, the
interaction between structural dynamics and control loops
must be considered during the design of modern machine
tools. The coupled flexible multi-body simulation is illus-
trated in Section 2.6.
Calibration of the Simulation Models
To realise a good correlation between the results of
measurements and Multi-Body-Simulation, the parame-
ters of the simulation model, e. g. the damping and stiff-
ness parameters of guiding systems and bearings, must
be calibrated. Especially the correct prediction of damping
parameters in machine tools is very difficult because of
the dependency on a large number of different influences,
e.g. the pre-load, temperatures, assembly conditions and
many others. The calibration of simulation models with
results of measurements are discussed in Section 2.7.
2.2 Optimisation of the kinematic behaviour
During the early stages of the design process of machine
tools the type of the kinematic as well as the desired
workspace dimensions have to be defined. The efficiency
of machine tools is basically determined by these charac-
teristics. Especially machine tools with parallel kinematics
Thus, the optimal solution is either chosen intuitively by
the designer or estimated by the classical cost-function
approach.
An approach based on pareto-optimal design is proposed
in [57], [112]. The idea is to estimate all sets of design
parameters with genetic algorithms, in which the individ-
ual performance values can only be maximised by a
weakening of another performance requirement. Within
the resulting sets of pareto-optimal design parameters,
the optimal configuration for a given task can be chosen.
The optimisation with the help of genetic algorithms is
illustrated in Figure 4. The design parameters which were
optimised are the dimensions of the platform, as well as
the position of the joints at the machine bed under given
restrictions [111].
Use of genetic Optimisation of the kinematic behaviour
optimisation 1,4 1,4

are characterised by their non-linear transmission of

Configuration
Optimierte Konfiguration
Configuration
movements and forces from joint- to task-space [106].

Start Konfiguration
START
These transmission characteristics are influenced by the Generation of

Optimised
kinematic topology of the mechanism and its geometric Startpopulation 0,4 0,4

Start
configuration. Thus, the following two steps are most Crossover
0 0
important during design [66]. Mutation
Storage of
κmax = 2.75 -0,4 κmax = 1.8
Evaluation pareto-optimal -0,4 0,8 0 0,8 0
σmin = 0.51 σmin = 0.75
• Determination of the appropriate kinematic topology Solutions
0,3
0.3 σmax = 1.45 0,3
0.3 σmax = 1.37
Selection Clustering
•
0.2 0.2

Determination of the right geometric dimensions no

y-axis [m] [m]

0.1
OK ? 0.1

y-axis [m]
yes 00 00

y-axis
Postprocessing STOP -0.1 -0.1

The second step is most important since the performance -0.2 -0.2

is highly influenced by the geometric dimensions of a -0,3

-0.3 -0,3
-0.3

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
x-axis0 -0,5
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
0,5 x-axis0 -0,5 0,5
machine tool with parallel kinematics. A poor topology
[m] [m]
x-axis [m] x-axis [m]

which is optimally designed may perform better than a
mechanism with appropriate topology but poor design
[66], [106].
The choice of the right dimensions for the design parame-
ters with respect to a given application is a difficult task:
• There are many performance values which have to
be taken into account and which are often antagonis-
tic to the design parameters, i.e. kinematic stiffness
vs. workspace.
• There is a nonlinear relation between design parame-
ters and performance.
• Many performance values are of the type "best case -
worst case" over an up to six-dimensional work-
space.
Since the performance characteristics vary within a work-
space of complex shape a simple and unique perform-
ance comparison of either parallel with serial kinematics
or different parallel mechanisms becomes most difficult.
To achieve an optimal kinematic configuration in a short
time, the designer has to be supported by suitable analy-
sis- and optimisation tools.
A classical way of finding the required design parameters
is to define a cost function, consisting of the weighted
sum of the performance values as a function of the design
parameters. A numerical procedure is then used to find
the design parameters which minimise the cost-function
with respect to an initial estimate. This strategy is limited
by the definitions of the weight factors, e.g. in terms of
priority [66]. In addition, finding the global optimum cannot
be guaranteed due to the complexity of the optimisation
problem.
To avoid these limitations, different approaches have
been proposed. The parameter space approach esti-
mates all satisfying solutions within a multidimensional
design-space for each performance requirement [65]. The
intersections of these individual solutions contain the sets
of design parameters which will meet all requirements.
Figure 4: Optimisation of the kinematic performance.
It can be observed, that the development of design tools
for machine tools is still ongoing research. While tools for
the performance analysis are widely established, the
estimation of an optimal layout for a given application has
to be automated to establish conceptual capabilities in
terms of modularity and reconfigurability.
2.3 Simulation of rigid multi-body models
During the early design stages the kinematic behaviour of
the machine tool can be simulated with the multi-body
simulation (MBS) as a rough estimation [113], [123] using
rigid bodies. This kind of simulation enables the design
engineer to make a first, quick prediction of the kinematic
behaviour and estimations of the influence of parameter
variations in the model, as, for example, the length of an
actuator in machine tools with parallel kinematics [123].
Each individual element within the multi-body model con-
sists of rigid bodies. In this context rigid bodies are parts
that have mass and inertia properties but cannot deform.
These rigid bodies can be imported from 3D-CAD-Models
through interfaces using standard formats such as IGES,
STEP, DXF/DWG and Parasolid or can even be gener-
ated within the multi-body environment. Constraints de-
fine how the parts are attached and how they move rela-
tive to each other. Multi-body simulation tools usually
provide a library of constraints including for example [64]:
• Idealised joints that have a physical counterpart,
such as a revolute (hinge) or translational (sliding
dovetail) joint.
• Joint primitives that place a restriction on relative
motion, such as forced parallel movement of two
parts.
• Motion generators that drive the model through a
prescribed distance, velocity or acceleration profile
as a function of time.
• Associative constraints that define how pairs of con- In this example the multi-body model is used to simulate
straints move, such as couplers or gears. the dependency between reachable acceleration and
necessary jerk setting for positioning operations of the
• Two-dimensional curve constraints that define how a
kinematics [112].
point or curve moves along another curve.
In the dynamic analysis, the position of all bodies of the
Furthermore, forces that act on the model can be defined. mechanism is determined as a result of time-dependent
These forces will affect part motion and reaction forces on forces applied from outside. Generally, kinematic con-
constraints. Multi-body simulation tools provide libraries of straints are replaced by flexible connectors like 3-
forces that usually include: dimensional spring-damper-elements. With the help of
this analysis the simulation of expected load histories of
• Flexible connectors, such as spring-dampers and machine components can be estimated for the dimension-
bushings, which provide pre-defined, compliant force ing [20], [90], [76], [108].
relationships. During the analysis of inverse dynamics, the motion pat-
• Special force elements that provide pre-defined tern of one or more bodies is specified and the drive and
forces that are commonly encountered. the internal forces of the joints and flexible connectors are
calculated. This kind of simulation is especially useful for
• Applied forces that allow the writing of algorithms to the dimensioning of the drive systems during the early
represent a wide variety of different force relation- design stages.
ships.
The static calculation is traced back to a dynamic calcula-
• Contact forces that specify how bodies react if they tion where the MBS-system determines the state of equi-
come in contact with each other while the model is in librium [64], [90].
motion. The multi-body simulation provides an easy way to ana-
lyse the kinematic behaviour over the complete work-
The analysis options in the established multi-body simula- space of a machine tool as well as to determine load
tion systems consists of the following types [90]: histories of components or joints [64], [90], [123]. In addi-
tion, it helps to choose proper elements or detect weak
• Assembly analysis spots of a machine tool in the early design stages. How-
• Kinematic analysis ever, the flexibility and strain of single machine parts
cannot be considered with the pure multi-body simulation
• Dynamic analysis
using rigid body models [113], [64].
• Inverse dynamic analysis
2.4 Finite Element Analysis of machine tools
• Static analysis
After the concept of the machine tool and the dimensions
In the assembly analysis, the MBS-software tries to as- of the kinematics have been defined the structural behav-
semble the mechanism in the modelled configuration. iour has to be analysed and optimised [64], [113], [124].
This means that the underlying non-linear equation sys- The structural behaviour under static, dynamic and ther-
tem is solved. If necessary, minor variations of the initial mal loads is evaluated to derive an optimal machine de-
positions owing to the numerical precision of the input sign with respect to minimum structure mass and highest
data are applied. This analysis step is carried out before machining precision.
each simulation. The Finite-Element-Analysis (FEA) is an established tool
During a kinematic simulation, the position of all bodies of to evaluate the properties mentioned above. It is applica-
the mechanism is analysed depending on the time. Dur- ble for single components such as columns or spindle
ing such a simulation the movements of one or more housings as well as for complete machine tools.
bodies are described by a law of motion. This kind of The most common types of the Finite-Element-Analysis
analysis is used to simulate the reachable kinematic per- for structural problems are illustrated in Figure 6. Apart
formance, e.g. the acceleration capability of the design from these analysis types the Finite-Element-Analysis is
over the complete workspace. also applicable for other physical problems, e.g. in hy-
The model of a machine tool with parallel kinematics and draulic, electromagnetic and casting simulations.
some results of such a kinematic simulation are shown in
the following Figure 5. Analysen
Analysis typesder Finite-Elemente-Methode
of the Finite-Element-Analysis
Lineare
Linear Statik
Static Nichtlineare
Non-linear Statik
Static Dynamik
Dynamic Thermik
Thermal
Rigid Multi-Body
Multi-Body Model of a Machine Tool’s kinematics „ linear load- „ material
F
„ linear normal „ analysis of steady
Screw Joint Revolute Joint deformation- mode analysis state temperature
behaviour „ response-analysis fields T(t) = const.
F ∆
„ contact F „ analysis in time
„ analysis of transient
domain
temperature fields
F(t)
∆ T(t) ≠ const.
Motion Translational Joint ∆ t
„ snap F „ radiation,
s [mm]

through convection
„ buckling „ crash analysis
F Q(t)
∆ r
v Q(t)
t [sec] „ following load
Results of a Positioning Operation
reachable path velocity [m/s] necessary path jerk [m/s³] ∆ „ non-linear thermal
2.0
558
material behaviour
87 1.8
6 212
max. acceleration [m/s²]

max. acceleration [m/s²]

25 25
42
669.68
20 1.
2 09
20 Figure 6: Analysis types of the Finite-Element-Analysis.
4
15 15

10 10
0.
17
For structural problems the types of analysis can be di-
5 63
4
5 64.6128
vided into three groups as depicted below: namely the
0.05 0.1 0.15
stroke [m]
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.15
stroke [m]
0.2 0.25 0.3 linear and non-linear static analysis, the dynamic analysis
and the thermal analysis [30].
Figure 5: Multi-body Simulation of a rigid body model.
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady load
conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and damp-
ing effects caused by time-varying loads. A static analysis
can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as grav-
ity and rotational velocity), and time-varying loads that
can be approximated as static equivalent loads.
Static analysis is used to determine the displacements,
stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components
caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and
damping effects. Steady load and response conditions
are assumed in static analysis; i.e., the loads and the
structure’s response are assumed to vary slowly with
time.
A static analysis can be either linear or non-linear. The
linear static approach is selected when small, elastic
deformations occur on the structure. In general, the
analysis refers to the classical calculation of elasticity
problems that can also be described analytically in the
case of very simple structures. In this context buckling
problems can be analysed that match the classical Euler
solution.
In non-linear analysis different types of non-linearity are
allowed such as large deformations, plasticity (non-linear
material properties), creep, stress stiffening, contact (gap)
elements or hyperelastic elements.
Contrary to the static case, the dynamic analysis allows
the examination of a structure with respect to time-varying
effects. For machine tools the most important aspect is
the analysis of normal mode dynamics to determine the
vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and mode
shapes) of a structure or a machine component in the
frequency domain, as well as analysis of time domain
response of the machine [30].
Apart from the mechanical aspects the influence of heat
sources on the machine’s structure is another most rele-
vant topic that can be examined using the thermal Finite-
Element-Analysis. In most cases the basis for thermal
analysis is a heat balance equation obtained from the
principle of the conservation of energy. In a thermal simu-
lation the three primary modes of heat transfer can be
considered: conduction, convection and radiation.
For machine tools the most important results in a Finite-
Element-Analysis are [20]:
• Deformations, e.g. deflection of the tool centre point
(TCP) under process loads, deflection of guideways,
reaction forces, e.g. forces in bearings or guiding-
systems
• Linear normal modes of vibration
• Flexibility frequency response (with limitation)
• Stress distribution, e.g. in highly loaded tool inter-
faces under additional rotational loads
• Temperature distribution, thermal fluxes and resulting
deformations
The detailed procedure of a Finite-Element-Analysis for
machine tools according to Figure 7 is exemplified in the
following.
For the effective use of simulations during the design
process Finite-Element programs are often integrated into
CAD-systems or provide standard interfaces, such as
IGES, STEP or Parasolid in order to transfer existing
geometry models.
In a first step it is necessary to prepare the CAD model for
the following Finite-Element-Analysis (pre-processing).
Geometric details, such as chamfers, small holes and
radii that only have a local influence on the structural
behaviour are neglected. After simplifying the geometry,
the geometric model is split into surface patches (parti-
tions). By this, a complex structure is fractionalised into
simple base geometry elements that allow easy meshing.
Defeaturing of the 3D-CAD-Model
and setup of the FEA-Model
Calculation & Optimisation of the
⎛k x ⎞
static behaviour ⎜ ⎟
k Spring = ⎜ k y ⎟
Calculation & Optimisation of the
dynamic behaviour ⎜k ⎟
⎝ z⎠ c
ati
St Fx
CADÎFEM
Dy
na
mi
c
Figure 7: Steps of a FEA-Analysis of a machine tool.
Next, the prepared geometric structure is reproduced by
finite elements. Depending on the simulation problem and
the desired calculation accuracy, the FEA programs offer
a variety of different elements that are specific to the
analysis (static, dynamic, thermal). The finite elements
are connected by nodes that make up the complete finite
element mesh. Each element type contains information
on its degree-of-freedom set (e.g. translational, rotational,
thermal), its material properties and its spacial orientation
(1D-, 2D-, 3D-element types).
Thin-walled structural components of machine tools, like
columns or machine beds, are usually meshed with shell-
elements (2D-element types). The wall thickness of the
structure is contained as a physical property of each ele-
ment. Compact parts are typically meshed with solid ele-
ments (3D-element types) [30].
Semi-automatic mesh generators are widely used in prac-
tise, helping the engineer to reduce the model generation
effort. In the semi-automatic meshing process, also called
mapped meshing, regular FEA meshes made of quadri-
lateral or hexahedral elements are generated. These kind
of FEA meshes are distinguished by balanced element
proportions and smooth dimensional transitions.
On the contrary, with fully automatic meshing methods,
only the generation of irregular FEA meshes is possible,
which in general provide lower calculation accuracy com-
pared to the mapped meshes.
While the real structure components of machine tools are
commonly connected by guidance systems and drives,
e.g. ball-screws, the meshed structural components are
connected using spring elements with corresponding
stiffness values. These spring elements represent the
connection stiffness of real machine components with
adequate accuracy. They may also contain local damping
properties, if those are needed for direct dynamic calcula-
tions and if they are known for the corresponding machine
component.
Finally, boundary and load conditions are added to fully
describe the simulation model. Boundary conditions are
applied to give specified displacements and to describe
symmetry conditions. The boundary conditions are de-
fined by fixing the various translational and, rotational
degrees of freedom, or by constrained mesh’s nodes.
Loads are added to describe the machine tool loading
scenarios such as machining forces or heated motors.
Therefore, loads can be of a structural (forces), thermal
(heat sources) or fluid (pressures) nature.
For machine tools the static and dynamic behaviour is of
major interest, as illustrated in Figure 7. In post-
processing, the calculation results can be reviewed and
load cases of different operating conditions can be super-
imposed. While displaying the calculation results (e.g.
static, dynamic) in the post-processing program, the ma-
chine model can be examined with respect to displace-
ments, stresses, reaction forces, mode shapes or natural
frequencies, which allows the designer to evaluate the
machine properties in the design phase.
Albertz [1] and Schneider [87] presented applications of
the Finite-Element-Analysis for the simulation of the static
and the dynamic behaviour of machining centres during
the design process.
Zatarain [134] used a FE-Model with movable joints be-
tween the structural components for a modular synthesis
of the static and dynamic behaviour of machine tools at
several positions in the workspace.
Groche [46] used Finite-Element-Analysis for the optimi-
sation of a forming press under dynamic loads.
The industrial application of Finite-Element-Analysis as a
tool for computer aided engineering is illustrated by many
different examples [20], [76], [125], [108].
However a single analysis of the actual state of a ma-
chine tool (analysis of weak spots) during the design
process is usually of little help. Rather, in most cases,
continuous improvements to the design are necessary in
order to improve the static and dynamic behaviour of
suboptimal components, to reduce masses of moving
parts.
These improvements of the machine performance can be
achieved cost-effectively by the use of modern optimisa-
tion methods based on the Finite-Element-Method. These
methods will be explained and discussed in the next sec-
tion.
2.5 Optimisation of structural components
In machine tool design, optimisation offers the possibility
of improving different properties of the design by using
numerical optimisation [20], [84], [89], [91], [114], [124].
The numerical optimisation of structural components is
generally based on the Finite-Element-Method and can
thus easily be integrated in the design process [89]. De-
pending on the necessary level of detail, different meth-
ods are used to find or improve the design of structural
components of machine tools.
The topology optimisation is used to define the best mate-
rial distribution in a given design space. Thus this method
is mainly used in the early design stages supporting the
engineer in finding a design concept with regard to given
demands [79], [84], [87], [91], [92]. As a result of this
optimisation an optimal material distribution in the given
design space is calculated. For the design of machine
tools this method is often used to determine the design of
machine beds or columns in terms of light weight design.
Some examples and applications of the topology optimi-
sation will be discussed in Section 2.5.1.
The parameter optimisation is used for the optimisation of
more detailed designs of machine tools. This numerical
method is used to optimise parameters of Finite-Elements
(2D-element types) considering different constraints, e.g.
maximal allowed deformation [13], [89], [113], [124]. A
typical application is the optimisation of the wall thickness
of machine beds or columns for machine tools. Generally
the overall weight of the structural components is mini-
mised with regard to a desired static stiffness at the tool
centre point. The application of the parameter optimisa-
tion will be illustrated in Section 2.5.2.
The following Figure 8 illustrates the most common meth-
ods for structural optimisation.
Methods of structural optimisation
Topology Parameter Topography Shape
Optimisation Optimisation Optimisation Optimisation
wall thickness parameter-oriented
„ optimisation with
regard of the casting
„
„ cross section
„ optimisation of
creases and
„
optimisation
core draw directions „ fiber orientation reinforcements „ parameter-free
optimisation
design space
optimisation
result
source: Altair source: Chiron / WZL source: Altair source: Altair
Figure 8: Methods of structural optimisation.
The topography as well as the shape optimisation are of
secondary importance for the design and optimisation of
structural components for machine tools.
2.5.1 Topology Optimisation
The topology optimisation supports the designer in the
task of finding a preliminary rough design based on mini-
mum design specifications, wherein the mass of the com-
ponent is distributed with load-orientation in the solution
space [69], [79], [84], [91], [123].
The topology optimisation requires no design plan as an
initial solution. Starting from the available design space
and the requirements for the component, a basic design
of the component is determined. The objective of a topol-
ogy optimisation mostly lies in designing the component
with a minimum mass with simultaneous adherence to the
boundary conditions, such as stiffness specifications.
Moreover, some topology optimisation systems allow the
formulation of reference stress and natural frequencies as
goal and restriction functions [89]. The topology of a com-
ponent created in this way must finally be smoothed and
transformed into a CAD model to be able to reuse it [13],
[113].
Hessel [50], [113] developed an approach to transfer the
results of a topology optimisation back to the CAD-based
design process. The mesh of the optimisation result is
transferred into a surface model consisting of NURBS-
surfaces and standard geometry. These models can be
exported in a standard format, like STEP or IGES, and
can thus be used for the detail design-engineering work.
Fleischer et al. [44], [70], [92], [124] developed an ap-
proach for the topology optimisation of structural compo-
nents which is called “coupled hybrid multi-body simula-
tion with topology optimisation” (HMBS-TO). This soft-
ware environment uses the multi-body simulation to cal-
culate the loads and the FEA-software in combination
with the optimisation software. The advantage of this
approach is the automatic load and inertia update which
guarantees a fully automated optimisation loop [70]. The
workflow for the new dynamic topology optimisation is
illustrated in the following Figure 9.
After the preparation of the flexible bodies, a modal re-
duction has to be carried out to reduce the degrees of
freedom of the hybrid multi-body simulation model. This
can be achieved by means of computing the Craig-
Bampton modes [31], which are described in detail in
Section 2.6.3.2.
 1. Preparation of Flexible 2. Computation of Craig 3. Setup of MBS Model and tion the thickness of each wall of the structural compo-
Body Bampton Modes Definition of Load Cases
Rigid Body
Flexible
nents was defined as a design parameter which could be
Element
Design
Element
Body varied within limits. The optimisation led to a noticeable
improvement of the dynamic behaviour resulting in a
Frozen significant increase of the first natural-frequency.
Element Imposed
Interface Motion
Node
Iteration
2.6 Coupled Simulation of structural dynamics and
6. Topology Optimization 5. Determination of 4. MBS Result: Forces, control loops of machine tools
Result Component Stress and Deformations
Topology Optimization 100 Generally, the requirements on modern highly dynamic
Design Cycle
machine tools can be summarised as follows [21], [22],

Force [%]
50
[116]:
0
0.00 0.50
Time [s]
1.00
• high static and dynamic stiffness to ensure high ac-
curacy of the finished workpieces
Figure 9: Workflow of the coupled hybrid multi-body simu- • high dynamic properties of the feed drives to realise
lation with topology optimisation. highly dynamic positioning operations and move-
ments to decrease the processing time of each work-
The third step is the setup of the HMBS model and the piece
definition of imposed motions and load cases [44], [70], • low path deflection during the chip removal
[123]. The resulting forces of the MBS simulations are
exported, as are component deformations and stresses. These ambitious demands on machine tools can only be
This loop (steps 2-5) is repeated until the topology optimi- fulfilled employing small moving masses with sufficient
sation finishes with a design proposal (step 6) which fulfils static and dynamic stiffness of the structural components
the desired objectives. as well as high adjustable controller parameters of the
drives [22], [116]. This leads to interactions between
2.5.2 Parameter Optimisation structural dynamics and feed drive controls. Natural fre-
Parameter optimisation tools are used to find optimum quencies of the feed drives are coupled with lower natural
sets of structural parameters by using the Finite-Element- frequencies of the machine structure. To avoid instabili-
Analysis [13], [89], [113]. These optimisation tools are ties the control parameters have to be reduced, whereby
used after the rough dimensions of the components are the bandwidth of the feed axes decreases. This leads to a
defined. Different parameters of the draft designs can be limitation of the productivity of the machine tool.
optimised under different constraints such as: Despite these known interactions the dimensioning of the
feed drives and the design of the structural components
• wall thickness values of shell elements for models of of the machine tool nowadays still take place decoupled
structural components from each other.
• cross-sections of beam elements for models of Different approaches are known to simulate these interac-
frameworks tions during the early design stage of the machine tool
• fibre orientation angles of shell elements for models [33], [48], [80], [81], [116], [131].
of light-weight design Figure 11 illustrates the most common approaches for the
coupled simulation of structural dynamics and control
The parameter optimisation is a useful tool for the design loops used today.
engineer to meet the demands of light weight design
Replacing Models
especially for moving parts of highly dynamic machine Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Digital Block-Simulation (DBS)
tools. The results of such an optimisation of a High- mred kred PT2
s
- -
Performance-Cutting (HPC) machine tool are presented Cred
- -
reduced model

in Figure 10.
mred, kred, cred
of the drives

FEA
of the mechanic
reduced model

[M]; [K]; [C]

1 vertical table - bottom
2 vertical table - top
3 pallet carrier
3
4 pallete
optimisation column
140 Start design
5 s
Optimised design - - - -
4 120
percent [%]

100 DBS
2
5 column 6
80
6 head Sprint Z3 Coupled rigid Multi-Body Simulation (MBS) Coupled flexible Multi-Body Simulation
7 fixation 60 MBS MBS
40
20 interface interface
position, velocity

7
position, velocity

1
0 interface interface
over-all mass 1. eigenfrequency
y x
forces
forces

z optimisation table
180
Start design
Optimisation of a Milling Machine 160 Optimised design -
s
- - - -
s
- - -
140
optimisation of the design
percent [%]

„
120
DBS DBS
„ comparison of different design-versions 100
80 Co-Simulation
„ consequently realisation of light 60
weight design 40 Figure 11: Methods of coupled simulation of structural
parameter optimisation of the wall thickness 20
„

by the use of Finite-Element-Analysis 0 dynamics and control loops.

over-all mass 1. eigenfrequency

Figure 10: Parameter optimisation of a machining centre.

The different approaches can be classified as the simula-
tion with replaced models and the co-simulation of the
The over-all weight of the structural components could be dynamic behaviour. The simulation with replaced models
reduced significantly by maintaining a constant static uses either analogue models of the control loop for the
stiffness at the tool centre point [22]. During the optimisa- FEA-Model of the structure or analogue models of the
mechanics for the simulation of the control loop [48].
In the context of the co-simulation, two independent simu-
lation environments, one for the control loops and one for
the machine structure, are coupled via interfaces during
the simulation [33], [48], [73], [131].
Within the research project MECOMAT (FP5 Growth
Programme of the European Union) [103] an computer
aided engineering tool was developed for the mechatronic
design of machine tools, which supports the conceptual
design as well as the detailed verification.
The different approaches will be explained with some
examples within the next sections.
2.6.1 Coupled rigid multi-body simulation
The rigid coupled multi-body simulation can be used to
simulate the kinematic behaviour of the machine tool
while considering the control loops of the drives [20], [76],
[125]. The models of the structural components are stiff
and cannot deform under load, and are connected by
idealised joints. The simulation is valid for any possible
position of the machine tool in the workspace. Therefore it
is possible to simulate positioning operations in the work-
space with this approach.
Pritschow et al. [73], [74], [75] developed a simulation
environment which is illustrated in Figure 12. The envi-
ronment was developed for the coupled simulation of a
rigid multi-body model and control loop models of a PKM
machine tool.
CAD-Model MBS-Model
Velocity
Neugebauer et al. [71] developed models to describe the
interaction of machine and hydraulic drive system of form-
ing machines. The methods use numerical simulations for
the hydraulic systems.
2.6.2 Coupled Finite-Element simulation
Another approach is the coupled Finite-Element simula-
tion with reduced models of the control loops of the
drives. Within this procedure the reduced stiffness, damp-
ing and mass of the drive system are calculated with the
help of a digital block-simulation and modelled with spe-
cial elements in the FEA-model [20], [48], [76], [131].
Some FEA-programs provide special linear control ele-
ments to represent the analogue model of the control
loops. In this case only the settings of the controllers have
to be specified as parameters of the elements in the FEA-
model [17]. These kinds of elements are handled in the
same way as conventional finite elements.
The simulation of the dynamic behaviour of the x-slide of
a turning centre with a linear direct drive is depicted in the
following Figure 13 [20]. To simulate the error at the tool-
centre-point during a positioning, a trajectory profile was
generated as an input signal for the controller element.
The signal of the measuring system was used as an addi-
tional input signal. This signal was measured between two
nodes at the two parts to which the measuring system is
mounted on the real machine. At each simulation step of
PC-NC Model
the dynamic analysis the controller element calculated the
force of the linear direct drive which was applied as a pair
of forces (action=reaction) on the primary and the secon-
dary parts.

desired feed rates

Tigger counteracting force on the error X in the measuring

primary parts
Time
1 +- Kv +- 1/Ks Kf 1/1000 1
feed force on the system [mm]
Xsoll PI Fsoll
secondary parts
1/2 -+ 1/Tpc vber

error. [mm]
Xist
2

Displacements 0.01
Forces
Forces Model of the
Displacements control loops TCP
Velocities 0
Velocities
-0.01

„ Design in 3D-CAD-Systems -> Import into MBS-Software (MSC.ADAMS) controller 0 0.1 time [s] 0.3 0.4
„ adaptable level of detail measuring
„ coupled model of the control loops (Matlab/Simulink) of the drives system error X at TCP [mm]
„ desired feed rates with PC-NC model 10 required acceleration [m/s²] required position [m]
0.08
0.01

Figure 12: Coupled simulation of a rigid multi-body model 0

error [mm]

0
0.04
and control loop models of a PKM machine tool. -0.01
-10
0 0.1 0.3 0.4
0 0 0.1 0.3 0.4
0 0.1 time [s] 0.3 0.4
time [s] time [s]
The multi-body model of the machine tool is imported with source: Gildemeister / Siemens Linear Motor Systems GmbH & Co. KG

the aid of an interface from the CAD-system into the

Figure 13: Coupled FEA-simulation with control loops
MBS-environment. This approach enables the update of
the model during the different design stages; if the layout
is detailed during the design process these changes can This approach enabled the investigation of the influence
easily be included [74]. of the position of the measuring system as well as differ-
The model is coupled with models of the control loop for ent orientations of the linear direct drive. Thus the de-
each drive. The displacement and velocity of the measur- signer was able to optimise the drive of the x-slide in an
ing systems in the model as well as the forces of the early design stage and minimise the occurring errors
drives are exchanged with the aid of interfaces between during machining.
the MBS-environment and the Computer-Aided-Control- Such changes of the principle design would be extremely
Engineering program. In addition the control loop models expensive if they had to be realised at a physical proto-
are coupled with a PC-based model of the numerical type, or impossible if the surrounding design space did
control, which generates the desired feed rate of each not allow such changes.
individual drive. Berkemer [16], [17], [18] demonstrated the industrial use
Especially in the field of machine tools with parallel kine- of the methodology for tuning of the SIEMENS controllers
matics the possibility to perform test runs of the numerical in a virtual environment, as well as recommending the
control before implementing new functionalities, like algo- modification of the machine tool dimensions to minimise
rithms for path preparation, collision checks or coordinate inertial excitation of the machine during high speed con-
transformations into the real machines is a significant touring where large accelerations occur.
improvement to avoid physical damage [75]. Van Brussel et al. [104], [105] proposed to treat the com-
Rehsteiner et al. [83] used the multi body simulation to plete machine tool and control as an integrated mecha-
optimise the accuracy of machine tools under accelera- tronics design system. The Finite-Element-Model of the
tion loads for the demands of high-speed-machining. machine tool and control algorithms are integrated in the
simulation environment as shown in Figure 14.
The aim of the strategy is to optimise the machine tool’s
mechanical components as well as the control laws during
the design stage of the machine tool simultaneously.
Structural models (Finite element model): Control models (Matlab® / Simulink):
• Structural elements • Control laws
• Drive elements • Digital implementation (DAC, ADC)
• Non-linear phenomena (friction,…) • Measurement devices, filters
Structure-control integration:
Desired trajectories Finite-Element
Model
Figure 14: Integration of structural and controller models.
Zäh et al. [130], [131], [132] developed a Finite-Element-
Model of the feed drive and simulated the performance of
the axis control law under the influence of structural vibra-
tions received by the position sensor.
2.6.3 Coupled flexible multi-body simulation
The coupled flexible multi-body simulation is used to
simulate the dynamic behaviour of the machine taking
into account the behaviour of the control loops of the
drives [48], [80], [115]. The models of the single compo-
nents of the machine tool can represent the static as well
as the dynamic behaviour and are coupled by flexible
connectors. In reality, guiding systems and bearings ap-
pear as joints between the components. These joints are
approximated by spring-damper-elements in the flexible
multi-body model. For example, for each guide shoe be-
tween two structural components one spring-damper
element with stiffness and damping values in the X, Y and
Z-direction is defined.
To consider the influence of the individual drives of the
machine tool on the dynamic behaviour, the flexible multi-
body model is coupled with a model of the control loops
via an interface [14], [115], [126].
Different research activities in the field of coupled flexible
multi-body simulation have been done by Reinhart et al.
[14], [80], Weck et al. [108], [109], [110], [115], [116],
[126], Großmann et al. [47], [49], Denkena et al. [33], [34]
[100] and Turna .
The model set-up as well as the different types of simula-
tions are discussed in the next sections.
2.6.3.1 Model configuration
Each structural component of the machine tool is mod-
elled as a so-called flexible body [31], [115], [116]. The
different elements which are used to connect the struc-
tural components, such as guiding systems, mounting
devices or ball-screw-drives, are modelled as a combina-
tion of flexible connectors and joints depending on the
specific configuration [14].
The individual flexible components of the multi-body
model are connected by these flexible connectors de-
pending on the direction of the internal force of the com-
ponent (1D-element or 3D-element). The different model
techniques of the different connectors in multi-body mod-
els are pictured in Figure 15.
Some typical modelling techniques of popular machine
components are specified below.
Mounting devices
In most technical applications the machine tool is
mounted with special mounting devices onto the founda-
tion. The stiffness and the damping in three directions
have a strong influence on the dynamic behaviour of the
machine tool. These components are modelled by three
dimensional spring-damper-elements [126].
Guiding systems
The guiding systems are used to determine a defined
movement of different machine components relative to
In1
Out1 each other. Guiding systems are also modelled by 3D-
spring-damper-elements. Parameters of these elements
are the stiffness in two directions, perpendicular and
transverse to the direction of movement. The stiffness in
the direction of movement is nearly zero. The damping of
such a guiding system is considered in three directions
®
Matlab / Resulting outputs
[126], [14].
Simulink
fixed ball screw spindle nut nut stiffness
DRIVES bearing spindle
F L(t) F F
M
k D + + + k D
F
h
F F
k=
E⋅A
,D
⎛2⋅π⎞
Fa = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅M
L ⎝ h ⎠
GUIDING SYSTEMS
F
k D {F} = [k ] ⋅ {u} + [D]⋅ {u& } + {Fv }
F
MOUNTING DEVICES
F
k D {F} = [k ]⋅ {u} + [D] ⋅ {u& } + {Fv }
F
Figure 15: Model configuration for the flexible MBS.
Ball-screw-drives
These drives are used to realise translational movement
of machine axes. Different components are used in such
a drive system. The bearings and the ball screw-nut are
modelled with 3D-spring-damper-elements with stiffness
and damping parameters in all directions. The screw is
modelled using flexible beam elements, which are able to
rotate about the pitch attitude. The rotation of the screw,
which is caused by the model of the servodrive in the
control model, is transformed into a translational move-
ment by the use of a nut. Thus it is possible to simulate
the dynamic behaviour of such systems [113], [115],
[116].
2.6.3.2 Generation of flexible multi-bodies
To consider the flexibility of the machine components
during the multi-body simulation, data from natural vibra-
tion and deformation calculations of the individual compo-
nents, the so-called Superelement Creation, are inte-
grated in the multi-body model through an interface of the
multi-body simulation program to popular Finite-Element-
Programs [14], [76], [115] [116].
Superelement Creation uses a Finite-Element-Model to
define a component of a complex structure, and a con-
nection degree of freedom set (DOF) to specify the inter-
face nodes, or attachment points, of the component to
other components of the structural system and points
where forces are applied. The software calculates fixed
normal modes and static constraint modes to approximate
the general behaviour of the component at those “inter-
face node degrees of freedom”.
The fixed normal modes contain the dynamic response of
the superelement when all “connection degrees of free-
dom” are fixed. The static constraint modes contain the
static response assumed by the component when one
degree of freedom of one interface point is given a unit
deflection while fixing all other “interface degrees of free-
dom”. The solver performs Superelement Creation much 2.6.3.4 Results of the coupled flexible multi-body simula-
like normal modes analysis using the Lanczos method, tion
then uses the Craig-Bampton method to generate the
superelement [31]. For the simulation of flexibility frequency response func-
tions of the coupled flexible multi-body model, an excita-
The different modes of a super-element creation are tion signal must additionally be defined. For this purpose,
illustrated in Figure 16. so-called INPUTS and OUTPUTS have to be generated.
Boundary-conditions Constraint modes In the INPUT, a value is controlled from the outside for
(Craig-Bampton) each time step during the calculation. Through the
OUTPUT that can be applied as a force in the X-, Y- and
Z-direction at any location of the multi-body model, the
outer signal is directed into the structure [14], [47], [108],
z y
x
Unit translation
of the hinge in
Unit translation
of the guideway [110], [115], [126].
x-direction in x-direction

⎧u ⎫ ⎡ E 0 ⎤ ⎧qC ⎫ Fixed-boundary normal modes

In case of machine tools an excitation at the machining
u = ⎨ B⎬ = ⎢
⎩ uI ⎭ ⎣Φ IC
⋅⎨ ⎬
Φ IN ⎥⎦ ⎩qN ⎭ interface (tool centre point) is useful, because it corre-
u physical DOF sponds to the method for experimental investigations and
uB boundary DOF
uI interior DOF best depicts the excitation through machining forces in
E,0
Φ
Identity and zero matrices
physical displacements of the interiot DOF
the chip removal process [108], [114], [115]. Basically,
sinus wobbles, noise or an impulse are considered as
IC
in the constraint modes
Φ physical displacement of the interior DOF
f=1240 Hz
qC
IN
in the normal modes
modal coordinates of the constraint modes
excitation signal types [114].
f=2275 Hz
qN modal coordinates of the normal modes
These frequency response functions are useful for the
Figure 16: The Craig-Bampton theorem for the flexible estimation of the interaction between the mechanical
multi-body simulation. structure and the control during the design stage, as well
as for the estimation of the influence of the controller
parameters on the dynamic behaviour at the tool centre
For the Craig-Bampton (CB) solution option, processing point [126], see Figure 18.
concludes at this point; the reduced mass and stiffness
matrices as well as the fixed normal modes and static
Z-Axis
constraint modes are stored in an output file for the inter- K M =0,93 Nm/A Simulation Results
K L =70 1/s
face to the multi-body simulation program. K P =2,71 Nms/rad simulation of frequency
Tnp =10 ms
response functions (FRF)
Tönshoff et al. [100] developed an alternative approach to Lineardrive
model the elasto-kinetic behaviour of machine tool struc- K F =103 N/A
K L =70 1/s
estimation of interactions
between mechanical
Compliance [um/N]

tures based on the theory of flexible multi-bodies. K P =3500 As/m

Tnp =8 ms structure and control

with control loop influence of the controller

2.6.3.3 Coupling of multi-body models with control loops without control loop settings on the
dynamic behaviour at the
To consider the dynamic behaviour of the control loop a tool centre point (TCP)
coupling to commercial Computer-Aided-Control-Engi- overshooting of the feed
neering (CACE) programs is possible with common multi- drives

body simulation programs [34], [48], [110].

Especially for machines with linear direct drives, where no 0 100
Frequency [Hz]
200

mechanical transfer elements occur, the consideration of Figure 18: Simulated frequency response function
the control loops is necessary for the approximation of the
drive system stiffness [108], [110], [126]. The drive control
loops generated in the CACE environment can communi- Especially for machine tools with small workspace dimen-
cate with the complete machine model in the multi-body sions, the potential of the installed drive power can only
system. be used efficiently at high jerk settings. To optimise the
dynamic behaviour of machine tools the coupled flexible
Figure 17 depicts the general structure of this coupling for
multi-body simulation can be used to analyse the maxi-
the coupled flexible multi-body simulation of machine
mum jerk settings of the feed drives. Therefore an input-
tools.
signal for the control loops of the drives can be generated
control loop of the direct drive (x-y)
by a virtual controller.
control loop of the direct drive (x-y)
KF
iA
RA,Tel u Ki ,Tni
A isoll
s
Kp,Tnp KL
ssoll 1 The simulation of such a positioning operation is illus-
force excitation TCP Fa
KE
- xist -

current controller
- -
trated in Figure 19.
x ist
Force

velocity controller
0 jerk acceleration Positioning operation of the
x ist position controller
Z-unit (5mm)
0 1,0
Time
control loop of the ball screw drive (z)
[m/s³]

[m/s²]

displacement TCP KM RA,LA Ki, Tni Kp,Tnp i ges KL

A uA isoll zsoll
0 0 M (t)
Displacement

- - - -

KE current controller
0
nist velocity controller
z 0 Time 0 Time
y zist control loop
loop
Input control
0 Time 1,0 position controller
velocity position
x z-axis
z-axis
F (t)

F (t)

flexible multi-body model

control loop
control loop
[m/s]

[m]

linear drive
direct1
Figure 17: Coupling of flexible multi-boidy models and ∆=0 drive 1
control loops. control loop
control loop
00 00
drive 2
linear direct
Time Time ∆= 0 drive 2

The entire control system (incl. all non-linearities) delivers

the resulting drive power of each axis to the multi-body Figure 19: Simulation of a positioning operation.
system. The control loop itself is closed with the help of
the velocities and displacements of the axes determined The influence of the jerk on the path deviation during a
from the multi-body system. positioning operation was investigated in this case. The
desired path of the Z-unit was generated by a model of lytically before they are implemented in the current design
the controller and used as an input-signal for the control or in the next machine generation.
loop of the z-axis with different jerk settings. The z-unit
started at standstill and was accelerated to the maximum
speed of the z-drive. After a short movement with con- Probe Force probe Excitor
x F
stant velocity the drive was decelerated to standstill. The • inductive
position sensor
• strain gauge
• piezo sensor
• impulse hammer
• piezo actuator
results of this simulation are shown in Figure 20. • accelerometer • hydraulic actuator

Bode diagram
displacement r=730 m/s³ FRF Gxx

compliance
r=650 m/s³ Gyy

[µm/N]
r=550 m/s³
Gzz
r=450 m/s³
Displacement [mm]

desired path
Compliance [um/N]

T3 = f 3
Amplifier Amplifier locus 0.001
0,1

coherencephase [°]
180

imaginary
[µm/N]
0
A/D converter -180
1
-0,1
-0,1 real 0,1 0
FFT analyser [µm/N] 0 200 frequency [Hz] 800
Time [sec]

Figure 21: Measuring of a frequency response function.

„ Excitation of the third
eigenfrequency of the
machine
Figure 20: Simulation results of a positioning operation.
Such positioning operations always excite natural fre-
quencies of the machine tool, which can lead to devia-
tions of the desired tolerances of the workpiece or even to
damaged tools dependent on the amplitude of the vibra-
tion [14], [108], [110], [126].
The evaluation of the simulated vibration signals enables
the allocation of the excited natural frequencies and the
derivation of arrangements for improvements during the
design process.
2.7 Validation and optimisation of the simulation
models
Despite the rapid development of the available software
tools in recent years, the correct estimation of the simula-
tion parameters is still a problem, which limits the accu-
racy of the results [107].
The prediction of stiffness and especially of the damping
characteristics of machine components is extremely diffi-
cult due to their dependence on many different influences,
like lubrication, pre-loads or tolerances [53], [68]. Meas-
urements of the dynamic behaviour of similar machine
Frequency [Hz]
The calibration of simulation models, especially the pa-
rameters of spring-damper-elements (stiffness- and
damping-coefficients) is extremely difficult and very time-
consuming. For the described example of the machine
tool in Figure 15 the flexible multi-body model contains 48
different parameters to model the mounting devices, the
guiding systems, different bearings and the mechanical
components of the ball screw drive. It is obvious that a
manual calibration of such complex simulation models of
machine tools is nearly impossible.
Witt and Brecher [24] developed an approach for an
automated optimisation of simulation models with the help
of measured frequency response functions. To match the
results of the simulation and the measuring it is possible
to model the stiffness and damping parameters as design
variables and optimise them by using numerical optimisa-
tion methods, e.g sequential quadratic programming
(SQP). The design goal of this optimisation is the minimi-
sation of the deviation of the measured and the simulated
frequency response function.
The principle approach of this optimisation is illustrated in
the following Figure 22.
Measuring of the Coupled flexible
Frequency Response Multi-
Multi-Body Model of
Function the machine tool

tools or components and the validation of existing simula- kax dax + krot drot
tion models can help to find better initial values for future
simulations. Measured Simulated
The measurement of the dynamic properties of machine Frequency-
Frequency-
Response-
Response-
Frequency-
Frequency-
Response-
Response-
tools usually targets two characteristics [111]: Function Function

Matching Measuring
Matching Measuring // Simulation
Simulation
• The Frequency Response Function (FRF) of the
Compliance [µm/N]

[K]start
compliance at the tool centre point (TCP) Measured FRF no [D]start

• The mode shapes of the machine with their associ- Convergence

Convergence

ated resonance frequencies and dynamic amplitudes yes

as well as the phase shift 0
0
Optimised parameters
Optimised
the model:
parameters of
model: [K]
[K]actual
of
1
10 the actual,,
Frequency [Hz] Iteration [D]actual
[D] actual

Both characteristics can be measured with special ex-

periments as depicted in Figure 21 for the FRF measure-
ment. For the determination of the FRF, the TCP is ex-
cited with a dynamic actuator and the reaction of the TCP
is measured. Via Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT), a
frequency spectrum or a locus curve can be generated.
The results of both examinations can help the design
engineer to validate the simulation models in order to find
realistic values for the stiffness and damping behaviour of
the machine components. Design modifications to im-
prove weak points of the machine can be assessed ana-
Figure 22: Automated model update with measured fre-
quency response functions.
This approach enables the calibration of the machine tool
models for the simulation of the interaction between ma-
chine tool and process. This kind of simulations requires
models of the machine tools which represents the real
static and dynamic behaviour in the best possible man-
ner.
2.8 Virtual reality in the development process geometric update of the workpiece as the tool cuts the
material at each NC block. In addition, the solid model of
The virtual reality (VR) is mainly used in the automotive the machine tool, its multi-axis kinematics and the loca-
industry and as a marketing technique for the consumer tion of fixtures can be displayed in the CAD environment
goods industry at the present [88], [96], [133]. The auto- [127], [128].
motive industry uses the virtual reality increasingly in the
field of design and development as a tool for the investi- 3.1 NC-path simulation
gation and error diagnostics of complex 3D-CAD designs
[86]. Another application is the benchmarking with the The present technology allows the prediction of tool colli-
help of virtual products [96]. sion spots and correctness of the NC program by check-
ing path errors and gauging on the workpiece surface
Krause et al. [58] used the virtual reality for the simulation graphically. Lauwers et al. [59], [60], [61], [62] take the CL
and evaluation of complex assembly and disassembly file from the CAD system and simulate the machine mo-
processes. Furthermore different approaches are known tion by modelling the kinematics of the machine tool for
to use the virtual reality for the visualisation of simulation collision detection and avoidance.
results, e.g. crash-tests or flow investigation in a virtual In some commercial controllers machining simulation
wind tunnel [19], [58], [86]. systems are integrated. During machining the simulation
In the field of the machine tool industry Tönshoff et al. system runs a number of blocks (e.g. 100) ahead, and if
[99] used the virtual reality for the visualisation of NC- there is a danger of a collision, the controller stops the
programming simulations in combination with a force machine immediately, see Figure 24.
feedback for a realistic impression for the user.
Postprocessor module
Weck et al. [23], [108] developed an automated visualisa-
tion environment for the evaluation of the machine kine- CLDATA
Kinematics
engine
NC-
formatting
NC-
program
file
matics as well as for the results of Finite-Element-
Analysis.
x,y,z,i,j,k NC- Collision
Figure 23 illustrates the VR-environment for the investiga- simulation avoidance
N100 G01 X..Y..Z..A..B..
tion of machine tools.

Work-
 Import of the FE-Data piece
 Extraction of the components VR-Cave Tool
‘ Triangulation of the FE-mesh Collision
Area

Clamping
Machine Table
Head

’ Derivation of the kinematics Part Program Tape

N 50 G17
Section N 55 F1000 S1000 G00 X-364.94 Y-61.67 Z150. M03
guiding system ball screw Index N 60 G00 Z100.
N 65 G01 Z0. CNC
(ky , kz, drive (kx) N 70 X-359.94
Section being
ϕx , ϕy , ϕz ) N 75 G03 X-324.94 Y-26.67 I0. J35.
N 80 G01 Y84. machined
N 85 G03 X-346. Y105.06 I-21.06 J0.
Look Ahead Distance

N 90 G01 X-506.303
movement in N 95 G03 X-513.416 Y87.887 I0. J-10.06
x direction N 100 G01 X-480.648 Y55.118
N 105 G02 X-477.729 Y48.678 I-7.099 J-7.099
“ 3D-Visualisation in the “VR” N 110 G03 X-460.589 Y-115.162 12134.642 J140.491
N 115 G02 X-463.428 Y-123.689 I-9.938 J-1.428
N 120 G01 X-487.625 Y-147.887
N 125 G03 X-480.511 Y-165.06 I7.113 J-7.113
N 130 G01 X-357

Figure 23: VR environment for the investigation of ma- N 135 G03 X-324.94 Y-133. I0. J32.06
N 140 Go1 Y-22.33

chine tools. N 145 G03 X-359.94 Y12.67 I-35. J0.

N 150 G01 G40 X-364.94
N 155 G00 Z100.
N 160 G00 X204.94 Y-34.755
N 165 G01 Z0.
N 170 G41 X199.94 Section being
N 175 G03 X164.94 Y-69.755 I0. J-35.
Simulated
This environment enables the engineer to import Finite- Section
N 180 G01 Y-162.132
N 185 G03 X167.887 Y-169.246 I10.06 J0.
Index
Element-Models of machine tools. The software auto-
N 190 G01 X185.557 Y-186.916
N 195 G03 X190.362 Y-186.519 I2.234 J2.234
N 200 G01 X193.875 Y-181.606
matically extracts the single structural components and N 205 G02 X195.145 Y-180.149 I8.167 J-5.84
N 210 G01 X206.296 Y-169.61

enables the engineer to get a realistic impression of the N 215 G02 X231.316 Y-166.338 I14.767 J-15.625
N 220 G02 X243.573 Y-174.115 I-50.726 J-93.491
N 225 G03 X248.965 Y-175.801 I5.152 J7.011
design. N 230 G03 X251.841 Y-174.534 I-0.115 J4.158

Figure 24: Integration of NC-simulation and controller.

3 SIMULATION OF THE CNC SYSTEM
The CNC system consists of a computer, power electron-
ics components, such as motor amplifiers and electronic
circuits, and servo actuators. The computer control unit
receives ISO standard NC-programs which describe the
tool path geometry, tool number, feed and spindle speed
at each path segment [72], [76].
Simulation of the CNC system involves virtual modelling
of the machine tool kinematics and feed drive dynamics,
update of the workpiece geometry as the material is re-
moved and motions of the drives and auxiliary units, such
as tool and pallet changes. In short, the rigid body motion
of the machine tool and the CNC functions must be pre-
dicted as the workpiece is produced in order to realize a
Virtual CNC system.
Once the NC Program is generated in a CAD/CAM envi-
ronment, the present Virtual CNC technology allows the
However, a realistic simulation of machine tool motion
and accurate prediction of final part geometry requires the
inclusion of real time trajectory generation, dynamic be-
haviour of actuators under axis control laws and cutting
process disturbances.
The architecture of the tool motion processing sequence
in a typical CNC system is given by Altintas [4], [41], [42]
[43], see Figure 25. The path segment is broken into
discrete position commands as a function of jerk, accel-
eration and feed speed by the trajectory generation algo-
rithms of the CNC. Here, it is important not to violate jerk-
acceleration and speed of individual drives which partici-
pate in moving the tool along the specified path. If the
axes limits are violated, the saturation of the actuators
may cause deviations from the commanded path as well
as feed fluctuations which lead to poor surface finish spots on the workpiece and the correct cycle time, by
marks on the workpiece. including acceleration and deceleration, as well as the
Smooth trajectory generation, especially in multi-axis time history of axes tracking errors and the acceleration-
contour machining of sculptured surfaces, are still subject velocity-displacement of each drive. The Virtual CNC has
to intensive research for high speed machining of dies, built in auto-tuning of control laws, and they are currently
molds and aerospace parts to achieve good surface finish extending the CNC to 5 axes systems and integrating
[41]. structural dynamic models of the feed drives to the virtual
CNC system [127].
CAD Model CL/APT File Tool path geometry An experimentally verified simulation of a tool path within
CAD/CAM
Software N1 G00 X5 Y1 Interpreter
y y
s
y the Virtual CNC is shown in Figure 26 for a spiral part.
N2 G01 X3 Y3
N3 G03 X4 Y3 I1 J0
s The green zones represent the tolerance violations
caused by the contouring errors of the CNC [128].
...
x x x

Trajectory Generation
Pritschow et al. [76], [77], [78] presented the simulation of
Feed motion planning Position closed-loop an entire machine behaviour under real CNC system
Reference Control Actual
S Displacement
t position signal Position control. The actual CNC sends time stamped position
Axis Feed Drive
S
.
. Control Law Servo commands to a model of the complete machine. Since
Feedrate t r(t), r (t),
.. ...
r (t), r (t) the position commands contain velocity, acceleration and

Actual Position
..
S Acceleration

...
t
jerk, they excite the structural dynamics of the machine.
S Jerk
t Feedback The resulting vibrations are sent back to the CNC by
Re-process

Optimization Process Predicted
Trecking
-Reschedule Feedrate,
Accel./Decel., Jerk Limit
Error
-Contour Error Reduction
Figure 25: Virtual model of trajectory generation and
control of axes positions.
There has been research activities to integrate machine
motions and geometric removal of the material from the
workpiece so that the part accuracy can be predicted
ahead of actual production.
Altintas et al. [127], [128] developed a reconfigurable,
modular Virtual CNC simulation system by porting the
experimentally proven real time algorithms from an actual
open CNC.
Ball screw or linear motor driven feed drives can be de-
fined by specifying mechanical dimensions, servo motor
and amplifier parameters, position-velocity-acceleration
sensors and their resolution, friction field between the
guide and drives and time varying cutting force distur-
bances. The type of trajectory generation algorithm, such
as “jerk continuous with actuator limits”, can be selected
as well as the axis control law.
Measurements
Feedback mimicking an encoder measurement contaminated with
machine tool vibrations.
+
Simulate the contour
errors generated from
Servo Control in „Virtual“
3.2 Optimisation of NC-Programs for five-axis mill-
- enviroment ing
While it is satisfactory in three-axes machining to gener-
ate NC-programs without considering the axial-specific
dynamic parameters, practical experience has shown that
it is insufficient for five-axis milling. The reasons for this
are the highly variant dynamics of the involved rotation,
panning, and translation axes [32], [119]. The analysis of
NC-programs on different machines with respect to the
required axis velocity and acceleration shows that, at
positions with high feed rate drops, the dynamic limits of
the rotation axes have to be considerably higher in order
to follow the programmed path. This discrepancy arises
because the CAM-system does not consider the dynamic
capabilities of the machine while generating NC-tool
paths. Weinert et al. [32], [119], [120], [129] developed an
approach for the harmonisation of the rotation and swivel
movements. As an intermediate step between CAM-
programming and the milling process, the tool path is
adjusted, so that at no time are the limits of the dynamic
capabilities violated. The principle of this approach is
illustrated in Figure 27.
Feed

Experimental Result Simulation

Workpiece Workpiece

Figure 27: Adjustment of tool movement to satisfy dy-

namic limits of the five axis machine tool.

In addition to the general dynamic parameters especially

the control-specific characteristics, which describe the
behaviour of consecutive NC-steps, are considered. The
manipulation of axes setting values may cause in princi-
Figure 26: Simulation of milling a spiral part on virtual ple an originally collision-free NC-program to contain
CNC with marked tolerance violations caused by CNC. collisions between tool, tool holder, machine components,
and workpiece. To prevent this, in addition to the optimi-
sation algorithm, a process simulation is used, which
The virtual CNC reads the CL file imported from the
calculates the intersection of the involved objects during a
CAD/CAM system, and processes the NC program by
movement along the NC-path on the basis of a volume
simulating the physical behaviour of the machine in the
model [32], [120], [129].
prescribed CNC model. It predicts the tolerance violation
4 SIMULATION OF METAL CUTTING
The manufacturing process research should lead to im-
proved design of tools, machine tool structures, spindle
and feed drives and the optimal planning of individual
machining operations based on physical constraints. The
research activities and industrial applications of metal
cutting process simulation are presented in the following
sections.
The amplitude and frequency of cutting forces, torque and
power are used in sizing machine tool structures, spindle
and feed drive mechanisms, bearings, motors and drives
as well as the shank size of the tools and the fixture rigid-
ity. The stress and temperature field in the cutting tool
edge, chip and finished work piece surface are used in
designing the cutting edge shape as well as in optimising
feed, speed and depth of cut to avoid residual stresses on
the finished surface. Modelling the interaction between
the cutting process and structural vibrations of machine
tool, cutting tool and fixture leads to the identification of
weak links in the machine structure and to the determina-
tion of chatter vibration free spindle speeds and depths of
cut [5].
The complete model of the machining process is there-
fore used in both design of cutting tools and machine
tools, as well as in planning of machining operations for
maximum productivity and accuracy.
4.1 Analytical modelling of cutting processes
The first step is to model the cutting process as a function
of work material, tool geometry and material, chip load
and cutting speed. The macro-mechanics of cutting lead
to the identification of cutting coefficients, which are used
in predicting the cutting forces, torque, power and chatter
stability limits for a specified tool geometry and work ma-
terial.
The cutting coefficients can be modelled using either
orthogonal cutting mechanics or mechanistic models [6].
The micro-mechanics of metal cutting on the other hand,
are used to predict the stress, strain and temperature
distribution in the chip and tool. This simulation results are
primarily used for tool design, the analysis of material
behaviour under high strain and temperature, and optimal
selection of chip load and speed to avoid tool chipping,
tool wear, and residual stresses left on the finished sur-
face.
The directions of cutting forces in turning and milling are
given in Figure 28 [8].
dFa Y rial. Hence the cutting edge can withstand high thermal
Workpiece
dFr n and impact loads during machining [29]. Finite-Element-
Ft
Z Analysis belongs to the class of micro-mechanics of metal
dFt
Fr
X
Tool
Y thermo-plastic properties of the material is usually evalu-
Fy(φ) Chip load
φst
Frj
n φ
f Ftj
X
c
φex Fx(φ)
Figure 28: Prediction of cutting forces for turning and
milling operations.
The major cutting forces (Ff) act in the direction of cutting
speed, followed by the thrust force (Fr) acting in the direc-
tion of chip thickness and the axial force (Fa). The cutting
forces are proportional to the instantaneous chip area
which is expressed as a product of depth of cut (a) and
uncut chip thickness (h). The cutting forces are typically
expressed by shear (Ftc, Frc, Fac) and flank con-
tact/ploughing (Fte, Ffe. Fae) edge components as
Ft = Ftc + Fte = K tc ah + K te a
Fr = Frc + Fre = Krc ah + Krea
Fa = Fac + Fae = K ac ah + K ae a
where the chip shearing, cutting force coefficients ( Ktc,
Krc, Kac) can be expressed as a function of tool’s rake
angle, work material shear stress and average friction
coefficient between the chip and tool rake face. The edge
force coefficients (Kte, Kre, Kae) are found from cutting
tests by extrapolating the measured forces at zero cut
thickness (h = 0) intercept. The theory of this approach of
analytical modelling of the cutting process can be found in
[8].
It is also customary to use nonlinear cutting force coeffi-
cients as proposed by Kienzle [55]:
Ft = K t ah
Fr = Kr ah
Fa = K a ah
where the cutting force coefficients (Kt, Kr, Ka) are usually
expressed as a function of rake angle and chip thickness.
It is most important to have a cutting coefficient data base
which allows the user to select a work material for a vari-
ety of tool geometries.
4.2 Numerical simulation of cutting processes
For cutting processes involving geometrically defined
cutting edges, high speed cutting (HSC) is widely used in
aerospace, and the die and mold machining industry.
High speed machining allows the operation of machine
tool spindles in large stability pockets where deeper cuts
are possible. While keeping small chip loads to avoid
thermal overload of the tool edge and mechanical over-
load of the spindle power limits, high material removal
rates can be achieved with high spindle speeds and table
feeds while maintaining a good surface finish on the part.
However, the practical application of HSC methods de-
pends on empirical cutting data which has to be obtained
through cost- and time-consuming cutting experiments.
The Finite-Element-Method (FEA) is a tool that is suited
for optimisation of the cutting edge geometry and mate-
Fa
cutting and is widely used by the cutting tool industry.
However, the key bottle neck is to model the flow stress
f
of the work material reflecting high strain, strain rate and
temperature experienced in metal cutting processes. The
ated under high strain rate conditions using either Or-
thogonal Cutting Tests or Hopkinson Bar tests [67].
Three main methods of mechanical formulation are com-
monly used in Finite-Element-Modelling of metal cutting
[12], [122]:
• Eulerian formulation, where the grid is not attached to
the material, is computationally efficient but needs
the updating of the free chip geometry [55].
• Lagrangian formulation, where the grid is attached to
the material, requires updating of the mesh (remesh-
ing algorithm) or the use of a chip separation criterion
to form a chip from the workpiece [97].
• Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation,
where the grid is not attached to the material and it
can move to avoid distortion and update the free chip
geometry [67].
A 3D FEA-Simulation of a Milling Process [85], [122] is
presented in Figure 29.
3D CAD-Model FEA-Model
The geometric model of the part, blank and NC tool path
in the form of a standard CL file are imported from current
CAD/CAM systems using IGES or STEP NC standards.
The cutter – part intersection along the tool path is evalu-
ated at feed rate increments using solid modelling tech-
niques. The intersection geometry is required to solve
machining process simulation algorithms [93]. The ma-
chining process simulation engine is based on the laws of
metal cutting mechanics and dynamics, it pulls the re-
quired machine tool and work material parameters from
the data base and predicts the cutting forces, torque,
power, static and dynamic deformations of the machine
tool-part-fixture along the tool path. For a given set of
constraints, such as maximum power-torque-dynamic
stiffness of the machine and chip thickness limit of the
cutting edge, the speed and feed can be optimised to
maximise the material removal rate.

FINAL PROCESS
CAD MODEL PLAN
Tool, Material,
NC Tool Path Machine-Tool Optimized Speed,
M
Cutter Geometry Data Base Feed, Depth,
A
Width, Error
C
Compensation
H
I
3D Simulation of a Milling Process Cutter-part Virtual
VirtualMachining
Machining N
intersection process E
calculations simulation
MONITORING
MONITORINGAND
AND T
CONTROL
CONTROLDATA
DATA O
Peak force, O
PATH PLANNER Path Strategy
torque, power, L
CL File Analysis
tracking error,
modal frequencies

Figure 30: Virtual machining process simulation and opti-

Figure 29: 3D FEA simulation of a Milling Process.
A successful simulation is dependent on the accurate
knowledge of the boundary conditions and the material-
behaviour which is different from simple metal models
obtained from tensile tests due to the influence of large
strain, strain rate, and temperature. In order to achieve an
accurate prediction of chip flow, stress and temperature
distribution within the chip and tool, an accurate model of
flow stress of the material and friction between the rake
face of the tool and chip is absolutely necessary. The
validity of all numerical models is proven experimentally
by comparing predicted forces, average shear angles and
shear stresses in metal cutting tests.
5 INTEGRATED SIMULATION OF MACHINE AND
PROCESS
Current NC tool path and machining simulation systems
consider only the rigid body kinematics of the machine
tool, and do not take the physics of the machining proc-
ess into consideration. The magnitude of cutting forces,
torque, power and thermal energy produced during ma-
chining depends on the tool geometry, structural dynam-
ics between the workpiece and the tool, work material
properties, and cutting conditions such as feed, speed
and depth of cut. Currently, the cutting conditions are
selected from either tool manufacturers’ handbooks or
experience, which may or may not lead to productive and
accurate production of parts.
The objective of next generation CAM systems is to in-
clude the physics of manufacturing processes in order to
produce the first part accurately and optimally. A sample
architecture for Virtual Machining Process simulation was
proposed by Altintas et al. [2] as shown in Figure 30.
misation architecture.
Although intensive research efforts are under way at
present, there are several key requirements, that have to
be met before a virtual simulation of the machining proc-
ess can be realised. The cutter-part intersection along the
feed increments requires intensive computational time
since the part geometry must be updated as the material
is removed at feed increments [45].
Researchers used Constructive Solid Geometry – CSG
[93], Boundary Representation – Brep [51], and z- buffer
techniques to model material removal [15]. The computa-
tional time is rather unaffordable and long at the present
time, and considerable research efforts are directed to-
wards developing efficient computational models and
parallel processing of algorithms at multiple central proc-
essing units (CPUs).
Although some commercial NC Simulation systems pro-
vide feed optimisation, their algorithms are not based on
the laws of cutting mechanics, hence they do not repre-
sent the true process. However, considerable effort has
been undertaken to integrate the true process physics
into NC program optimisation.
Altintas and Spence presented a 2 ½ axis end milling
process simulation system [94].
Altan et al. [15], Spence et al.[95], Weinart et al. [118],
[121] and Lazoglu et al. [26] presented a process simula-
tion and optimisation strategy for dies and molds. They
illustrated that the machining cycle time can be decreased
significantly by scheduling feed rates along the tool path
while respecting tool deflection, tool breakage, torque and
power limits of the machine tool. Altintas et al. [7] pre-
sented algorithms which can handle arbitrary cutter
shapes in predicting the forces, torque, power and chatter
vibrations during milling.
Kapoor and Devor [40], Armarego et al. [11] and a num-
ber of researchers presented mechanics of cutting mod-
els to predict the cutting forces for milling, turning, drilling,
boring and tapping operations. The aim of the present
research is to integrate the mechanics of machining into a
CAD/CAM system so that the process of machining a
complete part can be simulated as shown in Figure 31
[51].
material removal rate at the desired speed is preferred for
dedicated machine tools for mass production of parts like
in the automotive industry. Once the spindle is designed,
its performance can be tested in the virtual environment
by applying cutting forces at the tool tip. The results are
illustrated in Figure 32.
Spindle nose

Cutting
NC Code:
...
Tool
N9 X-8.0056 Toolpath
N10 X- 7.9655 Y49.3901
Tool Toolholder Housing Shaft Hydraulic Bearing Pulley
N11 X-6.3125 Workpiece fluid
N12 G3 X28.2708 Y49.1355 I17.3496 -8
J7.7454 x 10
4
N13 G1 X42.8735 Experiment

FRF-Magnitude[m/N]
N14 G3 X102. Y- 7.5278 I67.1265 J10.8645 Simulation
3
N15 G1 Y-8.
N16 X23.083
N17 Y-3.2 2
N18 Y1.6
... 1

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency [Hz]

Figure 31: Simulation of virtual machining of a part with
features.
Similar to machining, the process forces during forming
and grinding have also been studied, however mainly for
process and machine design purposes. The goal of virtual
production is to integrate all steps of the manufacturing
cycle into the simulation environment in order to achieve
a true digital factory.
5.1 Simulation of chatter vibrations in cutting
The dynamics of the machine tool have a major influence
on the productivity of machine tools. The designers must
consider the interaction between the process and the
structure in the virtual environment so that the optimal
dynamic stiffness is achieved during the design stage of
the machine and spindle system [9].
While the major parts of the machine tool, such as col-
Figure 32: FRF-Simulation of a spindle.
The stiffness changes and contact forces at the bearings
and static and dynamic displacements along the spindle
shaft assembly can be simulated instead of manufactur-
ing and testing the spindle on a real machine which is a
lengthy and costly process.
Figure 33 shows the optimisation of the bearing locations
to achieve maximum depth of cut at 9000 rev/min spindle
speed for a four fluted end mill machining aluminium
alloy, and a simulation of bearing contact loads during
milling with the same tool [10]. The spindle was unstable
at the desired spindle speed of 9000 rev/min before the
optimisation of bearing locations.
Initial design 1
8 Initial design 2
Initial design 3
Depth of cut [mm]

umn, headstock and table dynamics influence the stability Optimized design Desired
6
Cutting
of low speed machining with large cutters, the stability of Potint
high speed machining is usually determined by the dy- 4
namic behaviour of the spindle-bearing-system and the
tool. The dynamic stiffness of the spindle-bearing-tool 2
assembly can be improved by optimising the locations of
the bearing and direct drive motor along the shaft [63]. 0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Typically, a Finite Element model of the prototype spindle Spindle speed [rpm]
is modelled by including kinematics of the angular contact
bearings, speed effects and preload. The validity of the 200
Bearing 1
Finite Element model is tested experimentally, and the Bearing 2
mathematical model is improved until realistic results are Bearing 3
obtained. Only the damping ratios of the spindle are bor- 150 Bearing 4
Contact force [N]

rowed from the measurements collected from past spindle Bearing 5

designs, since it is not possible to predict the damping
100
analytically.
The FE model as well as the predicted and measured
Frequency Response Function of a sample spindle are 50
given in Figure 32 [27]. The locations of the bearings are
automatically optimised either to achieve maximum dy- Preload period After cutting force is applied
namic stiffness in all major natural modes, or a stable 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
stability pocket is created at the desired speed for a given Time [s]
spindle and cutting tool pair, see Figure 32 [63].
While maximising the dynamic stiffness is preferred for Figure 33: Virtual design and testing of spindles.
machines which need to use multiple tools, maximum
Another example is shown in Figure 34 where the spindle of HPC, i.e. the manufacturing of aluminium parts for the
and tooling are specifically designed to machine alumin- aircraft industry with high material removal rates.
ium aerospace parts [22], [117]. Different results of a simulation of stability lobes for the
The stability of HPC-processes with high spindle speeds HPC machining of aluminium are shown in Figure 35.
is mainly determined by the dynamic behaviour of the Bad Correlation between Good Correlation between
spindle-bearing-system and the tool. In this case the Measurement and Simulation Measurement and Simulation
dynamic behaviour of the structural components of the 15 15

axial depth of cut, ap [mm]

Stable Process Stable Process

axial depth of cut, ap [mm]

machine tool is of secondary importance. But especially Chattering
Experimental Results
Chattering
Experimental Results
the static and dynamic flexibility of spindle-bearing- 10
Simulation
10
Simulation

systems for high rotational speeds up to 30,000 min-1 can unstable

unstable

hardly be optimised, because an increase of the spindle 5 5

diameter is limited by the kinematic and thermal behav- stable
iour of the spindle bearings. stable
0 0
However, the process stability can be significantly im- 18000 19000 20000 21000 22000 23000 18000 19000 20000 21000 22000 23000
spindle speed [min-1] spindle speed [min-1]
proved by a selective setting of the machining parame-
ters. In particular, the variation of the spindle speed ac- feed rate fz=0,18 mm feed rate fz=0,18 mm
cording to so-called stability charts is an effective method
to enhance the performance of machining processes.

20
16
Stability charts can either be determined experimentally 166 179

or they can be calculated on the basis of the dynamic

flexibility behaviour given in the form of a flexibility fre-
quency response function.
Due to the fact that the experimental measurement of the
dynamic behaviour of a spindle-bearing-system for each
tool is very time-consuming, a simulation software was
developed to calculate the flexibility frequency response
function of spindle bearing systems on the basis of a
beam FEA model. The bearings are modelled as spring-
damper-elements in the FEA model. It is useful to match
the stiffness and the damping parameters of the bearings
with the results of a measurement for one spindle tool
configuration. Using this matched model the dynamic
flexibility behaviour even for a large number of different
tools can be determined efficiently without time-
consuming measurements [117].
With a supplementary program for the simulation of the
stability behaviour of milling processes a complete simu-
lation chain for the calculation of stability lobes is avail-
able, as illustrated in Figure 34.
Modular FE-Model of the Spindle-Bearing-System
Dynamic Flexibility Stability Simulation
GFxx
x(t)
GFyx
GFzx
G [µm/N]
Figure 35: Simulated and measured stability lobes for the
HPC machining of aluminium.
As illustrated in Figure 35 the results of the stability simu-
lation of high performance processes often have varia-
tions in the accuracy. An essential part of the cutting
process and stability simulation are the time varying direc-
tion factors diFj, which project the forces at each cutting
edge into the machine coordinates. Furthermore, the
cutting forces are determined by the cutting force coeffi-
cient kcb and the cutting depth b. The theoretical back-
ground of these effects are still unexplored for HPC-
machining processes and requires intensive investiga-
tions [117].
5.2 Frequency and Time domain simulation of ma-
chine tool and process
The simulation of machining process is done in two
modes: rigid or flexible models of the machine tool. The
rigid simulation does not consider the interaction between
Workpiece with Chatter Marks
the machine structure and the cutting process, hence the
predicted cutting forces, torque and power only can be
used for basic process planning of the machining opera-
tions. As discussed earlier, the cutter – part intersection
along the tool path must be identified at feed rate incre-
ments for the process simulation [2], [3], [28].
Stability Lobe
However, in realistic process planning as well as machine

Fx(t)

tool/spindle/tool design, the relative elastic displacements

GFxy
Fy (t) y(t)
unstable
bcr [mm]

GFyy
Fz(t)
GFzy

between the cutting tool and part must be considered.

GFxz
z(t)
GFyz
GFzz

The vibrations lead to changes in the chip thickness,

dzFx(t)
dzF y(t)
j [°]

Tt
stable
dzFz(t)
dyFx(t)

which in turn vary the cutting forces that excite the struc-
b kcb
b kcb dyFy(t)
b kcb dyFz(t) Tt

f [Hz]
dxF x(t)
dxF y(t)
dxF z(t)
Figure 34: Simulation of stability chart for the milling of
aluminium aerospace parts.
For HPC processes of aluminium parts typically tools with
two or three cutting edges are used which are character-
ised by a time varying behaviour. In this case the time
varying behaviour is caused by the change of the cutting
force direction. For this reason time domain simulation
techniques are used for the simulation of the stability of
the cutting process. For this simulation the simulated
dynamic behaviour of the spindle-bearing-system is used
as an input.
With the help of this simulation chain the theory of the
stability behaviour of cutting processes which is known for
a long time becomes applicable for end-users in the area
Tt
n [min-1]
ture. If the process becomes unstable with chatter vibra-
tions, the cutting load on the machine may grow a few
times more than the rigid case and leads to poor surface
finish, short tool life and damage on the spindle/machine
structure [6].
While Frequency Domain chatter stability solutions pro-
vide a direct relationship between the dynamic stiffness of
the machine and the process, the time domain simulation
allows prediction of dynamic cutting forces and dimen-
sional surface errors for complex tools and processes
while machining a specific part under defined cutting
conditions.
A sample prediction of stability lobes in both frequency
and time domain for an indexed cutter milling aluminium
alloy is shown in Figure 36.
The simulation also shows predicted and experimentally
measured dimensional form errors at one specific cutting
condition [7].
 Stability Lobes for Bull Noes Cutter and Al7075 machine tool and process has to be carried out in time
6
Analytical
domain.
(9500 rpm) (1400 rpm)
5
Time domain
(A=7mm) (A=7mm) The aim of the research project SindBap is to develop an
approach for the integrated simulation and optimisation of
Axial depth of cut [mm]

4
industrial processes [25]. This co-operative project is
3 founded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and
Research. For the integrated analysis and optimisation of
2
industrial production processes time domain simulation
1 models of the process and the machine tool as well as the
workpiece are coupled. The cutting forces cause a rela-
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Spindle speed [rev/min]
12000 14000 16000 tive displacement between tool and workpiece which
changes the instantaneous chip area which affects the
[N] [N]
1500
Exeperimental Resultant Force
1500
Exeperimental Resultant Force
cutting process again. This approach enables the investi-
1000 1000 gation of effects of the machine tool, the workpiece and
500 500 the process.
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Rotation Angel [deg]
6000 7000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Rotation Angel [deg]
6000 7000 Denkena et al. [33], [35], [37], [101] developed the cutting
Rmax=12 um
Surface Roughness
Rmax=2 um
Surface Roughness simulation system CutS which combines different simula-
15 15 tion environments, see Figure 38.
Y [um]

Y [um]

5 5
-5
3
2
-5
3
2
The approach for a coupled simulation of the manufactur-
3 3
Z [mm]
(axial direction)
1
0 0 0,5 1
1,5
Z [mm]
2 2,5 Z [mm]
(axial direction)
1
0 0 0,5 1
1,5
Z [mm]
2 2,5
ing process is to combine separate simulation models via
[Amp.]
100
FFT for Resultant Force
(feed direction)
[Amp.]
100
FFT for Resultant Force
(feed direction)
interfaces and also to include the supporting software
80 Chatter 80 Tooth Passing tools, e.g. FEA-systems for the simulation of the manu-
Frequency
60
40
Frequency
(1448 Hz)
60
40
(467 Hz) facturing process [36].
20 20
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 200 400 600 800 1400 1600 1800 2000
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

Figure 36: Chatter stability, force, vibration and surface

error prediction in milling.

The details of the chatter vibrations for metal cutting and

grinding are given by Tlusty [98], Altintas et al. [9], and
Inasaki et al. [52] in previous CIRP key note papers.
Nowadays the simulation of single processes or machine
characteristics is state of the art. Generally, these simula- Data exchange

tions are carried out separately for the process as well as

for the ma-chine tool. Interactions between machine tool,
workpiece and process cause variations of the tolerances
and characteristics of the workpiece, which are not taken
into account by common simulation approaches [25].
It would be of great economic interest for the design of
machine tools as well as for process planning if the result-
ing quality of the workpiece was predictable prior to the
start of production. The principle procedure of an inte-
grated Simulation of machine tool, workpiece and process Figure 38: Environment for the coupled simulation of
in time domain is shown in Figure 37. machine tool and process.

CNC Drives FDrive Machine Tool FPro. Process

S
G01 x100 y50 z10
G01 x101 y50 z10

Disp. F
The advantage of such an architecture is a relatively
- ∆
&
S Vel. 0
simple exchangeability of single simulation sub models.
t Through variation of model parts, modelling and calcula-
tion techniques the possibility of studies concerning
Integrated Simulation of Workpiece FPro. f
F(t)
model complexity and extent is given. Due to the non-
Machine Tool, Workpiece ∆
linear system behaviour, the simulation has to be solved
and Process
xd
in the time domain [37], [101].
Results The data flow of such a coupled simulation is shown in
Quality and Tolerances Process Stability Figure 39.
Input data for such a system in general is the NC-code
Depth of Cut [mm]

reference

derived from a CAM-system which is converted in the

virtual NC-kernel. In this part simulation, nominal values
result stable
unstable
limit of stability
for the drives of the machine tool are generated. The
simulation module of the Control/Drives generates the
force of each drive which act on the model of the machine
Figure 37: Integrated simulation of machine tool, work- tool [37], [101].
piece and process.
The process forces are applied on the machine structure
which results in a displacement at the tool centre point.
An analysis and optimisation of the production process is This displacement changes the instantaneous chip area
only possible if all interactions between machine tool, which leads to changed cutting forces. To simulate these
workpiece and process can be simulated accurately. Due interactions between machine tool and process, forces
to its time-dependent behaviour the simulation of the and displacements are exchanged via interfaces at each
simulation step between the modules [37], [101].
For the simulation of the manufacturing process either an
analytical, an empirical or a semi-empirical approach can
be integrated.
Simulation Module
Control/Drives
Nominal values
Positions/Velocities
Simulation Module
Cutting Process
Forces
Forces
Motions
Virtual
NC-Kernel
NC-Code
Simulation Module
Machine Tool Structure
Figure 39: Principle approach for the coupled simulation
of cutting process and machine tool.
Machine process interaction is facing the challenge to
increase the speed of both the single simulation models
and the data exchange. Apart from the uncertainties
within the separate simulation modules concerning e.g.
damping in machine tools [38] or the material parameters
for cutting [39], the main problem is the high amount of
calculation operations in the material removal scenario
due to the high resolution of the material removal sce-
nario.
6 RESEARCH CHALLENGES: “THE VIRTUAL
WORKPIECE PRODUCTION”
As mentioned above the interaction between machine tool
and manufacturing process causes variations of the char-
acteristics of the workpieces.
It would be of great economic interest for the design of
machine tools as well as for the design of single proc-
esses or complete process chains if the resulting quality
of the workpiece was predictable prior to the start of pro-
duction. The aim is to determine the ideal process pa-
rameters for each step of the process chain to fulfill the
required tolerances and characteristics of the workpiece.
Especially for the large-volume production and the pro-
duction of extremely complex, or very expensive compo-
nents, the simulation and optimisation of single process-
ing steps as well as the complete process chain is of
particular importance.
Nowadays different simulations of single processes and
machines are state of the art in many industrial fields. The
quality of the simulation result depends on the respective
standard of knowledge.
Many research activities today concentrate on the cou-
pled simulation of manufacturing process and machine
tool, but without any industrial application.
Until now the integrated simulation of the interaction be-
tween machine tool, manufacturing process, workpiece,
fixture, and the history of the single manufacturing proc-
esses is not realised.
Thus it is not possible to simulate the workpiece quality in
consideration of the individual steps of an industrial proc-
ess chain. A possible scenario of a simulated process
chain for the manufacturing of a gearshaft is shown in
Figure 40.
To realise the industrial application of the integrated simu-
lation of workpiece properties both the simulation of the
machine process interaction and the simulation of the
workpiece properties have to be improved in the future.
Rough Part Finished Part
planned process chain
Integrated
IntegratedSimulation
simulationand
andOptimisation
optimisationofofthe
theProcess
processChain
chain
Rough- Hard-
Forging Machining Hardening Machining Grinding Measuring
Workpiece Properties
Figure 40: Scenario of a simulated process chain.
For an integrated modelling of the machine tool and
manufacturing system, first research studies exist. The
necessary further developments are integrated methods,
improved models for machine tools, processes, work-
pieces, clamping systems, controls and tools as well as
models for the entire process chain.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The aim of virtual machine tool engineering is to design,
test, optimise, control and machine parts in a computer
simulation environment.
The machine is designed in a CAD environment. The
CAD model is exported to Finite Element system for the
structural analysis of the machine tool statically and dy-
namically.
The Finite Element model is reduced to a multi-body
model of the machine which consists of rigid links con-
nected via flexible springs. The rigid and flexible machine
tool models are analysed under various jerk, acceleration,
velocity and control profiles at high speeds. The interac-
tion between the specific CNC control model and machine
tool structure can be simulated, and either the machine
tool or control system, or both, can be modified based on
the simulation. The digital model of the machine tool is
integrated to the numerical simulation of the cutting proc-
ess, hence the machine tool can be tested to machine
particular parts under desired cutting conditions. The
present technology allows Finite Element, multi-body,
kinematics and control engineering concepts.
However, the virtual machine tool technology still requires
fundamental research in the area of process simulation,
integration of all analysis modules in a user friendly simu-
lation program for the users. This goal is being rapidly
realised by the research community at the present.
8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Professors Arrazola, van Brus-
sel, Denkena, Fleischer, Groche, Klocke, Lauwers,
Pritschow, Weinert and all colleagues and industrial com-
panies who sent valuable contributions for the preparation
of the article.
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