Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

FROST AND SCALING
RESISTANCE OF
HIGH-STRENGTH
CONCRETE
by Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover
Research & Development Bulletin RD122
P O R T L A N D C E M E N T A S S O C I A T I O N
PCA RD122 Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete
Keywords: air-entrained concretes, air entrainment, air void system, chloride permeability, compressive strength, de-
icers, freeze-thaw resistance, frost durability, high-strength concrete, hardened air content, setting, scaling resistance,
surface finishing
Abstract: The primary purpose of this work was to assess the effect of air entrainment and time of surface finishing
operations on the frost durability and scaling resistance of high-strength concrete. The conditions under which
entrained air is necessary to produce a frost-resistant mixture are explored, particularly in light of current ACI 318
provisions for air content.
The laboratory program consisted of the production of six concrete mixtures with water/cement ratios of 0.50,
0.45, 0.40, 0.35, 0.30, and 0.25; each at three levels of air content: non-air entrained, 4%, and 6%. No supplementary
cementing materials were used.
Frost resistance was investigated as a bulk or interior concrete property, via modified ASTM C 666, and as a
surface property, via ASTM C 672. Both tests were initiated at 28 days with the same curing conditions applied to
the specimens. The influence of time of surface finishing on the scaling resistance was investigated by finishing the
scaling specimens at two different times relative to the time of initial set as defined by ASTM C 403. Additionally
for each mixture, compressive strength (ASTM C 39), rapid chloride permeability (ASTM C 1202), and microscopic
analysis of the air void system (ASTM C 457) were performed.
For the mixtures investigated here, it was possible to obtain frost resistance based on the modified ASTM C 666 without
air entrainment for w/c = 0.35 or less, while entrained air was necessary for mixtures with w/c greater than 0.40. As far
as scaling resistance is concerned, no air entrainment was necessary for mixtures with w/c of 0.25, while entrained air
was necessary for mixtures with w/c greater than 0.25.
It was observed that the ACI 318 provisions for frost durability are somewhat conservative. While ACI 318
requires air entrainment for all mixtures subject to freezing and thawing, mixtures studied here with w/c of 0.25
and no intentionally entrained air were shown to be frost resistant. Further, properly air-entrained mixtures with
w/c of 0.50 were frost resistant, even though the w/c was in excess of the 0.45 required by the ACI 318 provisions
for freeze-thaw durability.
Reference: Pinto, Roberto C. A. and Hover, Kenneth C., Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete, RD122,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2001, 75 pages.
Cover figures: (top) ASTM C 666 concrete prisms in a freeze-thaw chamber (49941); (bottom left) air-void distribu-
tion in cross section of hardened concrete (67840); (right) ASTM C 672 deicer scaling samples (44003).
This publication is intended SOLELY for use by PROFES-

SIONAL PERSONNEL who are competent to evaluate the
significance and limitations of the information provided
herein, and who will accept total responsibility for the
application of this information. The Portland Cement
Association DISCLAIMS any and all RESPONSIBILITY and
LIABILITY for the accuracy of and the application of the
information contained in this publication to the full ex-
tent permitted by the law.
©2001 Portland Cement Association

All rights reserved
RD122.01 PCA R&D Serial No. 2387

Frost and Scaling Resistance of
High-Strength Concrete
by Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Cornell University
© 2001 Portland Cement Association RD122

ISBN 0-89312-208-4 All rights reserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 FROST DAMAGE ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2.1 Mechanisms ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Bulk and Interior Frost Resistance ....................................................................................... 2
1.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR AN EFFECTIVE AIR VOID SYSTEM ..................................................... 3
1.4 FROST DURABILITY OF HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE ....................................................... 4
1.5 LABORATORY TESTS TO ASSESS FROST RESISTANCE ......................................................... 5
1.6 PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH ................................................................................................... 6
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 MATERIALS AND MIXTURE PROPORTIONING ..................................................................... 7
2.3 MIXING PROCEDURES AND FRESH CONCRETE TESTS ..................................................... 10
2.4 CURING PROCEDURES AND HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS .......................................... 12
3. RESULTS
3.1 FRESH CONCRETE TESTS .......................................................................................................... 13
3.2 HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS ................................................................................................ 16
3.2.1 Compressive Strength......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Freeze-Thaw Resistance—ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing ...................................... 16
3.2.3 Scaling Resistance—ASTM C 672 ..................................................................................... 19
3.2.4 Air Void Parameters in Hardened Concrete—ASTM C 457 ............................................. 30
3.2.5 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)—ASTM C 1202 .............................................. 32
4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 FRESH CONCRETE PARAMETERS............................................................................................ 34
4.1.1 Slump—Mixture Proportioning ......................................................................................... 34
4.1.2 Setting Times ....................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 AIR CONTENT AND AIR VOID PARAMETERS ........................................................................ 37
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ....................................................................................................... 41
4.4 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY .......................................................................................... 44
4.5 FROST RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................... 45
4.5.1 ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing ................................................................................... 45
4.5.2 ASTM C 672 ......................................................................................................................... 46
4.6 APPLICABILITY OF ACI 318 REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................... 55
4.6.1 ACI Requirements ............................................................................................................... 55
4.6.2 Compliance of Test Mixtures with ACI 318-99 Requirements for
Total Air Content ................................................................................................................. 56
Water to Cement Ratio ....................................................................................................... 56
Specified Compressive Strength, f c’ .................................................................................... 60
4.6.5 Assessing ACI 318 Requirements for Air Content, Water to
Cement Ratio and Strength ................................................................................................ 60
5. SIGNIFICANT OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 FRESH CONCRETE—SLUMP AND SETTING TIMES ............................................................ 63
5.2 AIR CONTENT AND AIR VOID PARAMETERS ........................................................................ 63
5.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ....................................................................................................... 63
5.4 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY .......................................................................................... 63
5.5 FROST RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................... 64
5.5.1 ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing ................................................................................... 64
5.5.2 ASTM C 672 ......................................................................................................................... 64
5.6 APPLICABILITY OF ACI 318 REQUIREMENTS TO FROST DURABILITY
OF HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE .......................................................................................... 64
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 65
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 66
METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS ................................................................................................... 69

Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete PCA RD122
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Frost and scaling resistance are key issues in the produc- based on the criteria that 9% air is necessary in the mor-
tion of high-strength/high-performance concrete, since tar phase of the concrete, as proposed by Klieger (1952).
frost resistance is achieved through incorporation of air (Note that the same table values are also published in
entrainment, which in turn makes the attainment of high ACI 201.2R [ACI Committee 201 1992].)
strengths more difficult. For example, the 100 to 140 MPa In typical mixtures, the mortar volume fraction de-
(15,000 to 20,000 psi) high-strength concrete commercially creases as aggregate size increases, thus decreasing
produced in one market 10 years ago was non-air en- the required total volume of air in the concrete. The
trained, while the same concrete production market in ACI 318-99 code permits a reduction of 1% of the values
1996 had difficulty producing a 40 MPa in Table 1.1 when the specified compressive strength is
(6,000 psi) mixture with a consistent 6% air content greater than 35 MPa (5,000 psi) (paragraph 4.2.1,
(Hover 1996). ACI 318-99).
This issue is further complicated since there is no In addition, ACI 318-99 requires a maximum water to
consensus among researchers concerning the necessity cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) of 0.45 by mass for
of entrained air to produce frost-resistant high-strength concrete to be exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist
concrete (Philleo 1987, Gagné et al. 1992, Aïtcin 1998a). condition or subjected to deicing chemicals.
The current state of practice, however, as described by The research described here focuses on the study of
ACI 318-99 (ACI Committee 318 1995), requires air en- frost resistance of high-strength concretes. Frost
trainment for all concrete exposed to freezing and thaw- damage mechanisms and their applications to high-
ing conditions while wet, as shown in Table 1.1 (repro- strength concrete are briefly reviewed. An extensive labo-
duced from ACI 318-99, Table 4.2.1). The values presented ratory-testing program was conducted with mixtures with
in Table 1.1 are a function of the maximum size of the water to cement ratios (w/c) varying from 0.50 to 0.25 at
coarse aggregate and the level of exposure. These values several air content levels. No supplementary cementing
in ACI 318 follow the recommendation of ACI 211.1, Table materials were included. Freezing and thawing (ASTM C
6.3.3 (ACI Committee 211 1991), and were calculated 666) and deicer salt scaling resistance tests (ASTM C 672)
were performed, as well as compressive strength (ASTM
Table 1.1. ACI 318-99 Requirements for Total Air C 39) and rapid chloride permeability tests (ASTM C 1202).
Content for Frost-Resistant Concrete Test results are discussed in light of the ACI 318 code pro-
(ACI 318 Table 4.2.1) visions and the necessity of air entrainment for frost-re-
Nominal maximum Air content, % sistant high-strength mixtures.
aggregate size Severe Moderate
mm (in.) exposure exposure 1.2 FROST DAMAGE IN CONCRETE
9.5 (3/8) 7.5 6.0
12.5 (1/2) 7.0 5.5 1.2.1 Mechanisms
19.0 (3/4) 6.0 5.0
25.0 (1) 6.0 4.5 Frost damage in concrete can be a consequence of the use
37.5 (11/2) 5.5 4.5 of non-frost-resistant aggregates, or the use of non-frost-
50.0 (2) 5.0 4.0 resistant paste, or both. Once properly selected frost-resis-
75.0 (3) 4.5 3.5 tant aggregates are used in the concrete mixture, frost dam-
1
age is solely related to the ability of the paste fraction to ionic concentration. This uni-directional flow increases the
support the internal pressures generated during freezing. pressure generated by ice accretion.
When subjected to freezing temperatures, concrete Frost damage, however, can occur only when there is
may be degraded due to the pressure generated by the freezeable water in the pore system which cannot move
movement of water or ice through the internal pore sys- or expand without putting pressure on the surrounding
tem of hardened concrete. As postulated by Powers (1949), pore walls. The amount of freezeable water is a function
upon freezing, the 9% increase in volume of freezing wa- of the pore system of the hardened cement paste and the
ter in an initially saturated specimen forces a flow of wa- degree of saturation. Mehta (1986) also suggested that
ter away from the regions where ice is forming towards water absorbed into aggregates can be available to dam-
air-filled spaces. According to the “hydraulic pressure” age the paste as well. Any factor affecting the pore system
theory, during this flow the pore walls are subjected to or the degree of saturation also affects frost resistance. Key
hydraulic pressure proportional to: factors include the water to cement ratio, air void system,
presence of supplementary cementitious materials and/
• the distance water must move to reach an air void or chemical admixtures, type of aggregate, type of mixing,
• the rate of freezing placement, compaction, finishing, and curing procedures
• the inverse of the permeability of the hardened paste (Hammer and Sellevold 1990, Gagné and Marchand 1993).
According to this theory, expansion of the hardened
cement paste should occur during cooling at freezing 1.2.2 Bulk and Interior Frost Resistance
temperatures, especially in non-air-entrained concrete,
due to the dilating pressures in the pores. Once cooling The microstructural and mechanical properties of concrete
stops but the material continues to be at freezing tem- vary with depth from the concrete surface, leading to dif-
peratures, the hardened cement paste should not expand ferent behavior during freezing and thawing for the con-
any longer, since there would be no further movement of crete portions on the surface and in the interior of the
water/ice in the pores. This expected behavior of a non- member. Kreijger (1990) introduced the concept of con-
air-entrained mixture, however, was not observed experi- crete “skin,” a surface outer layer that differs considerably
mentally (Powers and Helmuth 1953). in properties from the inner, core, or bulk concrete, as a
Powers and Helmuth (1953) observed that a cement result of bleeding, compaction, finishing, and curing con-
paste with a water to cement ratio of 0.45 suffered expan- ditions. This“skin”concrete usually contains a higher paste
sion when subjected to nearly constant temperature of fraction than the core concrete, as shown schematically in
about –21oC for a period of five hours. Powers and Helmuth Figure 1.1 (Meyer 1987, Pigeon 1994). Moreover, before
(1953) hypothesized that this expansion occurred due to a the concrete sets, the denser components like coarse ag-
continuous growth of ice by transfer of water (or water gregate tend to settle toward the bottom, whereas water
vapor) from unfrozen regions. tends to flow upward (bleeding). As a result, the concrete
Freezing of water is a non-uniform process since surface has a higher water to cement ratio than the core
there are temperature differentials and pores of various concrete. Therefore, the bulk concrete with a greater de-
sizes exist in the concrete. As cooling initiates, water in gree of compaction, and reduced porosity, may be more
the larger capillary pores (diameter on the order of 0.01 resistant to damage during freezing and thawing than the
to 1 µm) (Mehta and Monteiro 1993) freezes before wa-
ter in the smaller and adjacent gel pores (diameter less
than 10 µm. Thus, since the vapor pressure over the un-
frozen gel water is higher than the vapor pressure over
the ice in the capillary pores, water vapor migrates from Paste volume
the gel pores to the capillaries. This mechanism, known 100%
as “ice accretion” or “gel water diffusion,” increases the
volume of water in the larger capillaries, causing further
dilation when there is no available space to accommo-
date such flow of water. Volume
Moreover, water in concrete is not in a pure state; it of water
contains dissolved solids, especially when deicing chemi-
cals have been used. As the pure water freezes, the unfro-
zen water becomes more concentrated with dissolved spe-
cies. The differential concentration of dissolved ions be-
tween water sites leads to osmotic effects, as water at low Figure 1.1. Variation of paste content with
concentration sites tends to flow toward the water at higher concrete depth (Pigeon 1994).
2
surface concrete. ice, unfrozen water, or both. Upon freezing, the shorter
Frost damage in the surface can be caused by the same the length of the travel path of water and/or ice toward
mechanisms already reviewed. However, saturation levels an air-filled space, the lower the pressure resulting from
on the surface layer are often greater than in the core of the such movement. A well dispersed, closely spaced sys-
member. Deicing salts used to melt ice and snow penetrate tem of air voids intersecting the network of capillary pores
the concrete, increasing osmotic pressures. Moreover, use at many points is therefore required (Hover 1994).
of deicer salts on concrete surfaces causes thermal shock, Note that the hydraulic pressures associated with freez-
which can cause cracks leading to intrusion of still more ing are reduced but not eliminated by the air voids. The
water and salts (Pigeon 1994). maximum tolerable length of the travel path of water and/
Finishing and curing take on a special importance for or ice movement that does not damage the material can be
the frost durability of the concrete surface. Since these con- calculated for a given paste, with a given porosity and de-
struction procedures greatly influence the surface micro- gree of saturation, permeability, and tensile strength, and
structure (Aïtcin 1998a), both affect the dur-ability of the subjected to a given rate of cooling (Powers 1949). There-
surface layers more directly than the core concrete. McNeal fore, an air void provides frost protection to the hardened
and Gay (1996) reported the influence of curing and fin- cement paste only in a zone that exists within this maxi-
ishing on frost durability, and Falconi (1996) demonstrated mum or critical distance, and only when the volume of
that for certain high-performance mixtures the sequence freezeable water in this surrounding shell is at least 9% less
and timing of finishing and curing operations were criti- than the volume of the air void.
cal to the durability of the concrete surface. In studying Although there are rigorous mathematical models to
precast concrete elements, Hover (1989) found a high in- determine the protected portion of the hardened
cidence of surface failures due to frost action, but no pen- cement paste surrounded by an air void (Pleau and
etration of this mode of deterioration to the inner core. Pigeon 1996, Natesaiyer et al. 1992, Natesaiyer et al. 1993,
While frost damage in the core concrete is associated Philleo 1983), the commonly used method in practice is a
with the formation of interior cracks, frost damage in the simpler, more approximate method as presented in ASTM
concrete surface is associated with the scaling phenom- C 457. According to this method, developed by Powers
enon. Scaling is the flaking or peeling-off of the finished (1949), the critical length, or spacing factor ¿ is calculated
concrete surface (Mehta 1986). on assumptions that all air voids are the same size and
arranged in a simple cubic lattice where each void is at
the same distance from another void, as shown in Figure
1.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR AN 1.2. The volume of the air voids per unit volume of the
EFFECTIVE AIR VOID SYSTEM cube is equal to the volume of air in the cement paste per
volume of paste. The distance between the center of the
An effective air void system in the concrete, both near the cube to the surface of the nearest air void is then the spac-
surface and in the core of the hardened material, is the most ing factor.
important parameter for frost durability in normal-strength ASTM C 457 states, “the spacing factor, ¿, is generally
concrete. Concrete with a properly dispersed air void sys- regarded as the most significant indicator of the durability
tem can withstand a large number of freeze-and-thaw cycles of the cement paste matrix to freezing and thawing expo-
without loss in serviceability. sure of the concrete.” ASTM C 457 goes on to say, “The
A proper air void system is characterized by a large maximum value of the spacing factor for moderate expo-
number of small, well-dispersed air voids in the hardened sure of the concrete is usually taken to be 0.20 mm (0.008
material. This system is obtained with the utilization of in.). Somewhat larger values may be adequate for mild ex-
air-entraining admixtures, which stabilize the smaller air posure and smaller ones may be required for severe expo-
voids during mixing. The overall air system in air-entrained sure, especially if the concrete is in contact with deicing
concretes consists of finer entrained air voids in addition chemicals.” However, ASTM recognizes that the spacing
to coarser entrapped air voids, the latter occurring in all factor should be used with care in specifications, due to
concretes. Thus, the air void system in air-entrained con- the high variability of this calculated value when deter-
crete includes a broad gradation of void sizes, ranging from mined at different laboratories. The ASTM C 457 method
10 µm to several milli-meters (Hover 1994). also yields the specific surface, , of the air void system,
The incorporation of small voids in the cement paste approximately indicating the average size of the air voids.
fraction of the hardened material leads to a reduction of In summary, an effective air void system will have suf-
the stresses generated upon freezing. This reduction oc- ficient volume to accommodate the freezeable water and
curs since the air voids remain dry due to their much will be distributed into a large number of small, closely
greater size (minimum size of about 0.01 mm) as com- spaced voids. The total volume of air required is normally
pared to the capillary voids. The air voids, then, act as considered to be as shown in Table 1.1 when measured as
stress-reliever sites available to accept the intrusion of a fraction of the total concrete volume. Given that the air
3
crete (Philleo 1987, Foy 1988, Pigeon 1994). The spacing

factor required for frost durability appears to increase with
¿ decrease of water to cement ratio (Philleo 1987), with val-
ues close to the common requirement of about 200 µm
(0.008 in.) for water to cement ratio greater than 0.50
(Mielenz et al. 1958). Foy et al. (1988) studied a frost resis-
tant, non-air-entrained mixture with water to cement ra-
tio of 0.25 and spacing factor of 750 µm. Pigeon (1994)
presents data in which the spacing factor associated with
frost-resistant, high-strength concrete can go up to 600
µm (0.024 in.).
Figure 1.2. The spacing factor from Power’s
For scaling resistance, Gagné and Marchand (1993)
model (after Hover 1994).
indicate that a maximum water to cement ratio of 0.25 is
required for non-air-entrained concrete, a conclusion
shared by Foy et al. (1988). According to Gagné and
In summary, an effective air void system will have suf- Marchand, if the spacing factor is greater than 250 µm
ficient volume to accommodate the freezeable water and (0.01 in), the water to cement ratio should be less than
will be distributed into a large number of small, closely 0.35 for frost resistant mixtures. Gagné, Pigeon and Aïtcin
spaced voids. The total volume of air required is normally (1991) presented results for concretes with water to ce-
considered to be as shown in Table 1.1 when measured as ment ratio = 0.30 and spacing factor = 950 µm that did
a fraction of the total concrete volume. Given that the air not suffer significant scaling even after 150 cycles under
voids do not protect the aggregate against freeze-thaw the ASTM C 672 test method. Aïtcin (1998b) suggested
damage, Klieger (1952) simplified this to 9% of the vol- maximum spacing factors as a function of water to ce-
ume of mortar. More fundamentally, recognizing that air ment ratio, based on a great number of specimens from
voids only protect the paste, Mielenz et al. (1958) simpli- field concrete tested by ASTM C 666 and/or ASTM C 672,
fied the required total air content to 18% to 20% of the according to Table 1.3.
paste volume. Frost resistant concrete is often associated
with values of specific surface around 25 mm2 (600 in.2)
and spacing factor on the order of 200 µm (0.008 in.). For
further discussion of air-entrained concrete see Whiting Table 1.3. Recommended Spacing Factors as a
and Nagi (1998), Hover (1994), Whiting and Stark (1983). Function of Water to Cement Ratio (after Aïtcin
1998b)
1.4 FROST DURABILITY OF Recommended Permitted
HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE Water/cement L maximum L
> 0.40 260 µm
The necessity of air entrainment in high-strength con- 230 µm
(for scaling resistance)
crete for frost durability has been controversial for over 400 µm
a decade. Researchers such as Philleo (1987) and Khalil et 0.35 < w/c < 0.40 350 µm
(for scaling resistance)
al. (1980) concluded that air entrainment is necessary at 550 µm
0.30 < w/c < 0.35 450 µm
all levels of water to cement ratio. However, Li et al. (1994), (for scaling resistance)
Gagné et al. (1992), and Pigeon et al. (1991) suggested Same criteria as for 0.30 < w/c < 0.35 due to
< 0.30
that it is possible to produce frost/scaling resistant, non- insufficient amount of experimental data
air-entrained mixtures by limiting the water to cement ratio
to a maximum of 0.25, whereas air entrainment would be
necessary for mixtures with water to cement ratio greater High-strength concrete incorporating high-range
than 0.30. Whiting (1987) concluded that air contents may water reducers (or superplasticizers) are sometimes ob-
be reduced to levels of 3% to 4% in high-strength con- served to be frost resistant with spacing factors that ex-
crete not subjected to deicing agents. Aïtcin (1998a) states ceed the conventional requirement of 200 µm (0.008 in.)
that a high-performance concrete should contain a small (Kobayashi et al. 1981, Siebel 1989). Philleo (1987) has
amount of entrained air to improve workability, placing, conjectured that conventional spacing factor requirements
and finishing. He also suggests that the minimum air con- may not be applicable to mixtures with superplasticizers,
tent should be about 4%. observing that the original theory of air void spacing was
There has been some consensus that the spacing fac- developed for non-superplasticized concretes with rela-
tor found necessary for frost durability in normal-strength tively high water to cement ratio, in which considerable
concrete might not be the same for high-strength con- porosity and freezeable water exist. He concluded, there-
4
fore, that requirements for normal-strength concrete might Nonetheless, the utilization of equation 1.1 to calculate
not apply to high-strength concretes. the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity is adequate for
the purpose of the test (Newlon and Mitchell 1994).
1.5 LABORATORY TESTS TO ASSESS The durability factor is then calculated according
FROST RESISTANCE to the expression below:
Newlon and Mitchell (1994) present an historical evo- Pn N

DF = (1.2)
lution of accelerated tests to assess frost resistance of M
concrete. These test methods normally subject samples where:
of concrete to a number of freezing and thawing cycles DF = durability factor of the specimen tested,
in order to obtain the degree of deterioration associ- Pn = relative dynamic modulus at N cycles (%),
ated with long-term exposure. The most commonly N = number of cycles at which the test specimen
used tests are ASTM C 666, Standard Test Method for Re- achieves the minimum specified value of Pc for
sistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing, and discontinuing the test or the specified number
ASTM C 672, Standard Test Method for Scaling Resistance of cycles of the test, whichever is less, and
of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. M = specified number of cycles of the test.
When these test methods are used to evaluate mass
loss or surface degradation due to freezing and thaw- As an indication of the degree of freeze-thaw resis-
ing, the obtained results can be related to the frost re- tance, Cordon (1966) suggested that a concrete of poor
sistance of the concrete surface. If, on the other hand, frost resistance would have a durability factor below
these test methods assess some change in the bulk con- 20%, while concrete with good frost resistance would
crete property, they are more related to the frost resis- have a durability factor greater than 80%. Neville (1996),
tance of the concrete core. on the other hand, reported modified limits of 40% as
The ASTM C 666 method alternates cycles of freez- an upper bound for poor frost resistance and 60% as a
ing and thawing; the nominal freeze-thaw cycle con- lower bound for good frost resistance.
sists of lowering the concrete temperature to –17.8oC (0oF) The rate of freezing in this method can vary widely
followed by raising the concrete temperature to 4.4oC from 4.4 to 22.2°C/hour (8 to 40°F/hour), with a typical
(40oF) in not less than 2 hours and not more than 5 hours. rate of 11.1°C/hour (20°F/hour) (Vanderhost and Jansen
The specimens can be either frozen in water (procedure 1990). These rates, however, are much higher than nor-
A) or in air (procedure B), while thawing always takes place mally encountered in field applications, in which a maxi-
in water in both procedures. The standard curing condi- mum cooling rate of 3.3°C/hour (6°F/hour) has been ob-
tion is 14 days wet-cured unless otherwise specified. served (Lin and Walker 1975). Other important param-
Since the development of internal microcracking is eters influencing the results are the high degree of satu-
anticipated, freeze-thaw resistance is indirectly evalu- ration of the specimens after the first few exposure cycles
ated by changes in the relative dynamic modulus of elas- and the early age at which the test is initiated (14 days
ticity, indicating the degree of internal microcrack for- after casting unless otherwise specified) (Pigeon et al.
mation. The relative dynamic modulus of elasticity is 1985). These conditions are much more severe than the
calculated from the following expression: natural conditions which most concretes are likely to be
exposed in service. Natural freezing of concrete in service
nc2 normally occurs at lower cooling rates, at later ages, and
Pc = 100 (1.1)
n2 after some period of drying. Thus, it is generally concluded
where:
that the ASTM C 666 test is more rigorous than most natu-
Pc = relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, after c
ral exposures.
cycles of freezing and thawing,
In ASTM C 672, small slabs of concrete of at least
n = fundamental transverse frequency at 0 cycles
0.046 m2 (72 in.2) of surface area and a minimum thick-
of freezing and thawing, and
ness of 75 mm (3 in.) are used to evaluate scaling resis-
nc = fundamental transverse frequency at c cycles tance. A solution of water and calcium chloride (4 g of
of freezing and thawing. anhydrous calcium chloride per 100 mL of solution) is
The fundamental transverse frequency is calculated placed on top of the specimens at the start date of the
from the method described in ASTM C 215. In the calcu- test. The specimens are placed in a freezing environ-
lation of Pc , it is assumed that the specimen does not ment capable of lowering the surface temperature to
change its mass or dimensions, which is not always the –17.8 ± 2.8°C (0 ± 5°F) for 16 to 18 hours, followed by
case due to the loss of material caused by degradation. thawing at laboratory temperature of 23 ± 1.7°C (73 ± 3°F)
for 6 to 8 hours, completing one freeze-thaw cycle. The
5
solution is replaced at the end of every five cycles, when a This research explores the conditions under which en-
visual evaluation is performed. The specimens are then trained air is necessary for frost durability in high-strength
rated from 0 to 5 varying from no scaling (0) to severe concretes insofar as the test methods define such durability.
scaling (5), with values from 2 to 3 indicating moderate If air entrainment can be reduced or eliminated for certain
scaling of the surface. Generally 50 cycles are sufficient to classes of high-strength concrete, then cost savings will
evaluate the surface, although more cycles may be neces- immediately result, with an expansion of the utility of high-
sary in comparative tests. The standard curing procedure strength concrete. In particular, the results of this study were
is 14 days moist cured followed by 14 days air-cured. (This used to examine the applicability of the current ACI 318 pro-
period of air drying does not occur in the standard ASTM visions for air content and concrete with a compressive
C 666 test, in which samples are immediately placed in strength greater than 35 MPa (5,000 psi).
the freezer after the 14-day wet cure period.)
In a variation of the scaling test, the scaled debris is
collected, dried, and weighed (Gagné et al. 1990, Siebel
et al. 1993, Jansen and Snyder 1993, Narayanan 1997,
among others). The Swedish Standard SS 13 72 44 (from
Marchand et al 1996, and Jacobsen et al. 1996) correlates
the scaling potential with the collected mass loss per
unit area. It is suggested that scaling of less than 1.0 kg/
m2 after 50 freeze-thaw cycles in the presence of deicer
salts indicates that the concrete has an acceptable scal-
ing resistance (Gagné and Marchand 1993).
The conditions applied in these two test methods
rarely correspond to actual conditions in the field. The
number of natural freeze-thaw cycles may differ
greatly from those in the tests; a different deicer salt
may be used or at a different concentration; the age of
the concrete when it experiences the first freezing cycle
may not be 14 or 28 days old; and the rate of freezing
in the field is rarely as high as the one applied in lab
tests. Therefore, these test methods only indicate po-
tential susceptibility of a mixture to damage by freez-
ing and thawing.
Judgment is therefore required when predicting
field performance based on results of these tests
(Newlon and Mitchell 1994). ASTM recognizes that
these methods do not quantitatively indicate the ser-
vice life of a concrete structure. These tests are intended
for determining the effects of variations in the proper-
ties of concrete on the freeze-thaw resistance, and are
particularly useful in making comparisons of the be-
havior of several mixtures.
1.6 PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH

This study has been designed to investigate frost resis-
tance of high-strength concrete as a bulk or interior
concrete property (via ASTM C 666), and as a surface
property (ASTM C 672). Further, experiments were con-
ducted to study the influence of mixture proportions
and construction operations on the frost durability of
high-strength concrete. The mixture parameters stud-
ied included the w/c and air content levels. The influence
of different times of surface finishing on the scaling resis-
tance was also investigated.
6
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM
2.1 OVERVIEW
The laboratory program included production of 6 mix- ASTM C 33, with a fineness modulus of 2.78, specific grav-
tures with various water to cement ratios: 0.50, 0.45, 0.40, ity of 2.60, and absorption of 2.0%. The coarse aggregate
0.35, 0.30, and 0.25; each at three levels of air content (non- consisted of gravel of mixed composition (mainly of sand-
air entrained, 4%, and 6%). Air content and water to ce- stones and siltstones, with a small portion of limestone
ment ratio were primary “mixture” variables, and time of and dolomites), with a nominal maximum size of 13 mm
finishing was the primary “construction” variable. (ASTM grading size #7), specific gravity of 2.68, and ab-
For each mixture, tests were performed on frost du- sorption of 1.57%. The high-range water reducer used was
rability, setting time, air content of fresh concrete, air void a naphthalene sulfonate type. This product was used in a
parameters in hardened concrete, compressive strength, liquid form, with solids content of 40%.
and rapid chloride permeability (Table 2.1). Frost durabil- Mixture proportions are shown in Table 2.2 and Fig-
ity was assessed as a bulk or “interior” concrete property, ure 2.1. High dosages of superplasticizer were neces-
by ASTM C 666, and as a surface property, by ASTM sary to achieve low w/c values without increasing the
C 672. Surface finishing was initiated at two different times cement content of the mixtures. Sample nomenclature
relative to the time of initial set as defined by ASTM indicates the w/c and the target level of air entrainment,
C 403. See a detailed description of experimental meth- with N indicating non-air-entrained mixtures, and 4 and
ods, equipment, and materials below. 6 indicating the target levels of 4% and 6% air content.
For example, Mixture 50-4 had a water to cement ratio of
2.2 MATERIALS AND MIXTURE 0.50 and a target air content of 4%. Table 2.2 also presents
PROPORTIONING the air content as measured by the ASTM C 231 pressure
meter . Fresh properties are discussed in Section 3. Air-
free paste content and air content in paste are presented
The portland cement used was an ASTM C 150 Type I
in Table 2.3 for all mixtures.
cement. Fine aggregate was concrete sand conforming to
Table 2.1. Experimental Methods Used for Each Mixture

Tests ASTM #
Frost durability Scaling C 672
Freeze–thaw resistance C 666
Time of setting Penetration resistance C 403
Air void system Air content—fresh concrete C 231
Air void parameters in hardened concrete C 457
Strength Compressive strength C 39
Permeability Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) C 1202
7
PCA RD122
Table 2.2. Mixture Proportions (per m3)
Mixture Cement Water Fine agg. Coarse HRWRA AEA HRWRA Air content
(kg) (kg) (kg) agg. (1) (ml) (mass/mass (%)
(kg) of cement)
50-N 445 222 601 1052 0.0 0 — 1.3
50-4 390 195 625 1080 0.0 29 — 3.8
50-6 392 195 597 1059 0.0 58 — 5.6
45-N 441 198 632 1066 0.9 0 0.25% 2.0
45-4 411 185 629 1078 0.6 25 0.18% 4.0
45-6 412 185 618 1039 0.6 46 0.18% 5.8
40-N 439 176 641 1107 1.8 0 0.49% 2.4
40-4 425 170 640 1089 2.1 27 0.59% 4.1
40-6 426 170 623 1057 2.0 140*** 0.56% 5.9
35-N 467 163 647 1088 4.8 0 1.23% 3.0
35-4 447 157 656 1109 3.5 37 0.94% 3.2
8
35-6 428 151 629 1063 3.4 60 0.95% 6.6
Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

30-N 510 153 632 1105 9.3 0 2.19% 2.1
30-6A* 466 140 633 1071 7.8 63 2.10% 6.2
30-6B* 466 140 632 1070 7.5 42 1.93% 6.3
25-N 549 137 626 1106 10.6 0** 2.32% 2.5
25-4 542 135 619 1094 10.5** 0** 2.32% 3.6
25-6 590 148 570 1023 14.6** 0** 2.97% 5.0
* Difficulty in achieving a 4% air content at a w/c = 0.30 precluded testing of a 30-4 mixture.
** Note that high doses of high range water reducing admixture (HRWRA) stabilized air in the absence of AEA.
*** This unusually high dose of air-entraining admixture (AEA) was required to obtain the target air for this particular
mixture.
1200
1000
800
600
9
400
Coarse agg. (kg)

200 Fine agg. (kg)
Cement (kg)
Water (kg)
0 HRWRA (dL)
Air-entraining admixture (mL)
-N 0-4
50 5
Mixture
-6 5-N 5-4 -6 0-N 0-4
50 4 4 45 -6 -N -4 -6 -N
4 4 40 35 35 35 30 -6A -6B 25-N -4 -6
30 30 25 25
PCA RD122
Figure 2.1. Mixture proportions
Table 2.3. Paste Content and Air in Paste
Air-free paste Air content in

Mixture content (%)* paste (%)**
50-N 36.8 3.5
50-4 32.0 11.9
50-6 31.9 17.6
45-N 33.9 5.9
45-4 31.8 12.6
45-6 32.2 18.0
40-N 31.9 7.5
40-4 30.9 13.3
40-6 30.8 19.1
35-N 31.8 9.4
35-4 30.5 10.5
35-6 29.0 22.7
30-N 32.7 6.4
30-6A 29.7 20.9
30-6B 29.7 21.2
25-N 32.3 7.7
25-4 31.8 11.3
25-6 34.9 14.3
* Based on mix proportions in Table 2.2
** Pressure meter air content/air-free paste volume
2.3 MIXING PROCEDURES AND FRESH For the air-entrained mixtures, the mixer was allowed
CONCRETE TESTS to run for 8 minutes following the introduction of all ma-
terials, after which the air content by the volumetric
Mix proportions were established on the basis of small method (ASTM C 173) with a small meter (bowl volume
trial batches to verify target air content at a target slump of 2.8 L and the slump (ASTM C 143) were obtained. If
of 100 to 125 mm. The larger batches for test specimens the air content of the mixture was within ± 0.5% of the
were subsequently mixed in a 0.1 m3 drum mixer in the desired target air (4% or 6%), the air content by the pres-
laboratory, maintaining the proportions from the trial sure method (ASTM C 231) and the unit weight (ASTM
batches, with priority given to the adjustments to achieve C 138) were obtained, and the casting of the specimens
the target air content. The initial slump (after 8 minutes) initiated. Otherwise, more air-entraining admixture was
of the batches mixed in the more powerful mixer was con- introduced and the concrete was mixed for an additional
sequently higher than in the small trial batches. Figure 4minutes, after which the air content by the pressure
2.2 presents the sequence of mixture procedures and fresh method, unit weight, and slump were recorded and cast-
concrete tests followed up to casting. Any exceptions are ing initiated. This two-step procedure helped to obtain air
noted. contents close to the target values of 4% and 6% for most
10
All materials in the mixer

mix for 8 minutes
Measure slump
Check target air content of the mixture

by volumetric air meter
Achieved Not achieved
Add more
aid-entraining admixture,
mix 4 minutes more
Pressure air content
and unit weight
Pressure air content,

unit weight,
and slump
Casting
Figure 2.2. Sequence of tests in fresh concrete until casting for air-entrained mixtures.
of the mixtures. For the mixture with water to cement ratio tracted from the concrete, according to ASTM C 403. Con-
of 0.30, 4% content air was not achieved. In this case only, crete was wet-sieved in a 4.75 mm sieve, with the result-
two mixtures were produced with air content close to 6%, ant mortar placed in 150 x 150 mm cylinders for the pen-
and labeled as 30-6A and 30-6B, as can be seen in Table 2.2. etration resistance test. Penetration resistance was moni-
For the non-air mixtures, it was not necessary to mea- tored at regular intervals, and was affected by mixture com-
sure the air content twice. Casting was therefore initiated position and temperature.
after eight minutes of mixing. This sequence was followed When possible, all mixtures of the same w/c were
for all mixtures except those with water to cement ratio of produced on the same day to minimize day-to-day
0.25. These high-cement, high-superplasticizer mixtures variations of the results. Ambient temperature, initial
achieved the target air contents without air-entraining ad- concrete temperature, and relative humidity of the air
mixture. were recorded at the beginning of casting procedures.
The setting behavior of each concrete mixture was A total of four ASTM C 672 scaling specimens of 200
obtained from the penetration resistance of mortar ex- x 230 x 80 mm (two for each time of finishing) and two
11
ASTM C 666 freeze-thaw specimens of 406 x 102 x 76 often have dried to some extent and are subjected to the
mm were cast from each mixture. Additionally, several 100 first freezing cycle at much later ages.
x 200 mm cylinders, to be used for compressive strength, ASTM C 666, method A (freeze and thaw cycles in
microscopic analysis of air system, and rapid chloride per- water) was followed. The transverse natural frequency
meability test (RCPT), were also cast. of the specimens was obtained at about every 30 cycles
Immediately after casting the scaling specimens, the up to 300 cycles according to ASTM C 215. An acceler-
samples were struck-off with a sawing motion of a ometer was placed on the specimen and connected to a
magnesium float, followed by a simulated bullfloat waveform analyzer. The fundamental transverse fre-
pass 1 performed with four passes of the magnesium quency of the specimen was obtained by forcing the
float. The concrete surface was later finished with a specimen to vibrate freely. The fundamental transverse
final float (four passes of the magnesium float) followed frequency was translated to relative dynamic modulus
by a medium-stiff broom pass. of elasticity according to ASTM C 666.
Two types of surface-finishing were chosen: an early Scaling specimens were subjected to daily freeze-
finish and an “on time” finish. The early finish time was thaw cycles. According to ASTM C 672, a solution of
arbitrarily chosen to be 20 minutes after casting the scal- calcium chloride and water was placed on the surface.
ing samples. The “on time” finishing was performed Each 100 ml of solution contained 4 g of anhydrous cal-
when the mortar penetration resistance was about 0.14 cium chloride. After every 5 cycles, the surface of each
MPa (20 psi). This penetration resistance was chosen ac- specimen was washed and the debris collected. The
cording to previous research done at Cornell (Abel and debris was later oven dried and weighed. A visual
Hover 2000) in which the initial set times of mortar and evaluation of the scaled surface was performed at cycles
concrete slabs were correlated. Bleed water was present 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, and 50. For uniformity of interpreta-
on the concrete surface of mixes with water to cement tion, the specimens were rated according to a photo-
ratio of 0.50 and 0.45 at the time of the early finishing. graph of a numerical evaluation of scaling produced
No bleed water was observed at “on time” finishing for by the Portland Cement Association and reproduced
any mixtures. in Figure 2.3.
Compressive strengths were obtained for all mix-
tures at 28 days and at 90 days from 100 x 200 mm cyl-
2.4 CURING PROCEDURES AND inder specimens kept in lime-saturated water until
HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS tested. Cylinder specimens also provided samples for
the rapid chloride permeability test, and for the micro-
Curing of the specimens was initiated when the mortar scopical evaluation of the air void parameters in the hard-
penetration resistance achieved 27.6 MPa (4000 psi) ened concrete. The RCPT was performed on one sample
penetration resistance at final set according to ASTM per mixture at around 210 days after casting; thus the re-
C 403. All specimens were covered with wet burlap for sults indicated potential long-term chloride permeability.
24 hours at a laboratory temperature of around 27°C. In the ASTM C 457 test, the modified point count method
On the second day, the specimens were removed from was used, with total air content, spacing factor, and spe-
their molds and immersed in a curing tank with water cific surface values estimated for one sample per mixture.
temperature around 25°C.
Both the ASTM C 666 and C 672 specimens were
subjected to identical curing conditions. The specimens
were immersed in a lime-saturated water tank for 14
days, followed by a dry curing period in laboratory con-
ditions for 14 days.
This modified curing procedure for the ASTM
C 666 specimens with an extra 14-day drying period was
chosen to match the curing procedures for the scaling test
(ASTM C 672). Having the same curing conditions for both
tests was important to compare“surface”versus “core” frost
durability for samples from the same mixture. Moreover,
initiating ASTM C 666 test immediately after the 14-day
wet curing period results in a relatively severe test when
compared with field exposures (Newlon and Mitchell
1994). The specimens are immature and completely wet
as opposed to field conditions in which the specimens
1
A pass is traversing the entire concrete surface once, applying light pressure on a float.
12
CHAPTER 3
RESULTS
3.1 FRESH CONCRETE TESTS
Table 3.1 shows concrete temperature, slump, unit weight, initial set is defined as the elapsed time after batching
and air contents by the volumetric method (ASTM C 173), when the mortar penetration resistance achieved 3.4
by the pressure method (ASTM C 231), and by the calcu- MPa (500 psi), while final set occurs when penetration
lated gravimetric method (obtained from unit weight mea- resistance is 27.6 MPa (4000 psi). The average mortar
surement). temperature until final set is also presented. Figure 3.1
Table 3.2 summarizes the initial and final set times shows penetration resistance development curves over
obtained from each mixture (the test was not performed time for typical mixtures at similar temperatures.
for mixtures 25-4 and 25-6). According to ASTM C 403,
Table 3.1. Fresh Concrete Parameters

Air content (%)
Concrete Initial Unit Volumetric Pressure Gravimetric
temperature slump weight method method method
Mixture (°C) (mm) (kg/m3) (ASTM C 231) (ASTM C 173) (ASTM C 138)
50-N 29 225 2350 — 1.3 0.3

50-4 28 220 2300 4.2 3.8 3.5
50-6 28 220 2240 6.0 5.6 5.9
45-N 21 215 2340 — 2.0 2.2
45-4 17 200 2320 4.0 4.0 3.5
45-6 15 190 2290 6.1 5.8 4.3
40-N 18 110 2380 — 2.4 1.7
40-4 17 160 2340 3.5 4.1 3.7
40-6 17 145 2280 5.7 5.9 5.8
35-N 16 165 2390 — 3.0 2.3
35-4 16 140 2390 5.0 3.2 2.6
35-6 24 220 2220 7.5 6.6 7.1
30-N 22 130 2440 — 2.1 1.1
30-6A 22 170 2320 6.7 6.2 6.0
30-6B 22 200 2330 8.0 6.3 5.9
25-N 22 120 2440 — 2.5 2.2
25-4 21 140 2400 4.3 3.6 3.6
25-6 23 200 2340 5.5 5.0 5.3
13
Table 3.2. Initial and final set times (ASTM C 403)
Average Initial set Final set

Mixture mortar (hours:min (hours:min
temperature after after
(o C)* batching) batching)
50-N 31 3:44 4:33
50-4 31 3:20 4:22
50-6 30 3:30 4:39
45-N 18 5:28 7:08
45-4 18 5:38 7:06
45-6 17 6:02 7:30
40-N 17 5:01 6:52
40-4 19 5:21 6:56
40-6 19 5:04 6:22
35-N 17 7:08 9:06
35-4 17 5:55 8:03
35-6 23 5:18 6:34
30-N 22 10:03 11:55
30-6A 26 10:20 11:54
30-6B 25 11:00 12:26
25-N 22 12:31 15:24
25-4 — — —
25-6 — — —
* The influence of temperature on setting time of mortar is dis-
cussed in Pinto and Hover 1999.
14
30
Final set
25
Penetration resistance (MPa) 40-4
35-4
20 30-N
15
10
Initial set
5
0
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00
Elapsed time of batching (hours)
Figure 3.1. Setting behavior for typical mixtures.
Table 3.3. Compressive Strength Results (MPa)
Mixture 28 days 90 days

50-N 42.1 50.1
50-4 38.6 47.1
50-6 33.4 41.8
45-N 48.6 55.5
45-4 45.2 52.1
45-6 42.0 47.7
40-N 49.2 56.9
40-4 41.4 52.9
40-6 39.9 45.1
35-N 59.1 61.2
35-4 46.0 60.7
35-6 44.6 48.2
30-N 55.5 64.2
30-6A 54.5 55.7
30-6B 51.4 53.6
25-N 44.6 60.9
25-4 50.0 59.5
25-6 52.5 55.8
15
70
28 Days
60
90 Days
Compressive Strength, MPa 50
40
30
20
10
0
50-N 50-4 50-6 45-N 45-4 45-6 40-N 40-4 40-6
Mixture
Figure 3.2. Compressive strength results for mixtures with water to cement ratios of 0.50, 0.45, and
0.40.
70
28 Days
60
90 Days
Compressive Strength, MPa
50
40
30
20
10
0
35-N 35-4 35-6 30-N 30-6A 30-6B 25-N 25-4 25-6
Mixture
Figure 3.3. Compressive strength results for mixtures with water to cement ratios of 0.35, 0.30, and
0.25.
3.2.2 Freeze-Thaw Resistance–

3.2 HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing
3.2.1 Compressive Strength Table 3.4 presents the relative dynamic modulus of elas-
ticity (Ed) calculated at the end of the ASTM C 666 test for
Table 3.3 shows the compressive strength results for all mix- all mixtures and the durability factor (DF) calculated ac-
tures at 28 days and 90 days. These values were obtained cording to Equation 1.2. The same data are graphically rep-
from the average of individual strengths of three cylinders. resented in Figure 3.4. The data are the average of the two
These data are also shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. specimens per mixture. Only mixtures without air entrain-
16
ment and with high water to cement ratio suffered a development of the relative Ed with the number of freeze-
crease of the transverse fundamental frequency, and thus thaw cycles is presented in Figure 3.5.
their final values of Ed were smaller than 100%. The de-
Table 3.4. Values of Relative Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity at the End of the
ASTM C 666 Test
Pressure meter Relative Ed Number of Durability

Mixture air content (%) (%) cycles factor
50-N 1.3 28 98 9
50-4 3.8 101 291 98
50-6 5.6 102 291 99
45-N 2.0 34 248 28
45-4 4.0 102 298 101
45-6 5.8 102 298 101
40-N 2.4 79 306 80
40-4 4.1 102 306 104
40-6 5.9 103 306 105
35-N 3.0 98 310 101
35-4 3.2 99 310 102
35-6 6.6 104 310 107
30-N 2.1 97 304 98
30-6a 6.2 102 304 103
30-6b 6.3 101 304 102
25-N 2.5 100 303 101
25-4 3.6 102 303 103
25-6 5.0 102 303 103
17
PCA RD122
140 7
DF
Air content (%)
120 6
100 5
Durability factor
Air content (%)

80 4
60 3
18
40 2

20 1
0 0
-N 50-4 50-6 5-N 45-4 45-6 0-N 40-4 40-6 5-N 35-4 35-6 0-N -6A -6B 5-N 25-4 25-6
50 4 4 3 3 30 30 2
Mixture
Figure 3.4. Relative dynamic modulus of elasticity at the end of ASTM C 666 test and air content of all mixtures.
100
80
Relative Ed (%)
60
40 30-N
35-N
40-N
20 45-N
50-N
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Number of freeze–thaw cycles
Figure 3.5. Durability factors vs. number of freeze–thaw cycles for selected mixtures.
3.2.3 Scaling Resistance—ASTM C 672
Table 3.5 shows the visual rating of the scaling speci- When possible, the weight loss was recorded even after
mens at 5, 10, 15, 25, 35, and 50 cycles of freeze-thaw for scaling was observed on the entire surface, representing a
all mixtures. An average of two values obtained from level 5 of the visual rating system. Eventually a level 5
two specimens per mixture per time of finishing was specimen became so degraded that the experiment had
used. An additional letter (E or O) was added to the to be terminated.
mixture nomenclature to describe the time of finishing Figures 3.6 to 3.11 graphically present the visual rat-
applied to the pair of specimens (E stands for early finish- ings, while the average weight loss is presented in Fig-
ing, and O stands for on-time finishing). Once a speci- ures 3.12 to 3.17 for each water to cement ratio. Figure
men reached level 5, no more evaluation was recorded 3.18 shows the weight loss per cycle for mixtures with-
for subsequent cycles. out air entrainment. Also indicated in Figures 3.12 to 3.18
Tables 3.6 and 3.7 show the average weight loss of is the value of weight loss of 1.0 kg/m2, as discussed in
two specimens at every five cycles for all mixtures. Chapter 1.
19
Table 3.5. Scaling Visual Ratings
Scaling rating
Mixture Cycles
5 10 15 25 35 50
50-N-E 1.75 3.5 4.5 5
50-N-O 1 4.25 5
50-4-E 1 2 2 2.5 2.5 3
50-4-O 0 1.25 1.5 2 2 2.5
50-6-E 1.25 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.75
50-6-O 0.25 0.75 1 1.5 1.5 2
45-N-E 1.75 3.5 4 5
45-N-O 2.5 4 4.75 5
45-4-E 1 2 2.25 2.25 2.75 2.75
45-4-O 0.75 2.25 2.5 2.5 3 3.25
45-6-E 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 1.75 2
45-6-O 0.75 1.75 1.75 2 2.25 2.25
40-N-E 1 3 4.75 5
40-N-O 1.25 2.75 4 4.5 4.75 5
40-4-E 1 2 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.5
40-4-O 1.25 2.5 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.5
40-6-E 1.25 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5
40-6-O 1.25 2 2.75 3 3 3
35-N-E 1.25 2.25 2.5 3.25 3.75 4
35-N-O 1.5 2.75 3 4 4.25 4.25
35-4-E 0.75 1.5 2.25 2.75 3 3
35-4-O 0.75 1.75 2.25 3 3.25 3.5
35-6-E 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.5 2 2.25
35-6-O 0 0.5 1.25 2 2 2.5
30-N-E 0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75 2.5 3.5
30-N-O 0.25 0.5 1.25 2 2.75 3.75
30-6A-E 0 0.25 0.5 1.5 1.5 2
30-6A-O 0 0.25 1 1.75 1.75 2
30-6B-E 0 0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75 2
30-6B-O 0 0.5 0.75 1 1.75 2.25
25-N-E 0.25 0.25 1.25 1.5 2.25 2.25
25-N-O 0.25 0.75 1 1.25 2.25 2.5
25-4-E 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.5 1.75
25-4-O 0.25 0.25 0.75 1 1.75 2
25-6-E 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1
25-6-O 0 0 0.5 0.5 1.25 1.5
20
Table 3.6. Weight Loss Measured for ASTM 672 Scaling Specimen for Mixtures with Water to Cement Ratios of
0.50, 0.45, and 0.30
Cumulative weight loss (kg/m2)

Mixture cycles
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
50-N-E 0.14 0.53 2.13 3.51 4.95
50-N-O 0.08 1.82 3.68 5.08 7.07
50-4-E 0.04 0.09 0.14 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.33
50-4-O 0.01 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.30 0.36 0.37 0.44
50-6-E 0.04 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.25 0.27
50-6-O 0.03 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.31
45-N-E 0.07 0.39 0.84 1.69 2.09 3.12 3.78 4.27 4.74
45-N-O 0.12 0.66 1.39 2.20 2.67
45-4-E 0.05 0.15 0.23 0.34 0.38 0.45 0.50 0.54 0.57 0.60
21
45-4-O 0.05 0.17 0.24 0.33 0.40 0.50 0.61 0.69 0.75 0.82
45-6-E 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.31
45-6-O 0.06 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.35 0.38
40-N-E 0.14 0.70 1.33 1.91 2.45 2.91 3.30 3.71
40-N-O 0.10 0.40 0.78 1.13 1.42 1.74 1.97 2.21 2.52 2.77
40-4-E 0.10 0.33 0.50 0.62 0.72 0.85 0.93 1.02 1.12 1.21
40-4-O 0.16 0.29 0.45 0.57 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.87 0.95 1.02
40-6-E 0.09 0.18 0.25 0.29 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.50 0.56 0.60
40-6-O 0.10 0.19 0.26 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.46 0.50 0.56 0.59
PCA RD122
PCA RD122
Table 3.7. Weight Loss Measured for ASTM 672 Scaling Specimen for Mixtures with Water to Cement Ratios of 0.35,
0.30, and 0.25
Cumulative weight loss (kg/m2)

Mixture cycles
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
35-N-E 0.12 0.34 0.46 0.61 0.73 0.86 0.96 1.11 1.26 1.42
35-N-O 0.10 0.36 0.53 0.70 0.83 0.97 1.05 1.19 1.31 1.46
35-4-E 0.13 0.28 0.38 0.52 0.62 0.71 0.78 0.90 0.98 1.08
35-4-O 0.09 0.24 0.34 0.46 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.82 0.90 0.99
35-6-E 0.03 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.29 0.33 0.36
35-6-O 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.27 0.30
30-N-E 0.03 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.26 0.32 0.39 0.45 0.58
30-N-O 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.36 0.43 0.51
22
30-6A-E 0.04 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.32 0.40 0.48

30-6A-O 0.04 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.26 0.29 0.34
30-6B-E 0.03 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.25 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.51
30-6B-O 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.22 0.25 0.29
25-N-E 0.02 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.23 0.26 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.45
25-N-O 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.21 0.25 0.28
25-4-E 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.20
25-4-O 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.22 0.24
25-6-E 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.14
25-6-O 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.15
5 50-N-E
50-N-O
50-4-E
4 50-4-O
50-6-E
50-6-O
Visual rating
3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
Figure 3.6. ASTM C 672 visual rating for mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.50.
5 45-N-E
45-N-O
45-4-E
4 45-4-O
45-6-E
45-6-O
Visual rating
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
ratio of 0.45.
23
4
Visual rating
2 40-N-E
40-N-O
40-4-E
1 40-4-O
40-6-E
40-6-O
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
ratio of 0.40.
5 35-N-E
35-N-O
35-4-E
4 35-4-O
35-6-E
35-6-O
Visual rating
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
ratio of 0.35.
24
5
30-N-E
30-N-O
4 30-6A-E
Visual rating 30-6A-O
30-6B-E
3 30-6B-O
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
ratio of 0.30.
5
25-N-E
25-N-O
4 25-4-E
25-4-O
Visual rating
25-6-E
3 25-6-O
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
ratio of 0.25.
25
2.0
Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2)

1.8 50-N-E
50-N-O
1.6 50-4-E
1.4 50-4-O
50-6-E
1.2 50-6-O
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
Figure 3.12. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement ratio
of 0.50.
2.0
1.8 45-N-E
45-N-O
1.6 45-4-E
1.4 45-4-O
45-6-E
1.2 45-6-O
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles
Figure 3.13. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement ratio
of 0.45.
26
2.0 40-N-E
40-N-O

1.8 40-4-E
1.6 40-4-O
40-6-E
1.4 40-6-O
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles
Figure 3.14. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.40.
2.0
1.8 35-N-E
35-N-O
1.6 35-4-E
1.4 35-4-O
35-6-E
1.2 35-6-O
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles
Figure 3.15. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.35.
27
2.0

1.8 30-N-E
30-N-O
1.6 30-6A-E
1.4 30-6A-O
30-6B-E
1.2 30-6B-O
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles
Figure 3.16. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement ratio of
0.30.
2.0
1.8 25-N-E
25-N-O
1.6 25-4-E
1.4 25-4-O
25-6-E
1.2 25-6-O
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycles
Figure 3.17. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures with water to cement ratio of
0.25.
28
7.0 50-N-E 35-N-E

50-N-O 35-N-O
45-N-E 30-N-E
6.0 45-N-O 30-N-O
Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2) 40-N-E 25-N-E
40-N-O 25-N-O
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of cycles
Figure 3.18. Cumulative mass loss for mixtures N.
29
3.2.4 Air Void Parameters in Hardened

Concrete—ASTM C 457
Table 3.8 presents the air content, spacing factors, and C 457. One sample per mixture was evaluated. Figures
specific surface values obtained from the microscopi- 3.19 and 3.20 show the spacing factor and specific sur-
cal analysis of hardened samples, according to ASTM face for all mixtures.
1200
1000
Spacing factor (µm)
800
600
400
200
0
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Mixture
Figure 3.19. Spacing factors obtained per ASTM C 457 for all mixtures.
30
Table 3.8. Air Void Parameters in Hardened Concrete.
Pressure Air Air-free Air

air content content paste content in Specific Spacing Specific Spacing
(C 231) (C 457) content* paste surface factor surface factor
Mixture (%) (%) (%) (%) in.-1 in. mm-1 µm
50-N 1.3 1.6 36.8 3.5 300 0.0294 11.8 747
50-4 3.8 4.1 32.0 11.9 553 0.0101 21.8 254
50-6 5.6 6.0 31.9 17.6 743 0.0063 29.3 160
45-N 2.0 1.5 33.9 5.9 415 0.0207 16.3 526
45-4 4.0 3.3 31.8 12.6 597 0.0105 23.5 267
45-6 5.8 5.4 32.2 18.0 590 0.0082 23.2 208
40-N 2.4 2.5 31.9 7.5 408 0.0171 16.1 434
40-4 4.1 3.7 30.9 13.3 604 0.0098 23.8 249
40-6 5.9 6.9 30.8 19.1 612 0.0069 24.1 175
35-N 3.0 3.6 31.8 9.4 138 0.0428 5.4 1087
31
35-4 3.2 3.8 30.5 10.5 504 0.0113 19.8 287

35-6 6.6 7.1 29.0 22.7 504 0.0087 19.8 221
30-N 2.1 2.8 32.7 6.4 163 0.0399 6.4 1013
30-6A 6.2 5.8 29.7 20.9 531 0.0084 20.9 213
30-6B 6.3 5.1 29.7 21.2 720 0.0069 28.3 175
25-N 2.5 3.6 32.3 7.7 293 0.0208 11.5 528
25-4 3.6 3.3 31.8 11.3 431 0.0148 17.0 376
25-6 5.0 4.8 34.9 14.3 462 0.0122 18.2 310
PCA RD122
30
Specific surface (mm-1) 25
20
15
10
0
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Mixture
Figure 3.20. Specific surface obtained per ASTM C 457 for all mixtures.
3.2.5 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

(RCPT)—ASTM C 1202
Table 3.9 shows the total charge passed after six hours
for one specimen per mixture, together with the age of
the specimen when tested. A graphical representation
of the results is shown in Figure 3.21. Mixtures 50-N,
50-4, and 25-6 were not tested.
32
Table 3.9. Results of Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
Charge Age
Mixture (coulumbs) (days)
50-6 3682 210
45-N 3478 206
45-4 3397 207
45-6 2843 208
40-N 2719 202
40-4 2642 203
40-6 2432 204
35-N 1727 208
35-4 1699 207
35-6 1161 202
30-N 1190 202
30-6A 1070 203
30-6B 913 204
25-N 1281 199
25-4 1147 200
4000
3500
3000
Change (coulumbs)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
Mixture
Figure 3.21. Rapid chloride permeability results.
33
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 FRESH CONCRETE PARAMETERS

dosage multiplied by a K-factor, according to the follow-
ing equation:
4.1.1 Slump–Mixture Proportioning
slump = water content + K ⫻ (HRWRA) (4.1)
The slump varied from around 120 to 220 mm, as shown
in Figure 4.1. Best fit K-factors of 6.2 and 3.9 were obtained for the
Factors influencing slump include water content, air-entrained mixtures and the non-air-entrained mixtures,
superplasticizer dosage, air content, and concrete tem- respectively. Figure 4.3 presents such relationships. This
perature. Figure 4.2 shows the relationship between difference in K-factor values for mixtures with and with-
slump and water content of the mixtures. A better rela- out air entrainment suggests that for a given water con-
tionship is obtained when the slump values are plotted tent, the same dosage of HRWRA causes a greater rela-
against the summation of water content and HRWRA tive increase of slump for the air-entrained mixtures.
250
200
Slump (mm)
150
100
50
0
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.1. Slump values per mixture.
34
240
220
Slump (mm) 200
180
160
140
Non-air entrained
120
Air entrained
100
120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Water content (Liters)
Figure 4.2. Slump as a function of water content.
240
outlier
220
R2 = 0.86
200
R2 = 0.74
Slump (mm)
180
160
140
Non-air entrained
120
Air entrained
100
170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Water content + K I (HRWRA) (Liters)
Figure 4.3. Slump as a function of the water content and the
superplasticizer dosage.
35
4.1.2 Setting Times

water to cement ratio, presence of admixtures, and con-
The mixtures presented a wide range of initial and final set crete temperature (Dodson 1994, Pinto and Hover 1999).
times. Initial set for mixtures with water to cement ratio At similar temperatures (between 17°C and 23°C—mix-
of 0.50 occurred around 3.5 hours after batching, while tures 45, 40, 35, 30-N, and 25-N), initial set times were
mixtures with water to cement ratio of 0.30 did not reach retarded for mixtures with lower w/c. These mixtures, how-
initial set until more than 10 hours after batching. Figure ever, had higher amounts of HRWRA, which is known to
4.4 shows graphically the initial set times per mixture. greatly affect the setting behavior (Pinto and Hover 1997).
Set times are influenced by many factors including Figure 4.5 shows the observed initial set times at various
cement composition and fineness, cement content, dosage of HRWRA for such mixtures.
14:00
12:00
Initial set time (hours)
10:00
8:00
6:00
4:00
2:00
0:00
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
Mixture
Figure 4.4. Initial set times for all mixtures.
16:00
14:00
12:00
Initial set time (hours)
10:00
8:00
6:00
4:00
2:00
0:00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Dosage of HRWRA (% by mass of cement)
Figure 4.5. Relationship between HRWRA dosage and initial set times.
36
In general, the total air content did not significantly (ASTM C 231). These data are graphically presented in
affect the setting behavior, as seen from the results of Figure 4.7. The paste content of the mixtures varied from
Table 3.2 and Figure 4.4. Initial and final set times for mix- 29% to around 37% of the total volume. All mixtures with
tures with the same water to cement ratio, but different air content around 6% (mixtures–6) had a corresponding
air content, did not vary significantly. air content in paste greater than 17%, while values as low
as 3.5% of air in paste were observed for the non-air-
4.2 AIR CONTENT AND AIR VOID entrained mixtures.
Figure 4.8 presents the air content in paste as a func-
PARAMETERS tion of the dosage of air-entraining admixture per mass of
cement according to values presented in Table 2.2. Higher
Three methods were used to evaluate the total air con- dosages yielded higher air content in paste.
tent in this investigation. Fresh air content by the pres- The microscopical air void system results presented
sure method (ASTM C 231) prior to casting, air content in Table 3.8 show high spacing factors for the mixtures
in fresh concrete by the unit weight measurements without air-entraining admixture (series N), often
(ASTM C 138), and air content in hardened concrete by greater than 500 µm. The mixtures with air-entraining
microscopical examination (ASTM C 457).1 Table 4.1 sum- admixture possessed much smaller spacing factors, yet
marizes all data obtained. The data are graphically pre- the values are typically slightly higher than 200 µm
sented in Figure 4.6. (0.008 in.), a value often associated with frost resistance
Table 2.3 presented the air-free paste content as (Mielenz 1958, Philleo 1987). Only mixtures 50-6,
determined by the mixture proportions and the air con- 40-6, and 30-6B had a spacing factor less than 200 µm
tent in paste (Ap) obtained from the fresh air content (0.008 in.).
Table 4.1. Summary of Sir ContentsObtained by Different Methods
Fresh air Fresh air Hardened air

content content content
Mixture (ASTM C 231) (ASTM C 138) (ASTM C 457)
50-N 1.3 0.3 1.6

50-4 3.8 3.5 4.1
50-6 5.6 5.9 6.0
45-N 2.0 2.2 1.5

45-4 4.0 3.5 3.3
45-6 5.8 4.3 5.4
40-N 2.4 1.7 2.5
40-4 4.1 3.7 3.7
40-6 5.9 5.8 6.9
35-N 3.0 2.3 3.6
35-4 3.2 2.6 3.8
35-6 6.6 7.1 7.1
30-N 2.1 1.1 2.8
30-6A 6.2 6.0 5.8
30-6B 6.3 5.9 5.1
25-N 2.5 2.2 3.6
25-4 3.6 3.6 3.3
25-6 5.0 5.3 4.8
1
In fact, a fourth method, the volumetric method was also used for air-entrained mixtures, as a first method to evaluate the air content of
the mixture. Later, for the same mixture the pressure air meter was used, and its value regarded as the air content in fresh concrete.
37
PCA RD122
Fresh air content (unit weight)
Fresh air content (pressure)
8
Hardened air content
5
Air content (%)
3
38

2
0
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.6. Air content measurements.

Air-free paste concent
40
Air content in paste
35
30
25
Air content (%)
20
15
39
10
0
50-N
50-4
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
40-N
40-4
40-6
35-N
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.7. Air-free paste content and air content in paste for all mixtures.
PCA RD122
25
20
15
Ap (%)
10
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Air-entraining admixture (mL/kg cement)
Figure 4.8. Influence of air-entraining admixture dosages on air content in
paste.
Figure 4.9 represents the relationship between fresh increased for the air-entrained mixtures, the spacing fac-
air content by the pressure method and the spacing factor decreased. The same data are presented in
tor in the hardened concrete. As the total air content Figure 4.10 as a function of air content in paste.
1100
1000 Non-air-entrained mixtures
900 Air-entrained mixtures

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Air content in concrete (%)
Figure 4.9. Spacing factor as a function of air content in concrete.
40
1100
1000 Non-air-entrained mixtures
900 Air-entrained mixtures
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Air content in paste (%)
Figure 4.10. Spacing factor as a function of air content in paste.
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The results in Table 3.3 indicate an increase in compres- pressive strength for the same mixtures. As the air con-
sive strength at lower water to cement ratio. However, the tent increased, the compressive strength decreased.
lowest water to cement ratio mixtures (mixture 25) did Figure 4.11 shows the compressive strength at 90 days for
not achieve the highest compressive strength. The results each water to cement ratio mixture as a function of the air
also indicate the influence of total air content on the com- content.
Water to cement ratio

0.25
90-day compressive strength (MPa)
70
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
60 0.50
50
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fresh air content (%)
Figure 4.11. Relationship between compressive strength at 90 days and air content.
41
Multiple regression was performed with compressive ture 30-6A. This represents an increase of 5.7% of cement
strength at 90 days as a function of water to cement ratio weight and 733% of superplasticizer, plus inclusion of the
and air content for all mixtures with the exception of mix- necessary air-entraining admixture.
ture 25. An equation of the following form was obtained. Compressive strength can also be interpreted as a
The corresponding r2 is 0.92. function of the total porosity, or void content, in hard-
ened concrete. Data from the Minnesota Department of
fc90 = 92.0 – 71.0 w/c – 2.58 A (MPa) (4.2) Transportation (1998) indicates that the compressive
where: strength for concrete mixtures with water to cement ratio
A = air content in concrete (%) greater than 0.35 is almost a linear function of the so-
fc90 = compressive strength at 90 days (MPa) called “cement-voids ratio,” calculated by MINNDOT for
a given volume of concrete as the volume of cement di-
vided by the sum of the volumes of air and water. Figure
This equation indicates that an increase of 1% in 4.12 investigates this relationship for the mixtures stud-
the air content corresponds to a decrease in the com- ied here, showing the linear regression curve obtained for
pressive strength of 2.6 MPa; similarly a decrease of 0.05 the data from mixtures with water to cement ratio of 0.35
in the w/c represents an increase of 3.6 MPa. and higher.
Thus, for the same water to cement ratio, an increase Figure 4.12 suggests that there is a linear relation-
in 4% of the air content (from 2% in non-air entrained to ship, as indicated by MINNDOT data, between compres-
6%) would mean a decrease of about 10 MPa in the com- sive strength and the cement-voids ratio for mixtures with
pressive strength. This decrease in strength would have to water to cement ratio of 0.35 and higher. For the mix-
be counteracted by a decrease in the water to cement ra- tures with water to cement ratio of 0.30 and 0.25, how-
tio of about 0.14, which would necessitate a greater ever, the linear relationship obtained overestimates the
amount of cement, superplasticizer, and air-entraining compressive strength at 90 days.
admixture. For these lower w/c mixtures, the estimation of the
For example, mixture 45-N with 2% air content, and volume of voids as being the volume of water plus the
mixture 30-6A with 6.2% air content, achieved compres- volume of air may be oversimplified, since in these mix-
sive strength at 90 days of 55.5 and 55.7 MPa, respec- tures the cement particles achieve a reduced degree of
tively. Looking at their mixture proportions (Table 2.2), hydration. A relationship between compressive strength
it would be necessary to add 25 kg of cement, 6.9 L of and total porosity, adjusted for degree of hydration, would
superplasticizer, and 63 mL of AEA per cubic meter in be more appropriate.
the amount of materials for mixture 45-N to arrive at mix-
90–day compressive strength (MPa)
70
60 R2 = 0.87
50
40
30
20 water to cement ratio
0.25, 0.30
10 0.35 or greater
0
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10
Cement–voids ratio
Figure 4.12. Compressive strength at 90 days as a function of the cement-voids ratio.
42
Total porosity is the air volume (air content) plus various mixtures had to be estimated.
the capillary porosity. A method for estimating capil- A previous study (Pinto et al. 1999) showed a long-
lary porosity as a function of water to cement ratio and term degree of hydration of about 0.85 and 0.64 for
degree of hydration was proposed by Powers (1958): mortar mixtures with a water to cement ratio of 0.49 and
0.33, respectively. Using this information and a simple lin-
(4.3) ear relationship between water to cement ratio and de-
w/c - 0.36α gree of hydration at 90 days, the capillary paste porosity
Vp =
0.317 + w/c was estimated from Equation 4.3, and presented in Table
where: 4.2. Table 4.2 also shows the total estimated porosity and
Vp = capillary porosity assumed degree of hydration for all the mixtures. (To ob-
␣ = degree of hydration (fraction of total tain the estimated capillary porosity of the concrete, Vp
amount of cement that has hydrated) was multiplied by the paste content from Table 2.3.)
Figure 4.13 shows the relationship between com-
An exact relationship between compressive pressive strength at 90 days and estimated total poros-
strength and porosity for the mixtures studied cannot ity. Compressive strength consistently increased with
be obtained, since there was no measurement of the de- decreasing total porosity for all mixtures, including
gree of hydration of the mixtures. In order to estimate this those with water to cement ratio lower than 0.35.
relationship, the degree of hydration at 90 days for the
Table 4.2. Estimated Total Porosity of Concrete for All Mixtures.
Assumed Estimated Air Estimated

Mixture degree of concrete content total
hydration capilary (%) concrete
porosity porosity
(%) (%)
50-N 0.86 8.5 1.3 9.8
50-4 0.86 7.4 3.8 11.2
50-6 0.86 7.3 5.6 12.9
45-N 0.80 7.2 2.0 9.2
45-4 0.80 6.8 4.0 10.8
45-6 0.80 6.8 5.8 12.6
40-N 0.73 6.1 2.4 8.5
40-4 0.73 5.9 4.1 10.0
40-6 0.73 5.8 5.9 11.7
35-N 0.67 5.2 3.0 8.2
35-4 0.67 5.1 3.2 8.3
35-6 0.67 4.9 6.6 11.5
30-N 0.60 4.4 2.1 6.5
30-6a 0.60 4.0 6.2 10.2
30-6b 0.60 4.0 6.3 10.3
25-N 0.54 3.2 2.5 5.7
25-4 0.54 3.2 3.6 6.8
25-6 0.54 3.6 5.0 8.6
43
90–day compressive strength (MPa)

70
60
50
40
R2 = 0.85
30
20
10
0
4 6 8 10 12 14
Total pore volume (% of concrete volume)
Figure 4.13. Compressive strength at 90 days as a function of estimated total porosity.
4.4 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY

mulative charge and water to cement ratio is suggested
The results presented in Table 3.9 indicate a decrease in for water to cement ratios between 0.30 and 0.50. The re-
the total charge passed through the specimen at lower sults also consistently show a lower charge passed at
water to cement ratio. Figure 4.14 shows the data of Table higher air contents for mixtures from the same water to
3.9; a simple linear relationship between the observed cu- cement ratio.
4000
Cumulative charge (coulombs)
3000 mixtures N
mixtures 4
mixtures 6
2000
1000
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 4.14. Total charge at the end of the RCPT as a function of water to cement ratio.
44
120
25-N
30-N
35-N
100
Durability factor 80
60 non-air-entrained mixtures
air-entrained mixtures
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 4.15. Relationship between durability factor and spacing factor.
The influence of water to cement ratio and air con- ratio less than or equal to 0.35 would be necessary to
tent on the charge passed after six hours for mixtures with achieve such a low chloride ion penetrability.
0.30 water to cement ratios between 0.30 and 0.50 was
tested through a multiple regression analysis in which 4.5 FROST RESISTANCE
the variables tested were: water to cement ratio, air con-
tent, interaction between water to cement ratio and air
content, and the quadratic terms of w/c2 and air2. The re- 4.5.1 ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing
sults of this multiple regression showed that only the co-
efficients for water to cement ratio and air content were As shown in Table 3.4, only specimens 50-N, 45-N, 40-
statistically significant. An equation of the following form N and suffered a decrease of the transverse fundamen-
was obtained with an R2 = 0.97. tal frequency, and thus their relative dynamic moduli Ed
after 300 cycles or fewer were significantly smaller than
Charge = - 2800 – 100 air + 14300 w/c (4.4) 100%. The relative Ed is calculated as the squared ratio of
the fundamental transverse frequency at the beginning
where:
of the test to the fundamental transverse frequency at the
Charge = cumulative charge after 6 hours
end of the test. For 50-N, 45-N, and 40-N mixtures, as
(coulombs)
the number of cycles increased, their transverse frequency
air = total air content (%)
decreased. For all other mixtures, the transverse frequency
measured at the end of the test had either increased or
Thus at lower water to cement ratio, the total charge
remained approximately the same.
decreases, while at lower air contents the charge increases.
None of the intentionally air-entrained mixtures suf-
The effect of air content on the total charge passed after
fered frost deterioration, no matter the water to cement
six hours is not as significant as water to cement ratio, as
ratio, total air content, spacing factor, or compressive
can be seen from the constants in Equation 4.4, and from
strength. Figure 4.15 shows the relationship between the
Figure 4.14.
durability factor and the spacing factor. As can be noticed,
According to ASTM C 1202, values of cumulative
the spacing factor is not a clear discriminator of frost resis-
charge less than 2,000 coulombs are indicative of a
tance over the breadth of this study, since durability fac-
specimen with low chloride ion penetrability. For the
tors of about 100 are associated with spacing factors from
mixtures studied here, which did not incorporate any
about 150 to 1100 µm. Excluding the very low water to
supplementary cementitious materials, a water to cement
45
cement ratio non-air-entrained mixtures, however, a high greater than 0.35 to obtain frost resistance. Mixtures with
durability factor was associated with spacing factors less than w/c less or equal to 0.35 were frost resistant regardless of
about 400 µm. This substantiates the observations of others the air void system, for the pre-dried condition of the test.
that higher strength, superplasticized concretes can exhibit
frost resistance with values of ¿ greater than 200 µm. 4.5.2 ASTM C 672
For mixtures with non-air-entraining admixture, the results
as presented in Figure 3.4 indicated that a water to cement ratio Two methods were used to evaluate the surface scaling of
of 0.35 or less was necessary for frost resistance. each specimen: the visual scaling as described in ASTM C
An important consideration in evaluating these re- 672, and the weight of debris collected after each five
sults is the 14-day period of air drying that preceded cycles. Figure 4.16 shows the correlation between the mea-
initiation of the ASTM C 666 testing. According to sured individual weight loss and the ASTM visual rating
Newlon and Mitchell (1994), even a brief period of dry- for each specimen over the entire period of the test. A
ing greatly improves frost durability as measured by best-fit power curve was also obtained and is presented
ASTM C 666. Since it is difficult to resaturate concrete in the graph with the 95% prediction interval. These data
after a period of drying, less freezeable water would be suggest, for example, that a 1 kg/m2 of weight loss of the
present in the pores. Further, the influence of the pre- surface material corresponds to visual evaluations of the
drying may be even more significant, the lower the per- surface between 3 and 4.5. All mixtures with surfaces rated
meability of the concrete. The decreased permeability 2.5 or less lost less than 1.0 kg/m2 of surface material.
of the low w/c mixtures (as suggested by the RCPT re- The scaling resistance is related to the quality of the
sults) would make it difficult to resaturate the concrete, concrete on the surface. In this regard, the time of appli-
thus reducing the amount of freezeable water present. cation of finishing operations could affect the scaling re-
On the other hand, the ASTM C 666 test applies sistance. However, the results presented in Tables 3.5,3.6
conditions much more severe than natural conditions and 3.7 do not indicate an influence of such parameters
concrete is likely to be exposed to in service (Newlon for the water-cured conditions studied here. The visual
and Mitchell 1994, Vanderhost and Jansen 1990, Philleo scaling ratings or weight loss of debris do not differ con-
1987, Pigeon et al. 1985, Lin and Walker 1974). Setzer siderably or follow any consistent pattern from the speci-
(1996) has concluded that the freeze-thaw cycles accel- mens finished early or on time, as can be seen from Fig-
erate the saturation of immersed specimens according ures 4.17 through 4.22.
to his “micro-pump” theory. Based on Setzer’s statement Scaling resistance should also be a function of the
that concrete exposed to freezing and thawing“especially air void system of the mixture. Figures 4-23. and 4-24.
in contact with water, could reach critical saturation very show the weight loss after 50 freeze-thaw cycles as a
fast,”the effects of the 14-day drying period may be nulli- function of spacing factor ( L ) for all mixtures. The weight
fied after a number of freeze-thaw cycles (Auberg and loss was obtained as the average of the mass of debris
Setzer 1998). collected for the on-time and early finishing specimens.
Nevertheless, one can conclude from these results The line representing a total loss of 1 kg/m2 (as discussed
that it is necessary to incorporate air in mixtures with w/c in Chapter 1) of material is also presented.
5
y = –1.06 + 4.68x0.31
r2 = –0.86
4
Visual rating
0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
2
Mass loss (kg/m )
Figure 4.16. Correlation between mass loss and visual rating for each specimen by ASTM C 672
46
3
Time of
finishing
early
on-time
2
Visual rating
0
50-6 45-6 40-6 35-6 30-6A 25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.17. Visual rating for mixtures around 6% air content.
0.6
Time of
finishing
0.5
early
Mass loss (kg/m2)
on-time
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
50-6 45-6 40-6 35-6 30-6A 25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.18. Mass loss for mixtures around 6% air content.
47
5
Time of
finishing
4 early
on-time
Visual rating
3
0
50-4 45-4 40-4 35-4 25-4
Mixture
Figure 4.19. Visual rating for mixtures around 4% air content.
1.4
Time of
finishing
1.2
early
Mass loss (kg/m2)
1.0 on-time
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
50-4 45-4 40-4 35-4 25-4
Mixture
Figure 4.20. Mass loss for mixtures around 4% air content.
48
5
Time of
finishing
4 early
on-time
Visual rating 3
0
50-N 45-N 40-N 35-N 30-N 25-N
Mixture
Figure 4.21. Visual rating for non-air-entrained mixtures.
2
Time of
finishing
1.6 early
Mass loss (kg/m2)
on-time
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
50-N 45-N 40-N 35-N 30-N 25-N
Mixture
Figure 4.22. Mass loss for non-air-entrained mixtures.
49
2.0
Mass loss after 50 cycles (kg/m2)

water to cement ratio
0.50
1.5
0.45
0.40
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 200 400 600 800
Figure 4.23. Mass loss as a function of ÷ for mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.50, 0.45, and 0.40.
2.0
Mass loss after 50 cycles (kg/m2)

0.35
1.5 0.30
0.25
1.0
0.5
.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 4.24. Mass loss as a function of ÷ for mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.35, 0.30, and 0.25.
Figures 4.23 and 4.24 show that all mixtures with a 4.24. In fact, no air entrainment was necessary for mix-
spacing factor less than 200 µm can be considered scaling tures with water to cement ratio of 0.30 or less.
resistant (as defined by a weight loss at the end of the test However, weight loss on the surface is not the only
of less than 1.0 kg/m2). On the other hand, mixtures with indicator of scaling resistance. The visual quality of the
¿ around 250 µm showed mixed results; some were scal- surface is important as well. In this sense, Figures 4.23 and
ing resistant while others were not. When the water to 4.24 were transformed using the visual rating values for
cement ratio decreases to a 0.30 level, it seems that the each mixture, and are presented in Figures 4.25 and 4.26.
requirement for an ¿ of around 200 µm is no longer nec- A visual rating between 2 and 3 corresponding to moder-
essary to achieve scaling resistance, as shown in Figure ate scaling, as seen from Figure 2.3, may be considered
50
satisfactory for scaling resistance, resulting in the scaling Again, a spacing factor of around 200 µm was neces-
rating of 2.5 shown in Figures 4.25 and 4.26. Moreover, sary to achieve a minimum visual rating of approximately
according to Figure 4.16, all mixtures that suffered scaling 2.5 for all mixtures but those with water to cement ratio of
at levels below 2.5 in the visual rating had weight loss less 0.25. These latter mixtures achieved a visual rating below
than 1.0 kg/m2. 2.5, even though the spacing factors were much higher.
4
Visual rating
2
0.50
1 0.45
0.40
0
0 200 400 600 800
Figure 4.25. Visual rating as a function of ÷ for mixtures with water to
cement ratio of 0.50, 0.45, and 0.40.
4
Visual rating
2
1 0.35
0.30
0.25
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 4.26. Visual rating as a function of ÷ for mixtures with water to
cement ratio of 0.35, 0.30, and 0.25.
51
Mixture parameters include the water to cement ra- tures unexplained. It is noted, however, that mixture 50 did
tio and the total air content. The effect of water to cement not have superplasticizer, while mixture 45 had a dosage
ratio on scaling behavior can be seen from Figure 4.27. around 0.2% of mass of superplasticizer as mass of cement.
This figure represents the dependence of weight loss at On the other hand, mixtures 40, 35, 30, and 25 had dosages
40 cycles (average of on-time and early finished speci- from 2 to 10 times that of mixture 45. It is unclear whether
mens) with water to cement ratios for all mixtures. The this had an effect on scaling resistance.
weight loss of scaled material observed at 40 cycles was The effect of air content can be better seen from the
chosen instead of 50 cycles since there were no values data of mixtures 40, 35, 30, and 25, as presented in Figure
recorded for mixture 40-N after 40 cycles. 4.28 and in Figure 4.29. The relation between weight of
In general, as the water to cement ratio increased, the scaled material and total air content, and air content in
average weight loss increased as well. However, it is inter- paste are presented in Figures 4.28 and 4.29, respectively.
esting to notice that for mixtures with air entrainment (mix- It can be seen that for such mixtures, as the total air con-
tures-4, and mixtures-6), the mass loss at water to cement tent and air content in paste increased, the average weight
ratio of 0.45 and 0.50 was less than that occurring at water loss decreased.
to cement ratio of 0.35 and 0.40. A review of values of spac- Figure 4.30 shows the average mass loss after 40 cycles
ing factors associated with these data leaves the better per- as a function of the total porosity of the mixture, as calcu-
formance of the 0.45 and 0.50 water to cement ratio mix- lated from Equation 4.3 and the total air content.
5
mixtures – N
Average mass loss (kg/m2)
mixtures – 4
4 mixtures – 6
0
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Figure 4.27. Measured mass loss at various water to cement ratio at 40 cycles.
3.0
0.25
0.30
at 40 cycles (kg/m2)
Average mass loss
2.0 0.35
0.40
1.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total air content (%)
Figure 4.28. Measured mass loss at various air contents after 40 cycles .
52
3.0
0.25
0.30
Average mass loss 0.35
2.0
0.40
1.0
0.0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Air content in paste
Figure 4.29. Measured mass loss after 40 cycles at various air contents in paste.
5.0
0.25
4.0
0.30
Average mass loss
0.35
3.0 0.40
0.45
0.50
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Total pore volume (% of concrete volume)
Figure 4.30. Measured mass loss after 40 cycles at various total porosities.
A multiple regression analysis was then performed Using Equation 4.5 for the superplasticized high-
to obtain an equation relating the average weight loss, strength mixtures (w/c = 0.40 and less) with the results
the w/c and the air content in paste. An equation of the presented in Table 3.6 at 50 cycles, the best-fit surface was
following form was seen to express such relationship. obtained and is presented in Figure 4.31.
The best-fit curve indicates that in order to obtain an
C2(w/c) C3(Ap) (4.5) average weight loss less than 1 kg/m2 after 50 cycles of
W=C1e e
freeze-thaw (per ASTM C 672), the minimum air content
where: in the paste fraction at various w/c are those presented in
W = weight of scaled material Table 4.3. Table 4.3 also presents the minimum air content
C1, C2, C3 = constants in concrete, assuming a paste content of 30%. Thus, a mix-
w/c = water/cement ratio of the mixture ture with w/c of 0.30 or less would not require entrained
Ap = air content in paste air based on the weight loss of the concrete surface.
53
Table 4.3. Minimum Air Content at Various Water to Cement Ratios
Minimum Minimum
Water to air content air content
cement in paste in concrete
ratio (%) (%)
0.40 15.8 4.8
0.35 10.5 3.2
0.30 5.2 1.6
0.25 — —
C2(w/c) C3(Ap)
W=C1e e
r2=0.89 C1=-.04 C2=12.8 C3=0.12
3
W (kg/m2)
0
0.4 10
0.35 15
0.3 20
0.25
0.2 25
Water to cement ratio Air in paste (%)
Figure 4.31. Best-fit surface relating average weight loss (W), air content in paste, and water to
cement ratio.
However, as discussed before, a visual evaluation conservative conclusion from both analyses (weight loss
of the surface is also important to assess scaling resis- of scaled material and visual evaluation) would be that
tance. Toward this end, mixture 30-N (without air en- the maximum water to cement ratio to achieve scaling re-
training) suffered surface deterioration equivalent to a sistance without the benefits of air entraining would be
level 3.5 (from Table 3.5), which corresponds to moderate 0.25. This conclusion agrees with findings from other re-
to severe scaling. Such a level of deterioration is, of course, searchers (Li et al. 1994, Gagné et al. 1992).
not satisfactory for most applications. Therefore, a more
54
4.6 APPLICABILITY OF ACI 318

REQUIREMENTS
4.6.1 ACI Requirements
ACI 318-99 includes minimum durability requirements for The second line of Table 4-4. shows the code require-
freezing and thawing exposures based on the water- ments for the mixture used in this study, all of which in-
cementitious ratio, compressive strength, and total air con- corporated a coarse aggregate with a nominal maximum
tent. These requirements depend on the level of exposure, size of 12.5 mm.
which can be severe or moderate. Severe exposure is de- With the exception of mixture 50-6, all of the mixtures
fined as the cases in which concrete may be in almost con- studied could be classified as qualifying for the 1% reduc-
tinuous contact with moisture prior to freezing, or where tion in air content for complying with a specified strength
deicing salts are used. Moderate exposure, on the other requirement of 34.5 MPa (5000 psi). This would be valid as
hand, is where concrete will be only occasionally exposed long as the standard deviation of the production facility was
to moisture prior to freezing, and where no deicing salts no greater than about 3.1 MPa (450 psi) (ACI 318 Section
are used. 5.3.2). For the same standard deviation, mixture 50-6 would
ACI 318 requirements for total air content are sum- meet a specification requirement for only about 29 MPa.
marized in Table 4.4, which incorporates not only the ACI Required air content for mixture 50-6 thus comes from the
318 tabular data (ACI 318 Table 4.2.1), but also the ACI ACI 318 category for ˘ <34.5 MPa, while required air con-
provisions that the “tolerance on air content as delivered tent for all other mixtures is as per ACI 318 for ˘ >34.5 MPa.
shall be ± 1.5%.” Further, ACI 318 states that total air con-
tent may be reduced by 1% for “specified compressive
strength ˘ greater than 34.5 MPa (5000 psi).”
Table 4.4. ACI 318-99 Requirements for Frost-Resistant Concrete
Air content (%)

Nominal
maximum fc' < 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) fc' >34.5 MPa (5000 psi)
aggregate Severe Moderate Severe Moderate
size (mm) exposure exposure exposure exposure
9.5 6.0–9.0 4.5–7.5 5.0–8.0 3.5–6.5
12.5 5.5–8.5 4.0–7.0 4.5–7.5 3.0–6.0
19.0 4.5–7.5 3.5–6.5 3.5–6.5 2.5–5.5
25.0 4.5–7.5 3.0–6.0 3.5–6.5 2.0–5.0
37.5 4.0–7.0 3.0–6.0 3.0–6.0 2.0–5.0
50.0 3.5–6.5 2.5–5.5 2.5–5.5 1.5–4.5
75.0 3.0–6.0 2.0–5.0 2.0–5.0 1.0–4.0
55
4.6.2 Compliance of Test Mixtures It would appear, therefore, that the ACI 318 require-
with ACI 318-99 Requirements for ments for air content conservatively define frost-resis-
tant concrete, even when the 1% reduction is taken into
Total Air Content account for concrete complying with a specified strength
of 34.5 MPa, and even when the 1.5% tolerance is taken
Table 4.5 shows a summary of the results obtained in into account. In fact, were it not for the 1.5% code toler-
the present study. Data are presented for water to ce- ance, only three mixtures from the entire study would
ment ratio, average compressive strength at 28 days, to- have qualified for a severe exposure, even though all but
tal air content in the concrete, and the expected severity three mixes scored 80 or above in the ASTM C 666 test.
of exposure that could be tolerated on the basis of ACI It is suggested that application of the ACI 318 require-
318 requirements for air content. The table also includes ment for air content without recognition of the 1% re-
the actual performance in ASTM C 666 freeze-thaw and duction for higher strength concrete, and without full
ASTM C 672 scaling tests. On the basis of total air con- recognition of the 1.5% tolerance would be unecon-
tent requirements alone, mixtures 50-6, 45-6, 40-6, 35- omically conservative.
6, 30-6a, 30-6b, and 25-6 would be acceptable under the As a final note on air content, it is clear that in a
code for severe exposure, while mixtures 50-4, 45-4, 40- general discussion of frost resistance it is insufficient to
4, 35-N, 35-4, and 25-4 would meet code requirements consider total air content without regard to air void size
for moderate exposure. On the basis of total air content, and spatial distribution, even though ACI 318 contains
mixtures 50-N, 45-N, 40-N, 30-N, and 25-N did not meet no requirements for either specific surface (a), or spac-
ACI 318 requirements for frost durability. This result is ing factor ¿. In this study, however, there was a general
graphically presented in Figure 4.32. relationship between air content and spacing factor for
Figures 4.33 and 4.34 are graphic comparisons of all but two of the mixtures studied (see Figure 4.9). This
ACI 318 allowable exposure with ASTM C 666 and is a result of a reasonably consistent specific surface
ASTM C 672 test results, respectively. Mixtures that com- coupled with the effects of paste volume. For that rea-
plied with ACI 318 air content requirements for severe son, conclusions can be drawn on the basis of air con-
exposure (50-6, 45-6, 40-6, 35-6, 30-6A, 30-6B, and 25- tent within the context of this study. Refer also to the
6) performed well in both ASTM C 666 and ASTM C discussions in sections 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 concerning spac-
672 tests. For these mixtures, the durability factor (ASTM ing factor, durability factor, and scaling resistance.
C 666) ranged from 99 to 107, while the weight loss of
surface material was 0.3 to 0.6 kg/m2, and the visual rat- 4.6.3 Compliance of Test Mixtures with
ing of the scaled surface was 1.2 to 2.7 (ASTM C 672).
The mixtures that complied with ACI 318 air content
ACI 318-99 Requirements for water to
requirements for moderate exposure (50-4, 45-4, 40-4, 35- cement ratio
N, 35-4, and 25-4) also performed well in the ASTM C
666 test, with durability factors ranging from 98 to 104. Section 4.2.2 of the code requires that concrete exposed
According to ACI 318, deicing salts are not present in a to freezing and thawing in a moist condition or exposed
moderate exposure, and thus these mixtures do not need to deicing chemicals have a maximum water-cementitious
to be deicing-salt scaling resistant. Nevertheless, the re- materials ratio of 0.45. By that standard, none of the mix-
sults from the ASTM C 672 test showed that mixture 25-4 tures with a water to cement ratio of 0.50 would have com-
performed as well as the mixtures qualifying for severe plied with code requirements, although it was observed
exposure, suffering weight loss of only 0.2 kg/m2 and with that concrete with a water to cement ratio of 0.50 was
an average visual rating of 1.9. The other mixtures quali- highly resistant to freeze-thaw damage when tested by
fying for moderate exposure under ACI 318 air content ASTM C 666 for air contents of 3.8% and 5.6%. Thus, con-
requirements had scaling weight losses of 0.4 to 1.4 kg/ crete that does not comply with the code requirements
m2, and visual scale ratings from 2.7 to 4.1. for water to cement ratio can be frost resistant. All air-
Even though mixture 25-N would not have qualified entrained mixtures at a water to cement ratio less than or
as frost resistant by ACI 318 requirements for air content, equal to 0.45 proved to be frost resistant when tested un-
this mixture performed as well as those qualifying for se- der ASTM C 666. Mixtures 40-4 (4.1% air) and 35-4 (3.2%
vere exposure. Similarly, mixture 30-N behaved as well as air) exhibited objectionable scaling (ASTM C 672 with 1.0
those qualifying for moderate exposure. Only mixtures 50- kg/m2 weight loss criterion imposed). Mixtures with w/c
N, 45-N, and 40-N can be considered non-frost resistant of 0.50 performed well in scaling tests at air contents of
on the basis of both the ACI air content criteria and the 3.8% and 5.6%.
standard test results.
56
Table 4.5. Compliance of Mixtures with ACI 318 Air Content Requirements for Frost Durability
Air content Tolerable ASTM C 666 ASTM C 672

Average fc in exposure durability average average
Mixture w/c at 28 days concrete severity per factor weight loss visual
2
(MPa) (%) ACI 318 (%) (kg/m ) rating
50-N 0.50 42.1 1.3 None 9 > 6.0 5.0
50-4 0.50 38.6 3.8 Moderate 98 0.4 2.7
50-6 0.50 33.4 5.6 Severe 99 0.3 2.4
45-N 0.45 48.6 2.0 None 28 > 3.7 5.0
45-4 0.45 45.2 4.0 Moderate 101 0.7 3.0
45-6 0.45 42.0 5.8 Severe 101 0.4 2.1
40-N 0.40 49.2 2.4 None 80 > 3.2 5.0
40-4 0.40 41.4 4.1 Moderate 104 1.1 3.5
40-6 0.40 39.9 5.9 Severe 105 0.6 2.7
35-N 0.35 59.1 3.0 Moderate 101 1.4 4.1
57
35-4 0.35 46.0 3.2 Moderate 102 1.0 3.2

35-6 0.35 44.6 6.6 Severe 107 0.3 2.4
30-N 0.30 55.5 2.1 None 98 0.5 3.7
30-6A 0.30 54.5 6.2 Severe 103 0.4 2.0
30-6B 0.30 51.4 6.3 Severe 102 0.4 2.1
25-N 0.25 44.6 2.5 None 101 0.4 2.4
25-4 0.25 50.0 3.6 Moderate 103 0.2 1.9
25-6 0.25 52.5 5.0 Severe 104 0.1 1.2
PCA RD122
58
Level of allowable exposure by ACI 318

requirements for air content
50-N
none
severe
50-4
moderate
50-6
45-N
45-4
45-6
10-N
10-4
10-6
35-N
Mixture
35-4
35-6
30-N
30-6A
30-6B
25-N
25-4
25-6
Figure 4.32. Level of allowable exposure for all mixtures according to ACI 318 requirements for air content.

Level of Exposure by ACI 318 for Air Content
None Moderate Severe

120
100
Durability factor
80
60
40
59
20
0
50-N
45-N
40-N
30-N
25-N
50-4
45-4
40-4
35-N
35-4
25-4
50-6
45-6
40-6
35-6
30-6A
30-6B
25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.33. Comparison between level of exposure according to ACI 318 requirements for air content and actual performance
in the ASTM C 666 tests.
PCA RD122
PCA RD122
Level of Exposure by ACI 318 for Air Content
Visual rating
Weight loss
None Moderate Severe
6 3.0
5 2.5
Weight loss (kg/m2)

4 2.0
Visual rating
3 1.5
2 1.0
60

1 0.5
0 0.0
50-N
45-N
40-N
30-N
25-N
50-4
45-4
40-4
35-N
35-4
25-4
50-6
45-6
40-6
35-6
30-6A
30-6B
25-6
Mixture
Figure 4.34. Comparison between level of exposure according to ACI 318 requirements for air content and actual
performance in the ASTM C 672 tests.
4.6.4 Compliance of Test Mixtures with the 211.1 guidelines are based on average 28-day strength,
ACI 318-99 Requirements for more or less the same relationship is used by 318 for speci-
Specified Compressive Strength fied 28-day strength.
Figure 4.35 also displays the average 28-day strength
values obtained for the mixtures studied. In each case the
In addition to the maximum limit of 0.45 on water to ce-
actual average strength obtained exceeded the values from
ment ratio, the code sets a minimum specified compres-
both ACI 211.1 and ACI 318, indicating that the ACI 211.1
sive strength ˘ of 31.0 MPa (ACI Table 4.2.2) for concrete
values underestimate the average strengths for the mate-
exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist condition, or
rials used, and indicating that ACI 318 values appropri-
exposed to deicing chemicals. As discussed earlier, all of
ately account for the difference between specified and
the mixtures had a sufficiently high average 28-day com-
average strength for this set of materials.
pressive strength to comply with the specified value of
34.5 MPa (5000 psi) for the 1% reduction in the air con-
tent requirements, with the exception of 50-6. That mix- 4.6.5 Assessing ACI 318 Requirements
ture, with an average 28-day strength of 33.4 MPa, could for Air Content, Water to Cement Ratio
not meet a 34.5 MPa specification at all, and could meet and Strength
the 31.0 MPa specification only with a producer’s stan-
dard deviation of 1.8 MPa or less. This would require a Table 4.6 shows the exposure conditions for which all con-
coefficient of variation of about 5%. Although mixture 50- cretes tested would comply with all ACI 318 criteria for
6 is therefore out of compliance with the ACI 318 code for frost resistance, along with actual performance data. It is
frost-resistant concrete on the basis of water to observed that concrete meeting the code requirements for
cementitious materials ratio, and probably out of compli- severe exposure consistently correlates with observed du-
ance on the basis of strength, this mix did perform well in rability factors (ASTM C 666) in the range of 99 to 107,
actual tests. weight loss below 1.0 kg/m2, and visual scaling rating be-
While discussing the ACI water to cementitious ma- low 2.7 (ASTM C 672). Similarly, concrete meeting code
terials ratio and strength requirements, it is of interest to requirements for moderate exposure correlates with ob-
note that ACI Table 4.2.2 associates a water to cement ra- served durability factors (ASTM C 666) in the range of 98
tio of 0.50 with a specified 28-day compressive strength to 104, with generally poorer scaling results (up to 1.4 kg/
of 27.6 MPa, a water to cement ratio of 0.45 with 31.0 MPa, m2 weight loss and up to 4.1 visual rating). This appears to
and a water to cement ratio of 0.40 with 34.5 MPa. As be in agreement with ACI 318 definitions where severe
shown in Figure 4.35, this implied relationship closely cor- exposure anticipates the presence of deicing salts but
responds to that included in the ACI 211.1 mixture pro- moderate exposure does not.
portioning guidelines (ACI Committee 211 1991). Whereas
70
28-day compressive strength (MPa)
60
50
40
30
High air-entrained mixtures
20 Low air-entrained mixtures
ACI 318-95—Specified stength
10
ACI 211.1—Average strength
0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
Figure 4.35. Relationship between average 28-day compressive strength and ACI 318, and
ACI 211.1 recommendations.
61
On the other hand, ACI 318 requirements are con- mens were allowed a 2-week drying period before freez-
servative, particularly in regard to lower strength mixtures ing (see section 4.5.1). Further, all tests were based on the
with reasonable air contents. Mixtures with a water to ce- relatively rapid freezing rates of ASTM C 666 and C 672,
ment ratio in excess of 0.45, and perhaps not meeting a which tend to favor the hydraulic pressure damage mecha-
strength of 31 MPa were shown to be frost-resistant when nism. Concrete more susceptible to damage by ice accre-
properly air entrained (mixture 50-6). Similarly, code pro- tion might perform differently in tests with a slower freez-
visions are also conservative in regard to air content re- ing rate and a longer, sustained freeze cycle. However, to
quired for low water to cement ratio mixtures, where con- the degree to which these test results simulate an actual
cretes considered under code criteria to be non-frost re- exposure condition, this study suggests that to obtain frost
sistant and those considered to be only moderately resis- resistance as defined by both ASTM C 666 and ASTM C
tant performed as well as those considered to be resistant 672, air entrainment is not necessary for mixtures with a
to a severe environment (mixtures 25-N and 25-4). One water to cement ratio of 0.25. When scaling resistance is
must recall, however, that these observations are based in not required, air entrainment may not be necessary for
part on a modified ASTM C 666 test in which the speci- mixtures with a water to cement ratio ≤0.35.
Table 4.6. Compliance of Mixtures with ACI 318 Air Content Requirements for Frost Durability, Including Total
Air Content, Water to Cementitious Material Ratio, and ¯
Air Tolerable ASTM C 666 ASTM C 672

Average ¯ content in exposure durability Average Average
Mixture w/c at 28 days concrete severity per factor weight loss visual
2
(MPa) (%) ACI 318 (%) (kg/m ) rating
50-N 0.50 42.1 1.3 None 9 > 6.0 5.0
50-4 0.50 38.6 3.8 None 98 0.4 2.7
50-6 0.50 33.4 5.6 None 99 0.3 2.4
45-N 0.45 48.6 2.0 None 28 > 3.7 5.0
45-4 0.45 45.2 4.0 Moderate 101 0.7 3.0
45-6 0.45 42.0 5.8 Severe 101 0.4 2.1
40-N 0.40 49.2 2.4 None 80 > 3.2 5.0
40-4 0.40 41.4 4.1 Moderate 104 1.1 3.5
40-6 0.40 39.9 5.9 Severe 105 0.6 2.7
35-N 0.35 59.1 3.0 Moderate 101 1.4 4.1
35-4 0.35 46.0 3.2 Moderate 102 1.0 3.2
35-6 0.35 44.6 6.6 Severe 107 0.3 2.4
30-N 0.30 55.5 2.1 None 98 0.5 3.7
30-6A 0.30 54.5 6.2 Severe 103 0.4 2.0
30-6B 0.30 51.4 6.3 Severe 102 0.4 2.1
25-N 0.25 44.6 2.5 None 101 0.4 2.4
25-4 0.25 50.0 3.6 Moderate 103 0.2 1.9
25-6 0.25 52.5 5.0 Severe 104 0.1 1.2
62
CHAPTER 5
SIGNIFICANT OBSERVATIONS
AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 FRESH CONCRETE—SLUMP AND 5.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

SETTING TIMES
• For the mixtures studied, in the water to cement ratio
• For a given water content, the same dosage of high- range of 0.30 to 0.50, an increase of 1% in the air con-
range water reducer produced a greater relative tent corresponded to a decrease in compressive
slump increase for air-entrained mixtures than for strength of about 2.6 MPa. A corresponding decrease
non-air-entrained mixtures. of 10 MPa in the compressive strength would be ex-
• Slump may be predicted as a function of water con- pected when 4% of air is incorporated in the total
tent and dosage of HRWRA. volume of concrete.
• Higher dosages of the HRWRA retarded setting. • A decrease of the water to cement ratio of about 0.14
• There is a consistent relationship between set time corresponded to an increase in compressive strength
and HRWRA dosage. of the order of 10 MPa.
• Setting did not appear to be affected by air content. • There was an observed linear relationship between
the cement-voids ratio (as calculated according to
5.2 AIR CONTENT AND AIR VOID MINNDOT) and the 90-day compressive strength
for mixtures with water to cement ratio greater than
PARAMETERS or equal to 0.35. For mixtures with water to cement
ratio of 0.30 and 0.25, this linear relationship over-
• The three methods used to evaluate air content: pres- estimated compressive strength.
sure method (ASTM C 213) and gravimetric method • A consistent linear relationship between total por-
(ASTM C 138) in fresh concrete, and microscopic osity (based on the Powers model) and compressive
evaluation (ASTM C 457) in hardened concrete, strength was obtained for all mixtures.
yielded similar values. The maximum difference
between the three results for any sample was 1.5%. 5.4 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY
No one method was consistently the highest or
lowest.
• An approximate relationship was found to exist be- • An expression was developed to correlate charge
tween the dosage of air-entraining admixture and passed in coulombs to air content and water to ce-
the air content of the paste. ment ratio.
• The microscopic evaluation of the air void system • Both air content and water to cement ratio affected
(ATM C 457) showed spacing factors often greater the rapid chloride permeability results, with water
than 500 µm for the non-air-entrained mixtures, and to cement ratio having a much more pronounced
values generally slightly higher than 200 µm for the effect.
air-entrained mixtures. • For the mixtures studied here, a maximum water to
• Given more or less consistent paste content and spe- cement ratio of 0.35 would be necessary to achieve a
cific surface of air-entrained mixtures, an approxi- maximum charge of 2000 coulombs in the RCPT, in-
mately consistent relationship exists between air con- dicating a mixture with a potentially low chloride ion
tent in the concrete and spacing factor. penetrability.
63
5.5 FROST RESISTANCE • An exponential relationship was found between the

mass of scaled material and the water to cement ra-
5.5.1 ASTM C 666 with Modified Curing tio and air content of the paste for the super-
plasticized mixtures.
• The ASTM C 666 tests were intentionally conducted • Entrained air was necessary to provide scaling resis-
with a 14-day drying period prior to the initiation of tance for mixtures with water to cement ratio of 0.30
freezing in water. The effect that this drying period or greater.
may have had on the results is discussed in this report.
• The ASTM C 666 test, when evaluated via resonant 5.6 APPLICABILITY OF ACI 318-99
frequency, assesses damage in the core or “bulk” of
REQUIREMENTS TO FROST
the specimen.
• It was possible to obtain durability factors close to DURABILITY OF HIGH-STRENGTH
100 for mixtures with entrained air at water to ce- CONCRETE
ment ratio of 0.50 or lower.
• Durability factors close to 100 were also achieved with- • Mixtures were evaluated against ACI 318 criteria, tak-
out air entrainment at water to cement ratio equal to ing into account the 1% reduction in required air
or less than 0.35. content for mixtures complying with a specified
• Durability factors of about 100 were obtained for 28-day compressive strength of at least 34.5 MPa.
spacing factors varying from 150 to 1100 µm. • Mixtures were evaluated against ACI 318 criteria, also
• Excluding non-air-entrained mixtures with very low taking into account the 1.5% tolerance on total air
water to cement ratio, a high durability factor was as- content as delivered.
sociated with spacing factors less than about 400 µm. • It would appear that ACI 318 requirements for total
• The higher strength, low water to cement ratio, air content conservatively define frost-resistant con-
superplasticized concretes tested here exhibited frost crete, even with the 1% reduction for higher strength,
resistance based on the modified ASTM C 666 test and with the 1.5% tolerance.
with spacing factors greater than 200 µm. • Were it not for the 1.5% tolerance, only three mix-
tures from the entire study would have qualified for
a severe exposure, even though all but three mix-
5.5.2 ASTM C 672
tures performed well in ASTM C 666 testing.
• The ASTM C 672 test evaluates the scaling resistance • The requirement that water to cement ratio be less than
of the surface of the concrete, i.e., the zone which is or equal to 0.45 for frost resistance is conservative. Air-
most affected by finishing and curing operations. entrained mixtures with a water to cement ratio of 0.50
• A relationship between the visual scaling rating and were frost and scale resistant.
the measured weight loss of the scaled material • The requirement that concrete comply with a speci-
was obtained. The visual rating was found pro- fied 28-day compressive strength of at least 31 MPa
portional to the weight loss to the power 0.3. is conservative. One mixture studied would not
• All mixtures with a visual rating of 2.5 or less lost comply with such a specification, but was never-
less than 1.0 kg/m2 of surface material. theless frost resistant.
• Time of finishing did not consistently affect the scal- • The relationship between water to cement ratio and
ing resistance of the mixtures studied, which were f c' implied in ACI 318 closely matches the relation-
generally characterized by low rates of bleeding. ship between water to cement ratio and average 28-
All specimens were wet cured, however, which day strength found in ACI 211.1. The ACI relation-
may have mitigated any effects of finishing (Falconi ship between water to cement ratio and fc' appears
1996). to account for the difference between specified and
• A maximum spacing factor of 200 µm ensured scal- average compressive strength.
ing resistance. • Concrete meeting the code requirements for severe
• Mixtures with a spacing factor of around 250 µm exposure consistently correlated with observed du-
showed mixed results, as some were scaling resis- rability factors (ASTM C 666) in the range of 99 to
tant while others were not. 107, weight loss below 1.0 kg/m2, and visual scaling
• Non-air-entrained mixtures with water to cement rating below 2.7 (ASTM C 672). Similarly, concrete
ratio of 0.25 were scaling resistant regardless of the meeting code requirements for moderate exposure
spacing factor. correlated with observed durability factors (ASTM C
• Scaling resistance is affected by both the water to 666) in the range of 98 to 104, with generally poorer
cement ratio and the air void system. scaling results (up to 1.4 kg/m2 weight loss and up to
64
4.1 visual rating). This appears to be in agreement

with ACI 318 definitions where severe exposure an-
ticipates the presence of deicing salts but moderate
exposure does not.
• This study suggests that to obtain frost resistance as
defined by both ASTM C 666 and ASTM C 672, air
entrainment is not necessary for mixtures with wa-
ter to cement ratio of 0.25. When scaling resistance
is not required, air entrainment may not be neces-
sary for mixtures with water to cement ratio < 0.35.
• These observations apply to concrete that is wet cured
and incorporates only portland cement, water, frost-
resistant aggregates, and chemical admixtures. No
supplementary cementing materials were used. The
ACI 318 limits apply to concretes with and without
fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica
fume, or other pozzolans. These findings may there-
fore not apply to mixtures incorporating such supple-
mentary cementing materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported in this paper (PCA R&D Serial No.

2387) was conducted by Cornell University, with the spon-
sorship of the Portland Cement Association (PCA Research
Fellowship No. F18-96). The contents of this paper re-
flect the views of the author, who is responsible for the
facts and accuracy of the data presented. The contents do
not necessarily reflect the views of the Portland Cement
Association
65
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68
METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS To convert trom to multiply by

The following list provides the conversion relationship between Mass (weight) per length
U.S. customary units and SI (International System) units. The kip per linear foot kilogram per meter 0.001488
proper conversion procedure is to multiply the specified value on (kif) (kg/m)
the left (primarily U.S. customary values) by the conversion factor pound per linear foot kilogram per meter 1.488
exactly as given below and then round to the appropriate number
of significant digits desired. For example, to convert 11.4 ft to (pif) (kg/m)
meters: 11.4 X 0.3048 = 3.47472, which rounds to 3.47 meters. Do Mass per volume (density)
not round either value before performing the multiplication, as pound per cubic foot kilogram per cubic 16.01846
accuracy would be reduced. A complete guide to the SI system (pcf) meter (kg/cu m)
and its use can be found in IEEE/ASTM SI-10, Metric Practice. pound per cubic yard kilogram per cubic 0.5933
(lb/cu yd) meter (kg/cu m)
To convert trom to multiply by
Temperature
Length degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius tC = (tF – 32)/1.8
inch (in.) micron (µ) 25,400 E* (°F) (°C)
inch (in.) centimeter (cm) 2.54 E degree Fahrenheit degree Kelvin tK = (tF + 459.7)/1.8
inch (in.) meter (m) 0.0254 E (°F) (°K)
foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048 E degree Kelvin (°K) degree Celsius tC = tK – 273.15
yard (yd) meter (m) 0.9144 (C* )
Area Energy and heat
square foot (sq ft) square meter (sq m) 0.09290304 E British thermal unit joule ( J) 1055.056
square inch (sq in.) square centimeter 6.452 E (Btu)
(sq cm) calorie (cal) joule ( J) 4.1868 E
square inch (sq in.) square meter (sq m) 0.00064516 E Btu/°F hr • ft2 W/m2 • °K 5.678263
square yard (sq yd) square meter (sq m) 0.8361274 kilowatt-hour (kwh) joule ( J) 3,600,000. E
Volume British thermal unit calories per 0.55556
cubic inch (cu in.) cubic centimeter (cu 16.387064 per pound (Btu/lb) gram (cal/g)
cm) British thermal unit watt (W) 0.2930711
cubic inch (cu in.) cubic meter (cu m) 0.00001639 per hour (Btu/hr)
cubic foot (cu ft) cubic meter (cu m) 0.02831685 Power
cubic yard (cu yd) cubic meter (cu m) 0.7645549 horsepower (hp) watt (W) 745.6999 E
gallon (gal) Can. Iiquid liter 4.546 (550 ft-lb/sec)
gallon (gal) Can. Iiquid cubic meter (cu m) 0.004546
gallon (gal) U.S. Iiquid** liter 3.7854118 Velocity
gallon (gal) U.S. Iiquid cubic meter (cu m) 0.00378541 mile per hour (mph) kilometer per hour 1.60934
fluid ounce (fl oz) milliliters (ml) 29.57353 (km/hr)
fluid ounce (fl oz) cubic meter (cu m) 0.00002957 mile per hour (mph) meter per second (m/s) 0.44704
Force Permeability
kip (10001b) kilogram (kg) 453.6 darcy centimeter per second 0.000968
kip (10001b) newton (N) 4,448.222 (cm/sec)
pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.4535924 feet per day (ft/day) centimeter per second 0.000352
avoirdupois (cm/sec)
pound (lb) newton (N) 4.448222 *E indicates that the factor given is exact.
Pressure or stress **One U.S. gallon equals 0.8327 Canadian gallon.
kip per square inch megapascal (MPa) 6.894757 †A pascal equals 1.000 newton per square meter.
(ksi) Note:
kip per square inch kilogram per square 70.31 One U.S. gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds (U.S.) at 60°F.
(ksi) centimeter (kg/sq cm) One cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds (U.S.).
pound per square kilogram per square 4.8824 One milliliter of water has a mass of 1 gram and has a volume of one
foot (psf) meter (kg/sq m) cubic centimeter.
pound per square pascal (Pa)† 47.88 One U.S. bag of cement weighs 94 lb.
foot (psf) The prefixes and symbols listed below are commonly used to form
pound per square kilogram per square 0.07031 names and symbols of the decimal multiples and submultiples of
inch (psi) centimeter (kg/sq cm) the SI units.
pound per square pascal (Pa)† 6,894.757
Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol
inch (psi)
1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
pound per square megapascal (MPa) 0.00689476
1,000,000 = 106 mega M
inch (psi)
1,000 = 103 kilo k
Mass (weight) 1 =100, — —
pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.4535924 0.01 = 10-2 centi c
avoirdupois 0.001 = 10-3 milli m
ton, 2000 lb kilogram (kg) 907.1848 0.000001 = 10-6 micro µ
grain kilogram (kg) 0.0000648 0.000000001 = 10-9 nano n
69
P O R T L A N D C E M E N T A S S O C I AT I O N
5420 Old Orchard Road

Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083
Phone: 847.966.6200
Fax: 847.966.9781
Internet: www.portcement.org
An organization of cement companies to improve and

extend the uses of portland cement and concrete
through market development, engineering, research,
education, and public affairs work.
RD122.01

Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

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Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

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FROST AND SCALING

Research & Development Bulletin RD122

This publication is intended SOLELY for use by PROFES-

©2001 Portland Cement Association

RD122.01 PCA R&D Serial No. 2387

by Roberto C. A. Pinto and Kenneth C. Hover

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

© 2001 Portland Cement Association RD122

4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5. SIGNIFICANT OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS ................................................................................................... 69

crete (Philleo 1987, Foy 1988, Pigeon 1994). The spacing

Newlon and Mitchell (1994) present an historical evo- Pn N

1.6 PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH

Table 2.1. Experimental Methods Used for Each Mixture

35-6 428 151 629 1063 3.4 60 0.95% 6.6

Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

Coarse agg. (kg)

Table 2.3. Paste Content and Air in Paste

Air-free paste Air content in

All materials in the mixer

Check target air content of the mixture

Achieved Not achieved

Pressure air content,

3.1 FRESH CONCRETE TESTS

Table 3.1. Fresh Concrete Parameters

50-N 29 225 2350 — 1.3 0.3

Table 3.2. Initial and final set times (ASTM C 403)

Average Initial set Final set

Figure 3.1. Setting behavior for typical mixtures.

Table 3.3. Compressive Strength Results (MPa)

Mixture 28 days 90 days

Compressive Strength, MPa 50

3.2.2 Freeze-Thaw Resistance–

Pressure meter Relative Ed Number of Durability

Air content (%)

Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

3.2.3 Scaling Resistance—ASTM C 672

Table 3.5. Scaling Visual Ratings

Cumulative weight loss (kg/m2)

Cumulative weight loss (kg/m2)

Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2)

Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2)

Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2)

7.0 50-N-E 35-N-E

3.2.4 Air Void Parameters in Hardened

Pressure Air Air-free Air

35-4 3.2 3.8 30.5 10.5 504 0.0113 19.8 287

Specific surface (mm-1) 25

3.2.5 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

Table 3.9. Results of Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 FRESH CONCRETE PARAMETERS

Figure 4.1. Slump values per mixture.

Slump (mm) 200

4.1.2 Setting Times

Table 4.1. Summary of Sir ContentsObtained by Different Methods

Fresh air Fresh air Hardened air

50-N 1.3 0.3 1.6

45-N 2.0 2.2 1.5

Frost and Scaling Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

Figure 4.6. Air content measurements.