Transparency and Learning Spaces

TRANSPARENCY AND LEARNING SPACES
A Thesis
Presented to
The Academic Faculty
by
Emily Finau
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Architecture in the
School of Architecture
Georgia Institute of Technology

May 2011
TRANSPARENCY AND LEARNING SPACES
Approved by:
Dr. Laura Hollengreen, Advisor

Daniel Baerlecken
Minjung Maing
Date Approved: April 1, 2011

PREFACE
This thesis encompasses two distinct but interrelated works: a research-based
written document with design implications, and a design project, which takes into
account the research findings.
It is important to note that although the research and written document portion of
this thesis has been an individual effort, the design project has been collaborative. Megan
Fagge, Ian Reves, and myself have worked equally to manifest our research threads into
the design project. At the point of publication of this written document, the design project
is still undergoing final developments. Therefore the design elements included here are
indicative of intent and process and not as final design documentation. In Part 2 and in
the Appendices of this document, the design elements and ideas represented have been a
collaborative effort, with drawings completed by Megan, Ian, or myself. However, we
have each represented these ideas and drawings in our written portions through the lens
of our individual research topics.
As a final note, while my research topic of transparency and its effect on learning
spaces is represented thoroughly in this document, Megan Fagge and Ian Reves have
comprehensively represented their research of place making and environmental effects on
behavior, and modular fabrication techniques respectively in their own written
documents. A combination of these three inputs has resulted in a thorough and
meticulous school design proposal.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank those who have made this endeavor a meaningful and
personally successful experience. My sincerest appreciation goes to my thesis advisors
Dr. Laura Hollengreen, Daniel Baerlecken, and Minjung Maing. Their full commitment
to this process has required an immense sacrifice of time. It is because of their
challenging questions, insightful criticisms, and perceptive editing that this collaborative
thesis has come to fruition. My special thanks goes to Dr. Laura Hollengreen, who has
been on board with the idea of the collaborative thesis from the beginning and has been
the one to proactively work with administration to overcome obstacles, to astutely edit
and advise on issues dealing both with this paper and the design element, to encourage
the involvement and awareness of other faculty in this project, and to perform much of
the behind-the-scenes work in order for the accomplishment of this feat. My thanks also
goes to Daniel Baerlecken, who has dedicated many additional hours to the design and
execution of the Therrell High School proposal. His expertise and experience have
proved invaluable in creating a thoughtful and successful design project. An additional
thanks to Gail Potts, the Director of Graduate Studies in Georgia Institute of
Technology’s Registrar's office, who gave of her time and efforts to meet, look over my
work, and formulate solutions. I would like to extend appreciation to my collaborative
thesis partners, Megan Fagge and Ian Reves. Their ideas, convictions, knowledge, and
dedication to the collaborative process have taught me infinitely more than I ever could
have learned doing this thesis by myself. I also want to offer a most sincere and humble
thanks to my mother, whose love and support on every level has made this journey
iv
possible, and to my father, whose sound advice and encouragement has confirmed these
past few years as a part of my life journey. Finally, to my husband, who has lived the
past three years largely with my absence, and through it all has remained my biggest
supporter and dearest of friends.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
SUMMARY xix
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1
PART ONE: TRANSPARENCY
CHAPTER 2: Types of Transparency 3
Literal Visual 4
One-Way 6
Two-Way 7
Expression of the Transparent Surface 8
Phenomenal Transparency 9
CHAPTER 3: Literal Visual Transparency and the Learning Environment 12
Effects of Natural Daylighting and Ventilation 12
CHAPTER 4: One-Way Transparency and Health 14
Teen Depression 14
Blood Pressure and Remaining on Task 15
Attendance 15
Hormone Patterns 16
Activity Levels 16
CHAPTER 5: Two-Way Transparency and Safety 17
vi
“Transparent Security” through School Design 17
“Transparent Security” through Program 18
“Transparent Security” through Materials 21
CHAPTER 6: Expression of the Transparent Surface and Materiality 25
Glass 25
Plastic 41
Fabric 44
Aerogel 46
Diaphanous Metals 51
Expanded Meshes 57
Metal Fabrics 59
CHAPTER 7: Phenomenal Transparency and the Aesthetic 62
Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: GLASS: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin:

Rem Koolhass/OMA (1997-2003) 62
Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: POLYCARBONATE: Rotterdam Multi-

cinema in Rotterdam: Koen van Velsen (1995) 68
PART TWO: SCHOOL DESIGN 77
CHAPTER 8: School Size 77

CHAPTER 9: Transparency and Design Implications: Case Study 82
Phoenix Union Bioscience High School, Phoenix, Arizona: Orcutt/Winslow 82
Oslo International School, Bekkestua, Norway: Jarmund/Vignaes AS Architects

86
Betty H. Fairfax High School, Phoenix, Arizona: DLR Group 90
Blythewood High School, Columbia, South Carolina: Perkins and Will 93
CHAPTER 10: Design Implications Through the Filter of Transparency:

Therrell High School, Atlanta, Georgia 96
School Program 96
vii
Site 102
School Site 102
Floor Plan and Classroom Design: Patterned Carpet 104
Integration of Transparency in the Proposed Therrell High School Design 107
Spatial and Programmatic Transparency: Projection of Space 120
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Conclusion 128
APPENDIX A: Schematic Design for Proposed Design of Therrell High School 130
APPENDIX B: Design Drawings and Documentation for Proposed Design of

Therrell High School 156
REFERENCES 163
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 6.1: Plastic Products and Properties. Adapted from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F.
(Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale, p. 49. 42
Table 6.2: Fabric Types, Uses, and Properties: Coated, Uncoated, and Sheeting. Adapted from
Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur
internationale. 45
Table 6.3 Aerogel Properties. Retrieved from “Translucent High-Performance Silica-Aerogel

Insulation for Membrane Structures” by J. Cremers and F. Lausch, 2008, Detail, (4). p.
410-412. 47
Table 6.4: Metal Property Profiles. Retrieved from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.),
2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 82. 51
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1: Types and Attributes of Transparencies 3
Figure 2.2: Bauhaus by Walter Gropius (1926), Demonstrating Literal Visual Transparency.
Adapted from Structural Glass by P. Rice and H. Dutton, 1995, London England and
New York, New York: Spon, p.40. 5
Figure 2.3: Skylight in Knowlton Hall, Ohio State University by Mack Scogin Merrill Elam
Architects (2004), Demonstrating One-Way Transparency. Adapted from Alan 927
Photography Website http://alan927.jalbum.net/ 6
Figure 2.4: Farnsworth House by Mies Van der Rohe (1951), Demonstrating Two-Way
Transparency. Adapted from Time Tells Website,
http://vincemichael.wordpress.com/tag/farnsworth-house/ 7
Figure 2.5: Gym 704 by H Arquitectes (2007-2008), Demonstrating Expression of the Transparent
Surface Through Polycarbonate. Adapted from Arch Daily Website,
http://www.archdaily.com/22269/school-gym-704-h-arquitectes/ 8
Figure 2.6: Toledo Glass Museum by SANAA (2007-2008), Demonstrating Phenomenal

Transparency. Adapted from Arch Daily Website,
http://www.archdaily.com/22269/school-gym-704-h-arquitectes/ 10
Figure 2.7: Pairings of Types of Transparencies and School Environment Elements 11
Figure 5.1: Types and Properties of Fire Rated Glass. Created from Handbook of Glass in
Construction by J.S. Amstock, 1995, New York, New York: McGraw Hill. 23-24
Figure 6.1: Cold Bent Structural Glass Bridge. “Experiments in Transparency-Research and Design
Projects” by S. Behling, A. Fuchs, and S. Peters, 2009, Detail. (5)29. p. 498. 27
Figure 6.2: Cold Bending Process with SG Foils. “Experiments in Transparency-Research and
Design Projects” by S. Behling, A. Fuchs, and S. Peters, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 499. 28
Figure 6.3: Properties of Glass that Affect its Energy Efficiency. Created from “Glass Coatings for
Every Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 502-506. 30
Figure 6.4: Heat Transmission Through a Window in 4 Ways. Adapted from “Glass Coatings for
Every Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 505. 31
Figure 6.5: Total Energy Transmittance of a Glazing Unit. Adapted from “Glass Coatings for Every
Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 502. 32
x
Figure 6.6: Electrochromic Window, a SmartWindow, Demonstrating the Ability to Shift
Transparencies and Manage Solar Radiation. Retrieved from Consumer Energy Center
Website, http://www.consumerenergycenter.org 35
Figure 6.7: Step 1: How Shifting Both Transparency and Solar Radiation Absorption Occurs in
Electrochromic Windows. Adapted from http://www.consumerenergycenter.org 36
Figure 6.8: Step 2: How Shifting Both Transparency and Solar Radiation Absorption Occurs in
Electrochromic Windows. Adapted from http://www.consumerenergycenter.org 37
Figure 6.9: Liquid Crystal Window Demonstrating the Ability to Shift Transparencies with Voltage
Input to Activate and Remain in Phase Change. Retrieve from Interior Design Website,
http://www.interiordesign.net/article/487548-Go_Big_Blue_HOK_Bus_Depot.php 38
Figure 6.10: How Shifting of Transparency Occurs in Liquid Crystal Windows: Phase 1. Adapted
from Sage Electrochromic, Inc. http://www.sage-ec.com/pages/howworks.html 39
Figure 6.11: How Shifting of Transparency Occurs in Liquid Crystal Windows: Phase 2. Adapted
from Sage Electrochromic, Inc. http://www.sage-ec.com/pages/howworks.html 40
Figure 6.12: Plastic Names and Abbreviations. Retrieved from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), (2004). Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. 41
Figure 6.13: Plastic Products Details, to be Read with Table 5.1. Adapted from Translucent
Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), (2004), Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale,
p. 48. 43
Figures 6.14: Aerogel: Block Form. Retrieved from EngineerDir Website,

http://www.engineerdir.com/dictionary/catalog/798/ 48
Figures 6.15: Aerogel: Block Form, Demonstrating Structural and Translucent Capabilities.
Retrieved from Scientific American Website,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=aerogel-aka-frozen-smoke-an-oil-
spi-2009-02-19 49
Figures 6.16: Performance of Aerogel in Roof Assembly in Georgia Institute of Technology’s Solar
Decathalon House. Retrieved from “Translucent High-Performance Silica-Aerogel
Insulation for Membrane Structures" by J. Cremers and F. Lausch, 2008, Detail, (4). p.
410-412. 50
Figures 6.17: Advertising Agency in Hamburg; Material: Perforated Sheet Metal. Retrieved from
internationale. p. 81. 52
Figures 6.18: Perforated Sheet Metals: Perforation Shapes and Sizes. Adapted from Translucent
Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale.
p. 90-91. 53
xi
Figures 6.19: Sheet Metal Profiles. Adapted from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.),
2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 91. 54
Figures 6.20: DIN Abbreviations for perforations. Retrieved from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 91. 55
Figures 6.21: Funf Hofe Office Block, Munich; Material: Angled Perforated Sheet Metal, Tombak.
Retrieved from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany:
Institut fur internationale. p. 91. 56
Figures 6.22: “Sejima Building”, SANAA and Use of Expanded Mesh. Retrieved from Translucent
Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale.
p.83. 57
Figures 6.23: Expanded Meshes- Gratings. Adapted from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F.
(Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 92. 58
Figures 6.24: Metal Fabrics and Transparency Levels. Adapted from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 93. 60
Figures 6.25: Metal Fabrics Weave Forms. Adapted from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F.
(Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 93. 61
Figure 7.1: Netherlands Embassy at Night, Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of Glass.

Retrieved from Uniquole Website, http://www.uniquole.nl/en/?cat=4 62
Figure 7.2: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin Walkway Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of

Glass. Retrieved from Flickr Website,
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mel6manu/344685174/ 63
Figure 7.3: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin Corridors from Main Building to Residences,
Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of Glass. “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands
Embassy in Berlin, Berlin, Germany 1997-2003” 2004, Architecture and Urbanism,
(401)2. p. 16. 64
Figure 7.4: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin at Night Demonstrating Programmatic Transparency

through Phenomenal Qualities of Glass. Retrieved from Luke Butcher Website,
http://lukebutcher.blogspot.com/2011/03/oma-netherlands-embassy-berlin.html 65
Figure 7.5: Transparency Diagrams through Material, Views, and Voids, Netherlands Embassy.
Adapted from “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Berlin, Germany
1997-2003”, 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-19. 66
Figure 7.6: Transparency Diagrams through Program and Trajectory, Netherlands Embassy. Floor
Plans adapted from “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Berlin,
Germany 1997-2003” 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-19. 67
xii
Figure 7.7: Transparency Diagrams through Program and Circulation, Netherlands Embassy. Floor
Germany 1997-200” 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-19. 68
Figure 7.8: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema. “Redesign of the

Schouwburgplein and multicinema, Rotterdam” by S. Boeri and B. Lootsma, 1997,
Domus, (797). p. 50-51. 69

Domus, (797). p. 53. 70

Domus, (797). p. 54-55. 71
Figure 7.11: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema, Projection of Space into
Schouwburgplein Square. “Redesign of the Schouwburgplein and multicinema,
Rotterdam” by S. Boeri and B. Lootsma, 1997, Domus, (797). p. 55. 72
Figure 7.12: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema, Projection of Space into
Schouwburgplein Square. “Redesign of the Schouwburgplein and multicinema,
Rotterdam” by S. Boeri and B. Lootsma, 1997, Domus, (797). p. 57. 73
Figure 7.13: Transparency Diagrams through Program: Public vs. Private, Rotterdam Cinema. Floor
Plan images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998, Architectural Review,
(203)1215. p. 61. 74
Figure 7.14: Transparency Diagrams through Program: Public vs. Private, Rotterdam Cinema.
Floor Plan images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998, Architectural
Review, (203)1215. p. 61. 75
Figure 7.15: Transparency in Section through Program, Materials, and Views, Rotterdam Cinema.
Floor Plan images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998, Architectural
Review, (203)1215. p. 60. 76
Figure 8.1: Median % of First-Time Ninth Grade Students Passing Algebra or a Higher Level Math
Course. Going Small Progress & Challenges of Philadelphia’s Small High Schools by
Research for Action (2009). [Research Report]. Learning from Philadelphia’s School
Reform. p. 37. 80
Figure 8.2: The High School Crisis and the Small School Initiative. Transforming Public High
Schools Brochure by Atlanta Public School District,
http://www.atlanta.k12.ga.us/186110129142911720/blank/browse.asp?A=383&BMDRN
=2000&BCOB=0&C=55198 81
Figure 9.1: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/09_Phoenix_Union.asp 82
xiii
Figure 9.2: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School, Demonstrating Spatial Projection and
Programmatic Transparency. Retrieved from Orcutt Winslow Website,
http://www.owp.com/projects/education_pages/phoenix_bioscience_high_school.php 83
Figure 9.3: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School Demonstrating Literal Visual Transparency.
Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
Figure 9.4: Transparency Diagrams: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School. Adapted from
Architectural Record Website,
Figure 9. 5: Oslo International School, Corridor View. Retrieved from Design Top News Website,
http://www.designtopnews.com 86
Figure 9. 6: Oslo International School, Spatial Projection Material Transparency. Retrieved from
Abduzeedo Website, http://abduzeedo.com/best-week-76 87
Figure 9. 7: Oslo International School. Retrieved from Arch Daily Website,

http://www.archdaily.com/16715/oslo-international-school-jva/1799768767_5-8/ 88
Figure 9. 8: Oslo International School, Transparency Diagrams. Adapted from Architectural

Record Website, http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-
1.asp 89
Figure 9.9: Betty H. Fairfax High School. Retrieved from Betty H. Fairfax Website,
http://www.phxhs.k12.az.us/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectiondetailid
=67687&PHPSESSID=2ceaa9928b1277a536b 90
Figure 9.10: Betty H. Fairfax High School Demonstrating Transparency Between Outdoor and
Indoor Corridor. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/08_Betty_Fairfax.asp 91
Figure 9.11: Transparency Diagrams: Blythewood High School. Adapted from Architectural
Record Website, http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/08_Betty_Fairfax.asp 92
Figure 9.12: Blythewood High School. Retrieved from Design Share Website,
http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/blythewood-high 93
Figure 9.13: Blythewood High School, Demonstrating Spatial Projection and Programmatic
Transparency. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-1.asp 94
Figure 9.14: Transparency Diagrams: Blythewood High School. Adapted from Architectural
Record Website, http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-
1.asp 95
xiv
Figure 10.1a-e: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School. Partially
derived from “Square Footage Requirements for Use in Developing the Local Facilities
Plans and State Capital Outlay Applications for Funding” by Georgia Department of
Education, 2000. 97-101
Figure 10.2: Key Programmatic Ideas for Design Development for Proposed Design of Therrell
High School. 101
Figure 10.3: Therrell High School in Atlanta, GA. (2010). [Satellite map]. Retrieved from Google
Earth. Adapted for additional site clarity. 103
Figure 10.4: Pentagonal Classroom with Courtyard. 104
Figure 10.5: Patterned Carpet Diagram Based off the Pentagonal Classroom Shape. 105
Figure 10.6: Floor Plan: Proposed Design, Therrell High School. 106
Figure 10.7: Example of Classroom Modular Panel System. 108
Figure 10.8: Modular Classroom Panel Transparencies. 109
Figure 10.9: Assembly of Modular Classroom Panels Example. 109
Figure 10.10: Sightlines: Courtyards and Corridors. 111
Figure 10.11: Sightlines: Classrooms and Administration. 112
Figure 10.12: Visual Sightlines Diagram: Pairing of One-Way Transparency with Safety and
Materiality. 113
Figure 10.13: Courtyards Diagram: Pairing of Visual Transparency with Health and Materiality.115
Figure 10.14: Sun Studies, Courtyard Light Affecting Interior of Classroom. 116
Figure 10.15: Sun Studies, Courtyard Light and Roof Condition, Academies. 117
Figure 10.16: Locker Diagram: Storage and Place Making. 118
Figure 10.17: Lockers Diagram: Placement of Lockers in Corridors. 119
Figure 10.18: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Exploration. 120
Figure 10.19: Spatial and Programmatic Transparency Diagram: Projection of Space. 121
Figure 10.20: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 1: Hinging a Portion of the
Long Classroom Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces. 122
xv
Figure 10.21: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 2: Hinging a Portion of the
Long Classroom Wall with Lockers as Boundary to Create Various Programmed Spaces.
123
Figure 10.22: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 3: Hinging the Short Classroom
Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces. 124
Figure 10.23: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 4: Sliding the Short Classroom
Figure 10.24: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 5: Sliding the Short Classroom
Figure 10.25: Projection of Space: Academy Lab Permutations Option 1: Hinging the Short
Academy Lab Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces. 127
Figure A.1: Schematic Exploration: Voronoi-Based Classroom Space. 130
Figure A.2: Schematic Exploration: Voronoi-Based Pattern Growth. 130
Figure A.5: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom Space. 133
Figure A.6: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation Patterns
with Circulation. 134
Figure A.7: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom and Courtyard Patterns Aggregated into
Three Separate Learning Academies. 135
Figure A.11: Schematic Exploration: Parallelogram Classroom Space 139
Figure A.12: Schematic Exploration: Parallelogram Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation Patterns
xvi
Figure A.15: Schematic Exploration: Trapezoidal Classroom Space 143
Figure A.16: Schematic Exploration: Trapezoidal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation Patterns
Figure A.20: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom Space 148
Figure A.21: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom Space 148
Figure A.22: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation Patterns
Figure A.23: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation Patterns
Figure A.24: Adequate Yearly Progress Test Results, 2009-2010 for Atlanta Public Schools and for
Therrell High School. 151
Figure A.25: Test Results 2009-2010 for Individualized Academies for Therrell High School. 152
Figure A.26: Three Main Design Ideas That Were Coupled with Research Threads. 153
Figure A.27: Area Plan with Interstate 285 on the East and Langford Highway on the South. 154
Figure A.28: Site Plan for Existing Therrell High School. 155
Figure B.1: Plan for Proposed Design of Therrell High School. 156
Figure B.2: Section A Through Courtyards and Small Breakout Spaces in Classrooms. 157
Figure B.3: Section B Through Cafeteria, Circulation, Classrooms, and Breakout Spaces. 158
Figure B.4: South Elevation 159
Figure B.5: East Elevation 160
Figure B.6: Rooftop Garden: Rendering 161
xvii
Figure B.7: Rooftop Garden: Rhino Screenshot 161
Figure B.8: Classroom Rendering with Courtyard View 162
xviii
SUMMARY
This thesis explores the various meanings and implications of transparency in
architecture and in learning environments. Transparency can define or erase hierarchies
and social boundaries while raising issues of privacy and safety. Transparency creates a
diversity of relations and proposes visual, conceptual, and functional clarity as well as
offering a “simultaneous perception of different spatial locations” (Rowe and Slutzky,
1997, p. 40). Transparency suggests certain phenomenal qualities and provides an
opportunity to explore the dichotomies of translucency vs. opacity, openness vs.
enclosure, and public vs. private. “Transparency is to create a diversity of relations. It is
not necessary to always see through. Transparency also means clarity, not only visual,
but conceptual.” (Blau, 2008-2009, p. 30). While transparency in school buildings can
improve the quality of the learning environment, it can also respond to safety and security
concerns through careful planning and application of the material, programmatic, and
spatial facets of transparency.
Transparency welcomes natural light, provides aesthetic beauty and compelling
phenomenal qualities, offers a variety of material options that result in wide-ranging
visual effects, and proposes a visual encounter with a building’s structure. It can imply a
hierarchy of program elements or comprehension of a building and how it is read.
School buildings face unique dilemmas in regard to transparency. Among these
increasing problems are issues such as how effective the learning environment is, how
school safety is achieved and enforced, and how student health is maintained and
promoted. Transparency in schools addresses each of these issues. I shall argue that it
xix
can provide solutions to each of them as it is realized materially, programmatically and
spatially.
This thesis combines the implementation of the transparency research results with
design elements and programmatic placement into a new, campus-based design
composed of small learning communities that make up Therrell High School.
xx
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Transparency in architecture is both elusive and allusive and is multifarious in its
definitions. It denotes visual, conceptual, and functional clarity. Colin Rowe and Robert
Slutzky, pioneers in investigating the multifaceted concept of transparency, define it as “a
material condition- that of being pervious to light and air- and the result of an intellectual
imperative, of our inherent demand for that which should be easily detected, perfectly
evident, and free of dissimilation” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.22). Japanese architect
Kazuyo Sejima of SANAA architecture firm further asserts, “the meaning of
transparency is to create a diversity of relations. It is not necessary to always see
through. Transparency also means clarity, not only visual, but conceptual” (Blau, 2008-
2009, p. 30). Sajima’s partner, Ryue Nishizawa, states that transparency is to organize
components in a clear way, to strive for clarity, not obscurity (Blau, 2008-2009).
Webster’s Dictionary describes transparency as “pervious to light” or to “not conceal
what lies beyond” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.21). Transparency is “an inherent quality
of substance, as in a glass curtain wall; or it may be an inherent quality of organization”
(Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.23), thus distinguishing between literal and phenomenal
transparency. Terence Riley, Curator of Architecture and Design at The Museum of
Modern Art speaks of transparency as being about the surface and its relationship with
structure (Blau, 2008-2009) whereas theorist Gyorgy Kepes remarks that transparency is
a “simultaneous perception of different spatial locations” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.23)
and is also seen in “material qualities of glass and plastics….in haphazard
superimpositions produced by the reflections and accidents of light playing upon a
translucent or polished surface” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.33). The varying material,
1
literal, and phenomenal definitions of transparency can be grouped into five different
categories: literal visual transparency, one-way transparency, two-way transparency, the
expression of the transparent surface, and phenomenal transparency.
2
PART ONE: TRANSPARENCY
CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF TRANSPARENCY
Overview of Types
Figure 2.1: Types and Attributes of Transparencies
3
Literal Visual Transparency
The first category of transparency, literal visual transparency, is occupied with the
translucent and transparent attributes of glass and other vitreous materials. Literal
transparency in modern architecture was stimulated by the cubist painting movement.
Cubism involved the fusion of temporal and spatial factors and the overlapping of figures
making it possible to perceive different spaces simultaneously. Rowe and Slutzky use
Gropius’s Bauhaus as an example of literal transparency where transparency is an
inherent quality of the glass curtain wall. It provides a visual encounter with the
building’s structure and horizontal planes, seen through a veil of glass. Rowe and
Slutzky use Le Corbusier’s Villa Garches as an opposing example of a building that
exhibits a different type of transparency in that the program of building beyond is not
apparent beyond the narrow openings on the façade. Villa Garches is occupied with
planar qualities of glass and it exhibits a spatial stratification with glass planes that
enhance the overall surface tension whereas Bauhaus presents glass “hanging loosely
from a fascia” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.36) and exhibits programmatic transparency
across the entire façade (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997). SANAA architects Sajima and
Nishizawa add that creating tension between the viewer and the object parallels tension
between surface and structure (Blau, 2008-2009). The Bauhaus is therefore a lucid
example of literal, visual transparency (See Figure 2.2).
4
Figure 2.2: Bauhaus by Walter Gropius (1926), Demonstrating Literal Visual
Transparency. Adapted from Structural Glass by P. Rice and H. Dutton, 1995, London,
England and New York, New York: Spon, p. 40.
Implications of Literal Visual Transparency:
• Visual encounter with structure

• Natural Light
• Transparent/Translucent materiality
• Flexibility and programmatic clarity

• Figure-ground relationship of foreground and background elements
• Shifts the focus from form of building to perception of how building is built
• Surface and relationship with structure

• Conceptual and functional clarity
• Organization of components in a clear way
5
One-Way Transparency
The second category, one-way transparency, is defined by structural engineer
Peter Rice as a translucent, functional opening in a roof or solid wall in which the visual
connection between the exterior and interior becomes the minor function. An example of
one-way transparency would be a skylight, such as seen in the Knowlton School of

Architecture, where visual connection is not the primary use, but rather translucency is an
effect of an entrance for light or an opening for ventilation (Rice & Dutton,1995) (See
Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Skylight in Knowlton Hall, Ohio State University by Mack Scogin Merrill
Elam Architects (2004), Demonstrating One-Way Transparency. Adapted from Alan 927
Photography Website,
http://alan927.jalbum.net/Architecture/Ohio%20State%20University/index.html/
Implications of One-Way Transparency
• Hormone balance
• Circadian Regulation
• Ventilation and Clean Air
• Increase in Physical Activity
• Programmatic Placement to Encourage Overall Health
6
Two-Way Transparency
Next, two-way transparency provides a visual connection between the interior and
exterior, or it provides “a simultaneous perception of different spatial locations [by using

translucent materials or building volumes] (Rice & Dutton, 1995). Mies Van der Rohe’s
Farnsworth House demonstrates this category with its glass walls, which provide views to
the exterior and interior as well as simultaneous perception of various spaces (See Figure
2.4).
Figure 2.4: Farnsworth House by Mies Van der Rohe (1951), Demonstrating Two-Way
Transparency. Adapted from Time Tells Website,
http://vincemichael.wordpress.com/tag/farnsworth-house/.
Implications of Two-Way Transparency:
• Enhanced perception of space

• Visual connections between interior/exterior and interior/interior
• Privacy vs. Transparency
7
Expression of the Transparent Surface
The fourth category, the expression of the transparent surface, begins the
exploration of the possibilities of transparent materials and the minimization of support

systems to emphasize the transparent plane. The focus here is on the facade (or wall
surfaces and systems) and investigation of different materialities. Different materials

produce varying levels of opacity and are associated with different desired design
outcomes. Glass, plastics, multi-layered panes and their level of reflection and
absorption, and use of perforated screens and other means to achieve semi-transparency
are all included in the expression of the transparent surface. In assessing the properties of
different materials, cost analysis, availability, life cycle, and energy efficiencies are all
elements to take into account (Rice & Dutton, 1995). An example of a building that
successfully considers materiality when expressing a transparent surface is Gym 704 by
H Arquitectes, which uses polycarbonate (See Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: Gym 704 by H Arquitectes (2007-2008), Demonstrating Expression of the

Transparent Surface Through Polycarbonate. Adapted from Arch Daily Website,
http://www.archdaily.com/22269/school-gym-704-h-arquitectes/
8
Phenomenal Transparency
Finally, phenomenal transparency is described when “two or more figures are
overlapping one another and each one claims for itself the common overlapping part”
(Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.22). It occurs when figures that are “endowed with
transparency” have the ability to “interpenetrate without an optical destruction of each

other” (Rowe and Slutzky, 1997, p.22-23). The phenomenological occurs in instances
where the transparent material may be seen in hovering planes above the ground, where
reflection and refraction occur, when there is a play between transparent, translucent, and
opaque. Phenomenal transparency may mean spatial transparency, or a projection of
space onto, through, and beyond spatial boundaries. It may achieve both open and closed
spaces as well as programmatic transparency. It also may result in spatial ambiguity,

enhanced atmosphere, seeing and not seeing, connection and separation, and even a play
of transparency and opacity.

SANAA’s Toledo Glass Museum is a building that demonstrates phenomenal
transparency with its double walls of glass creating a third space between the glazed
volumes of rooms. The museum creates phenomenal transparency of space and material
while also achieving programmatic transparency. It layers the outside world into the
interior, bringing the outside in. It exploits the capacity for spatial complexity and depth
of field. Although it is entirely made of transparent glass, it has an inherent opacity. It
provides an interior world of multi-layered, softened, and blurred vistas. The Toledo
Glass Museum creates a quality of spaces that are defined completely by transparent
elements. Whereas Rowe and Sltuzky focus on transparency as a function of surface, the
museum explores the potential depth of transparency in experience (Wainwright, 2008)
(See Figure 2.6).
9
Figure 2.6: Toledo Glass Museum by SANAA (2007-2008), Demonstrating Phenomenal
Transparency. Adapted from Arch Daily Website,
http://www.archdaily.com/22269/school-gym-704-h-arquitectes/
Implications of Phenomenal Transparency:
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Translucency/Transparency/Opacity
• Spatial transparency: Projection of space

onto, through, and beyond
• Openness and closure
• Programmatic transparency
10
Designing architecture through the lens of transparency can be a delicate process
and often raises such issues as the coexistence of transparency and privacy, whether
transparency defines or erases hierarchies and social boundaries, and whether
transparency strengthens or weakens the safety of a building and its occupants.

Sometimes there is a perceived conflict between transparency and the needs of society
but also an opportunity for flexible solitude and privacy. School buildings in particular
face unique dilemmas with regard to each of these issues such as how the learning
environment is affected by transparency, how school safety is achieved and enforced, and
how student health is maintained and promoted.
How does transparency in schools affect the learning environment, safety, and
health among high school students while also maintaining privacy, cost effectiveness,
programmatic flexibility and energy efficiency?

This question, paired with and filtered through each of the five categories of
transparency, determines how to effectively apply transparency to schools (See Figure
2.7).
Pairings
Transparency Categories School Environment Elements

Literal Visual ------------------------------Learning Environment
One-Way -----------------------------------Health
Two-Way ------------------------------------Safety
Expression of the Surface -----------------Materiality
Phenomenal ---------------------------------Aesthetic
Figure 2.7: Pairings of Types of Transparencies and School Environment Elements
11
CHAPTER 3
LITERAL VISUAL TRANSPARENCY AND THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
Effects of Natural Daylighting and Ventilation
The first pairing in the school context, literal visual transparency and the learning
environment, demonstrates how transparency affects student performance in schools.
This category accounts for the infusion of natural daylight into the classroom and other
programmatic spaces in schools where learning may occur. Many studies showing the
effectiveness of natural daylight on student performance have been conducted. First, a
study was done of over 21,000 test results from student records from three school
districts (Orange County, California; Seattle, Washington; Fort Collins, Colorado).
Information about architectural plans, aerial photos, student demographics and

characteristics, and student participation in school programs was taken into account in
order to classify daylighting conditions in 72,000 classrooms. This information was then
coded on a 0-5 scale to indicate the size and tint of windows, whether the natural light
came from a skylight, and the complete amount of daylight expected. Overall,
classrooms with the most daylight showed a 21% improvement in learning rates
compared to classrooms with the least amount of daylight (Conway, Epstein, and
Plympton, p.5). This study used multivariate linear regression to control other influences
on student performance.
In one of the three above districts in the study, students with the most daylight in
classrooms progressed 20% faster on math and 26% faster on reading when compared to
those in the least day lit rooms. Students with the most daylighting in their classrooms
had 7-18% higher test scores than those in the least day lit rooms. Another study of three
12
schools with naturally day lit classrooms in North Carolina proved that test scores from
these schools, when compared to those of other schools in the county, were higher
overall. An additional study involving test scores for 1,200 students in day lit schools
compared them to students’ scores nationwide; results showed that students in day lit
schools outperformed those in non-day lit schools by 5-14% (Conway, Epstein, and
Plympton, p.5).
Natural daylighting also allows for the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems to be downsized, which reduces noise levels in the classroom, library,
and other learning areas, which in turn enhances the learning environment overall. Durant
Road Middle School in North Carolina increased natural daylighting, which reduced
energy use for lighting, ventilation, and heating, typically the greatest energy expenses
for a school district, by 50-60. They had an estimated annual savings of $21,000.00. The
school was able to reduce the cooling load by adopting a 370-ton chiller versus the
previously used 400-ton chiller (Conway, Epstein, and Plympton, 2000).
These studies show the positive effects of natural daylighting, a result of literal
visual transparency, when applied to the classroom.
13
CHAPTER 4
ONE-WAY TRANSPARENCY AND HEALTH
The second pairing, one-way transparency and health, reveals how the use of
translucency as an entrance for light or an opening for ventilation can positively affect
health in students.
Teen Depression
Studies show that high school students suffer from high rates of clinical
depression that are sometimes difficult to recognize because symptoms resemble those of
normal teenage problems. These symptoms include: moodiness, irritability, risk-taking
behaviors, and troubles with friends, school, and work. If untreated, clinical depression
can lead to suicide, which is the second leading cause of death for ages fifteen to twenty-
four. However, 80% of people with clinical depression can be treated successfully. One
type of clinical depression is called Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and is related to
the season, or brightness and duration of daylight. Researchers link inadequate exposure
of sunlight to depressed moods. Some of the effects of this under-exposure are: fatigue
and loss of energy, thoughts of suicide and death, inability to concentrate and remember
things, changes in weight and sleeping patterns, loss of interest in activities once enjoyed,
and decreased activity (Johnson, 1994). It can be inferred that increased exposure to
sunlight will decrease these symptoms. Less daylight affects the production of hormones
that make one feel tired. Early morning light is the most potent energy booster. People’s
activity levels dip 20% in the winter (Stanten, 2006), which is why it makes sense to
design architecture for plenty of daylight entering classrooms in winter months.
14
Blood Pressure and Remaining On Task
One study relating daylight exposure to increased health and student performance
was a three-phase study, lasting for ten days, where students’ blood pressure was tested
morning and afternoon and students were videotaped doing the same activity each day in
order to observe off-task behaviors. Phase one was tested in regular lighting. Phase two
was completed in improved lighting and phase three was completed in the reinstated
original environment. The results showed that during phase two, with the increased
lighting, there was a 9% decrease in mean blood pressure and then an increase in blood
pressure during phase 3. Phase two also showed a 22% decrease in off-task behaviors
whereas off-task behaviors increased during a return to phase 3 lighting (Grangaard,
1995).
Attendance
Another study done over a two-year period in Alberta, Canada, looked at schools
with full spectrum light as well as classrooms with conventional lighting. Those schools
with full spectrum light recorded fewer days of absence per year as well as enhanced
health effects.
Principal Tom Benton of the previously mentioned Durant Road Middle School in
North Carolina remarks, “The daylight classrooms have increased the well being of the
students and the teachers and it is at least partly responsible for the record high
attendance rates. We are running about 3% ahead of the rest of the country in attendance.
We stay around 98%. It is a model school and students are proud to show it off.”
(Conway, Epstein, and Plympton, 2000, p.5).
15
Hormone Patterns
A case study that was done in Swedish schools shows how daylighting in
classrooms promotes overall health and physical development. This study tracked
behavior, health and ortisol (a stress hormone) levels over a year in four classrooms with
varying daylight levels. “The results indicate work in classrooms without daylight may
upset the basic hormone pattern, and this in turn may influence the children’s ability to
concentrate or cooperate, and also eventually have an impact on annual body growth and
absenteeism.” (Conway, Epstein, and Plympton, p.1).
Activity Levels
Despite efforts to promote regular physical activity for youth, environmental
variables are least studied. One of these components is seasons. “Low activity” seasons
are an important time for intervention meant to implement increased activity. However,
the sedentary nature of a structured school day during the fall and winter months typically
means less activity during times of the year when natural daylight is more limited.
Weather data such as temperature and hours of daylight, precipitation, etc. was gathered
and studied for one week during the spring and one week during the winter, during which
time a pedometer was attached to students to determine activity levels during different
seasons and weather conditions. The results showed that more steps by boys were taken
than by girls and more steps were taken in spring than in winter. According to the BMI
(Body Mass Index)-Referenced Standards, boys should take 15,000 steps per day and
girls should take 12,000 steps per day. The results of this study showed that in spring,
boys took 11,112 steps per day and girls took 9,727 steps per day and in winter, boys
took 8,991 steps per day and girls took 7,910 steps per day. This shows that during
winter, when sunlight is more limited, less activity happens. Therefore, designing a
building for maximum natural sunlight in winter months is likely to promote student
activity and health (Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 2008).
16
CHAPTER 5
TWO-WAY TRANSPARENCY AND SAFETY
“Schools are places where students should feel safe within a calm and protective
sanctuary for learning. The physical environment should provide transparent security,
invisible to the public eye, but with carefully designed measures in place.” (Nadel, 2004).
School safety factors include school size, being able to maximize the role of design in
instilling and maintaining safety, and being able to properly assess risk through threat
analysis. Bullying is an increasing and real threat to students as is crime both from
students and the outside intruder.

Transparency can increase school safety through school and program design,
building materials, and school size.
Transparent Security
“Transparent Security” through School Design
The idea of “Transparent Security”, or security invisible to the public eye,
involves the integration of design, operations, and technology into security. CPETD, or
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, seeks to prevent crime (and thus
increase safety) through design of physical environments that positively influence human
behavior. Spaces that occupants perceive as safe are areas that are seen by criminals as
highly risky. Visibility, clear sight lines, good lighting, surveillance, technology, and
natural barriers all promote safety. There are best practices to increase Transparent
Security in schools in order to secure a safer environment for students and faculty:
perimeter control such that schools have closed campuses in which students are not
allowed to leave; use of buildings as the campus perimeter; careful design of building
penetrations and openings (the most vulnerable elements of a perimeter) and architectural
17
details and hardened materials (metal, concrete, CMU, etc.) to strengthen security;
keeping openings above eye level to allow air and light to enter while reducing
vulnerability; using a variety of material and translucent panels that are impact resistant
and allow light to enter; addition of decorative metal gratings on windows; distinguishing
building exits from entrances; use of well-designed perimeter fencing and barriers made
from vertical elements that are difficult to climb and do not create hiding places; attention
to roof configuration, a commonly used method by intruders to enter buildings; creating

sight lines so that perimeter surveillance is maximized; elimination of possible hiding
places; inclusion of multiple perimeters for multiple functions (including after-hours or
community functions and separate entries for the gymnasiums, multi-purpose rooms,
libraries, auditoriums, pools, playfields, etc.).
Student supervision is most effectively achieved when sight lines are created such
that for outdoor playing fields and activity areas, one person can observe all activity. All
secondary supervision from inside spaces enhances security. Fencing off areas that are
not visible from indoor sight lines is a best practice for accomplishing transparent
security from the inside out (Nadel, 2004).
“Transparent Security” through Program Design
Attention to enhancing transparency in specific programmatic areas may increase

Transparent Security and decrease bullying and other safety risks.
Corridors
Corridors and stairs are spaces that experience high crowding and mass
movement, where student often bump into each other and may experience disorientation
and anxiety. Thus, corridors hold great potential for congestion and conflict. Increasing
transparency in corridors, to make them more visible and legible, will enable users in
these spaces to “read” and orient themselves at all times. Large floor plans can easily
18
become disorienting and maze-like. The design of transparent corridors includes
measures to avoid bottlenecks which often occur at intersections, as well as sharp

changes in direction, narrow corridor widths, or any elements that impede pedestrian flow
(such as columns). The required minimum width for school corridors is ten feet and it
should be more in heavily used areas. Transparent stair design includes keeping stairs
highly visible and allowing for queuing areas to prevent bottlenecking at either end.
Increasing hallway glazing is the least used and most effective means of hallway
supervision. Hallway glazing enhances hallway supervision and visibility into and from
classrooms and other adjacent spaces. Designing glazing into corridors supports
avoidance of blind spots, niches, nooks, crannies, and corners where hiding places and
bullying frequently occur.
Administration
Maximizing the transparency of the administration to the student body can begin
with the design of administrative offices. Placing the administration near the front door
of the school projects a welcome to students and parents, and allows monitoring of the
comings and goings of students, teachers, and visitors. All who enter are observable by
the administration when its staff is placed near the front door. Inclusion of a reception
area near the administration and front door also enhances observation capabilities. In
addition, strategically situating the administration can allow for surveillance beyond the
building envelope to parent drop-off areas, visitor parking, and bus drop-off zones.
Arrangement of the principal’s office adjacent to the reception area allows the principal
to hear and see what is happening. While designing transparency into the administration
and reception area increases surveillance capabilities, the possibilities of isolated spaces
in administrative offices for students with discipline and anger problems is still important
for both the student being disciplined and the rest of the student body.
19
Gathering Spaces
The designing of Transparent Security into common areas such as cafeterias,
lockers, gathering spaces between classes, or any large areas in a school, should include
clear visibility so that one staff member can supervise activities. Inclusion of ample
sitting and gathering places divides up a larger space while maintaining sight lines and
promoting a community feel. Students shouldn’t feel like they are under constant
surveillance; rather, transparent supervision plans for student safety should allow for the
enhancement of community relations and connections among students. Creating a clear

circulation path through common areas - how to enter, leave, and move through the space
- increases transparency and functional clarity. Lockers by nature have become hiding
places for drugs, weapons, and contraband. However, maintaining and creating personal
space continues to be important. Design and configuration of lockers can promote or
detract from safety. Hallway lockers are easier to supervise.
Classrooms
Classrooms are generally safer areas but can be enhanced for Transparent
Security by increasing glazing to allow for an enhancement of hallway surveillance.
Glazing between classrooms promotes a facilitation of team teaching and sharing of

resources. Lockable storage in classrooms prevents theft as does adequate lighting and
motion activated lighting.
Lockers and Restrooms
Smaller spaces such as restrooms and locker rooms present the unique problem of
maintaining Transparent Security and privacy at the same time. Restrooms and locker
rooms are places where illicit activity often happens. Designing restrooms with no doors
in order to prevent sound from being blocked while maximizing sight lines and visibility
from coach and teacher areas as much as possible is one step towards transparent security
20
in these areas. Additionally, placement of lockers on the outside walls and maintaining
common areas without obstructions limits places for hidden activities to take place
(Nadel, 2004).
“Transparent Security” through Building Materials
Schools are susceptible to attacks, disasters, and criminal activity and should be
able to withstand them for adequate protection of teachers and students. Proper design of
and material use for windows and doors can reduce criminal incidents (the FBI’s crime
report states that 70% of burglaries happen by forced entry through windows and doors)
(Amstock, 1997) as well as injury from blasts and bullets. Fire safety is also a
consideration and the materials that are used must meet certain safety requirements and
standards.
Bullet/Blast Material Safety
While the use of glass as a building material can increase surveillance capabilities
and bring natural daylight in, and has been widely used to do just that, it also has the
potential to cause injury upon impact and creates potential weak points in a building.
Several incidents of student shootings at schools have been reported; glass as a building
material can limit or augment injury during such attacks depending on the type of glass
selected. The 1995 bombing of the World Trade Center in Oklahoma City resulted in
many injuries that could have been eliminated or made less severe through a reduction of
the impact of flying glass (Nadel, 2004). 75% of injuries in the Oklahoma City bombing
were due to flying shards of glass that extended several miles in each direction, damaging
both people and buildings. To resolve the disjunction between the common desire for use
of glass and the inability of glass as a material to perform under immense impact, several
new glass products and types have been developed. Earlier developments, considered
“band-aids” include the use of adhesive security films over windows, which still show
21
poor performance during such attacks. However, further development of glass products
has led to the creation and implementation of standard laminated, bullet-resistant glass.
Laminated bullet-resistant glass deflects in an explosion, which enables it to absorb the
blast pressure and the energy generated. It is best if it can be designed to resist the blast
and remain in its frame to minimize damage. Bullet-resistant glass should prevent bullet
penetration and impact-induced spall, or fragmentation from the protected side of the
glazing. Structurally, the use of hardening and energy absorptive shields serve to enhance
critical structural elements such as load bearing walls, stairwells, and windows.
Safety Laminated Glass
Safety laminated glass consists of a minimum of two panes of glass laminated
around a layer of PVB foil (polyvinyl butyral) to ensure that the glass retains some
residual strength in case it breaks. This provides protection from glass splinters. There
has been research done on the performance of the PVB foils and their composite action
with the glass panes and an alternative from DuPont is now offered through the use of SG
(Sentry Glas) foils that show potential for extremely high performance. These SG foils
can be used as alternatives to PVB foils and appear in extremely rigid glass-to-glass
laminates (Behling, Fuchs, & Peters, 2008).
Plastic Laminate
Glass can often be more costly than other transparent materials that are also bullet
and blast resistant. School building budgets are often tight, so exploration of other
materials to achieve Transparent Security may lead to appealing alternatives. One such
product is a polycarbonate laminate manufactured by G.E. It is a composite of an

uncoated polycarbonate sheet called Lexan which is bonded with a patented G.E.
interlayer. For an even higher protection level, the plastic laminate can be used in
22
combination with a glass component system. Some laminates also use acrylic. There is a
correlation between performance and the weight and thickness of the material.
Fire Material Safety
Resources for fire-rated guidelines and standards can be found in several places
including the National Fire Protection Association (specifically 80 standard) and the
National Glass Association’s (NGA) Guide to Federal Model Safety Codes.
Additionally, several fire-rated glass products on the market offer a variety of
performance qualities and cost options (Amstock, 1997) (See Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: FIRE RATED GLASS PRODUCTS AND PROPERTIES
Products Properties
Wire-glass………………………….,,Randomly cracks 2-3 minutes into a fire

Wire acts as webbing, holding glass in place.
Inexpensive
Readily available
Contraflam………………………..…Insulating glass unit
Consists of two or more lites of tempered glass
A “fire-rated wall system”
Requires special framing
Contains a clear gel between lites that turns
into an opaque, white barrier, retarding
radiant heat
FireLite……………………………..Transparent, wireless ceramic
Low coefficient of expansion which therefore
keeps it from breaking down when cooled
rapidly.
Pyran……………………………….A 6.5 rated thermally heated flat glass
Wireless, clear, transparent
Passed UL test at twenty minutes
Withstands two hours of heat exposure before
sagging
Pre-stressed, heat resisting
Low thermal expansion therefore doesn’t
shatter with a high temperature rise.
Remains transparent during the first twenty
23
minutes of a fire so occupants can see
their way out of a burning building
90% light transmission
Pyrobel……………………………...Multi-ply sheet glass with three interlayers
During a fire the three interlayers expand and
therefore serve as protection from
smoke, heat, and flames.
The face not exposed to fire heats slightly
therefore prevents the spreading of
heat radiation and convection.
As heat increases, the interlayers expand and
become opaque.
Provides transparency and noise protection
Superlite…………………………….Safety-rated insulating unit
Has a 45-minute fire rating
Clear, wireless
A three-layer design with structural integrity
Two layers of tempered glass and an inner
colorless polymer gel layer
When exposed to a fire, the gel absorbs heat
through evaporative cooling; therefore
it forms an insulating layer from radiant
heat.
Figure 5.1: Types and Properties of Fire Rated Glass. Created from Handbook of Glass
in Construction by J.S. Amstock, 1995, New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
24
CHAPTER 6
EXPRESSION OF THE TRANSPARENT SURFACE AND
MATERIALITY
Different material qualities result in different expressions of the transparent

surface. There are varying levels of energy efficiency, cost, and structural merit
depending on what type of transparent material is used. Since glass is the most widely
used transparent building material throughout history, it is covered here more in depth.
However, also worth mentioning are other translucent materials such as plastics, fabrics,
and aerogel.
Glass
Historically, glass has been used over the past two thousand years as a component
in space enclosures, and has been used in small dimensions. Glass is one of the oldest
man-made building materials. Glass has resolved the conflict between the need for
protection from the outside world and the desire for light. Manufacturing and finishing
techniques have developed glass into an ultra-modern building material. Single glazing
was standard until the mid 1970’s. Double-glazing brought improved U-values while
insulation glass and thin-film technology as transparent glass coatings continue to
improve the energy efficiency of glass (Elstner, 2009).
Properties of Glass
Glass is transparent, has a hard surface, and is UV resistant but it is also brittle
and susceptible to sudden failure (Behling, Fuchs, & Peters, 2008). Other properties of
glass vary depending on the type. Annealed and heat-strengthened glasses are the most
common but fracture into large, sharp shards, whereas tempered glass fractures into
smaller fragments. Laminated glass is made of a glass and polymembrane or sheet
interlayer. The fracture pattern of laminated glass depends on the type of glass used as
the outer layer but is held fast by the interlayer (Nadel, 2004).
25
Glass behaves like an elastic solid. In thin sheets, or fibers, glass is pliable. The
silicon oxygen bond in glass makes it extremely strong and creates newly formed fine
glass fibers that can support over seventy thousand kilograms per centimeter squared,
which is five times the strength of the best steels. However, the strength of glass is
greatly weakened by defects and irregularities. First, there are possible surface defects
that produce cracks causing the strength of the glass to reduce to less than one hundredth
of the theoretical value from the bonds. A crack, once begun, has no informal boundaries
to disrupt its process. Glass is weak in tension and strong in compression, where stresses
don’t lead to cracks. As a crack grows, effective leverage increases and the fracturing of
other bonds becomes easier.
Glass can be strengthened in three ways: by preventing surface defects, by
avoiding putting glass in tension, and by preventing cracks from spreading. Of these
three ways, only one can really be implemented well, and that is to avoid putting glass in
tension. This can be done thermally. When glass is heated above the transformation
temperature and then is rapidly chilled, the shrinkage of the surface is arrested while the
interior is still warm. The warm interior continues to shrink, leaving the interior in
tension and the surface in compression.
Frames
The frame holding the glass is an important element of structure and safety.
Aluminum 6061 is a good strong material to use for glass frames. Frame deformation
should be consistent with the manner in which glass is retained and must be controlled to
maintain active restraint of glass. If the frame buckles and twists, the glass will be
released. Silicone reinforcements in the bite (the place where glass intrudes into the
frame) can increase contact between glass and the frame (Amstock, 1997).
Glass Types
Structural Glass
Structural glass can hang from a building structure without the necessity of
additional framing. It is strong and can take large compressive forces. The abilities of
26
structural glass have been tested in buildings, all-glass staircases, and even all-glass
bridges (See Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Cold Bent Structural Glass Bridge. Retrieved from “Experiments in
Transparency-Research and Design Projects” by S. Behling, A. Fuchs, and S. Peters,
2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 498.
As shown in Figure 6.1, glass can be bent. Bending glass is usually expensive
because it is done while glass is hot, which requires heating a furnace to a very high
temperature (causing glass to lose its strength) and then pouring the glass onto a mould of
the desired form. Moulds are expensive and the sizes of the bent pieces, which are then
laminated together, are restricted to furnace size. This cold bending process results in an
aggregation of many thin sheets of layered and laminated glass until it meets the
regulations for permanent loading and float glass. The result is bent, or curved,
laminated glass pieces, which suspend the internal bending forces that resulted from
being poured onto a curved mold (Behling, Fuchs, & Peters, 2009) (See Figure 6.2).
27
Production stages of cold-bent glass with SG* foils:
a. a. panes of float glass are interleaved with SG foils
b. glass stack is laid on the mold
c. lamination of glass stack
d. removal of rigid, cold-bent panes, form remains rigid
b.
c.
d.
Figure 6.2: Cold Bending Process with SG foils. Adapted from “Experiments in
Transparency-Research and Design Projects” by S. Behling, A. Fuchs, and S. Peters,
2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 499.
*SG foils (‘Sentry Glas’ from DuPont) are used as an interlayer in place of the regular
PVB foil (Polyvinyl butyral) interlayer in order to increase the overall performance of
laminated, rigid glass.
Applications include: Hurricane resistant windows, doors, and skylights; Bomb blast
resistant windows, doors, and facades; Minimally supported railings, facades, canopies;
Structural glass flooring, stairs, walkways, and bridges.
.
28
Translucent Glass
Glass offers translucent options that are veiled by meshes and nets of woven
metal between interlayers. It can also attain a milky surface through etching and blasting
with sand or it can be screen printed with frits (dots, lines, meshes). This technique was
originally developed to help control solar heat gains and to create interplay between
surface, reflection, and the interior (Weston, 2003).
Energy Efficient Glass
There are many products and varieties of energy efficient glasses that vary in
purpose and performance. Some common properties of glass when looking at energy
performance include the U value, g value, emissivity, colour rendering index, light
transmittance, selectivity value (s), solar energy transmittance (g), shading coefficient
(sc), and energy absorption (Elstner, 2009). Each Property is defined in the Figure 6.3
(See also Figures 6.4-6.5).
29
Figure 6.3: GLASS PROPERTIES AND DEFINITIONS
Property Definition
U value Quantity of heat energy per unit of time that passes through
one meter squared of a building component at a temperature
difference of one Kelvin between the air in the room and the
air outside.
g value Total solar energy transmittance for solar radiation in wavelength

range visible and infrared radiation.
Emissivity (E value) Radiative property of the surface of a body. Therefore, the lower
the E, the better the U value. E is determined by measuring
reflection from the surface and radiation of different wavelengths
is used for measurement.
Colour Rendering Exists as a result of physiological perception and psychological

Index aesthetic reasons. The color effect in a room is influenced by
spectral distribution of the incident daylight. It is used to describe
color rendering by daylight within a room when looking through
glazing.
Light Directly transmitted, visible radiation. Influenced by the

Transmittance thickness of glass. The goal is to keep light permeability
high despite a reduction in g value.
Selectivity Ratio of light transmittance to total solar energy

Value transmittance (g). A high selectivity value is a favorable ratio.
Shading Ratio of g value of the glazing to the g value of a pane of

Coefficient uncoated glass. The average transmittance factor is a measure of
how well glass protects against solar radiation and is key for
calculating cooling load.
Energy Transmittance, reflection, and absorption measured

Absorption together, equaling 100%. Radiated energy is converted by
absorption into thermal energy. Therefore the temperature of the
absorbing glass pane increases and leads to a risk of breakage,
therefore the use of tempered glass (heat-strengthened or
toughened) helps.
Figure 6.3: Properties of Glass that Affect its Energy Efficiency. Created from “Glass
Coating for Every Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 502-
506.
30
Figure 6.4: Heat Transmission Through a Window in 4 Ways. Adapted from “Glass
Coating for Every Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 505.
31
Figure 6.5: Total Energy Transmittance of a Glazing Unit. Adapted from “Glass Coating
for Every Architectural Application” by M. Elstner, 2009, Detail, (5)29. p. 502.
32
Coatings
Various coatings and films have been developed for application to glass in order
to increase energy efficiency of glass. These coatings are microscopically thin films of
metal applied to glass to reduce emissivity and retain transparency.
Low E Coatings
The aim is to reduce the flow of heat through insulating glass, which is
determined by the following factors: the radiation exchange between panes as a result of
the emissivity of the surface; the thermal conductivity of the gas in the cavity; and the
convection of the gas in the cavity. It has been shown that a thermal coating reduces
emissivity (from E=.89 to E=.03) and suppresses virtually all radiation exchange between
panes. This is a Low-E coating window. The relationship between the type of gas and the
width of the cavity has also been shown to affect radiation flow rates.
Anti-Reflective Coatings
Anti-reflective coatings increase energy transmission through the glass surfaces
and thereby act as a “solar harvest”. Uncoated float glass (glass made by allowing it to
solidify on molten metal) has a reflection of about 8%, whereas by coating both sides
reflection is reduced to about 2%. Improved transmission in the morning and evening is
therefore less dependent on the incident angle of refraction.
Thermal and Solar Coatings
Thermal coatings achieve low heat losses in winter while allowing for utilization
of passive energy since solar coatings keep as much of the solar energy as possible out of
the space. A combination of the absorbing and reflecting components is desirable.
33
Technologies
Chromogenics
Chromogenics is the involvement of the production of color or pigments while
chemochromics involves materials that change their color in response to changes in the
chemical composition of their surrounding environment (Addinton & Schodek, 2005).
Several chromogenic window types, named SmartWindows, have been developed, which
serve different purposes and achieve different energy efficient results.
SmartWindows
SmartWindows can control optical transmittance, which creates a shift in
transparency and therefore manages solar radiation. This means a window could vary
from high density (opaque or translucent), which prevents direct sun penetration, and
glare, to low density (transparent) as light loses intensity. SmartWindows can also
control both thermal transmittance, where heat transmission by radiation is minimized in

summer and maximized in other conditions, and thermal absorption, when the inside
temperature is higher than the outside temperature so a bidirectional heat flow is

established where radiant energy transfers in and thermal energy transfers out.
Additionally, SmartWindows can control the view through use of switchable materials.
Interior panels and partitions move from transparent to translucent by altering the
specularity of the material. This can be activated electrically, which results in more
frequent switching, or environmentally, which uses stable chemicals. SmartWindows can

switch from transmissive to reflective and can undergo changes in specularity and are
therefore able to diffuse daylight even as the view is diminished. They can change the
conductivity and the transmissivity of glazing.

Thermotropic SmartWindows are able to react to environmental conditions
through a phase change at the core, where a reconfiguration of the material structure
34
happens as hydrogen fills the cavity in double-glazing, causing it to turn opaque at low
and high temperatures. This can prevent radiant loss from an interior during winter.
Some drawbacks of SmartWindows include the inability to stop and start the
transition; not having the environmental response in sync with the interior need; the need
for a sophisticated infrastructure in order for light, heat, and view to all cross the glazed
façade, which requires electrical power for each glazing panel, panel mounting and
hardware, and a sensor/logic control system (See Figures 6.6-6.11).
Figure 6.6: Electrochromic Window, a SmartWindow, Demonstrating the Ability to Shift

Transparencies and Manage Solar Radiation with Voltage Input. From Consumer Energy
Center Website, http://www.consumerenergycenter.org
35
Electrochromic Window Phase 1
Figure 6.7: Step 1: How Shifting Both Transparency and Solar Radiation Absorption
Occurs in Electrochromic Windows. Adapted from Consumer Energy Center Website,
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org
36
36
37
Figure 6.9: Liquid Crystal Window Demonstrating the Ability to Shift Transparencies
with Voltage Input to Activate and Remain in Phase Change. From Interior Design
Website, http://www.interiordesign.net/article/487548-
Go_Big_Blue_HOK_Bus_Depot.php
38
Crystal Window: Phase 1
Figure 6.10: How Shifting of Transparency Occurs in Liquid Crystal Windows: Phase 1.
Adapted from Sage Electrochromic, Inc. Website, http://www.sage-
ec.com/pages/howworks.html
39
Crystal Window: Phase 2
Figure 6.11: How Shifting of Transparency Occurs in Liquid Crystal Windows: Phase 2.
Adapted from Sage Electrochromic, Inc. Website, http://www.sage-
ec.com/pages/howworks.html
40
Electro-Optical
Electro-Optical glass is a thin film technology developed for technologies like flat
panel displays. It is a glass substrate covered by a thin, transparent coating of a material

that is electrically conductive and which can be used to heat glass. Strip connectors at
either end of the glass sheet are attached and when voltage is applied, the thin layer
becomes a resistor and heats up (Addington and Schodek, 2005).
Plastic
Plastic products and technologies have been highly developed to achieve
transparency, energy efficiency, fire rating, and acoustics. The following table
demonstrates some of these products and the properties they possess (See Table 6.1 and
Figures 6.12 and 6.13):
Plastic Names and Abbreviations:
PMMA: Polymethyle Methacrylate PETG: Glycol Modified Polyethylene Terephtalate
PC: Polycarbonate PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride
PET: Polyethylene Therephtalate GFK: Glass-fibre Reinforced Plastics
Figure 6.12: Plastic Names and Abbreviations. Adapted from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale.
41
Table 6.1: Plastic Products and Properties. Adapted from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale, p.49.
42
Figure 6.13: Plastic Products Details, to be Read with Table 6.1. Adapted from
internationale, p. 48.
43
Fabric
There are several fabric choices that can achieve transparency and other energy
performance conditions. Additionally, woven fabrics, in particular, have distinct

properties allowing them to be used for load dispersion. Thinner fabric membranes do
not (thermally or acoustically) insulate well. However, multi-layer fabric membranes can
achieve adequate thermal insulation both in summer and winter as well as provide
sufficient acoustic insulation, all without compromising the translucence. Fabric can be
uncoated or coated, with coatings offering additional insulation or solar performance

qualities (Kaltenbach, 2004) (See Table 6.2).
44
Table 6.2: Fabric Types, Uses, and Properties: Coated, Uncoated, and Sheeting. Adapted
from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany:
Institut fur internationale.
45
Aerogel
Silica aerogel is a granular substance that provides excellent insulation while also
achieving high translucency. Aerogel is available as particles, granulate, or blocks, but
can also be formed into sheets called aerogel fleece. The indoor light quality provided by
aerogel is dispersed evenly and results in a glare free environment. Aerogel is often used
in roof assemblies to provide an illuminated, translucent ceiling (Cremers, Lausch, 2008)
(See Table 6.3 and Figures 6.14-6.16).
46
Table 6.3: Aerogel Properties. Adapted from “Translucent High-Performance Silica-
Aerogel Insulation for Membrane Structures” by J. Cremers and F. Lausch, 2008, Detail,
(4). p. 410-412.
47
Figures 6.14: Aerogel: Block Form. Retrieved from EngineerDir Website,
http://www.engineerdir.com/dictionary/catalog/798/.
48
Figures 6.15: Aerogel: Block Form, Demonstrating Structural and Translucent
Capabilities. Retrieved from Scientific American Website,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=aerogel-aka-frozen-smoke-an-oil-
spi-2009-02-19
49
Figure 6.16: Performance of Aerogel in Roof Assembly in Georgia Institute of
Technology’s Solar Decathalon House. Retrieved from “Translucent High-Performance
Silica-Aerogel Insulation for Membrane Structures” by J. Cremers and F. Lausch, 2008,
Detail, (4). p. 410-412.
50
Diaphanous Metals
Diaphanous metals come in a variety of forms, from gratings, meshes, and
perforated sheets, to knitted and woven fabrics. Diaphanous metals are often used in
building envelopes for both structure and shading but also as a kind of a third skin, to be
paired with already transparent building materials in order to achieve varied visual and
translucent effects. Perforated curtains, for example, have different visual effects
depending on the viewer’s distance from the curtain. From a distance, such a curtain
appears as a closed building envelope. However, from other angles and at closer
proximity, a high level of transparency develops. Depending on the incident light, views
into the building interior are afforded and, due to the finest of drill holes in perforated
metals, sun protection are provided, while viewers in the building have a largely
unimpeded view to the outside. Layering diaphanous metals can provide additional
translucence and opacity. These materials are inexpensive, easily made into almost any
geometry, durable, and often simple to assemble and fit. A number of coatings (such as
anti-corrosion coatings) can be applied to diaphanous metals that provide protection. The
following table covers various metals (and their properties) that are often used in
diaphanous metal products (Kaltenbach, 2004) (See Table 6.4).
Table 6.4: Metal Property Profiles. Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.),

(2004). Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 82.
51
Perforated Sheets
A range of perforations can be punched in sheet metal, from 1mm to 500 mm,
with the general rule that the size of the hole should not be greater than the thickness of
the metal. The variation of hole sizes and also hole shapes provides a wide range of
transparencies that can be achieved (Kaltenbach, 2004) (See Figures 6.17-6.21).
Figure 6.17: Advertising Agency in Hamburg; Material: Perforated Sheet Metal.

Retrieved from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany:
Institut fur internationale. p. 81.
52
Round Perforation, Corten Steel Slot Perforation, Stainless Steel
Square Perforation, Stainless Steel Pull-Through Perforation, Stainless Steel
Triangular Perforation, Stainless Steel Round Perforation, Angled Perforated Sheet
Figure 6.18: Perforated Sheet Metals: Perforation Shapes and Sizes. Adapted from
internationale. p. 90-91.
53
E……………………………. E = flat
L……………………………...L = striped
N……………………………..N = grooved
M…………………………….M = micro-profiling
T……………………………...T = trapezoid profiling
W…………………………….W = corrugated profiling
Figure 6.19: Sheet Metal Profiles. Adapted from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F.
(Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 91.
54
Figure 6.20: DIN Abbreviations for perforations. Retrieved from Translucent Materials
by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 91.
55
Figure 6.21: Funf Hofe Office Block, Munich; Material: Angled Perforated Sheet Metal,
Tombak. Retrieved from Translucent Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004,
Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 81.
56
Expanded Meshes
Expanded meshes, or gratings, are solutions that provide a high level of
transparency, especially as a “curtain” for large and air-permeable façades. Gratings can
also serve as façade grids and are available in every height and thickness (Kaltenbach,
2004) (See Figure 5.21-5.22).
6.22: “Sejima Building”, SANAA and Use of Expanded Mesh. Retrieved from
internationale. p.83.
57
Expanded Metal, Aluminum Expanded Metal, Aluminum
Gratin, Stainless Steel
Figure 6.23: Expanded Meshes- Gratings. Adapted from Translucent Materials by

Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p.92.
58
Metal Fabrics
Metal fabrics are another way in which to achieve layered transparency. Metal
fabrics can be woven in a wide number of forms by manipulating either the warp
(longitudinal wires) and/or the weft (lateral wires). The fineness of the mesh weave,
which affects the level of resulting transparency, is determined by three main elements:
the open (sieve) area, the number of stitches (per cm squared), and the fabric thickness
(the wire diameter). Since metal fabric is easily rolled, it is an excellent solution for
mobile sun, wind, or sight screening. Shading criteria can be met with the thickness of
the fabric. Metal fabrics are also easily cleaned and maintained, even when exposed to
weathering. Additionally, knitted metal fabrics can be applied between panes of double-
glazing (See Figures 6.24-6.25).
59
Steel, 65%Transparent; Basket Steel, 0%Transparent; Ribbed Steel, 50% Transparent; Spiral
Steel, 50%Transparent; Long Steel, 44%Transparent; Basket Steel, 43%Transparent; Basket

Mesh with Double Wires Weave Weave with Braids and Rods Weave with Braids and Rods
Copper, 29%TransparentTwilled Steel, 0%Transparent; Ribbed Steel, % as needed; Ribbed
Steel, 30%Transparent; Basket Copper, % as needed; knitted Steel, 80-90% Transparent; layer
Figure 6.24: Metal Fabrics and Transparency Levels. Adapted from Translucent
Materials by Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur
internationale. p. 96-97.
60
a
e
b
f
c
g
a=Basket/Calico Weave
b= Ribbed or Corduroy Weave
c= Twilled Weave
d= Twilled Ribbed Weave
e= Ribbed Armoured Weave
f= Long-Mesh Weave
g= Five-Strand Twilled Weave
h= Multiplex Mesh
Figure 6.25: Metal Fabrics Weave Forms. Adapted from Translucent Materials by
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), 2004, Munich, Germany: Institut fur internationale. p. 93..
61
CHAPTER 7
PHENOMENAL TRANSPARENCY AND THE AESTHETIC
Reflection, refraction, spatial transparencies and complexities, and depth of
visual field and spatial depth all contribute to the phenomenal and aesthetic qualities of
glass and other transparent and translucent materials. Projection of space into, through,
and beyond other spaces can be achieved through strategic use of these materials. Shown
here is a case study of the Netherlands Embassy in Berlin where high levels of both
safety and transparency create a unique aesthetic (See Figures 7.1 – 7.7).
Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: GLASS: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin:
Rem Koolhass/OMA (1997-2003)
Figure 7.1: Netherlands Embassy at Night, Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of

Glass. Retrieved from Uniquole Website, http://www.uniquole.nl/en/?cat=4
62
Figure 7.2: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin Walkway Demonstrating Phenomenal
Qualities of Glass. Retrieved from Flickr Website,
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mel6manu/344685174/
63
Figure 7.3: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin Corridors from Main Building to Residences,
Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of Glass. “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands
Embassy in Berlin, Berlin, Germany 1997-200”, 2004, Architecture and Urbanism,
(401)2. p16.
64
Figure 7.4: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin at Night Demonstrating Programmatic
Transparency through Phenomenal Qualities of Glass. Retrieved from Luke Butcher
Website, http://lukebutcher.blogspot.com/2011/03/oma-netherlands-embassy-berlin.html
65
Figure 7.5: Transparency Diagrams through Material, Views, and Voids, Netherlands
Embassy. Adapted from “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Berlin,
Germany 1997-2003”, 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-19.
66
Transparency through Program and Trajectory
=Public Space =Residential Hall = Private Offices/Dpts = Open Spaces
= Trajectory pathway unfolded, providing a multitude of views into a variety of spaces
Figure 7.6: Transparency through Program and Trajectory Diagrams, Netherlands

Embassy. Floor Plans adapted from “Rem Koolhaas - OMA: Netherlands Embassy in
Berlin, Berlin, Germany 1997-2003”, 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-
19.
67
Figure 7.7: Transparency through Circulation Diagrams, Netherlands Embassy. Floor
Germany 1997-2003”, 2004, Architecture and Urbanism, (401)2. p. 18-19.
68
Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: POLYCARBONATE: Rotterdam Multi-
cinema in Rotterdam: Koen van Velsen (1995)
The Multi-cinema in Rotterdam by Koen van Velsen represents phenomenal
transparency through the material of polycarbonate. The phenomenal transparency

exhibited by polycarbonate is different from that of glass, which causes reflection,
refraction, and glare. Polycarbonate, on the other hand, results in a diffused light, which
allows for the projection of space while maintaining privacy. It is relevant to note that
this project also plays a role in the community in that it was built to revitalize an entire
square (the new square design was by Adriaan Geuze and the West 8 Landscape
Architects), which had experienced devastating destruction during World War II.
Therefore, the polycarbonate skin, which glows like a light-box at night, acts as an
instrument to draw the building into the space of the outdoor square and vice versa. This
building, therefore, also exhibits the phenomenon of transparency on a larger scale: urban
transparency (Boeri & Lootsma, 1997) (See Figures 7.8-7.14).

Domus, (797). p. 50-51.
69
Domus, (797). p. 53.
70
Domus, (797). p. 54-55.
71
Figure 7.11: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema Café. “Redesign
of the Schouwburgplein and multicinema, Rotterdam” by S. Boeri and B. Lootsma, 1997,
Domus, (797). p. 55.
72
Figure 7.12: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema, Projection of
Space into Schouwburgplein Square. “Redesign of the Schouwburgplein and
multicinema, Rotterdam” by S. Boeri and B. Lootsma, 1997, Domus. (797). p. 57.
73
Diagrams
Transparency through Material and Views
= Polycarbonate Skin = Views = Voids in Floor Plate
e d
e e
e
f e d
e e
e d
a b d c d e
Ground Floor Second Floor
e
e d
e d
e e
e e
a e f d
b d d e
g
c
d
First Floor Third Floor
Figure 7.13: Transparency Diagrams through Materials and Views, Rotterdam Cinema. Floor Plan
images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998, Architectural Review, (203)1215. p.
61.
74
Transparency through Program: Public vs. Private
=Private, no views- Cinemas = Open Spaces, open views vertically

= Public Inside and Outside Space Projection
Ground Floor Second Floor
First Floor Third Floor
Figure 7.14: Transparency Diagrams through Program: Public vs. Private, Rotterdam
Cinema. Floor Plan images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998,
Architectural Review, (203)1215. p. 61.
75
Transparency in Section through Program, Materials, and Views
= Glass = Polycarbonate Skin = Views = Vertical Circulation = Cinemas
Figure 7.15: Transparency in Section through Program, Materials, and Views, Rotterdam
Cinema. Floor Plan images adapted from “Light Box” by Catherine Slessor, 1998,
Architectural Review, (203)1215. p. 60.
76
PART TWO: SCHOOL DESIGN
CHAPTER 8
SCHOOL SIZE
Learning is directly related to school size. Smaller school communities have
proven to increase student performance by offering more learning opportunities and

greater security. Security is greater in smaller-sized schools primarily because of
improved interaction between students and between teacher and students. There is more
teacher-student familiarity, and students are more likely to take responsibility for each
other. Indeed, adult and student contact is essential for effective school security. The
Columbine shootings and other high profile incidents have been a result of alienation
among troubled teens in otherwise safe, low crime communities. There is better adult-
student contact when the school culture, smaller student body size, and community
interaction are the focus (Nadel, 2004).

Small schools generally have enrollment of five hundred students or fewer. For
older students, school size is more critical in their development, especially for grades 7-
12. High schools and middle schools of five hundred students or fewer are shown to
produce better test results (Nadel, 2004).
A number of high schools across the United States have undergone a reform
initiative to transform large high schools into smaller learning communities. Studies
show that these smaller schools have higher per-pupil expenditures and lower teacher-to-
pupil ratios, both important elements in student outcomes. However, sample data from
New York City high schools, which nearly doubled in number as many small schools
were opened (during the decade 1993-2003) shows that 91.5% of students still attend
large high schools (Chellman, Iatarola, Schwartz, & Stiefel, 2008).
77
A two-year study of Chicago small schools showed that small high schools do
assist student success. The study encompassed 150 small schools during the years 1997-
1999. The high schools that were studied had fewer than 400 students. The study also
covered demographics, attendance, drop out rates, and academic achievements. The
Chicago small schools attended to a wide demographic both ethnically and
socioeconomically. Teacher education at small schools was similar to that of Chicago
teachers elsewhere. The results showed that small-school students, when compared to
those in larger schools, had better attendance, lower drop out rates, and higher grades.
Reading and standardized test scores increased. Additionally, violence was not as
frequent as in large schools due to the more intimate environment and closer teacher-
student interaction. Smaller school size is consistently linked to stronger, safer school
communities. The National Center on Education Statistics found a notable reduction in

teacher-and-principal reported fights, weapons, and violence in schools with 350 students
or less as compared with schools of 750 or more students. Students in small schools have
reported feeling more attached to their school. Small schools also enjoy increased
participation from parents, and higher teacher job satisfaction. Finally, small schools
make it easier organizationally to hold students and teachers more accountable and
manageable (Wasley et al., 2000).
Although the two examples above from urban school systems, research shows that
small rural schools also achieve higher student success. A study of five different school
sizes in Texas looked at the eleventh grade Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills
(TAKS) test results. Smaller rural schools achieved higher percentages of students who
passed all four parts of the eleventh grade TAKS test when compared to larger urban and
suburban schools (Lee 2009).
Moderately-sized grade level groups provide the greatest engagement advantage;
it can be detrimental when student bodies grow beyond 400 students (Baker-Smith,
Carolan, & Weiss, 2010). The Philadelphia School District which started the small
78
school initiative defined ‘small’ as 700 students or fewer whereas now 400 or 500 is the
more common threshold (Research for Action, 2009).

Almost a third of students attending public high school do not graduate. The
national graduation rate is 68-71%. High school graduates are more likely than their
peers who do graduate to experience unemployment, live in poverty, relying on public
assistance, prison conviction and/or death row, and health problems. A high school
dropout is eight times more likely to go to jail than a high school graduate and four out of
every ten young adults from ages sixteen to twenty-four who drop out of high school end
up needing some kind of government assistance (Atlanta Public Schools Brochure from
Website). The public school system has need of reform and one of those reforms is the
small school initiative. Teachers and students in small, community high schools attribute
the positive teacher-student relationships to the small school size. Some small schools
even develop structures to assist these relationships to grow (Research for Action, 2009).
A Philadelphia teacher commented, “Small schools allow for more interpersonal
relationships. It also helps kids identify with something and feel a part of something.
That doesn’t happen in bigger schools. (Research for Action, 2009, p.49). In small
schools, “Everyone knows everybody…everybody can be a leader and be recognized for

it” (Research for Action, 2009, p. 48). A student in a Philadelphia small high school
noted, “People catch you at everything in a small school. You get in trouble more
because teachers are right on top of you, but then you know everyone and each
other…it’s a good thing” (Research for Action, 2009, p. 48). Finally, a small-school
teacher talks about the importance of knowing who the students are in the school:
If you’re in a large comprehensive high school you barely know the kids who are
coming through your door and you don’t see them all the time. I see my students
at least three times a day outside of my classroom…whether they like it or not,
there is more of a personal relationship there. (Research for Action, 2009, p.46)
79
The following figures demonstrate how Philadelphia schools have improved due
to the small school initiative (Figures 8.1-8.2):
Figure 8.1: Median % of First-Time Ninth Grade Students Passing Algebra or a Higher
Level Math Course. Going Small Progress & Challenges of Philadelphia’s Small High
Schools by Research for Action (2009). [Research Report]. Learning from Philadelphia’s
School Reform. p. 37.
80
Figure 8.2: How Safe Students Feel in Hallways and Classrooms in Small and Large
Schools. Going Small Progress & Challenges of Philadelphia’s Small High Schools by
Research for Action (2009). [Research Report]. Learning from Philadelphia’s School
Reform. p. 53.
81
CHAPTER 9
TRANSPARENCY AND DESIGN IMPLICATIONS: CASE STUDIES
Architectural Record prints a yearly issue about schools and good school design.
The following case studies are schools from Architectural Record that represent
transparency from these five categories: Simultaneous Perception of Spaces, Structural

Clarity (a visual encounter with structure), Natural Light, Programmatic Flexibility
(programmatic clarity), Interior to Exterior Connection (projection of space). The first

two case studies, Phoenix Union Bioscience High School and Oslo International School
have green space that comes into the building that acts successfully both as a unifying
gathering place and to pair learning with exposure to nature (See Figures 9.1-9.8).
Phoenix Union Bioscience High School, Phoenix, Arizona: Orcutt/Winslow
Figure 9.1: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School. Retrieved from Architectural
Record Website, http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/09_Phoenix_Union.asp
82
Figure 9.2: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School, Demonstrating Spatial Projection
and Programmatic Transparency. Retrieved from Orcutt Winslow Website,
http://www.owp.com/projects/education_pages/phoenix_bioscience_high_school.php
83
Figure 9.3: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School Demonstrating Literal Visual
Transparency. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/09_Phoenix_Union.asp
84
Figure 9.4: Transparency Diagrams: Phoenix Union Bioscience High School. Adapted
from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/09_Phoenix_Union.asp
85
Oslo International School, Bekkestua, Norway: Jarmund/Vignaes AS Architects
Figure 9. 5: Oslo International School, Corridor View. Retrieved from Design Top News
Website, http://www.designtopnews.com
86
Figure 9.6: Oslo International School, Spatial Projection Material Transparency.
Retrieved from Abduzeedo Website, http://abduzeedo.com/best-week-76
87
Figure 9.7: Oslo International School. Retrieved from Arch Daily Website,
http://www.archdaily.com/16715/oslo-international-school-jva/1799768767_5-8/
88
Figure 9.8: Transparency Diagrams: Oslo International School. Adapted from
Architectural Record Website, http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/bts/archives/k-
12/09_Oslo/default.asp
89
The next two case studies, Betty H. Fairfax High School and Blythewood High
School, use the corridor as programmed space. This became an important concept in the
proposed design of Therrell High School and allows for an additional layer of
programmatic clarity and spatial transparency (See Figures 9.9-9.11).
Betty H. Fairfax High School, Phoenix, Arizona: DLR Group
Figure 9.9: Betty H. Fairfax High School. Retrieved from Betty H. Fairfax Website,
http://www.phxhs.k12.az.us/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectiondetailid
=67687&PHPSESSID=2ceaa9928b1277a536b
90
Figure 9.10: Betty H. Fairfax High School Demonstrating Transparency Between
Outdoor and Indoor Corridor. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/08_Betty_Fairfax.asp.
91
Figure 9.11: Betty H. Fairfax High School Demonstrating Transparency Between
Outdoor and Indoor Corridor. Adapted from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/08_Betty_Fairfax.asp.
92
Blythewood High School, Columbia, South Carolina: Perkins and Will
Figure 9.12: Blythewood High School. Retrieved from Design Share Website,
http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/blythewood-high.
93
Figure 9.13: Blythewood High School, Demonstrating Spatial Projection and
Programmatic Transparency. Retrieved from Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-1.asp
94
Figure 9.14: Transparency Diagrams: Blythewood High School. Adapted from
Architectural Record Website,
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-1.asp
95
CHAPTER 10
DESIGN IMPLICATIONS THROUGH THE FILTER OF
TRANSPARENCY: THERRELL HIGH SCHOOL, ATLANTA
GEORGIA
School Program
Atlanta public schools face special scrutiny as they score low nationally in
standardized testing. Research shows a direct correlation between student performance
and such things as socio-economic status, demographics, student to teacher ratios, and
class sizes.
Recently, the Atlanta Public School System (APS) has instituted initiatives to
promote higher student performance. The High School Transformation Program strives
to improve student performance through various means, one of which is to reconfigure

large Atlanta public high schools into smaller schools and small learning communities
that center on specific areas of education. Research shows that smaller, personalized
learning environments boost student performance, engagement, and overall success while
lowering drop out rates. Therefore, APS’s High School Transformation Program has
been reorganizing high schools with populations of about 2,300 students into smaller
schools of just 400 (http://www.atlantapublicschools.us).

The next five pages (Figures 10.1 and 10.2) outline in detail the program
requirements for the proposed design of Therrell High School as three learning
academies. This program was derived from taking into account the current program
requirements of Therrell and Georgia Department of Education square footage
requirements. Figure 10.2 in particular outlines the main design drivers and assumptions
about the operation of the proposed Therrell design.
96
Figure 10.1a: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
Partially derived from “Square Footage Requirements for Use in Developing the Local
Facilities Plans and State Capital Outlay Applications for Funding” by Georgia
Department of Education, 2000.
97
Figure 10.1b: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
98
Figure 10.1c: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
99
Figure 10.1d: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
100
Figure 10.1e: Program Requirements for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
Figure 10.2: Key Programmatic Ideas for Design Development for Proposed Design of
Therrell High School
101
Site
One of the schools APS has chosen to rebuild into a campus of smaller schools is
D.M. Therrell Educational Campus. Therrell is one of the lower performing schools in
the district and is also in an area where income and property values are low. Therefore,
its site has been chosen for this collaborative thesis project, which proposes to turn
Therrell into a campus of smaller, more community-centered schools with lower class
sizes while manifesting my research thread of transparency.
School Site
The site itself is located in Atlanta (at 3099 Panther Trail SW) and situated in a
residential setting nestled between Interstate 285 and Langford Parkway. There are thick,
forested areas containing mature trees immediately surrounding the site. A few blocks
outside the site’s perimeter are several neglected strip malls as well as the Greenbriar
Mall. The site is exposed to full sunlight as there are no tall buildings or obstructions
nearby to block the light. The neighborhood poverty rate is 56% and the graduation rate
is 68.8%. Therrell was placed into Corrective Action in the 2007-2008 school year for
not meeting the standards for Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) under the national No
Child Left Behind program (http://www.doe.k12.ga.us) (See Figure 10.3).
102
Figure 10.3: Therrell High School in Atlanta, GA. (2010). [Satellite map]. Retrieved
from Google Earth. Adapted for additional site clarity.
103
Floor Plan and Classroom Design: Patterned Carpet
The floor plan for the proposed design of Therrell High School was derived from
a (carpet pattern) design that was then divided into three small learning communities with
a singular bar of shared program and facilities such as the gymnasium, cafeteria, library,
and auditorium. The (carpet pattern) design originated from a series of geometric studies
to find the optimal classroom geometry and learning space. That study resulted in
adoption of the pentagon as the optimal geometry classroom space. The classroom space
is flexible but the spatial unit is repeated, resulting in a pattern that was laid across the
site, with orientation and placement determined by such other factors as topography and
solar exposure (See Figures 10.4-10.6).
Figure 10.4: Pentagonal Classroom with Courtyard.
104
Figure 10.5: Patterned Carpet Diagram Based off the Pentagonal Classroom Shape.
105
Figure 10.6: Floor Plan: Proposed Design, Therrell High School.
106
Integration of Transparency in the Proposed Therrell High School Design
Classroom Modular Panel System
The classrooms are designed to be built from modular construction, in a panelized
system that allows for growth between classrooms and from year to year. It is crucial
that this panelized system allow for transparency between the classroom and the corridor
as well as between each classroom and the adjacent courtyard. The pattern of this
modular system is also applied to the courtyard’s shading device, so as to tie the design
of the panels to a similar carpet idea as the floor plan. In order for proper sightlines to be
maintained, but also to allow for a level of privacy within the classroom, a 35-45%
transparency level is optimal. To achieve this, the panel design consists of a variation of
transparent, translucent, and opaque panels that make up each module. The dimension of
the module is 4’ x 12’. The 4’ dimension was derived from the width of a door, since the
entrances to each classroom fits into the modular system. The 12’ dimension results from
the 10’ typical classroom height with 2’ for structure and mechanical systems. It is also
important to note in the design of the modular panel system that no opaque panel rises
above 2’ in order for a seated teacher at a desk to maintain sightlines into the corridor.
The modules are made of 6” panels that mimic the wood paneling that are present in
surrounding programmatic areas. After the previous constraints were implemented the
pattern of the modules was randomized corresponding to the notion that the modules can
be installed in any order, since they all achieve the transparency level that is needed for
each classroom. A total of ten panels have been designed in order to provide for a varied
and visually interesting pattern once assembled (See Figures 10.7-10.9).
107
Figure 10.7: Example of Classroom Modular Panel System.
108
Figure 10.8: Modular Classroom Panel Transparencies.
Figure 10.9: Assembly of Modular Classroom Panels Example.
109
Sightlines
The repetition of the pentagonal classroom unit offers the opportunity to pair each
classroom with an outdoor learning environment. This pairing of courtyards with

classrooms provides a high level of transparency throughout the school, increasing
sightlines down each corridor, from each classroom into the corridor, and from the
administration into the rest of the school. This increase of visibility in the school works
to eliminate areas typically prone to bullying. There are no areas of the school that are
left without sightlines. Students are likely to be more confident using corridor spaces for
individual place making, as discussed later in this document (See Figures 10.10-10.12).
110
N
10’ 40’
= Corridors = Corridor Sightlines

= Courtyards =Courtyard Sightlines
Figure 10.10: Sightlines: Courtyards and Corridors
111
N
160’
10’ 40’
= Classrooms = Classroom Sightlines

= Administration
= Administration Sightlines
= Courtyards
Figure 10.11: Sightlines: Classrooms and Administration
112
Figure 10.12: Visual Sightlines Diagram: Pairing of One-Way Transparency with Safety
and Materiality.
113
Courtyards
The repetition of the courtyard space as well as the classroom unit causes virtually
the entire school building to have the potential for transparency. As shown in the
sightline diagrams, at certain points there are sightlines that travel through the entire
building. Another important level of transparency that the courtyards bring is their
provision of abundant natural light and ventilation. The courtyards open up to multiple
classrooms and multiple corridors, so fresh air and sunlight can be filtered throughout the
entire building (See Figure 10.13).
114
Figure 10.13: Courtyards Diagram: Pairing of Visual Transparency with Health and
Materiality
115
Figure 10.14 and 10.15 demonstrates a series of sun studies to determine
placement and densities of shading devices around the courtyard walls, which are
important to eliminate classroom glare and too much direct sunlight. Figure 10.14
demonstrates the direct light entering into the classroom. Figure 10.14 is facing the
teaching wall from the back of the classroom, with the courtyard on the left and the
corridor on the right. The top row demonstrates the interior of the classroom with an
entirely opaque roof whereas the bottom row represents a portion of the roof as
translucent. The bottom row of Figure 10.15 represents a series of experiments regarding
the classroom roof and whether or not the opaque roof should begin to be recessed, or
have a translucent piece in order to let more light into the classroom. It was concluded
that although the recessed roof brings in more direct light and, if used, would need to be
made of a tinted material to reduce glare, the full roof allows for less direct light (direct
light is less desirable) and more diffused lighting (diffused lighting is more desirable).
Shading devices on the outer classroom curtain wall will diffuse the direct light that does
enter into the classroom.
Figure 10.14: Sun Studies, Courtyard Light Affecting Interior of Classroom.
116
Figure 10.15: Sun Studies, Courtyard Light and Roof Condition, Academies.
117
Lockers
Locker areas are typically breeding grounds for bullying and hiding of contraband objects
and substances. They tend to create visual barriers between the classroom and the
corridor, making adult visual contact with the corridor a difficult, if not impossible, task.
The problem lies therein: how to rethink lockers as a place for individual place making
while opening up views to reduce bullying and increase safety. The solution devised for
lockers in the design proposal for Therrell High School is a bench with a pull-out drawer.
This creates a place for students to sit and create individualized space and storage in the
corridor while also opening up views and eliminating hiding places. The nature of the
benches also promotes social gathering areas within the ebb and flow of the movement in
the corridor, all within adult and teacher sightlines (See Figures 10.16-10.17).
Figure 10.16: Locker Diagram: Storage and Place Making.
118
Figure 10.17: Lockers Diagram: Placement of Lockers in Corridors.
119
Spatial and Programmatic Transparency: Projection of Space
Spatial transparency and programmatic clarity is achieved in the proposed
Therrell High School design in that classroom space is projected into the courtyard and
the corridor and vice versa. The outside is projected inside and the inside is projected
outside. The projection of classroom space can even be amplified in that sections of the
modular panel system that makes up the classroom walls can be hinged out, using the
wider spaces of the corridor as an extension of classroom space. A series of permutation
studies led to the decision that two of the classroom walls could be opened up into the
hallway, and with the lockers already in place acting as a part of the newly formed space.
In this way several options of extended classroom spaces can be realized (See Figures
10.18-10.22).
Figure 10.18: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Exploration.
120
Figure 10.19: Spatial and Programmatic Transparency Diagram: Projection of Space.
121
Figure 10.20: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 1: Hinging a Portion
of the Long Classroom Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces.
122
Figure 10.21: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 2: Hinging a Portion
of the Long Classroom Wall with Lockers as Boundary to Create Various Programmed
Spaces.
123
Figure 10.22: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 3: Hinging the Short
Classroom Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces.
124
Figure 10.23: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 4: Sliding the Short
125
Figure 10.24: Projection of Space: Classroom Permutations Option 5: Sliding the Short
126
Figure 10.25: Projection of Space: Academy Lab Permutations Option 1: Hinging the
Short Academy Lab Wall to Create Various Programmed Spaces.
127
CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION
There are many types of transparency ranging in definition from literal to abstract.
Each of these can effectively be implemented into various architectural building types,
but the effects and implications of transparency on schools in particular are far reaching
and significant to the performance, health, and safety of students. The implications of the
architecture of schools with respect to these issues have been under-scrutinized. The
proposition for improving student performance through architectural implications is

twofold. Changing the size of schools and implementing literal, spatial, programmatic,
and material transparency in schools.
The building of large schools was an intentional move in the 1950’s when the
Baby Boomers produced a high demand for classrooms. Influential leader and
educational administrator, James Bryant Conant of Harvard University, reasoned that
high schools must enroll over one thousand students in order to have enough high-
performing students to support an honors track. Small schools at the time provided too
few opportunities for bright and gifted students. America needed to prove at the time that
it could compete educationally in world. In the 1960’s, when school districts were
obligated to address desegregation, smaller community schools were replaced with larger
schools that could enroll a diverse student body. Today, however, many studies show
that many problems of public education, especially at the high school level - from drop
out rates to student violence - are largely affected by large school size. The Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation has initiated a major program in support of downsizing high
schools by funding campaigns in New York City and Chicago to create smaller learning
environments. Additionally, other school types, such as charter schools, are becoming
more common and support the smaller school environment. While the building of
smaller schools will not solve all the challenges that public education faces today, it is a
128
viable strategy for addressing the needs of students and has been shown to increase
student and teacher performance in many areas (Duke, DeRoberto, and Trautvetter).
Finally, increasing transparency in schools provides benefits to students and
teachers alike. Greater visibility reduces violence, allows for a school to be easily read
programmatically, increases the pairing of classroom and outdoor space, provides greater
indoor air and light quality, and can help it begin to communicate with its surrounding
context. A higher level of transparency draws on a wide variety of material choices, each
offering its own options for energy efficiency and cost effectiveness.
The design proposal presented here for Therrell High School presents a welding
of these two concepts, small schools and transparency, to produce an environment that
fosters learning and student success in ways not yet fully explored in current building
practices. The potential for school building and planning techniques to have a substantial
impact on student performance has just begun to be explored but is clearly broad. The
hope is that typical school building types will depart from that of 1950’s and 60’s and
develop into schools more suited to student growth, preparedness, and performance: i.e.,
smaller schools with a high level of transparency.
129
APPENDIX A
SCHEMATIC DESIGN FOR PROPOSED DESIGN OF THERRELL
HIGH SCHOOL
Figure A.1: Schematic Exploration: Voronoi-Based Classroom Space.
Figure A.2: Schematic Exploration: Voronoi-Based Pattern Growth.
130
131
132
Figure A.5: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom Space.
133
Figure A.6: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation
Patterns with Circulation.
134
Figure A.7: Schematic Exploration: Hexagonal Classroom and Courtyard Patterns
Aggregated into Three Separate Learning Academies.
135
136
137
Aggregated into Thee Separate Learning Academies.
138
Figure A.11: Schematic Exploration: Parallelogram Classroom Space
139
Figure A.12: Schematic Exploration: Parallelogram Classroom and Courtyard
Aggregation Patterns with Circulation.
140
141
142
Figure A.15: Schematic Exploration: Trapezoidal Classroom Space
143
Figure A.16: Schematic Exploration: Trapezoidal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation
144
145
146
147
Figure A.20: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom Space
Figure A.21: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom Space
148
Figure A.22: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation
149
Figure A.23: Schematic Exploration: Pentagonal Classroom and Courtyard Aggregation
150
Figure A.24: Adequate Yearly Progress Test Results, 2009-2010 for Atlanta Public
Schools and for Therrell High School.
151
Figure A.25: Test Results 2009-2010 for Individualized Academies for Therrell High
School.
152
Figure A.26: Three Main Design Ideas That Were Coupled with Research Threads.
153
Figure A.27: Area Plan with Interstate 285 on the East and Langford Highway on the
South.
154
Figure A.28: Site Plan for Existing Therrell High School.
155
APPENDIX B
DESIGN DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTATION FOR PROPOSED
DESIGN OF THERRELL HIGH SCHOOL
Figure B.1: Plan for Proposed Design of Therrell High School.
156
Figure B.2: Section A Through Courtyards and Small Breakout Spaces in Classrooms.
157
Figure B.3: Section B Through Cafeteria, Circulation, Classrooms, and Breakout Spaces.
158
Figure B.4: South Elevation
159
Figure B.5: East Elevation
160
Figure B.6: Rooftop Garden: Rendering
Figure B.7: Rooftop Garden: Rhino Screenshot
161
Figure B.8: Classroom Rendering with Courtyard View
162
REFERENCES
Abduzeedo Website, http://abduzeedo.com/best-week-76, retrieved 3/2011.
Alderman, B., Beighle, A., Le Masurier, G., and Morgan, C. (2008). Seasonality in
Children’s Pedometer-Measured Physical Activity Levels. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport. (79)2. 256-60.
Addington, M. and Schodek, D. (2005). Smart Materials and Technologies: for the
Architecture and Design Professions. Oxford, England: Architectural.
Alan 927 Photograpy, Knowlton School of Architecture- Skylight,

http://alan927.jalbum.net/Architecture/Ohio%20State%20University/index.htmlht
tp://vincemichael.wordpress.com/tag/farnsworth-house/, retrieved 10/2010.
Amstock, J.S. (1997). Handbook of Glass in Construction. New York, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Arch Daily Website, Gym 704/H Arquitectes, http://www.archdaily.com/22269/school-

gym-704-h-arquitectes/, retrieved 10/2010
Arch Daily Website, http://www.archdaily.com/16715/oslo-international-school-

jva/1799768767_5-8/, retrieved 12/2010.
Architectural Record Website (Betty H. Fairfax High School),

http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/08_Betty_Fairfax.asp, retrieved
12/2010.
Architectural Record Website (Blythewood High School),

http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/0701_CS2_blythewood-1.asp,
retrieved 12/2010.
Architectural Record Website (Oslo International School), /0701_CS2_blythewood-

1.asp, retrieved 12/2010.
163
Architectural Record Website (Phoenix Union Bioscience High School),
http://archrecord.construction.com/schools/09_Phoenix_Union.asp, retrieved
12/2010.
Atlanta Public School District, http://www.atlantapublicschools.us, retrieved 12/2010.
Atlanta Public School District, Transforming Public High Schools. [Brochure].

http://www.atlanta.k12.ga.us/186110129142911720/blank/browse.asp?A=383&BM
DRN=2000&BCOB=0&C=55198, retrieved 12/2010.
Baker-Smith, C., Carolan, B., Weiss, C. (Feb.2010). Big School, Small School:
(Re)Testing Assumptions about High School Size, School Engagement and
Mathematics Achievement. [Abstract]. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. (39)2.
163-176.
Behling, S., Fuchs, A., and Peters, S. (2008). Experiments in Transparency. Detail.
(4)July-August. 410-412.
Behling, S., Fuchs, A., and Peters, S. (2009, September-October). Experiments in

Transparency- Research and Design Projects. Detail. (5)29. 498-501.
Betty H. Fairfax Website,

http://www.phxhs.k12.az.us/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectionde
tailid=67687&PHPSESSID=2ceaa9928b1277a536b, retrieved 3/2011.
Blau, Eve (2008-2009, Fall-Winter). Tensions in Transparency. Harvard Design

Magazine (29), 29-37.
Boeri, S. and Lootsma, B. (1997, October). Redesign of the Schouwburgplein and

multicinema, Rotterdam. Domus. (797). 46-57.
Chellman, C., Iatarola, P., Schwartz, A., and Stiefel, L. (2008). Small Schools, Large
Districts: Small-School Reform and New York City’s Students. [Abstract].
Teachers College Record. (110)9. 1837-1878.
Conway, S., Epstein, K., and Plympton, P. (2000). Daylighting in Schools: Improving
Student Performance and Health at a Price Schools Can Afford. Paper presented at
the American Solar Energy Society Conference, Madison, WI.
164
Consumer Energy Center Website, http://www.consumerenergycenter.org, retrieved
12/2010.
Duke, D., DeRoberto, T., and Trautvetter, S., (n.d.), Reducing the Negative Effects of
Small Schools. Publication funded by the National Clearinghouse for Educational
Facilities (NCEF). Retrieved from
http://www.ccs.k12.va.us/community/docs/SchoolSize.pdf on 3/2011.
Elstner, M. (2009, September-October). Glass Coatings for Every Architectural

Application. Detail. (5)29. 502-506.
EngineerDir Website, http://www.engineerdir.com/dictionary/catalog/798/, retrieved

3/2011.
Fine, M., Gladden, M., Holland, N., King, S., Mosak, E., Powell, L., and Wasley, P.
(2000). Small schools: Great Strides. A Study of New Small Schools in Chicago.
(Evaluative Report 142) Retrieved from Georgia Institute of Technology ERIC
database.
Flickr Website, http://www.flickr.com/photos/mel6manu/344685174/, retrieved 3/2011.
Georgia Department of Education, http://www.doe.k12.ga.us, retrieved 12/2010.
Georgia Department of Education, 2000, Square Footage Requirements for Use in

Developing the Local Facilities Plans and State Capital Outlay Applications for
Funding, retrieved from http://www.doe.k12.ga.us/, 1/2011.
Grangaard, E. (1995). Color and Light Effects on Learning. Rep. Washington D.C.:
Childhood Education International Study Conference and Exhibition. (April 12-15).
Interior Design Website, http://www.interiordesign.net/article/487548-

Go_Big_Blue_HOK_Bus_Depot.php, retrieved 10/2010.
Johnson, L. (1994). Daylight for Depression. Total Health. (December 1994)16. 14-17.
Kaltenbach, F. (Ed.), (2004). Translucent Materials. Munich, Germany: Institut fur

internationale.
165
Lee, S. (2009). Achievement Differences between Large and Small Schools in Texas.
[Abstract]. Rural Educator. (30)2. 20-28.
Luke Butcher Website, http://lukebutcher.blogspot.com/2011/03/oma-netherlands-

embassy-berlin.html, retrieved 3/2011.
Nadel, B. (2004). Building Security: Handbook for Architectural Planning and Design.
New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Orcutt/Winslow Website,
http://www.owp.com/projects/education_pages/phoenix_bioscience_high_school.ph
p, retrieved 12/2010.
Research for Action (2009). Going Small Progress & Challenges of Philadelphia’s Small
High Schools. [Research Report]. Learning from Philadelphia’s School Reform.
Retrieved from Georgia Institute of Technology ERIC database.
Rice, P. and Dutton, H. (1995). Structural Glass. London, England and New York, New
York: Spon.
Rowe, C. &, Slutzky, R. (1997). Transparency. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser.
Scientific American Website,

http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=aerogel-aka-frozen-smoke-an-
oil-spi-2009-02-19, retrieved 3/2011.
Slessor, C. (May 1, 1998). Light Box. Cinema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Glass and
Transparency. Architectural Review. (203)1215. 59-62.
Stanten, M. (2006). Ask the Weight Loss Coach. Prevention. (Feb. 2006)58. 118.
Time Tells Website, http://vincemichael.wordpress.com/tag/farnsworth-house/, retrieved

10/2011.
Therrell High School in Atlanta, GA. (2010). [Satellite map]. Retrieved from Google
Earth 12/2010.
Uniquole Website, http://www.uniquole.nl/en/?cat=4, retrieved 3/2011.
166
Wainwright, E. (2008). Social, Political and Cultural Layers of Transparency Can Glass
Allow Both Security and Openness?. Arq: Architectural Research Quarterly 12(1),
8-11.
Weston, R. (2003). Materials, Form, and Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale UP.
167

Transparency and Learning Spaces

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Transparency and Learning Spaces

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TRANSPARENCY AND LEARNING SPACES

Georgia Institute of Technology

Dr. Laura Hollengreen, Advisor

Date Approved: April 1, 2011

This thesis encompasses two distinct but interrelated works: a research-based

account the research findings.

collaborative effort, with drawings completed by Megan, Ian, or myself. However, we

of our individual research topics.

comprehensively represented their research of place making and environmental effects on

behavior, and modular fabrication techniques respectively in their own written

documents. A combination of these three inputs has resulted in a thorough and

meticulous school design proposal.

personally successful experience. My sincerest appreciation goes to my thesis advisors

to this process has required an immense sacrifice of time. It is because of their

proved invaluable in creating a thoughtful and successful design project. An additional

thanks to Gail Potts, the Director of Graduate Studies in Georgia Institute of

work, and formulate solutions. I would like to extend appreciation to my collaborative

supporter and dearest of friends.

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1

PART ONE: TRANSPARENCY

CHAPTER 2: Types of Transparency 3

Expression of the Transparent Surface 8

CHAPTER 3: Literal Visual Transparency and the Learning Environment 12

Effects of Natural Daylighting and Ventilation 12

CHAPTER 4: One-Way Transparency and Health 14

Blood Pressure and Remaining on Task 15

CHAPTER 5: Two-Way Transparency and Safety 17

“Transparent Security” through Program 18

“Transparent Security” through Materials 21

CHAPTER 6: Expression of the Transparent Surface and Materiality 25

CHAPTER 7: Phenomenal Transparency and the Aesthetic 62

Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: GLASS: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin:

Phenomenal Transparency Case Study: POLYCARBONATE: Rotterdam Multi-

PART TWO: SCHOOL DESIGN 77

CHAPTER 8: School Size 77

Phoenix Union Bioscience High School, Phoenix, Arizona: Orcutt/Winslow 82

Oslo International School, Bekkestua, Norway: Jarmund/Vignaes AS Architects

Betty H. Fairfax High School, Phoenix, Arizona: DLR Group 90

Blythewood High School, Columbia, South Carolina: Perkins and Will 93

CHAPTER 10: Design Implications Through the Filter of Transparency:

School Site 102

Floor Plan and Classroom Design: Patterned Carpet 104

Integration of Transparency in the Proposed Therrell High School Design 107

Spatial and Programmatic Transparency: Projection of Space 120

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Conclusion 128

APPENDIX B: Design Drawings and Documentation for Proposed Design of

Table 6.3 Aerogel Properties. Retrieved from “Translucent High-Performance Silica-Aerogel

Figure 2.1: Types and Attributes of Transparencies 3

Figure 2.6: Toledo Glass Museum by SANAA (2007-2008), Demonstrating Phenomenal

Figure 2.7: Pairings of Types of Transparencies and School Environment Elements 11

Figures 6.14: Aerogel: Block Form. Retrieved from EngineerDir Website,

Figure 7.1: Netherlands Embassy at Night, Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of Glass.

Figure 7.2: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin Walkway Demonstrating Phenomenal Qualities of

Figure 7.4: Netherlands Embassy in Berlin at Night Demonstrating Programmatic Transparency

Figure 7.8: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema. “Redesign of the

Figure 7.9: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema. “Redesign of the

Figure 7.10: Material Phenomenon: Polycarbonate, Rotterdam Cinema. “Redesign of the

Figure 9. 7: Oslo International School. Retrieved from Arch Daily Website,

Figure 9. 8: Oslo International School, Transparency Diagrams. Adapted from Architectural

Figure 10.4: Pentagonal Classroom with Courtyard. 104

Figure 10.7: Example of Classroom Modular Panel System. 108

Figure 10.8: Modular Classroom Panel Transparencies. 109

Figure 10.9: Assembly of Modular Classroom Panels Example. 109

Figure 10.10: Sightlines: Courtyards and Corridors. 111