Society For American Archaeology

Society for American Archaeology
Left/Right Symbolism and the Body in Ancient Maya Iconography and Culture
Author(s): Joel W. Palka
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Dec., 2002), pp. 419-443
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LEFT/RIGHTSYMBOLISMAND 1HE BODYIN ANCIENTMAYA
ICONOGRAPHYAND CULTURE
Joel W. Palka
ThroughoutMaya history the left and right sides of the human body, left/right spatial orientation, and handedness have had
importantcultural and symbolic meanings. This essay examines left/rightsymbolismin relation to the body, which is generally
overlooked in studies of archaeological societies and material culture, and discusses how it relates to ancient Maya ideology
and behavior. New informationfrom Classic Maya iconography,plus corroborative informationfrom Maya ethnographyand
cross-cultural investigations,supporttheproposition that left/rightsymbolic differencesand hierarchieswerepresent in ancient
Maya society. For the Classic Maya, as with contemporaryMaya peoples, the right hand or side of the body often signified
"pure,powerful, or superordinate,"and the left frequently symbolized "weaker,lame, or subordinate" in particular cultural
contexts. Hence, in Classic Maya imagery,kingsface to their right and use their right hands, while subordinatesare oriented
to their left andfrequently use their left hands. Following comparativeanthropological analyses, consideration of handedness
and humanbody symmetryhelp explain the left/right dichotomyand the apparentprimacy of the right in Classic Maya spatial
reference,social order,and worldview.Thefindings of this study have importantimplicationsfor the examinationof left/right
symbolism in material culture, images of the body, and ideology in other societies.
En este ensayo se propone que la division sime'tricade izquierday derechadel cuerpo humano,el diferenteuso de cada mano,y
los sentidos direccionales de izquierday derecha tienen significados importantesen la larga historia de la sociedad maya.Aquf
se analiza el simbolismode izquierday derecha, que es generalmentepasado por alto en estudios de las culturaspasadas y sus
culturas materiales, y se discute como se relacionaba a la ideologfa maya. El argumentoesta'basado en nuevos datos e inter-
pretaciones de la iconograffamaya clasica junto con informacionetnograficamayay de estudios de otras sociedades. En la cul-
turamayaantiguase encuentrandiferenciassimbolicasyjerarquicasde izquierday derecha:la manoy el lado derechodel cuerpo
significan "poderoso,puroy superior"mientrasque la manoy el lado izquierdosimbolizan "debil,impuroy inferior"en ciertos
contextos culturales. Por ejemplo, en muchas ima'genesdel periodo maya clasico, los gobernantesy protagonistasde las cere-
monias son mostradosmirandoa su lado derecho en donde se encuentranlos subordinados,quienes estan orientados haefa su
lado izquierdo.Estas ima'genestambie'nmuestrana los gobernantesusando sus manos derechasy a los subordinadosfrequente-
menteusandosus manos izquierdas.Por ejemplo,en los muralesmayasde Bonampak,Me'xico,los guerreroslocales esta'nmostra-
dos usando sus manos derechas mientras que sus enemigos son surdos. De acuerdo al estudio antropologico comparativo,la
diferenciaentre las dos manosy la simetrfadel cuerpo humanoayudana explicar el simbolismode izquierday derechay la pre-
ferencia por el lado derecho en la jerarqufa social, la referenciaespacial, y la cosmologfa de los mayas. Este simbolismo de
izquierday derechajunto con la importanciade la derecha han sido importanteen la organizaciony estructuracionde la icono-
graffa, la arquitectura,y el ordensocial de los mayas, al igual que en otras culturasy merecenmas atencion.
In a comprehensivestudyof ancientMayasculp- observations on the body in Maya iconography:

turefrom Mexico and CentralAmerica,Prosk- Mayarulersdepictedon stonemonuments,ceramic
ouriakoff(1950:4) proclaimedthat the human vessels, andotherartface to theirrightwhile hold-
figure was the centralmotif in Maya iconography. ing objectsin theirrighthands,while theirsubordi-
Indeed,theentirebodywas consistentlyrepresented natesface to theirleft. In certaininstances,defeated
on ancient Maya ceramics, codices, murals,stone enemies are shown as being left-handed,as in the
reliefs,andportableobjects,andthe artistsgavepar- Bonampakmurals and some ceramic scenes. Are
ticularattentionto dress,faces, hands,and gestures these humanfigure orientationsand depictionsof
(see Ancona-Haet al. 2000; Miller 1999;Schele and handednesspervasivein Mayaart?And, if so, what
Miller 1986). The presentstudystems from further arethe possiblereasonsbehindthem?HereI recon-
Joel W. Palka * Departmentof Anthropologyand LatinAmericanand Latino Studies Program,Universityof Illinois, 1007 W.
HarrisonSt., Chicago, IL 60607
LatinAmericanAntiquity,13(4), 2002, pp. 419443
Copyright(C)
2002 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology
419
LATINAMERICAN
ANTIQUITY
420 [Vol. 13, No. 4, 2002
structfeaturesof ancientMaya beliefs and

artistic Distinctionsbetweenthe left andrightin spatial
canonsfromrepresentations of the humanbody and orientationand the body are commonplacein con-
handuse in iconography.Throughits physical
rep- temporary Maya cultures (see Earle 1986:163;
resentationin art,the humanbody is joined with the
Gossen 1974; Hunt 1977:95-115; Palka 2000).
socialmilieuto makevisible some intriguing
aspects Thereis frequentlya hierarchy(or rankedcomple-
of Classic Maya ideology, behavior,identity,
and mentarity)in these paireddistinctionswith a pre-
worldorder.I proposethatClassicMayaartand
cul- eminenceof the rightfor the Maya,which now can
ture exhibitedleft/rightsymbolism and
associated be linkedto the distantpast.In modernand
valuesandspatialorganizationthatwere ultimately colonial
Mayanlanguagedictionaries,for instance,the word
derivedfromhandednessandleft/rightsymmetryof
for "right"signifies righthand,great,large,
thehumanbody. princi-
pal andtrue,while "left"meanslame,
In the following discussion,studies of subordinate,
left/right left-handed,and untrue.Theremay have been sim-
symbolismare summarizedand comparisonswith
ilarmeaningsof left and right and the body in
contemporary Maya culturesand othersocietiesare the
Classicperiodandlong beforeColonialinfluences.
made.Moreover,an in-depthanalysisin addition
to Importantly,few studies have intensively ana-
statisticalcomparisonsof Classic Maya representa-
lyzedleft and right symbolism, body
tionsof people, hand use, body positioning, orientation,
and andassociatedmeaningin archaeological
left/rightorientationsfromtheiconographic societies
corpusare andhow these are manifestedin material
presented. Specificobservationsandinterpretations culture-
of particularly in ancient art and architecture.Also,
Maya artregardinghandedness,left/rightfigureplace-
ment, ethnographic data,iconographicanalysis,andsocial
reversedorientations,andtheassociatedcultural theories of left/rightsymbolicclassificationshavenot
semantics fortheancientMayaarealsoprovided.The
beengenerallybroughttogetherby
analysis of the imageson stonemonumentsanddec- Mesoamerican
researchers. Previous work with myriad cultures,
orated ceramicsin this studydemonstratesthatdis-
however,has demonstratedthat specific left/right
tinct
patternsand meaningencodedin iconography
distinctions arepresentin iconographyandthatthey
alludeto anancientMayaleft/rightdichotomyandpri-
relateto specific culturalpractices,ideology,
macy of the right.Hieroglyphicandlinguisticinfor- and
worldview (seeAdorno1982,2000:80-119;Classen
mation also lendsupportto thisstudyof humanbody
1993; Joyce 2000:74-75; Lopez-Baralt1979;Palka
symbolism for the ancientMaya.
1999;Robins 1994; Tate 1999; Uhrbrock 1973;
Previousscholarshave pointedout the comple-
Uspensky 1975). The findingsof these studiesshed
mentary dyadsof left andrightandhow they shape
lighton the ancientMaya case and can assist with
behavior, cosmology,andsymbolismin humansoci- the
analysisof relatedbodysymbolism,ideology,and
eties
(see Boas 1955; Levi-Strauss1963:245-268;
iconography in othercultures.
Maybury-Lewis andAlmagor1989;Needham1973; The recurringsymbolismandideologicalprinci-
Thuren 1988; Van Zantwijket al. 1990). As these
ples
of left/rightwithregardto thebodyin Mayacul-
authors also show, left/right symbolism from the
ture
may have a long and unbrokenhistoryfrom at
human body is one importantmeans (togetherwith
least
theClassicperiod(ca.A.D.400-900) to thepre-
backlfront,up/down,etc.)to orderandexpresssocial sent.
As discussedbelow, the Maya primacyof the
structure,
spatialorganization,andideology(see also right
side of the body,therighthand,andorientation
Classen1993;Gossen 1979;Hanks1990;LaFlesche to
the right also may have ancientroots. But
1916;LopezAustin what
1988:163-165,1996:109-131). are
the origins and underlyingmeanings of Maya
Additionally,the workof otherresearchersdemon-
conceptsof left and right, why do they permeate
strates
thatthe body is a key symbol anda transmit-
ter iconography, andhow can the primeimportanceof
ofsocialinformationthroughits artistic
depiction, this
symbolismbe explainedanthropologically?
spatial
positioning, and metaphorical reference This
essay
is not intendedto be a structural-psychologi-
(Barkan 1975; Bourdieu 1977; Campbell 1974; cal
analysis but a more relativistexaminationthat
Classen1993;Douglas 1982;Hamilakiset al.2002;
relates
comparablehumanbehaviorsto meanings
Hertz
1973; Houston and Cummins 1998; Joyce
and
values of left/rightbody symbolism.Thus, the
1998,
2000; Laqueur 1990; Lopez Austin 1988;
following
sectionon relevantanthropologicalworks
Monaghan 1994).
specifically
informsthe Mayaculturalcomplexand
Joel W. Palka] LEFT/RIGHT
SYMBOLISM
INANCIENTMAYAICONOGRAPHY 421
does not championa collectivesubconsciousor uni- hand and directionwith power, maleness, correct-
versal view of left/rightideology and its material ness, elites, etc. ForHertz,religiouspolarity,natural
manifestations. opposites,and divisions in humansocieties can be
conceptualizedin organicasymmetryof the left vs.
Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives on the right side of the humanbody and the predomi-
Left/Right Symbolism and the Body nanceof the righthand(Hertz1973:3-11). In many
A comparativebackgroundstudyof left/rightsym- societies, terms for "right"often denote strength,
bolism, the correspondingculturalsemantics,and dexterity, intelligence, good judgment, moral
theirrelationto the humanbody is necessarybefore integrity,sacredpower,legitimacy,aristocracy,and
we examine Classic Maya art and culture.What is beauty.On the otherhand (not only figuratively!),
interestingto note, and of special significancehere, termsfor "left"aredirectlycontrastive,being asso-
is thatpeoplesacrosstheglobeclassify,order,orcon- ciatedwith weak,profane,impure,malevolent,ple-
ceptualizetheirworldby referringto theleftandright beian, anddreadedqualities(Hertz1973:11-12).
sides of the humanbody and theirassociatedsym- Hertz arguedthat the prominenceof the right,
bols andvalues(see Barsley1966;Bliss andMorella religiouspolarity,anddual symbolicclassifications
1980; Fritsch 1968; Needham 1973). In fact, a stemfrombodysymmetryandright-handedness and
left/rightsymbolic dichotomyappearsto be nearly thatthesehadvariousbiological,psychological,and,
universalcross-culturally, butthe meanings,values, ultimately, social origins. He illustrated several
andsemioticsof left andrightareculturespecific.In examplesof left/rightsymbolismandsemanticsthat
many societies, but not all (as in China;see Granet are useful here for a parallelperspectiveon ancient
1973),peopleperceivetherighthandor"totheright" Mayacultureandideology:
to be affiliatedwith masculinity,power, superordi- Among the Maori the right is the sacred side,
nates,andthe sacred,whereasthe "left"consistently the seat of good and creative powers; the left is
representseither femininity,subordination,feeble- the profaneside, possessing no virtue other than
ness,ortheprofane,dependingon theparticular social certain disturbing and suspect powers . . . the
andceremonialcircumstances.Forexample,inWest- right is the side of the gods; the left side is ded-
icated to demons. Even today, the right hand is
ernsocietiespeople shakewith the rightor "proper" still called good and beautiful, and the left bad
hand,writingis from left to right,tools are largely and ugly ... [Hertz 1973:12].... The gods are
designedfor right-handers, andtherearetermssuch on our right, so we turn towards the right to
as "leftists"and "sinistrals"(left-handers).Even in pray. Sacred offerings are presentedto the gods
Europeanartandparticularlyreligiousiconography, with the right hand. To bring about good effects
in a ceremony, to bless or to consecrate, the
left andrightdistinctionsin the treatmentof bodies, Hindus and the Celts go three times round a
handedness, and figure positioning are present. person or an object, from left to right, like the
Explicitculturaland ideologicalmeaningsare also sun, with the right side inwards. The contrary
conveyedandthereoftenis a preferencefor theright movement and attitude, in similar circum-
andrighthand(see Uhrbrock1973;Uspensky1975). stances, would be sacrilegious and unlucky
[Hertz 1973:15].
In othercultures,the left is theprincipalpositionand
the viewing of imagesor readingorderis fromright Needham(1973), followingHertz,statesthatthe
to left (Corballisand Beale 1976:106-107; Granet pre-eminenceof therighthandandthe lesserimpor-
1973). The centralpoint, however,is thatthereis a tanceof thelefthand,plusthenaturalbodysymmetry
dichotomy,usually a hierarchicalone, betweenleft in humans,haveimportantimplicationsforthe study
andrightthatcan be manifestedin behavior,spatial of left vs. rightsymbolicandclassificatoryschemes.
positioning,andmaterialculturein manysocieties. Needhamwrites:
In an insightfulcross-culturalanalysis,the father The issue can be studied in such variedfields as
of left/rightstudies,RobertHertz( 1973),recognized the Homeric poems, alchemy, and thirteenth-
that humans construct symbolic classifications centuryFrenchreligious art, in Hindu iconogra-
regardingtheirbodies,society,andthecosmosbased phy, classical Chinese state ceremonies,
uponthe use of theirrightand left hands.He estab- emblem books and bestiaries, as well as Maori
ritual, Bornean divination, and the myths of the
lished that people tend to look more positively on most disparatecultures.... The kiragu,insignia
therightthantheleft,andassociatethepreferredright of power, are held in his left hand, and for this
422 LATINAMERICAN
ANTIQUITY [Vol. 13, No. 4, 2002
reason the Mugwe keeps his left hand always women or female symbols on the pictorial left
under cover of his mantle; a very special power (viewer's right). Severalstudies indicatethat from
in connection with his blessings is popularly
attributedto his left hand; it is a source of great Precolumbianto post-Colonialtimes, the left con-
awe; respect and fear are felt for this hand, and noted "female, low, bad, and moon" whereas the
no one may look on it without dying [Needham rightdesignated"male,high, good, and sun"in the
1973:110]. Andes (see Adorno 1982, 2000:91-99; Classen
Needhamtakesthe analysisof rightandleft further 1993:12-25; Isbell 1976; Roe 1982:198-199). For
by arguingthatthesymbolicoppositionbutbalanced example, a wall design purportedlyfrom the Inka
complementaritiesof the two handsandsides of the Templeof the Sun in Cuzco, Peru,containeda cos-
body is so commonthatit is intrinsicto the human mological scheme of a masculine/feminineduality
mind,behavior,existence,andworldview.However, mediatedby a centerwith the male elements(man,
Needhamdidnotelaborateon his commentsregard- sun, etc.) on the pictorialrightandfemale elements
ing left/rightsymbolismin iconography,and while (woman,moon,etc.) on thepictorialleft (seeAdorno
scholarsmaynot agreewithhis theories,Needham's 2000:91;Classen 1993:20;Isbell 1976;Lopez-Bar-
recognitionof left/rightorganizationin materialcul- alt 1979).The Spanishreportedlydestroyedan Inka
tureneeds to be broughtinto the debate. idolrepresenting a manfacingtheeast(spatialorcon-
ceptualright)anda womanorientedto thewest (con-
Studiesof Lefi/RightSymbolismand the Body in ceptual left) (Classen 1993:22, endnote 42).
Iconography
Moreover,thereappearto have been left/rightdivi-
Concise examples of left/rightorganizationin art, sions andsymbolismin the settlementof Cuzco and
depictionsof the body, and theirculturalmeanings correspondingInkasociopoliticalorganization(see
provide additionalcomparativeanalogies for the Lopez-Baralt1979; Ziudema 1964). The illustra-
ancientMaya. For instance,a left/rightdichotomy tions by Andean artists,particularlythose of Gua-
and spatialordercan be seen in handedness,figure manPoma,depicthigh-statusindigenousnobles on
positioning, and symbolism in ancient Egyptian the pictorialrightwith Spaniardsand subordinates
stone carvings and murals. In this case, multiple on the pictorialleft (Adorno 1982). Also in these
humanfigures are spatiallyseparatedto the left or drawingsthe Inkacreatordeity holds the sun in his
right of the image centerand single portraitsoften right hand and the moon in his left (see Classen
look to theirright(see Robins 1994). Egyptianmen 1993:19-25, 33-35), and people frequentlyface to
frequentlysit or standto the rightof women,or they theirrightwhile manipulatingobjectsin theirright
areplaced in frontof them, which is seen as equiv- hands or gesture to their right (see Adorno
alentto therightside themoreimportantandpres- 2000:89-114; Classen 1993:20-21, 119, 121, 123,
tigiousposition(Robins 1994:19).Additionally,the 126;Lopez-Baralt1979).
orientationand order of ancient Egyptian art and In Hinduart,figurestouch each otherwith their
writing was left to right or right to left (Robins righthands,powerfulsupernaturals areshownto the
1994:21). Moreover,right and left handswere fre- viewer'sright(vs. pictorialright),anddeitiesmanip-
quentlyreversedon the armsof humanfigures.This ulatecertainobjectsandweaponsin theirrighthands
was not due to the oversightof Egyptianartistsbut (Geschwind 1984:38-39; Zimmer 1946). These
to the factthatcertainobjectshadto be carriedin the imagesprobablysignifythe long historyof a preem-
properhands.For instance,handreversalin Egypt- inenceof the rightin SouthAsian societies.The pri-
ian artwas an importantdevice to show thatfigures macyfortherightin Hinduartmayfollowtheideology
used only theirleft handsto carrycertainstaffsand of thepure,correct,andstrongrighthandusedforeat-
theirright handsto hold specific scepters.In addi- ing, and the impure,incorrect,and weakerleft hand
tion, humanfiguressometimeslook contortedwith traditionallyused for cleaningone's body in South
reversedlimbs or objects drawnbehind and to the Asian cultures(Emeneau1987). Herethe rightside
rightof theirbodies to indicatethatthey are in the of the body and righthandare also associatedwith
righthand(Robins 1994:1S2 1). malenessandstrength(Beck 1973).Withreferenceto
In anothercase, Andeanartistsdepictedmen or genderideology and left/rightdivisionsin the artof
malesymbolson thepictorialright(on therightfrom South Asia, iconographic representationsof the
the image's perspective,or the viewer's left) and anthropomorphic half-womanSiva (SivaArdanari)
SYMBOLISM
displaythe rightside as a man and the left half as a fundamentalorganizingprinciplesfor structureand

woman (Beck 1973:396;Zimmer 1946:Figure70). meaningin ancientMaya artand spatialreference.
The relationshipbetweenleft andrightandgenderis Generally,the humanbody is depictedin frontalor
perhapsrelatedto thepreferredpositionof mento the profileview, but heads are almostalways shown in
rightof women which facilitatedthe use of a man's profilefacingto the rightor left. Body-lengthfigure
purerighthand(PaulHockings,personalcommuni- portraitsthat face to theirright(the pictorialper-
cation2000; see Zimmer1946:Figures34 and67). spectiverightor the viewer'sleft) and hold objects
The SouthAsianiconographythenreflectsproper in theirrighthandsarecommonplacein Mayasculp-
humanbehaviorandprovidesa model for the order ture, murals,codices, and portableobjects (Figure
of the physical,social, andsupernaturalworldsas in 1) as a perusalof Maya artbooks will demonstrate.
the EgyptianandAndeancases. The importanceof Whenmultipleindividualsareshown,peopleof sub-
thiscomparativediscussionis thatit succinctlyillus- ordinatestatusapproacha superordinate noble from
tratesthatleft/rightcorporealsymbolismis present left to right and move towardthe rightside of the
andfoundin materialculturein manysocieties.How- superordinate(Figure2). Additionally,Mayahiero-
ever, interpretiveresearchon human handedness, glyphs arereadfrom left to rightand they facilitate
body symmetry,andleft/rightsymbolismin artand the left to rightviewing of the images.Furthermore,
architectureis needed to understandthe origins, drawingsof handsand arm gesturesoften indicate
social semantics,and cross-culturaloccurrenceof thedirectionof action.Forexample,the directionof
left/rightdichotomy.The richdataon the Mayaand movementof Venusis symbolizedin a Maya-influ-
theirart and ideology providea prime opportunity enced muralat Cacaxtla,Mexico, wherefootprints
for such a study. on a bandof Venussigns leadclockwisefroma right
handto a left hand(Figure3). In this case the right
Left/Right Patterning and the Human Figure handappearson the east; in the Maya paintingsof
in Ancient Maya Iconography Rio Azul Tomb 12, the viewer's right is similarly
Investigatorshave long descnbed and interpreted associated with the hieroglyphfor east (Milbrath
Mayaiconography,butthey do not usuallyconsider 1999:72-73). Movementsto the rightor left, or in a
the overall structuringprinciples and the cultural clockwiseorcounterclockwisemanner,arecommon
templatesbehind the organizationand creationof in Mesoamericaniconographyand they are related
Maya images and hieroglyphic texts. Numerous to the perceived structureof the sky, the cardinal
scholarshavecasuallymentioned,butnotadequately points,thejourneyof the sun, andthe body (Gossen
explained, the patternedhandednessand left and 1979; Hall 1997:133-137; Milbrath 1999:17-23,
rightplacementof individualsin ancientMaya art 7s74; Robin2000:213-216).
and,by extension,in ritualandsocial life. Forexam- The overall left/rightstructurewith humanfig-
ple, it has been generallynoticedthatthe viewer of uresin ClassicMayaiconographycanbe understood
Maya art scans the scenes from left to right like a by consideringhandedness,social rank, and sym-
"supplicantwould approacha high rankingindivid- bolic action in ancientMaya culture(Palka 1999,
ual"(Houston1998:341).Additionally,when view- 2000). When multiplehumanfiguresare shown on
ing many facades and murals in Classic Maya Mayamonumentsandceramics,theyfaceeachother
architecture, it is generallyknownthatthemovement acrossa zoneof contactwiththepeakfigure(a super-
is typically from the viewer's left to right. Conse- ordinate,a leaderin ritual,andmost socially impor-
quently,we need to ask whythe viewer is guidedto tantpersonin the image) looking and gesturingto
the right in Maya art and whyspecific individuals his or herright(followingHouston1998:341-344).
face to their right and use their hands in specific Hence, the peak figure is typicallyto the rightand
ways. In examiningthese questionswe explorenew the subordinateto the left in Maya images accord-
avenuesin the studyof ancientMayabeliefs, social ing to the perspectiveof the viewer (see Figure2).
order,and worldview. In a commonMayascene, a kneelingor submissive
subordinateapproachesthe zone of contacttoward
FigureOrientation
andSocialStatus
the righthandandrighthalf of the body of the peak
in MayaArt
figure.
The patternof left to right appearsto be one of the The peakfigurein Mayaartcan usuallybe iden-
424 LATINAMERICAN
Figure 1. Maya ruler facing his right and holding a God K (k'awi[) scepter in his right hand (Stela 4, Machaquila
Guatemala; photograph courtesy of Jean Pierre Courau). See Coe (1999:115).
tified as a noble man or womanwho is seatedon a dress, and accompanyingattendants.Subordinates,

throne,leads the ritualor action,or is shown stand- or nonpeakfigures, are usually attendants,lesser
ing in a commandingfrontalpose. The peak figure nobles,warriors,andcaptiveswho areidentifiedby
is often the individualof higheststatusin the scene theirdress,appearance,
andhieroglyphictitles.These
who i.s identifiedby glyphic titles, more elaborate subordinates,who wear less-ornateclothing,kneel
SYMBOLISM
A
l
2 :
-4
A B
Figure 2. Maya ruler Bird Jaguar and subordinate lord at the zone of contact. The ruler (b) leads with the right side of his
body and right hand, while the subordinate (a) leads with his left hand (Lintel 9, Yaxchilan,Mexico; Graham 1977:29; cour-
tesy of Ian Graham).
or standin profile view to the side of the peak fig- the rightand associationswith the rightside of the
ure andgesturein submissionwith theirhandsheld body areoften preferredfor high-statusindividuals,
down or on their shoulders(see Ancona-Haet al. peak figures,and men in ancientMaya art.
2000 and Schele and Miller 1986 for examples).
In addition, men are frequently placed to the Quantifyingand UnderstandingClassic Maya
viewer's right (and facing their own right) as peak Figure Placement
figures, and noble women to the viewer's left (and In supportof the observationsdiscussed above, a
facing theirown left) as subordinatesin relationto quantitativecomparisonof left/rightfigureorienta-
the zone of contact(Palka 1999, 2000; Schele and tionin a largesampleof ceramics1(n = 448) andstone
Miller 1986:275). Joyce (1996, 2000:75) also monuments2(n = 349), two of the most common
observesthatmanystonemonumentsdepictingelite forms of Classic PeriodMaya art,was undertaken.
women are placed to the left of monumentspor- These objects date from approximately A.D.
trayingnoble males. Generally,then, movementto 400-900 andarefromsouthernlowlandMaya sites
LATINAMERICAN
ANTIQUITY
426 [Vol. 13, No. 4, 2002
Figure3. Left/right movement and hands in

iconography: (left) Cacaxtla murals, Mexico,
rightand left hands (Baird 1989:108; Figure 4; depicting Venus movement with
courtesy of Ellen Baird) and (right) shell gorget
spiral(sun symbol?) and human hands (drawn from Spiro, Oklahoma, with
from Fundaburk and Foreman 2001:60).
inHonduras,Guatemala,Belize, Chiapas,andsouth-
right,date to the earlierpartof the Classic
ernYucatan.Illustrationsfromthe available period
sources (Early to MiddleClassic period,or A.D. 400-600).
wereexaminedforleft/rightfigureorientation:
quan- Theymay have been pairedwith right-oriented
titiesandpercentagesof left vs. rightplacement ste-
and laeor maybe commissioned before the
handuse, and indeterminatecases were left/right
recorded organization andiconographicstandardswerefirinly
(Figures 4, 5, and6). The resultsindicatethatnearly
established in LateClassicMayaart,butthisremains
90percentof individualportraitsandpeople
facing tobe clarifiedin futurestudies.Also, some
onedirectionin a procession,ritual,or dance figures
look facing their left were possibly made by artiststo
totheirright(see Figure 1) andhold objectsor
ges- illustrate ritual reversals and contrarymovement
turewith theirrighthands.Additionally,when peo-
toward the left to emphasizethe sacrednatureof the
pleinteractin the zone of contact(see Figure2)
and ceremony (see below). The figuresorientedto their
asuperordinatefigurecan be clearly
identified,the left
or using theirleft handsare often deities, deity
superordinate faces his/herrightwhile favoringthe
right impersonators, or individualsdepictedin the Other-
handabout80 percentof the time;conversely,
world (see Coe and Kerr 1998:104, 106; Kerr
subordinates areorientedtowardtheirleft. Samples
1989:65, File no. 1183, andp. 67, File no. 1196;
of
Mayaartin thisstudy(see Tables1 and2 forexam-
Schele and Miller 1986:214, Figure V.5a), thus a
ples)
wereindependentlycheckedby two colleagues
contrary presentationor reversedaction and hand-
who confirmed the same identification of figure
ednessknown for the supernaturalrealm may be
placement, superordinatevs. subordinateindividu- indicated.
als,
and a basic left/rightorientation.3
Furthermore,some painted ceramics showing
The findingsindicatea strongtendencyfor right
contraryleft-orientedfiguresappearto be fakes and
orientationand right-handuse for higher ranking others
mayhavebeenmadeby noneliteartisanswho
andsocially importantindividualsin Maya art.Do
were
less skilledandless versedin the artisticcanons
the
images reflect the usual numberof noble right-
ofClassic periodart.In these cases, the false hiero-
handersthatwere born(about90 percentin human
glyphic
texts arenot readable,humananddeity fig-
populations)? It is also possible that right-handed ures
are poorly executed, and the creatorsdid not
scribescreated scenes of right-oriented figures
follow
Mayaleftlrightconventionswithhanduse and
because
theirvisualperceptionanddirectionof draw-
figure
orientationtypicallyseenin eliteMayaart.The
ing/carving favors the right (see Coe and Kerr sculpture
at the site of Yaxchilan,Mexico, has a dis-
1998:147; Corballis and Beale 1976:106-108).
proportionate numberof superordinatefigures ori-
However,like some Maya stone stelae at Tikal(see
ented
to theirleft, which is possiblydue to the large
Jones
andSatterthwaite1982),imagesshowingindi-
quantity
of right-orientedimages of noble women
vidual
portraitsfacing to their left, instead of the and
subordinatesleading ritualsunderthe aegis of
Joel W. Palka] LEfT/RIGHT
SYMBOLISM
INANCIENTMAYA
ICONOGRAPHY 427
Maya Decorated Ceramics
Portraits Peak Figures
Face to their right

Face to their left
FaceRight FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

Portraits n=173(88%) n=23(12%) n=0 (0%) n=196(100%)
PeakFigures n=196(77%) n=l9 (8%) n-37 (15%) n=252(100%)
Combined n-369 (82.5%) n=42(9.5%) n=37(8%) n=448(100%)
Portraits:Anthropomoxphic
figuresfacingone direction(singleindividuals,processions,etc.)
PeakFigure:Superordinateorientation at zoneof contact(two figuresinteracting)
Indeterminate:
Orientation
of figuresis unclearor peakfigurecould not be identified
Figure 4. Left/Right Figure Orientation: Classic Maya Ceramics (Painted and Incised).
Maya Stone Monuments
250- /
-
200- -
/
150
100- ,'-
/
50 / _
O
Portraits Peak Figures
S
Face to their right
Face to their left
FaceR;ght FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

Portraits n=246(89%) n=29(11%) n-0 (0%)* n=275(100%)
PeakFigures n=61(82.5%) n=6 (8%) n=7 (9.5%) n=74(100%)
Combined n=307(88%) n=35(10%) n=7(2%) n=349(100%)
*Fromthe samplesites,64 additionalmonuments werebrokenor erodedand56 additional

monuments werein full-frontalview, thusa leftlrightorientation
couldnotbe determined
Portraits: Anthropomorphic
Peak Figure: Superordinate
orientation at zoneof contact(two figuresinteracting)
Indeterminate:Orientation
of figuresis unclearorpeakfigurecould notbe identified
Figure 5. LeftlRight Figure Orientation: Classic Maya Monuments (Stela, Lintel, or Panel).2
428 ANTIQUITY
LATINAMERICAN [Vol. 13, No. 4, 2002
Maya Ceramics and Monuments
500 -
400 -
300 -
200 -
100 -
o
{esw w¢Sa-
Peak Figures
Portraits l l
* Face to theirright
* Face to theirleft
FaceRight FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

Portraits n=419 (89%) n=52 (11%) n=0 (0%)* n=471 (100%)
Peak Figures n=257 (79%) n=25 (B%) n=44 (13%) n=326 (100%)
Combined n=676 (85%) n=77 (10%) n=44 (5%) n=797 (100%)
*Fromthesamplesites,64 additionalmonuments werebrokenor eroded,and56 additional

monuments couldnotbe determined
werein full-frontalview, thusa left/rightorientation
Portraits: Anthropomorphic
Peak Figure: Superordinate
orientation at zoneof contact(two figuresinteracting)
of figuresis unclearorpeakfigurecould notbe identified
Indeterminate:Orientation
Figure6. LefURightFigureOrientation:MayaCeramicsandMonumentsCombined.
theirking(see Robin2000). Thesemonumentswere illustratedwith the body infrontal view while fac-
commemoratedfor the subordinates,who were act- ing to theirrightor the properdirection.This type
ing as peakfigures,andthusillustratethemcorrectly of presentationeffectively portrayedthem in their
orientedto theirrightandbeingright-handed. Addi- regalsplendorandsituatedthemto theirrightortrue,
tionallyStherearemanypairingsof monumentsfac- powerful,and dexterousside. Second, the desired
ing each otheratYaxchilan-one to the left andthe structurein Mayaartwas to firstandforemostshow
other to the right of a central image or stairway the superordinatesand peak figures gesturing or
affecting figure placement. If examples from the manipulatingobjectsonly withtheirrighthandsand
earlypartofthe Classicperiod(beforeA.D. 600) and usingtheircorrect,strong,andprinciplelimbto their
all theYaxchilanmonumentsareremovedfromthe rightatthezone of contact.Thesubordinatesornon-
sample,the percentageof right-orientedhigh-status peak figures seen in the normal frontal view are
figures approaches95 percent.Preliminaryobser- forcedto use theirleft or weaker,secondaryhands
vations on Maya carved shell, bone, jade, painted towardthepeakfigureatthezoneof contact(see Fig-
murals,and especially the codices, also indicatea ure 2). However,the subordinatescan be depicted
similarhigh percentageof the right-orientedindi- right-handedtowardthe zone of contactif they are
vidualsandpeakfigures. shownin the less-importantprofileview, wherethe
But why aresuperiors,leadersof ritual,peakfig- frontof the body is not seen (butsee Kerr1989:39,
ures, and men depictedmore often facing to their File no. 717, for a right-handedand a left-handed
rightandhavingtherightsidesof theirbodiestoward scribein profile).Interestingly,some figureson the
the zone of contact?Why aren'tportraitsand cen- left of the zone of contactfrom the viewer's per-
tralfiguresplacedat least50 percentof the timefac- spectiveeven have righthandsplaced on theirleft
ing left? First,in Maya iconographyit was critical armsto compensatefor right-handedness (Figure7;
thatsupremeelites, rulers,andimportantpersonsbe see also Ancona-Haet al. 2000).
SYMBOLISM
Table 1. Left/Right Orientationand Hand Use of Peak Figures at Zone of Contacton Maya Sculpture
at Yaxchilan(examples from Graham1977).
Monument Context Face their R Face their L Use R hand Use L hand
Lintel 1 Ruler/ritual X X
Lintel 8 Ruler/war X X
Lintel 12 Ruler/captive X X
Table 2. Left/RightOrientationand Hand Use of Peak Figures at Zone of Contact

on Maya Ceramics(examples from Kerr 1989).
Vessel Context Face their R Face theirL Use R hand Use L hand
114 Palace scene X X
319 Noble/throne X X
509 Seated noble X X
532 Noble/greets X X
534 Noble/ritual X X
631 God?/palace X X
671 Noble/stands X X
787 Noble/greets X X
1183 God/palace X X
1399 Nobles/greet X X
In Maya iconographysuperordinatefigureshad internalpictorialperspectiveand externalviewer's

to appearon the viewer'srightin orderto be shown pointof view withregardto left andrightto preserve
usingtheirrightor"proper" handsatthezone of con- the eventsandpositionsof the participantsandwit-
tactwhile in the standardfrontalview.Thus,accord- nesses as they actuallyhappened.
ing to Mayaartisticconventions,kingsandimportant
personages should not be typically placed to the Left/Right Symbolism and Meaning in Classic
viewer'sleft andusingtheirleft orincorrectandsec- Maya Art and Society
ondaryhands.With this corporeality,Maya ruling Theprimacyof therightandtheuse of therighthand
elites set themselvesapartsocially, physically,and by superordinatepersonsand centralfiguresin the
rituallyfrom others(Houstonand Cummins1998). images appearto be of criticalimportancein Clas-
These depictionsof handednessand figure orienta- sic Maya iconography.Moreover,the heightened
tion also show thatMaya iconographydirectlyrep- significanceof the rightside of the body andright-
resented the person or was connected to the self handednessapparentlyreflects culturalmeanings,
(Houstonand Stuart1998) and may indicateactual symbolism,andvaluesin ancientMayasociety or at
spatialpositioningandhierarchyin ritual.Moreover, least in elite culture.In fact,the percentageof right-
the structureand layout of Maya art confirmsthat orientedfiguresin ancientMaya artis so high that
viewersareintegralactorsin the scene andwitnesses forgeries(especiallyleft-handedfiguresin contem-
to the eventsimmortalizedin the images.The super- porarytouristart),accidentallyreversedimages in
ordinatewas placed on the viewer's right and the publications(see Kerr2000:957,File no. K6294,for
viewermoves fromleft to right,which is the proper reversedfiguresandtext;Miller 1999:165, No.143,
andrespectfuldirection,whilerelivingtheeventsand for incorrectleft-handedscribe),pieces frompartic-
approachingthe image of the superordinatefigure. ular artists or workshops (see Reents-Budet
Maya images then were structuredfrom both an 1994:29>309 for distinctiveleft-orientedHolmul
430 LATINAMERICAN
Figure 7. Corrections for handedness in iconography: (Left) Maya seated figure with a right hand on the left arm (drawn
from Kerr 1989:42, file no. 732) and (Right) Mixtec seated figure with a right hand on the left arm (drawn from Nuttall
Codex, page 29; Miller 1975).
ceramics), together with low-quality objects (no right-handedin the originalor in the mirroredver-
hieroglyphsandmorecrudelyexecuteddesigns)pre- sion, a situation that would cleverly honor both
sumablymadeby nonelites(see Kerr2000:922,File nobles.This may be a commonconventionin Maya
no. KS103),canbe easily spottedsincethe standards art,especiallyin theYaxchilanarea,since thereare
of Maya right orientation,hand use, and preemi- severalexamplesshowinginteractingnoblesthatare
nence of the right are violated. In the predictable reversed.
leftlrightstructurein the Classic periodimages, the In anothercase, the text on Lintel 25 fromYax-
Maya elite presented the expected order of their chilan,which depictsthe ceremonialconjuringby a
worldandproperpatternsof humanbehavior. royalwomanof a serpentdeityoftheYaxchilanking
ShieldJaguar(Itzamna Balam), is writtenbackwards
MirrorImaging and Maya Ritual Reversals fromrightto left (see Schele andMiller 1986:187).
Itis crucialto notethatsomescenesandtextsonhigh- The mirrorimage of Lintel 25 presentsa correct,
qualityancientMaya carvedstone monumentsand readableinscriptiondown to the fine detailswithin
paintedpotterypurposelyindicatea contraryview- thehieroglyphs,andtheserpentdeitywiththeemerg-
ing orderfromrightto left insteadof the normalleft ing high-statusmale noble is now correctlyon the
to right direction.For example, a Maya sculpture viewer'srightandthewomanon theleft. Onceagain,
shows a reversedtext and the Yaxchilanking Bird eithertheroyalwomanorthenobleis in thepreferred
Jaguar(YaxunBalam) holding a spear unconven- position on the viewer's right and right-oriented.
tionallyin his left handwhile facing uncharacteris- Finally,images of Maya nobles on the Structure11
ticallyto his left towarda kneelingsubordinatelord bench at Copan,Honduras(see Schele and Freidel
(Figure 8). When this monumentis mirrored,the 1990:326-327)arenotleft-handedpeopleas theyare
text and images are corrected:the rulerBirdJaguar shown. These bench figures, which are nobles or
is now on the rightof the zone of contact,his sub- quite possibly elite ancestors, are found to the
ordinateis on his right,andthe king now brandishes viewer's left of a centraltext describingthe acces-
his spearproperlyin his righthand and a shield in sion of a Copan king (Schele and Miller 1986:
his left. The subordinatenoble now becomes a left- 124-126,130). This bench is simply anotherexam-
handed spear user and positionedcorrectlyto the ple of mirrored iconography as attested by the
viewer'sleft of the zone of contact.This monument, reversedreadingorderof thehieroglyphsuponwhich
which was commissionedby or for the subordinate the figures sit; they become right-handedand the
noble, glorifies the taking of war captivesby both hieroglyphs legible when the image is flipped.
nobles and possibly depicts a reversalof Maya sta- Intriguingly,similarto Maya reversedart,the text
tuses and roles.Whatis intriguingis thateitherfig- and image on the left half of the La MojarraStela
ure can be shown as being right-oriented and (see Sharer1994:87,Figure3.6;Winfield1988)from
SYMBOLISM
A B B A
Figure 8. (Left) Drawing of original stone monument with reversed text and the ruler Bird Jaguar.of Yaxchilan, Chiapas,
Mexico, with a staff in his left hand and subordinate (B) to the right. (Right) Mirrored image with readable glyphic text and
right-hand use by Bird Jaguar (drawn by author from Mayer 1995: Plate 258).
Veracruzis also mirrored,andthehumanfigureeven sacred power, they are in direct contact with the
has a righthand(holdinga mirror?)attachedto his supernatural,and they have high social rank and
left arm. greaterreligiousknowledge.As pointedout below,
I suggestthatsome reversedimagesin Mayaand the contemporaryTzotzil Maya of Chiapas also
Mesoamericanartmay representeitherritualrever- observe similarritualreversalsand switchedhand-
sals, eventsassociatedwith the supernaturalandthe edness thatprobablyoriginatedin ancienttimes.
Otherworld,or scenes reflectedin ceremonialmir- It is conceivablethatreversedimages are tangi-
rors.Directionof movement,behaviorsandactions, ble examplesof mirrorwriting(followingCorballis
symbolism,andhanduse are often reversedduring andBeale 1976:178-183) in ancientMayaart.Mir-
sacred rituals and for invoking the supernatural, rorimagesandleft/rightreversalsmayhavereflected
ancestors, and death in many cultures, including the special,sacredabilitiesof the scribesandartists.
those of indigenous North America (see Hall These mirroredimages are typicallyinterpretedby
1997:132-139) and, specifically, of Mesoamerica scholarsas monumentsdesignedto be seenby Maya
(see Myerhoff 1974:147-150, 170, 185-188, deitiesandancestors(Schele andFreidel1990:327)
255-258; JohnMonaghan,personalcommunication or used to switch the normalviewing orderto indi-
2001). Also, mirrorsand the reversedimages seen cateritualstakingplaceinsidea structure(see Schele
in themwere of primeimportancein Mesoamerican and Miller 1986:187).Alternatively,some of these
ritual(see Taube 1992); they were centralfor con- reversedsculpturesare seen as representingfemale
tactwith the spiritworldandnecessaryfor showing agency and speech vs. the regularmale-oriented
the reversedsupernaturalrealm and the contradic- images (see McAnany and Plank 2001:116-118).
tionsof theOtherworld.Ritualreversalsandmirrored Also, if paint was appliedto reversedsculptureas
imagesmakethe ceremonialact moreprofoundand with a modernink stamp,visually correctimages
theyremindtheparticipantsof properhumanbehav- couldbe producedon clothorpaper.Lastly,it is pos-
ior,life in the sacredrealm,thecontraryworldof the sible thatreversedimages and texts in these archi-
deities and ancestors,and the structureof the cos- tecturalsculptureswere createdto facilitate their
mos. People observingritualreversalsalso channel viewingatvariousanglesby peopleenteringorusing
432 LATINAMERICAN
B
A
Figure 9. Adjustments for handedness in iconography: (Left) Maya warrior (A) with raised atlatl dart to the right of the
headdress and a downed captive uses his left hand (gold disk from Chichen Itza, Yucatan; redrawn from Coggins and Shane
1984:43, Figure 6). (Right) Egyptian battle scene with a weapon to the right of the victor's (B) headdress (redrawn from
Robins 1994:22, Figure 1.22).
the structures,but then why do so few lintels, pan- DexterousMaya Nobles and
els, and benches in buildingshave reversedfigures Left-HandedEnemies
andwriting?
I believe that the mirroredor reverseddesigns Otherintriguingeffects and reversedplacementof
were intendedby the artiststo makethe sculptures, figures occur in Maya imagery when people are
theircreators,andthepeople depictedmoreunique, shownwieldingspearsandshieldswhile in the stan-
powerful,and in closer contactwith deities, ances- dardfrontalposition. Since warriorsand "normal,
tors, and sacred realms. The capability of mirror superior,andgood"humansuse theirrighthandsto
writingis often a unique talent of left-handedand brandisha spearandtheirleft handsto hold shields,
ambidextrouspeople, such as Leonardoda Vinci, some adjustmentshadto be madewithregardsto the
or personswho have suffereddamageto theirright left/right structure,placement of individuals,and
cerebral hemisphere (Corballis and Beale 1976: hand use. Hence, warriorsare frequently shown
178-183), but it would be diff1cultto identify such unconventionallyon the viewer's left with the left
Mayaartists.The ingeniouscreatorsof theseunique sides of theirbodies enteringthe zone of contactso
Maya monumentswith theirflipped designs likely thattheirshieldsdo not block theirfrontallyviewed
were even morereveredby theirpatronsandpeers, bodies.In this mannertheycan accuratelybe shown
who may have regardedthe gifted artistsas being as right-handedspearusers and properlygrabbing
imbuedwith supernaturalpowers and special abil- shields or captives with their left hands while in
ities. The presentationof a mirroredtext andimage, unobstructedfrontalview. Warriorsproperlyusing
which would be immediately recognized by the a spearin therighthandanda shieldin the left while
viewer as being reversedand more sacred, would in frontalview canactuallybe shownorientedto their
have been held in exceptional awe and reverence rightandenteringthe zone of contactwith the right
by all much like the way Leonardo's famous sides of theirbodies, but theirpostureand handed-
reversedrightto left texts and picturesare viewed ness become confused(Figure9). The body is often
today. The unique powers and abilities of noble shownin a contortedmannerbuttheuse of the spear
Mayascribesmaypartiallyexplainwhy theirnames in the righthandis clear:the artistplacedthe spear
and titles are incised or painted on many of their passingbehindandto therightof theheadanda right
works;they were sufficientlyimportantto sign their handis shown graspingthe spear(see similartech-
special creations. niquesin the centralMexicanmanuscriptEl Lienzo
SYMBOLISM
Figure 1(). Maya battle scene with victorious right-handed warriors to viewer's left and defeated left-handed enemies to
viewer's right (Room 2 of Bonampak murals, Chiapas, Mexico; after Miller 1986, Plate 2).
de Tlclxccllcl[Chavero 1979] and in the Cacaxtla the Bonampakmuralshavetwo left handsandsome

murals[Baird1989;McVicker1985]). victorshavetwo righthands.It seem.slikelythatthis
Ostensibly, it was more important to depict particulardoublingof rightor left handswa.sinten-
ancientMaya elites, combatants?and peak figures tional. I suggest that the creators of the murals
holdingobjectsin theirrighthandsthanto have the emphasizedthattheenemysoldierswereleft-handed
left sides of theirbodies enteringthe zone of con- combatantswho were inferior,lame,weak,impure,
tact.A faiscinatingillustrationof Mayahandedness, andperhapsmorefeminine,andweredestinedto be
figure placement,and left/rightsymbolismcan be beaten in battle.The double right-handedvictors,
foundinthebattlesceneon theClassicperiodpainted however,were depictedas superior,powerful,pure,
muralsat Bonampak,Mexico (see Figure 10). The andrighteous.
victoriousBonampakking and armyare shown on Defeated left-handedwarriors(shields in their
the viewer'sleft so thatthey may wield theirspears righthandsand spearsin their left hands)are also
intheirrighthandsandbe unobstructed by theshields seen in the Maya-influencedmuralsof Cacaxtla,
in theirleft hands.They clash with enemy soldiers Mexico (see Baird 1989; McVicker 1985) and on
on the viewer'sright.Whatis particularlyinterest- decoratedMayaceramics(see Kerr1989:14,Fileno.
ing is thatthe defeatedenemies are all left-handed! 503). In the Codex Nuttall(Miller 1975, see codex
It is doubtfulthatthis armyof southpawswas like pages 70 and 75), a Mixtec manuscriptfrom Oax-
the feared 400 left-handedbiblical soldiers under aca,Mexico,righthandsarefrequentlydrawnon left
Benjamin("son of the right hand")or high-status armsof spear-wieldingnobles to indicatethe pref-
Aztec fighters mimicking their patron deity erence for right-handedwarriors.Some important
Huitzilopochtli("Hummingbird of the left").More- deityfiguresin the artof ancientcentralMexico are
over, Miller( 1986:110) observesthatfor some per- also sometimesshownwith two righthand.sor two
plexing reasona few conqueredenemy warriorsin left handsas in the MexicanCodexBorgia(see Diaz
434 LATINAMERICAN
1 2 3 4
A 7 X 3 S
B ;,,,, g g
C W >)
Figure 11. Maya hand hieroglyphs: Syllables (A1) yo; (A2) k'o; (A3) hu; (A4) ke; Verbs: (B1) CHOK "scatter";(B2) CH'AM
"hold"; (B3) K'AL "wrap"; (B4) TSUTS (yi) "complete";(C1) TZ'EJ K'AB'? "left hand?"; (C2) TZ'EJ K'AB'? AJAW"left
hand? Iord"; (C3) NOH K'AB'? "right hand?"; (C4) NOH K'AB' K'INICH? "right hand sun-eyed one?"
and Rodgers 1993:22, Plate 56), possibly to signal ure 11). Some of thesehandglyphsmay graphically
their varyingroles, statuses,and behaviors.Hand- representwords, concepts, and/or syllables from
edness, figure orientation,and left/rightstructured handsignalsmuchlike "two[too]orv [vee]"(g) and
meaningcan also be seen in PrecolumbianOlmec, "in [in] or d [dee]"() in AmericanSign Language
Teotihuacan,Zapotec,andAztec artin Mexico (see icons. In Maya logographicwriting,handimagery
images in Berdanand Anawalt 1997; Berlo 1992; is essentialsince manysignsrepresentthe actionsof
Marcus1992;Tate 1999). holding,scattering,touching,andpossessingwiththe
hands(see also Tornkins1969).
Hands in Maya Hieroglyphsand Art Surprisingly,in Maya verb logographsthe right
In ClassicMaya hieroglyphs,and as exemplifiedin handis commonplacebutit doesnotpredominate; sin-
other ancient scripts such as Zapotec (Marcus gle left hands also had considerableimportancein
1992:97,244,326,398,401) andEgyptian(McDer- Mayawriting(see Figure11).Whereasmost glyphs
mott2001:19, 21-24), the humanbody andits con- areorientedto or face the viewer'sleft, handglyphs
stituentparts,includingheads,eyes, feet, andhands, point to the viewer's left or right and up or down
have specific phoneticand semanticvalues.Along dependingon the particularsign. For example,the
with heads, disembodiedhands are the most com- glyphfor"conjure/bring forth"(thelogographTSAK)
mon body images in Maya writingand the left and usuallyconsistsof a left handgraspinga fish andthe
righthandsconvey specific meanings(see Coe and ideographicsignfor "grasp,hold,ortakepossession"
Van Stone 2001; Harris and Stearns 1997; and (CH'AM) alwaysincorporates a left handthatpoints
Thompson1962forcatalogsof Mayaglyphs).Since to the viewer'sleft. However,hieroglyphsfor "bind-
fingernails,structureof thedigits,andpalmlines are ing/wrapinga monument"(K'AL) andthe"flathand
almost always shown correctly,thereis rarelycon- verb"contain only right hands usually facing the
fusionwiththeidentificationof a left vs. a righthand, viewer's right. Hieroglyphsor ideographsfor "to
exceptfor when the digits are overlappingor if fin- write"or"writing/painting" (TZ'IB)invariably depict
gernailsappearjuxtaposed withpalms.Moreover,the righthandsfacing left while holdingscribalimple-
hands are the most frequentlyrepeatedindividual ments(see Figure12). Interestingly, hieroglyphsfor
signs in the Maya syllabary (Coe and Van Stone "completion" (TSUTS)showa righthandpointingto
2001: 157-160) andthephoneticvaluesshiftdepend- theviewer'sright,butsomeearlyversionsof thissign
ing on whethera left or righthandis depicted(Fig- havea left handpointingto the viewer'sright.
SYMBOLISM
#:t p,%
r J
A
c
E
B D
Figure 12. Disembodied hands in Maya iconography: (a) Hand prints for eyes and mouth on "face shield" (ceramic plate
3642 from http://famsi.saiph.com/dataSpark/maya);(b) Death God of Zero with right hand on mouth (drawn from Schele
and Miller 1986:54, Figure 45); (c) Right hand with brush within serpent mouth (redrawn from Coe 1999:124, Figure 68);
(d) Right hand print with "eye" or palm lines (drawn from Miller 1986:Plate 62); (e) "Right hand staff" from the Dresden
Codex (drawn from Coe 1999:211, Figure 143).
Artisticrequirementsorconstraintsdo notappear art2002:2).Inonecasetheglyphsforright/righthand

to explainthe set patternsof the variousMayahand (nohk'ab')and left/left hand (tz'ejk'ab')appear
hieroglyphs;rightor left handsand differentdirec- betweenthe namesof two individualsandmay sig-
tionsof orientationtechnicallycouldhavetechnically nify thatthey are crucialpartsof a social or politi-
beenusedequallyandinterchangeably in Mayawrit- cal body,"aleft-handanda right-handman,"or that
ing, butthey were not. Perhapsparticularhandsand one is right-handedandtheotherleft-handed.Indeed,
handuse were importantto specific ceremoniesor Stuart(2002:3-4) suggests that other relatedhand
these signs may have been visual clues to the direc- signs glossed as "theleft/righthandof the sun"may
tionthattheviewerapproachedor witnessedthecer- describeleft/rightqualitiesandbodilyfeaturesof the
emonies(StephenHouston,personalcommunication sun god or statethe directionsto the left or rightof
2002). It is quitepossiblethatleft andrighthandsin the sun. By building on his interpretations,these
Maya verb hieroglyphshave additionallinguistic, glyphs could actuallyindicatea title approximated
iconographic,or semanticaspectsthathave eluded as "leftorright-handed sun-facedone."Also, a hiero-
identificationsince we currentlylack the cultural glyph illustratedby Stuart(2002:4, Figure7c) may
informationto understandthis "signlanguage." possibly be read as "left-handedAJAW (noble)"
In a recentstudy,Stuart(2002) may have identi- (see Figure 11).
fied the Mayahieroglyphsfor "leftand/orleft hand" Individualleft-orright-handsignsandhandprints
and"rightand/orrighthand."The preliminarydeci- are also commonin Maya iconography(see Figure
phermentof left andrightglyphsfollowedhis exam- 12; also Coe 1999:127,Figure70 [for left hand in
ination of Maya terms for the cardinaldirections, headdress],Coe 1999:179,Figure121;Coe andKerr
movementof the sun, andbody orientationwith the 1998:213,Plate 113;Reents-Budet1994:43,Figure
sun'spath.Theprobablehieroglyphforrightorright 2.9). These symbols may carry specific linguistic
handconsistsof thesuperfixglossedas MayanNOH, featuresor ideological meanings of leftlrightand
or "large,great,and right,"over a hand(appearsto humanhandedness.Graspinghands,tactile sensa-
be a right hand) sign K'AB' (see Figure 11). The tion, and handedness are central components of
hieroglyphfor left or left hand is a sign possibly human physiology, and people communicateand
meaningTZ'EJ, which in some Mayanlanguages largely experiencethe world throughtheir hands.
means "sidewaysand left,"over a handglyph (Stu- Handsarecrucialfordailytasksandritualsandtheir
436 LATINAMERICAN
featuresoften have supernaturalconnotationsor are eties. Thus,thereis a hierarchicalvalue systemthat

usedto tell muchabouttheperson(Reid 1999).Thus, structures,separates,andranksthe complementary
it is no wonderthatthe hand,usuallythe righthand, pairingsof left andrightand theirassociatedsocial
is a powerful and meaningful symbol in Maya semantics (see also Adorno 1982; Dumont 1982;
iconographyand in otherartistictraditions. Turner1984).
In Maya depictions of people, accuratelyren-
ContemporaryMaya Left/RightBody Symbolism
deredhandshold objects, gesture,touch, and relay
informationto the viewer.Disembodiedhandsand and Meaning
hand printsexpress culturalmeaningsthat are not A discussionof left andrightsymbolismandcorre-
well-understood.Handimagerymaybe relatedto the sponding cultural connotations and values from
allencompassingpowerandcontrolof elitesandelite diverseMayaethnographicsourcesprovideanalogs
bodies or it may representthe importanceof hands for the reconstructionand understandingof ancient
in certain rituals and everyday life. Disembodied Maya ideology.There are disjunctionsin time and
handscan be linkedto the whole body and essence culture(ancientelites vs. contemporaryMaya),but
of the personto whom they are associated(follow- we cannotignoremodernMayaleft/rightbody sym-
ing Ellen 1977:346-357). The sense of touch may bolism in the reconstructionof Classic Maya elite
also be conveyed by hand symbols (Houston and beliefs. Ethnographies of various Maya groups
Taube2000:26>265). Furthermore, handsandhand demonstratethatthe left andrighthandsandsides of
printsmay have been importantfertility symbols, thehumanbodyaresymbolicallysignificantandhelp
warrior markings, and supernatural portals in structuretheir world (see Tedlock 1992:133-138,
Mesoamerica and throughout indigenous North 176-178). For the modernMaya thereare specific
America(Hall 1997:126-127). Forexample,Xquik, meaningsandvaluesassociatedwiththeleftandright
a supernaturalbeing and the mother of the Hero halves of the body, which are manifestedin ritual,
Twinsof the K'iche' (Quiche)MayaPopolVuh,was materialculture,language,and in the social realm.
impregnatedwhen a skullhangingin a tree spit into Moreover,thereis often a preeminenceof the right
herrighthand(Tedlock1985:114,274). In addition, side of the body and the righthandin this symbol-
hand imagery is often combinedwith mouths and ism. The Maya huipil, or woman's blouse, for
eyes (Figure 12; see Coe 1999:222, Figure 150; instance,is describedas an outlineor "map"of the
Miller1986,Plate62), whicharesymbolicopenings human body (Hendrickson 1995:156-158). The
to thesupernatural. Theunderstanding of Mayahand left/rightasymmetryin colorsanddesignsoftenvis-
iconographyandhieroglyphsis animportantstepfor ible in Maya dress may physically differentiate
the comprehensionof ancientMayaconceptsof the betweenthe unequalleft andrightsides of the body
body,ideology, and left/rightsymbolism. andtheircorrespondingculturalmeanings(see also
Morris1987:105-110). Based on the wide distribu-
The Significance of the Body in Maya tion of the corroborating
evidenceat hand,I suggest
Left/Right Symbolism that contemporaryMaya left/rightsymbolism and
The preferencefor the right and the right hand in meaningare largelyindigenousmanifestationsand
Maya artand society can be approachedanthropo- not the resultof postconquestinfluences.
logically throughethnographicanalogy and com- Accordingto Earle (1986:163), for the K'iche'
parativeanalysis.Althoughstudiesof left andright (Quiche)Mayaof highlandGuatemalathe "firstand
symbolismhavemostlyignoredevidencefrommate- most reducedspatialdomainis the humanbody . . .
rial culture,the findingshereindicatethatthe semi- the body is used as a spatialreferentwith regardto
otics of left andrightactuallyinfluencedthecreation fixed things." He further states that the K'iche'
of iconographyandarchitecture fortheancientMaya acknowledgethe symmetries,inequalities,and dif-
andothersocieties. Researchersgenerallystressthe ferences in the body's left and right halves (Earle
balanced complementary nature of left/right 1986:164; also Tedlock 1992:133-146). Both the
dichotomiesandmeaningsin variouscultures.How- left sideandhand(u mox)areviewedas being"crazy,
ever,the rightappearsto be morefrequentlyassoci- stupid,"and the right(u wiquik'ab)is the "mainor
ated with higherrank,social standing,andpolitical chief hand."When K'iche' shamansperformdiv-
powerthanthe left in Maya cultureand othersoci- ination,pulses locatedin the body arecriticalto the
SYMBOLISM
rite; negative prognosticationsare associatedwith Ch'orti'linguistictermfor"left,"tz'ej,is also glossed

feelings in the left side andpositiveones in the right. as "lefthanded,not equal, or sad"(PerezMartinez
Upon entering a K'iche' house, the kitchen and et al. 1996:229).
women'sdomesticspaceis foundto theperson'sleft The Yukatek(Yucatec)Maya feel that the left
side, and the altar room and location where men handis essentiallythe angryor sinisterhand.In the
receive guests is found to the right. Interestingly, Yukatekanlanguages,the rootfor "left,"ts'ik, liter-
possible artifactualevidence of analogousleft/right ally means "angry and vicious" (like belligerent
spatial divisions has been found by Inomata wasps),andit signifies"lame,stupid,anddisgraced
(1995:816) on well-preservedhouse floor assem- one" (see BarreraVasquez 1991:883-884; Bruce
blages at the Classic Maya site of Aguateca, 1979:234;Hanks1990:91;Ukich andUkich 1976).
Guatemala.Here domesticartifactsandfemale fig- The Yukatekword for "right/righthand,"noh, sig-
urineswere to the left of the buildingentrances,and nifies "great,principle,large, true, andjust" (Bar-
drinkingvessels,stonetools,andritualitemsof a pos- rera Vasquez 1991:572-573; Ulrich and Ulrich
sible male domainwere to the right. 1976).Hanks(1990:90)discusseshow left andright
Similarsymbolic meaningsand spatialorienta- arealsoimportantin bodyorientationandspatialref-
tions associated with left and right are found in erenceinYukatekMayasociety.Movementfromor
Tzotzil Maya culturein highlandChiapas,Mexico towardthe rightof a personis morallypositiveand
(see Vogt 1992). In modernTzotzil, batz'i means superior,butmovementandorientationto the left is
"right"and also "actual,true, and the most repre- morallynegativeorbad(Hanks1990:9s94; see also
sentative"as in batz'i k'ob,or "righthand,realhand, Redfield 1964:132).Yukatekshamansmove to the
andtruehand"(Gossen 1979:119).The left side of left to bindorwrapan altarandto therightto unbind
the body is also consideredto be the femininehalf an altarduringritual(Hanks1990:387-389).
of humans (Gossen 1974:41). During rituals the To summarize,in ritualandeverydaylife forcon-
Tzotzil move to the right and often in a counter- temporaryhighland and lowland Maya societies
clockwise circularpaththatmimics the movement thereareleft/rightsymbolismsandmeaningsrelated
of the sun because "OurFather'sheart[of the sun] to the humanbody that may govern where people
prefersthe righthandway" (Gossen 1979:119). At stand,moveduringceremonies,anddeterminewhich
gatheringsseniormalesstandorsit on therightwhile handsare used for manipulatingcertainobjects.In
juniormales and subordinatesare placedto the left all cases thereis a generalpreeminenceof the right
(Gossen 1979:127).Toemphasizetheprimacyofthe hand,side of the body, and directionof movement,
right, importantTzotzil Maya officials touch the and a subordinationof the left. The rightin general
sacredhouseholdaltarsonly with the back of their is also associatedwith benevolentand high-status
right hands during prayer and ritual (Rosaldo people, which may parallelthe ancientMaya situa-
1968:527). In joking relations and in reversals, tion. Similarbeliefs and practicesrelevantto hand
Tzotzilmen manipulateobjectswiththeirleft hands use and body orientation appear to have been
insteadof theirrightto physicallypointouttheoppo- observedwith the Classic Maya and were encoded
sitions andthingsthatdividehumanrelations(Ros- in theiriconography.
aldo 1968:534).
Wisdom (1940:337, 428) states that the Ch'orti' Conclusions: Interpreting Ancient Maya
(Chortl)Maya of easternGuatemalabelieve that a Left/Right Symbolism and Ideology
sinistersorcererwill cross his left leg over his right Following the ethnographicstudies, cross-cultural
knee andrubhis left calf whereinresidesthe malev- information,socialtheory,andobservationsof Clas-
olent patronspirit.Curersand divinersare charac- sic Maya iconographypresentedabove, a general
terizedas good andbeneficialpeoplewho havetheir interpretationof ancientMaya left/rightsymbolism
companionspiritsin theirrightor "good"leg. When in depictionsof the humanbody can be offered.The
an evil sorcerermaltreatsan object,long spines are direction of left to right in ritual and viewing of
runthroughit with the left handto cause moredam- iconography and writing was the desired and
age (Wisdom 1940:338, 428). For the Ch'orti',the expected movement anotherdirection of move-
Devil makeshimselfknownto peopleby presenting ment, especially towardthe left, would be sacrile-
his horrible left hand (Wisdom 1940:428). The gious, improper,or a ritualreversal.As is the case
438 LATINAMERICAN
universally,the majorityof the Classic Maya were tinctionsare apparentbetween them. Rank, status,
also bornright-handedand this handwas probably and social differentiationin Maya society hadto be
preferredfor writing, manipulatingobjects, fight- mediatedand clarifiedand not simply balancedin
ing, and eating.Thus the righthandand side of the harmoniouscomplementarysets. Hierarchicalcom-
body madeup the strong,dexterous,and"pure"half plementary,andnotjust equalpolaroppositions,are
of a normal human being, and, therefore,Classic necessaryfor makingup the totalityof social struc-
Maya rulers, superordinates,and leaders of ritual ture and human existence, of which the leftlright
and action utilized their right and strong, proper, division and primacyof the right are prime exam-
powerful, and skillful hands. They did this while ples (Turner1984).As in modernMayaculture,there
they faced to theirright and kept the right sides of are possible dualistic symbolic classifications in
theirbodiestowardothersandtheactiontakingplace. ancientMayathoughtandculture,suchas leftlright,
The ancientMaya may even have been rearedand female/male,subordinate/superordinate, westleast,
socialized to be right-handed,a proposition that impure/pure,etc., butdualisms,dual-organizations,
shouldbe exploredfurtherthroughiconographicand andbinarystructurescannotbe reconstructedat this
osteologicalanalysis. time (see also Moore 1995).
The use of the left hand and the presentationof The ancientMaya leftlrightprinciplealong with
the left side of the body arefoundwith subordinates otherculturaltemplatesmay have guided building
andpeople of lesserrelativesocial significancethan constructionand site planning(see Ashmore 1989;
the peak figure or protagonist.These people were Schele andFreidel1990:10>105). Mayastructures
usuallyof secondarypoliticalandritualimportance, and their facades have left/right symmetry (see
and thus they were left-orientedand socially domi- Schele and Freidel 1990:105-114; 235-241) that
nated.Subordinatesand nonrulingelites were nec- was often viewed from left to right (Baudez
essaryto rituallife andthe socialorder,buttheywere 2000:139). Also, edifices are placed to the left and
depictedas differentand not of equal statusto the rightof each otheraccordingto the cardinalpoints,
peak figures. The use of the left hand may have which can be conceivedas leftlrightorientationsof
occurredin ritualreversalswhere people's actions the sun's path (Gossen 1979; Tedlock 1992:
and movementswere switched.In the supernatural 176-178). To speculate further,some important
world,which mirrorsthe social realm,handuse and Maya buildingsmay have been perceivedas being
body orientationhave oppositemeaningsthatactu- to the rightor to the left of otheredifices depending
ally point out the correctbehaviorsin humanritual on theirsocial importance.Leftlrightdirectionality
and everydaylife. Defeatedenemies were depicted in Maya ritual circuits (see Schele and Freidel
as being left-handedbecausethey were believedto 1990:11s111) and enigmaticritualdeposits con-
be weak,lame, impure,andnot as strongandtrueas tainingpredominantlyleft or rightlimbs of animals
the right-handedvictors. Undoubtedly,left-handed at ancientMaya sites (see Pohl 1985:142)can now
nobles did exist in ancientMaya society.They may be examinedin new light.
even havebeen depictedfacingto theirleft, holding Thereis additionalsignificancebeyondthe com-
objectsin theirleft hands,or associatedwith the left plementarynature,hierarchicalopposition,andclas-
in the inscriptions.Theymay also havebeen seen as sificationof symbolsandbehaviorsassociatedwith
unique individualswith direct connections to the the creation of left and right symbolism. Natural
reversedsupernatural realm. oppositionsuniversalin the worldanddualismscre-
Therightside of thebody andtherighthandcom- atedby humanssuch as strong/weak,good/bad(see
plementedthe left in Classic Maya society, but the Levi-Strauss 1963; Maybury-Lewisand Almagor
right was clearly more important,prestigious,and 1989;Vogt 1992) come to mind, but these perhaps
powerfulthanthe left. The left side of the body and areof tangentialsignificancewhenlookingatancient
the left handdid not alwayscarrynegativeconnota- Maya iconographyand the body.The main issue is
tions in comparisonto the right, but the left was why leftlrightdistinctionsandthepreferencefor the
viewedas beingdifferent,oftensubordinate,yet nec- rightareof primeimportanceto the Mayaandother
essaryin life andsociety.The rightside can only be peoples.Itis arguedherethatthehumanbodyitself
definedby the existenceof the left, butobviousdis- with its seemingly symmetrical,yet very different,
SYMBOLISM
physical halves helps influence or generate Acknowledgments.This articleis based on a papergiven at the
Midwest Mesoamericanists Meeting at the University of
left/rightsymbolismandassociatedculturalseman-
Illinois-Urbana/Champaignin March 2000, and I thank con-
tics. People recognizethe structureand differences ference attendees for their comments and suggestions. I
in their own bodies, particularlywith handedness would like to thank colleagues Brian Bauer, Robert Hall,
and the mirroredleft and right halves (see Turner Lawrence Keeley, Virginia Miller, Ellen Baird, Paul
1984:368). As succinctly summarized by Hunt Hockings, Sylvia Vatuk,MarkLiechty, Donald McVicker,Jon
McGee, Stephen Houston, Nilda Flores, and John Monaghan
(1977:95-115), MayaandMesoamericansocialand
for their insightful remarks and help in my research. I also
rituallives areoften symbolizedandmaterializedby appreciate comments and advice by the previous Latin
metaphorsand representationsof the humanbody American Antiquity editors, Kathy Schreiber and Patricia
withits constituentpartsandfunctions.Sincehumans Fournier, and the current editors, Suzanne Fish and Maria
classify andorganizethe worldtheylive in, the form Dulce Gaspar, and editorial staff, especially Brian McKee,
and several anonymousreviewers of this manuscriptand pre-
and functions of the humanbody become central
vious versions of it. Additionally, members of the Chicago
models for ritualundertakings,social identityand Maya Society, particularlyRosa Cabrera,AndrewWyatt,Jeff
status,folk classifications,and the organizationof Buechler, Beth Spencer, and KarriePorter-Brace,and friends
thecosmos (see Bourdeau1977;Classen1993;Dou- in the Minnesota Maya Society providedhelpful information
glas 1982;Gillespie 1991;Joyce2000;LopezAustin and encouragementfor this study.
1988). This makes the body, handedness, and
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Taube,KarlA. 1978), The Maya VaseBook: Volumes14 (Kerr 1989-2000),
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ine Berlo,pp.169-204. DumbartonOaks,Washington,D.C. 2. Maya stelae, panels, and lintels used in this study are
Tedlock,Barbara from Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions: Vols. 14
1992 Timeand the HighlandMaya.Second Edition.Univer- (Graham,ed. 1975-2000), TheMonumentsand Inscriptionsof
sity of CaliforniaPress,Berkeley.
Tikal (Jones and Satterthwaite1982), The Monumentsand
Tedlock,Dennis
1985 Popol Vuh.Simon and Schuster,New York. Inscriptionsof Caracol,Belize (Beetz and Satterthwaite1981),
Thompson,J. Eric.S. Maya Sculptureof Copan: the Iconography (Baudez 1994),
1962 A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs.Universityof Okla- Montgomery'swebsite drawings http://kawil.saiph.com:7100/
homaPress,Norman. dataSpark/montgomery (also at the Foundation for the
Joel W. Palka] LEFT/RIGHT INANCIENTMAYAICONOGRAPHY
SYMBOLISM 443
Advancementof MesoamericanStudies: www.famsi.org),The ChicagoMayaSociety) in TheVaseBook:Volume1 (Kerr1989)

Sculptureof Palenque:Vols.14 (GreeneRobertson1983), The (n = 90) and Corpusof Maya HieroglyphicInscriptions:Vol.3,
Discovery, Exploration, and Monuments of Nim Li Punit, Part 2, Yaxchilan(Graham1979) (n = 19). We agreed on the
Belize (Hammondet al. 1999), Biologia Centrali-Americana: left/right orientationof the figures and identificationof the
Archaeology(Maudslay[ 1889-1902]1974), TheAncientMaya superordinatesand subordinatesin every case but one pottery
(Sharer 1994), and Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas vessel: KerrFile No. 764 (Kerr1989:45).This vase containsan
(Houston 1993). unusualscene where a male lord gestures to a visiting noble
3. The orientation(facing to their right or left) of Maya womanto his rightandlooks to his left at his personalattendant.
nobles andsuperordinatesvs. subordinatesat the zone of contact
was checked by Virginia Miller (Professor of Art History, ReceivedJanuary21, 1998; revisedAugust29, 2001, accepted
University of Illinois-Chicago)and Beth Spencer (President, January19, 2002.

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In a comprehensivestudyof ancientMayasculp- observations on the body in Maya iconography:

structfeaturesof ancientMaya beliefs and

displaythe rightside as a man and the left half as a fundamentalorganizingprinciplesfor structureand

tified as a noble man or womanwho is seatedon a dress, and accompanyingattendants.Subordinates,

Figure3. Left/right movement and hands in

Maya Decorated Ceramics

Portraits Peak Figures

Face to their right

FaceRight FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

Maya Stone Monuments

FaceR;ght FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

*Fromthe samplesites,64 additionalmonuments werebrokenor erodedand56 additional

Maya Ceramics and Monuments

FaceRight FaceLeft Indeterminate Totals

*Fromthesamplesites,64 additionalmonuments werebrokenor eroded,and56 additional

Table 2. Left/RightOrientationand Hand Use of Peak Figures at Zone of Contact

In Maya iconographysuperordinatefigureshad internalpictorialperspectiveand externalviewer's

de Tlclxccllcl[Chavero 1979] and in the Cacaxtla the Bonampakmuralshavetwo left handsandsome

Artisticrequirementsorconstraintsdo notappear art2002:2).Inonecasetheglyphsforright/righthand

featuresoften have supernaturalconnotationsor are eties. Thus,thereis a hierarchicalvalue systemthat

rite; negative prognosticationsare associatedwith Ch'orti'linguistictermfor"left,"tz'ej,is also glossed

Monograph45, UniversityMuseum, Universityof Penn- Blacking,pp. 343-374. AcademicPress,New York.

Departmentof Anthropology,Universityof Illinois,Chicago. Thuren,Britt-Marie

Advancementof MesoamericanStudies: www.famsi.org),The ChicagoMayaSociety) in TheVaseBook:Volume1 (Kerr1989)

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