IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO.
3, 2009
Letters
Photovoltaic-Battery-Powered DC Bus System
for Common Portable Electronic Devices
Dylan Dah-Chuan Lu, Member, IEEE, and Vassilios G. Agelidis, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Renewable energy sources based on photovoltaic (PV)
along with battery-based energy storage necessitate power con-
ditioning to meet load requirements and/or be connected to the
electrical grid. The power conditioning is achieved via a dc–dc
converter and a dc–ac inverter stages to produce the desired ac
source. This is also the case even when the load is of dc type, such
as the typical portable electronic devices that require ac adap-
tors to be powered from the ac mains. The letter presents a hy-
brid PV-battery-powered dc bus system that eliminates the dc–ac
conversion stage, resulting in lower cost and improved overall en-
ergy conversion efficiency. It is also shown experimentally that the
switching ac adaptors associated with the various commonly used
portable electronic devices can be reused with the proposed dc
bus system. A novel high-gain hybrid boost–flyback converter is
also introduced with several times higher voltage conversion ratio
than the conventional boost converter topology. This arrangement
results in higher dc bus levels and lower cable conduction losses.
Moreover, the voltage stress on the hybrid boost–flyback converter
power switch is within half the output voltage. Experimental re-
sults taken from a laboratory prototype are presented to confirm
the effectiveness of the proposed converter/system.
Index Terms—DC bus, dc–dc converter, hybrid boost–flyback
converter, photovoltaic (PV) power system.
I. INTRODUCTION
HE PROLIFERATION of modern electronic equipment
T and appliances has revolutionized the load profile “seen”
by the electrical grid, since these devices require dc power. How-
ever, due to the existing infrastructure of the ac electrical grid,
an ac–dc energy conversion stage is needed to supply power to
these modern electronic equipment, and therefore, a switching
ac adaptor for every device is provided. These devices include
the following, to name just few: printers, notebook computers,
PC workstations, audio/video/digital video disc (DVD) players,
fax machines, MP3 players, digital cameras, mobile phones, and
laboratory instruments. The conventional way for the ac grid to
tap renewable energy sources is by dc–ac conversion. There has
Manuscript received April 1, 2008; revised August 8, 2008 and November
17, 2008. First published February 13, 2009; current version published April
8, 2009. A short version of this paper was presented at the Power Electronics
Specialists Conference (PESC) 2008, Greece. Recommended for publication by
Associate Editor B. Tamyurek.
The authors are with the School of Electrical and Information Engi-
neering, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W. 2006, Australia (e-mail:
dylan.lu@ee.usyd.edu.au; v.agelidis@ee.usyd.edu.au).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2008.2011131
0885-8993/$25.00 © 2009 IEEE
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849
been a great deal of research work reported in the technical
literature on how to improve the inversion efficiency by utiliz-
ing different converter topologies and control strategies [1]–[6].
However, when a renewable energy source such as solar power
is available and since it is fluctuating dc in nature, the dc–ac
inversion followed by ac–dc conversion can be eliminated if the
output is dc. Inserting solely a dc–dc converter with maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) capability in between the renew-
able energy source and the load would save the extra conversion
losses associated with the unnecessary conversion stages. For
example, a dc–dc buck–boost powering an array of LEDs from
the photovoltaic (PV) panels is introduced in [7]. However, to fit
in the renewable energy sources, it is costly to again make dif-
ferent dc–dc converters for different equipment voltages when
this equipment has already a switching ac adaptor. Moreover,
the replaced switching ac adaptor will become a harmful waste
to the environment. It is therefore attractive to reuse these ac
adaptors as most of them are made up of switching dc–dc con-
verters. In fact, it is experimentally proven and documented in
this letter that the switching ac adaptors operate properly with dc
input voltage. By providing a common dc bus, all the switching
ac adaptors can take power from such a bus to power the various
common portable electronic devices.
One of the major concerns with solar energy is its inter-
mittent nature, so that it needs some kind of storage typically
provided by a battery to assist output voltage regulation at all
times. A common practice is to adopt a cascaded connection of
a battery charger and a converter (or inverter) to provide dc (or
ac) voltage for the load. The drawback of this configuration is
the repeatedly processed input power that degrades the overall
conversion efficiency. A multiple-port or multiple-input config-
uration becomes more popular because this allows the intake
of multiple energy sources [8]–[12] such as a PV panel, wind
turbine, fuel cell, and battery at the same time, and favors the
hybrid power system development. The configuration has an
integrated transformer and is therefore difficult to separate the
load from the battery when only the battery needs to be charged
and under no-load conditions. For instance, consider the case
when a battery is being charged during daylight in order to be
able to supply power to a TV set, which is used only during
the evening or at nighttime when a solar energy source is not
available.
The PV-battery dc–dc converter for the proposed dc bus sys-
tem has to achieve charging of the battery, MPPT function,
and provide tight output regulation, i.e., a dc–dc converter with
850
Fig. 1. Proposed PV-battery-powered dc bus system.
high voltage gain and simple circuitry is required. An attempt
was made in [13] to combine the battery charger and the in-
verter into a circuitry for PV-battery-powered lighting system,
but it was still a two-stage design (i.e., input power has been
processed twice). A coupled inductor was employed in [14]
to achieve high step-up voltage, but resonance was produced
between the leakage inductance and the output rectifier. An
attempt was made in [15] to eliminate the ringing issue but
there is a potential of voltage imbalance between the series
output capacitors. A high-efficiency dc–dc converter was pro-
posed in [16], which uses a forward transformer coupling to
reduce the leakage inductance. This converter further devel-
oped into a bidirectional converter [17]. However, these con-
verters deal with a single power source only, and our aim
is to consider both an energy source and an energy storage
unit.
The objectives of this letter are to: 1) confirm experimentally
that ac adaptors operate properly even when powered from a
dc bus instead; 2) propose a new dc/dc converter configuration
powered by a combination of a PV source and a battery while
fulfilling the dc bus system requirements; and 3) propose a new
high step-up ratio dc/dc converter for the dc bus system with
lower voltage stress.
II. PROPOSED PV-BATTERY-POWERED DC BUS SYSTEM
A dc bus system presented in this letter is shown in Fig. 1. With
the PV-battery-powered dc bus, the ac adaptors can share this
bus to power the various devices. In general, the requirements of
implementing the proposed dc bus system involving PV panels,
batteries, and dc–dc converters are listed as follows:
1) regulation of the dc bus voltage;
2) dc bus voltage ranges between 120 and 383 Vdc ;
3) MPPT for the PV panels;
4) ability to charge the battery independent of the load; and
5) capability of the battery to support the dc bus voltage when
the solar source is not present.
It should be noted that the dc bus could also be powered from
a rectified ac mains voltage (Fig. 1). The rectified voltage with
low-frequency ripple would not affect the dc bus system because
the switching ac adaptors can provide tight output regulation
for the loads for ac and dc inputs. The proposed dc bus system
cannot use ac adaptors built with 50/60 Hz transformers that
cannot transfer energy to the dc input voltage. Besides, there
are battery recycling programs in place in many countries to
reduce the harmful waste caused by the old or dead batteries,
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2009
for example, the lead–acid battery recycling program in the
US [26].
The proposed dc bus system could be scaled up for higher
power applications by increasing the number of PV panels, the
size of the battery, and the power ratings of the components of
each converter. Fig. 1 shows a possible modular approach. Each
module contains a PV panel (or a string of PV panels or paral-
leled PV panels), a battery bank, the proposed dc/dc converter,
and a dc circuit breaker. This modular approach has several ad-
vantages. First, it enhances system reliability over the central-
ized approach as when one module fails, it can be isolated from
the dc bus. Second, each module has its own control of MPPT to
maximize the utilization of the PV power. However, parallel op-
eration of modules needs to be studied to ensure even load shar-
ing among the modules, but it is beyond the scope of this letter.
In this letter, a novel integrated high-voltage gain step-up
dc–dc converter, combining a buck–boost converter and a new
hybrid boost–flyback converter, capable of achieving battery
charging, MPPT function, and tight output regulation, is pro-
posed. The proposed solution overcomes all the previously
mentioned problems with capacitor voltage imbalance, single-
sourced converters, and ringing/resonance due to leakage in-
ductances. In summary, the new hybrid boost–flyback converter
combines the advantages of boost and flyback converters and
has the following features: 1) higher step-up ratio than that of
the boost converter or flyback converter; 2) lower voltage stress
on the power switch. For the boost converter, the voltage stress
on the power switch equals the output voltage, but for the pro-
posed converter, the voltage stress is less than the output voltage.
This implies less switching loss of the switch; and 3) voltage-
clamping of the switch of the proposed converter, same as that
of a boost converter. For the flyback converter, an extra voltage-
clamping switch or a snubber network is needed to protect the
power switch.
III. COMPARISON BETWEEN DC AND AC INPUTS FOR
SELECTED AC ADAPTORS
To verify the idea of ac adaptor working properly with dc
voltage, two common portable electronic devices were tested
with different dc and ac voltages. Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows the
results of a Nokia mobile phone charger AC-4X and an iPod
charger, respectively. The comparable efficiencies at both dc
and ac voltages for both cases confirm that the chargers work
properly on dc input. The difference in efficiency at differ-
ent voltages may be due to the optimized operating point at
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2009
Fig. 2. Efficiency versus load current measurement taken from (a) Nokia
mobile phone charger AC-4X and (b) i-Pod charger powered by different ac and
dc voltages.
certain voltage such as the magnetics component. However, the
difference is only 1%–2% at full load. There are many com-
mercial controller ICs and circuits for ac adaptor available in
the market [21]–[25]. Due to low parts count, inherent isolation,
and large conversion ratio by the transformer, flyback converter
topology is a popular choice for most ac adaptors design. Re-
gardless of the topology selection, it is observed that all these
technical documents show a typical circuit [22]–[25]. In these
circuits, there is always a bridge rectifier followed by a large
capacitor to provide a dc voltage for the converter to operate
on. It is because these offline power supply designs are basi-
cally dc/dc√converter designs with high dc input voltage (e.g.,
240 Vrm s * 2 = 340 Vdc after rectification and the capacitor
filtering), as shown in [21, Fig. 1(a)]. According to IEC Standard
6-1000-3-2, apart from class C products, any power supply with
input power larger than 75 W should have power factor correc-
tion (PFC) in order to ensure that the level of current harmonics
does not exceed specifications. Nowadays, active PFC using
basic dc–dc converter such as boost converter is employed in
commercial products due to its simple circuitry, high efficiency,
and near-unity PFC capability. Flyback converter is a popular
PFC option with galvanic isolation requirement. In both cases,
they are essentially dc–dc converters that operate properly in the
proposed dc bus system. This also implies that the power level
of the proposed dc bus system could be scaled up.
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851
IV. PROPOSED DC–DC TOPOLOGY AND ITS CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
The proposed dc–dc topology is shown in Fig. 3 and is formed
by combining a buck–boost converter with a hybrid boost–
flyback converter. The converter is simulated using Switcher-
CADIII/LTSpice from Linear Technology and the key wave-
forms are reported in Fig. 4. The buck–boost converter formed
by L1 , S1 , and D1 works both as a battery charger for VBatt and
a circuit for MPPT. The hybrid boost–flyback converter formed
by a coupled inductor (L2 and L3 ), S2 , D3 , and C1 is used
to regulate the bus voltage VBus . VPV and VBatt are connected
in series and serve as the input of the hybrid boost–flyback
converter. A conventional voltage-mode pulsewidth modulation
(PWM) controller is sufficient to regulate the output voltage.
The output voltage is scaled down by a resistor divider (R5 and
R6 ) and fed back to the controller that has an error amplifier
and a comparator for the adjustment of the duty cycle of S2 .
The circuit operation is described as follows. Since the two
converters are in cascade connection and have independent con-
trol, their operations are also independent to each other. For the
buck–boost converter, at time t0 , S1 is turned ON, L1 is charged
up by VPV , and D1 is reverse-biased. The duration of ON-time
of S1 is determined by the MPPT controller to maintain input
voltage constant for MPPT. At time t1 , S1 is turned OFF, energy
stored in L1 is coupled to the battery VBatt . L1 can work in both
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) or continuous conduc-
tion mode (CCM). For high-power application, CCM operation
of L1 is preferred as it reduces the input current ripple and fil-
tering requirement. The operation mode of L1 does not affect
VBatt as it is closely controlled by the MPPT controller. At time
t2 , S1 is turned ON again to repeat the next switching cycle.
For the hybrid boost–flyback converter, at time t3 , S2 is turned
ON, the current in L2 increases linearly. A blocking voltage of
VC 1 + V1 (N2 /N1 ) is applied on D3 , which is reverse-biased.
The duration of ON-time of S2 is decided by the PWM controller
to maintain output constant. At time t4 , S2 is turned OFF, energy
stored in L2 discharges in two ways: to output through D2 and
to C1 through L3 and D3 . T1 works mainly in CCM to reduce
the current stress on L2 and S2 . At time t5 , iL 2 falls to zero but
iD 3 continues to discharge the energy stored in T1 to C1 . Time
t6 is initiated by S2 to begin the next switching cycle.
As shown in Fig. 3, the PV panel has two current paths: iL 1
and iL 2 , i.e., the PV panel has to share the load demand with
the battery (iL 2 ) and charge the battery (iL 1 ) simultaneously.
To ensure MPPT at all times, the PV panel ratings must sat-
ify the inequality: PV panel power ≥ output power − battery
discharge power. The extra panel power is for battery charg-
ing at MPPT condition, i.e., MPP = battery charging power
+ (output power − battery discharge power). Since the battery
discharges for every switching period, there is always room
for MPPT except for the condition of no-load operation and
the battery is fully charged. It should be noted that the series
connection of the solar panel and the battery enhances the con-
version efficiency as part of the energy generated from the PV
is transferred directly to the output without being stored into the
battery first and then processed at a later time. The less the power
being processed repeatedly, the less switching loss the system
852 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2009

Fig. 3. Proposed PV-battery step-up dc–dc converter for dc bus system.

Fig. 4. Key waveforms of the buck–boost and hybrid boost–flyback converters.

suffers. It has been proven effective experimentally in ac/dc V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

conversion [20].
A hardware laboratory prototype operating at 100 kHz, pro-
The voltage·second balance on L2 is expressed as viding 135 Vdc output with 12–24 Vdc input range, and process-
V1 D = (VBus − VC 1 − V1 )(1 − D). (1) ing power of 20 W has been built and tested. The components
and circuit parameters used in the experimental prototype are
As the voltage across on C1 is given by listed in Table I.
D N2 The constant voltage control (CVC) method is used for the
VC 1 = V1 (2)
1 − D N1 MPPT implementation. As shown in Fig. 3, the CVC method is
by substituting (2) into (1), the voltage conversion ratio of the realized by a resistor divider R3 and R4 connected across the PV
hybrid boost–flyback converter is given by panel and a voltage-mode controller (TL5001A). The controller
regulates the panel voltage to achieve MPP by sensing the down-
VBus 1 + D(N2 /N1 ) scaled panel voltage through R3 and R4 , and comparing it with
= (3)
V1 1−D a reference voltage, which is the MPP voltage. The duty cycle
which is higher than that of the conventional boost converter by is adjusted until the panel voltage is regulated. Although there
1 + D(N2 /N1 ) times. are other methods to achieve MPPT, such as perturbation and

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2009
TABLE I
DETAILS OF COMPONENTS USED IN THE 135-Vd c /20-W HARDWARE PROTOTYPE
Fig. 5. Gate drive voltage (upper trace: 10 V/division) and inductor current iL 2
(lower trace: 2.5 A/division) of the proposed hybrid boost–flyback converter.
observation (P&O) [18] and the incremental conductance (Inc-
Cond) [19], this letter focuses on the system-level design rather
than optimization of the individual stage for the PV energy pro-
cessing optimization part. The MPPT controller also monitors
the battery status, trickle charges the fully charged battery, and
shuts down the output pulses for S1 once overvoltage through
R1 and R2 is detected.
Fig. 5 shows the gate drive voltage and inductor current iL 2 of
the proposed hybrid boost–flyback converter. Fig. 6 shows the
worst-case scenario during 12-V solar panel power outage and
V1 = 12 V. The dc bus voltage is maintained at 135 V and drain-
to-source voltage of S2 is clampled to around 40 V. The voltage
conversion ratio is around 11.25 at a duty cycle of 0.65, which
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853
Fig. 6. Bus voltage (upper trace: 50 V/division) and S 2 drain-to-source voltage
(lower trace: 50 V/division) of the hybrid boost–flyback converter at 12 Vd c
input.
verifies (3) and is much higher than that of a conventional boost
converter (i.e., 2.86). Fig. 7 shows different efficiency mea-
surements and comparison of the proposed converter to that of
the conventional two-stage design. First, it can be seen that at
higher input voltage, the efficiency of the hybrid boost–flyback
converter can reach above 95%. At low input voltage, the con-
duction loss of the transformer and switch dominates the total
loss, but it can be improved further by component optimization.
Second, the efficiency obtained for the two-stage (or cascaded)
design is the product of the buck–boost converter efficiency and
the hybrid boost–flyback converter efficiency, and has maximum
efficiency at 75%. The overall efficiency of the proposed config-
uration is around 80%, confirming that it has higher efficiency
854
Fig. 7. Efficiency measurements and comparison of the proposed converter
with the two-stage design.
TABLE II
MEASUREMENT OF PV PANEL VOLTAGE V P V VERSUS OUTPUT POWER P o OF
THE HARDWARE PROTOTYPE
Fig. 8. Hardware implementation of the proposed dc bus system with common
portable electronic devices.
than that of the two-stage design. To confirm the CVC MPPT
method, Table II shows that the measured PV panel voltage
variation is within 1 V of the entire range of the output power.
Fig. 8 displays the proposed dc bus system in downsized scale
and with practical applications—a charging mobile phone and
a personal digital assistant (PDA). The switching ac adaptors
of the portable electronic devices are working properly in the
proposed dc bus system.
VI. CONCLUSION
A dc bus system powered by PV and battery was proposed
in this letter. It has been proven experimentally that the switch-
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2009
ing ac adaptors of common portable electronic devices work
properly with dc voltage. A novel PV-battery dc–dc converter
configuration is proposed to provide independent battery charg-
ing, MPPT function, high step-up voltage, and dc bus regulation.
For this configuration, a high step-up hybrid boost–flyback con-
verter, which offers several times higher voltage conversion ra-
tio and lower voltage stress than that of the conventional boost
converter, was proposed and tested. A complete system was
constructed and tested to confirm the feasibility of the proposed
approach.
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