II BTECH (RA13/RA11) SUPPLE EXAM

SURVEYING I – KEY

PART A (10*2)
1. Principles of surveying-
Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference
According to this principle, the relative position of a point to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been
fixed.

If P and Q are the two reference points on the ground, any other point, such as R, can be located
by any of the direct methods shown in the above figures. But, although a single method is
sufficient to locate the relative position of ‘R’ with respect to reference points P and Q, it is
necessary to adopt at least any two methods to fix the position of point ‘R’.
While the measurements made in the either of the first method or second method will be helpful
in locating the point ‘R’, the measurements made in the other method will act as a check.

Working from whole to part

According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work from whole to part.
This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a system of control points is to be established
covering the whole area with very high precision. Then minor details are located by less precise
methods.

2. Testing and Adjustment of Chain

As the chain is a metal made, it may undergo many changes due to temperature effect or human error
and etc. So for all lengths of chain a tolerance is given,

5m chain = + or – 3mm

10m chain = + or – 3mm

20m chain = + or – 5mm

30m chain = + or – 8mm

Chain length shorten due to

1. Bending of links.

2. Sticking of mud in the rings

Chain length increases due to

 Opening of small rings.

 Wearing of surfaces.

Chains may be tested with respect to

 Steel tape

 Permanent test gauge

 Pegs driven in the field at required distances

 Permanent test gauge made with dressed stones

If chain is found long, then

 Close the joins of the rings

 Reshape the elongated rings

 Remove one or two rings

 Replace worn out rings

If chain is found short, then

 Straighten the links

 Replace the small rings with big one

 Insert additional rings

 Flattening the circular rings

2. Whole Circle bearing

Bearings measured from north in a clockwise direction is termed as whole circle bearing.
The value varies from 0 degrees to 360 degrees.
 Reduced bearing/Quadrantal bearing
The bearings measured either from the north or from the south towards east or west whichever is
nearer is known as reduced bearing.
The values vary from 0 degrees to 90 degrees for a particular quadrant.
4. Temporary adjustment of a compass
The following procedure should be adopted after fixing the prismatic compass on
the tripod for measuring the bearing of a line.
a) Centering : Centering is the operation in which compass is kept exactly over the station from
where the bearing is to be determined. The centering is checked by dropping a small pebble from
the underside of the compass. If the pebble falls on the top of the peg then the centering is
correct, if not then the centering is corrected by adjusting the legs of the tripod.
b) Leveling : Leveling of the compass is done with the aim to freely swing the graduated circular
ring of the prismatic compass. The ball and socket arrangement on the tripod will help to achieve
a proper level of the compass. This can be checked by rolling round pencil on glass cover.
c) Focusing : the prism is moved up or down in its slide till the graduations on the aluminum
ring are seen clear, sharp and perfect focus. The position of the prism will depend upon the
vision of the observer

5. ADVANTAGES OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING:

 It is suitable for location of details as well as contouring for large scale maps directly in
the field.
 As surveying and plotting are done simultaneously in the field, chances of getting
omission of any detail get less.
 The plotting details can immediately get compared with the actual objects present in the
field. Thus errors as well as accuracy of the plot can be ascertained as the work
progresses in the field.
 Contours and specific features can be represented and checked conveniently as the whole
area is in view at the time of plotting.
 Only relevant details are located because the map is drawn as the survey progresses.
Irrelevant details get omitted in the field itself.
 The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than most other types of
survey.
 As the instruments used are simple, not much skill for operation of instruments is
required. This method of survey requires no field book.
6. The primary source of instrumental errors in plane table surveying arise from the lack in
temporary adjustment. Thus, the causes for instrumental errors are as follows :

(i) Undulated plane table surface : Error in observation as well as plotting will occur if the top
surface of the plane table is not perfectly plane.

(ii) Curved or inclined fiducial edge : If the fiducial edge of the alidade is not straight, the rays
drawn would not be straight and an error in relative location of object will occur.

(iii) Loose fittings in plane table : If the fittings of the plane table and that of tripod are loose,
the plane table will not remain stable and error in surveying will occur.

(iv) Improper magnetic compass: If the magnetic compass is sluggish or does not represent
proper magnetic direction, an error in orientation of the plane table will occur, (if it is done with
the magnetic compass) and thus basic principle of plane table surveying will get violated.

(v) Non-perpendicularity of the sight vanes : If the sight vanes are not perpendicular to the
base of the alidade, there would be an error in sighting.

(vi) Defect in level tube: If the level tube is defective, the plane table will not be horizontal
when the bubble is central. The plot thus obtained will be inaccurate.

(vii) Unseasoned, poor quality drawing paper : Poor quality drawing paper gets affected by
the weather changes and thus it may expand or contract and changes the scale of plotting. The
plot thus obtained will be incorrect.

ERRORS OF MANIPULATION AND SIGHTING

(i) Improper leveling of plane table : If the plane table is not properly leveled and made
horizontal, the sight vanes will be inclined to the vertical. There would be an error and the
points located will not be correct.

(ii) Inaccurate Centring : If the plane table is not accurately centred, the error in plotted
position of station will cause error in plotting of all other details from that station.

(iii) Improper orientation : If the plane table is not oriented properly, the fundamental
principle of plane table surveying will get violated and thus plotting in general will be
inaccurate.

(iv) Improper clamping of plane table : Improperly clamped plane table will disturb its
orientation, and thus error due improper orientation will creep into.
 (v) Inexact bisection of object : If the object is not sighted accurately or not bisected properly,
error in direction of object will occur and thus its plotted position.

(VI) Improper plotting : This may be caused due to any error in measurement of distance or
direction of ray, due to error in instruments or error in manipulation or sighting. This will lead
to inaccurate map of the survey and thus the objective of surveying will be poorly achieved.

(vii) Instability of tripod stand : If the tripod stand is not set in stable, the whole of surveying
and plotting will get disturbed and thus error in surveying and making map.

7. Types of Levels Used in Leveling

Following are the types of different levels used for leveling in surveying:

 Dumpy level
 Wye level
 Tilting level
 Automatic level
 Cooke’s reversible level
 Cushing’s level
 Digital level


8. Back sight(B.S.):- It is a staff reading taken at a known elevation. It is the first staff reading
taken after setup of instrument.
Intermediate sight.(I.S.):-It is staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be
determined. All staff reading between B.S. and F.S. are Intermediate sight.
Fore sight( F.S.):- It is the last staff reading taken denoting the shifting of the instrument.

9. LINE RANGER-It is an optical instrument used for locating a point on a line and hence useful
for ranging.

OPTICLE SQUARE- In surveying it is used both as a hand held tool for sighting between two
poles
10. METHODS OF PLOTTING CONTOUR LINES - here are two methods of contouring –
a) direct and
b) indirect - Method of squares, Methods of cross sections,Tacheometric method
In direct method of contouring, the reduced level of various selected points on a contour line are
obtained and their positions are located. The contours are then drawn by joining these points.
In indirect method points are selected at random, the positions and elevations of which are not
necessarily located on a contour line. The positions and reduced levels of all points are then
determined. Thereafter contours are drawn by interpolation.

PART B (5*10) ANY FIVE

1. Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:

• Control surveying : To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.

• Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well
as and man-made features including elevation.

• Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad steps are
 1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.

2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.

3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of
the project.

• Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways,
canals, pipelines, and other linear projects.

• Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines,
grades, and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the
structural design has been done).

• Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and
azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.

• Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining
purposes.

2. PRINCLES OF SURVEING – refer ans 1 part A

3. A) FACTORS ON WHICH ACCURACY OF PLANE TABLE ORIENTATION

DEPENDS-

When the plane table is set up at a station other than the starting station, it is
required to be oriented so that the lines already drawn on the paper are in correct
orientation with respect to the corresponding lines on the ground . If the plane table
has been correctly oriented, it's four edges will always in the same direction at all
the stations.

As the centering may be distributed during the orienting process, both the processes
should be done simultaneously, and continued till both are satisfied. It may require 3-4
trials. It may be noted that the number of trials will be fewer if the plane table is
approximately oriented before starting the centering. Orientation accuracy by trough
compass is affected by local attraction.
B) RADIATION METOD- In the radiation method of plane table surveying, the direction of
the objects or points to be located are obtained by drawing radial lines along fiducial edge of
alidade after getting the objects or points bisected along the line of sight of the alidade. The
horizontal distances are then measured and scaled off on the corresponding radial lines to mark
their positions on the drawing.

EX. Radiation Method

Here, the plane table is set up at one station which allows the other station to be
accessed. The points to be plotted are then located by radiating rays from the plane table
station to the points. After reducing the individual ground distances on the appropriate
scale, the survey is then plotted. This method is suitable for small area surveys. It is
rarely used to survey a complete project but is used in combination with other methods for filing
in details within a chain length.

The following steps are taken:

1. Select a point O such that all the points are visible
2. Set up and level the instrument at O
3. From O align the Alidade and draw radial lines towards. The stations A, B, C, D and E.
4. Measure the distances OA, OB, OC, OD and OE: scale and draw Oa, Ob, Oc, Od and
Oe on the paper.
5. Join the point a, b, c, d, and e to give the outline of the survey.
INTERSECTION METHOD- In intersection method of plane table surveying, the objects or
points to be located are obtained at the point of intersection of radial lines drawn from two
different stations.

Intersection Method steps:

In this method, two instrument stations are used with the distance between them called
base line serving as the base to measure and plot the other locations:
1. two points A and B are selected from which the rest of the stations can be seen.
2. Set up and level the plane table at A and mark it as a in the paper to coincide with A
on the ground.
3. Sight B, C, D and E with the Alidade from a and draw rays which forwards them.
4. Measure AB, AC, AD and AE and using appropriate scale draw the corresponding paper
distance.
5. Remove the equipment from A to B and repeat the procedure using B as the measuring
station.

:
4a) Methods of levelling

i) Direct Leveling : Direct measurement, precise, most commonly used; types:

Simple leveling : One set up of level. To find elevation of points.

Differential leveling : Numbers of set-ups of level. To find elevation of non-intervisible

points.

Fly leveling: Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during
reconnaissance survey.

Precise leveling : Precise form of differential leveling.

Profile leveling : finding of elevation along a line and its cross section.

Reciprocal leveling : Along a river or pond. Two level simultaneously used, one at either
end.

ii) Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : By measuring vertical angles and horizontal distance;
Less precise.

iii) Stadia Leveling : Using tacheometric principles.

iv) Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference; Using altimeter; Very
rough estimation.

Explanation of any two methods:

Simple levelling:- It is the simplest method used, when it is required to find the difference in
elevation between 2 points.
Differential leveling is a very simple process based on the measurement of vertical distances
from a horizontal line. Elevations are transferred from one point to another through the process
of using a leveling instrument to read a rod held vertically on, first, a point of known elevation
and, then, on the point of unknown elevation. Simple addition and subtraction are used to
calculate the unknown elevations

A backsight reading is taken on a rod held on a point of known elevation. That elevation is
transferred vertically to the line of sight by reading the rod and then adding the known elevation
and the backsight reading. The elevation of the line of sight is the height of instrument (HI). By
definition, the line of sight is horizontal; therefore, the line of sight elevation can then be
transferred down to the unknown elevation point by turning the telescope to the foresight and
reading the rod. The elevation of the foresight station is found by subtracting the rod reading
from the height of instrument. Note that the difference in elevation from the backsight station to
the foresight station is determined by subtracting the foresight rod reading from the backsight rod
reading.
5 a) CEYLON GHAT TRACER-

It is a very useful instrument for setting out gradients. It essentially consists of a long circular
tube having a peep hole at one end and cross wires on the other ends. The tube is supported by a
A- frame having a hole at its top to fix the instrument to a straight rod or stand. The tube is also
engraved to give readings of gradients. A heavy weight slides along the tube by a suitable rack
and pinion arrangement. The weight at its top contains one beveled edge which slides along the
graduations of the bar, and serves as an index. The line of sight is defined by the line joining the
hole to the intersection of the cross wires and its prolongation. For elevated gradients, the weight
is slided towards the observer.

i) TO MEASURE THE SLOPE:

1. fix the instrument on to the stand and hold it to one end of the line. Keep the target at the
other end.
2. looking through the eye hole, move the sliding weight till the line of sight passes through
the cross mark of the sight vane.
3. the reading against the beveled edge of the weight will give the gradient of the line.

ii) TO SET OUT A GRADIENT:

1. Hold the instrument at one end.

2. Send the assistant to other end with the target.
3. Slide the weight to set it to the given gradient, say 1 in n.
4. Direct the assistant to raise or lower the target till it is bisected.

Drive a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the same level as that the bottom of
the target.
b) Planimeter is a Surveying instrument which can be used to find out the area of a map or plan.

We have three mechanical types of Planimeters:

1. Polar
2. Linear
3. Hatchet Planimeter
All Planimeter work on the same principle.

There is a linkage, at one end is a pointer and the other is fixed for a polar planimeter and is
restricted for a linear.The pointer is traced along the perimeter of the area of the shape is
indicated on a scale. There is a wheel attached to planimeter which rolls when the movement of
the pointer is perpendicular to the axis of the wheel so, this movement is recorded.It will skid
when the movement of the wheel is parallel to the axis so, this movement is ignored. That means
that planimeter measures the distance which is traveled by the rolling of the wheel. Area of the
shape is proportional to the nos. of turns through which the measuring wheel turns. In order to
find out the area, all you have to do is to trace the perimeter of the area on the map, and note
down the reading. The area calculations can be proved by using Green's Theorem.

To get more accurate results one should be skilled in tracing the exact perimeter of the shape.
You can convert the area to the field area using the scale of the map.

6. a) Types of Chains used in Surveying

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divide into following types,

a. Metric chains
b. Steel band or Band chain
c. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain
d. Engineer’s chain
e. Revenue chain

A. Metric chain-Metric chains are the most commonly used chain in India. These types of
chains comes in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most commonly used is 20m
chain. Tallies are provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of
chain is 0.2m. The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.

B. Steel band or Band chain-These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of
uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass
studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as
centimeter.For easy use and workability band chains are wound on steel crosses or metal reels
from which they can be easily unrolled. These steel bands are available in 20m and 30m length
and the width of about 12-16mm.

C. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain-Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. These chain
consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or 7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because it is
convenient in land measurements.

D. Engineer’s chain-This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being
1ft long. At every 10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links. Readings
are taken in feet and decimal.
E. Revenue Chain-The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16,
each link being 2 ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

6 b) Types of Errors
1. Instrumental errors
2. Personal errors
3. Natural errors
Instrumental errors
Error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the instrument with which
measurement is being taken.

For example:
A tape may be too long or an angle measuring instrument maybe out of adjustment. Such errors
are known as Instrumental erros.

Personal Error
Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of touch in
manipulating instruments.

For example:
An error maybe taking the level readings or reading an angle on a circle of theodolite. Such
errors are known as Personal errors.
Natural errors
Errors may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction and magnetic declination. If it is not properly observed while taking measurements,
the results will be incorrect.

7. Contour-It is an imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation
is known as contour.
CONTOUR INTERVAL-The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is
known as contour interval.
The characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are as
follows:

1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be
uniform.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and
varies inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform
slope; closely for steep slope contours and widely for moderate slope
3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of
the contour at that point. They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they
cross such lines.
4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings
5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are
the exceptions). Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour
(vertical cliff is an exception).
6. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
7. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map.
8. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill
9. . A set of ring contours with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value
inside, depicts depression (without an outlet)

10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-
shape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in
contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in
the case of valley
11. Contours do not have sharp turnings.
8. The Three-Point Problem :
Statement :-
Location of the position, on the plan of the station occupied by the plane
table by means of observations to three well-defined points whose positions have been
previously plotted on the plan.
Under revision
The following are some of the important methods available for the solution
of the problem.
(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper Method)
(b) Graphical Method
(c) Lehmann’s Method (Trial and Error Method)
(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper method)
The method involves the use of a tracing paper and is, therefore also known
as tracing paper method.
Procedure :
Let A, B, C be the known points and a, b, c be their plotted positions. Let ‘P’
be the position of the instrument station to be located on the map.
(1) Set the table on P. Orient the table approximately with eye so that ‘ab’ is
parallel to AB.
(2) Fix a tracing paper on the sheet and mark on it P’ as the approximately location
of ‘P’ with the help of plumbing fork.
Under revision
(3) Pivoting the alidade at ‘P’, sight A, B, C in turn and draw the corresponding
lines P’a’, P’b’ and P’c’ on the tracing paper. These lines will not pass through
a, b and c as the orientation is approximate.
(4) Loose the tracing paper and rotate it on the drawing paper in such a way that the
lines p’a’, p’b’ and p’c’ pass through a, b and c respectively. Transfer p’ on to
the sheet and represent it as p. Remove the tracing paper and join pa, pb and pc.
(5) Keep the alidade on pa. The line of sight will not pass through ‘A’ as the
orientation has not yet been corrected. To correct the orientation, loose the
clamp and rotate the plane table so that the line of sight passes through ‘A’.
Clamp the table. The table is thus oriented.
(6) To test the orientation keep the alidade along pb. If the orientation is correct, the
line of sight will pass through B. similarly, the line of sight will pass through
‘C’ when the alidade is kept on pc.