Turkish Journal of Botany Turk J Bot

(2013) 37: 282-296

http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/
© TÜBİTAK
Research Article doi:10.3906/bot-1204-3

Archaeobotanical studies at the Urartian site of Ayanis in

Van Province, eastern Turkey
Tuğba SOLMAZ, Emel OYBAK DÖNMEZ*
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey

Received: 03.04.2012 Accepted: 18.09.2012 Published Online: 15.03.2013 Printed: 15.04.2013

Abstract: Archaeobotanical macro remains recovered from the Ayanis fortress and the outer town of the Urartian period of the Iron
Age (685–645 BC), located in the area of Van (Turkey), were investigated. Most of the remains were charred due to fire. Large quantities
of Hordeum vulgare L. (hulled barley), Panicum miliaceum L. (broomcorn millet), and Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauvois (foxtail millet)
were found at the study site, indicating the storage of agricultural surplus. Other types of cereal remains were also recorded, including
Triticum aestivum L. (bread wheat) and Secale cereale L. (rye). Ground wheat grains were also recovered and their starch microstructure
under scanning electron microscope suggests that these remains represent a bulgur-like food preparation. The data suggest that in the
area of Ayanis plant-based agricultural activities were based mainly on cereals in the Iron Age. The findings also include fruits of Carum
carvi L. (caraway, Persian cumin), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), and Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (parsley). In view of the
folkloric use of these plants, it is thought that the material from Ayanis represents condiments and/or medicinal herbs used by the
Urartians in Anatolia about 2600 years ago.

Key words: Archaeobotany, Urartu, Ayanis, Van, Turkey, Iron Age

1. Introduction (Rusaipatari) (Hopf & Willerding, 1988) in Nakhchivan,

The Iron Age Kingdom of Urartu emerged around Lake
Van in present-day eastern Turkey and existed from 860 BC
until 585 BC. During its maximum territorial expansion in
the eighth and seven centuries BC Urartu was a large state,
extending from north-eastern Mesopotamia and eastern
and south-eastern Anatolia to the southern Caucasus and
the Caspian Sea (Çilingiroğlu, 1994; Belli, 2007).
The people of Urartu were mostly farmers. The kingdom
exercised its central authority to control the planting and
harvesting of crops, and the storage and redistribution
of the products from its territories. Agricultural surplus
and products were stored in huge storerooms of several
fortresses, which served as economic administrative
centres (Sağlamtimur, 2005).
Previous archaeobotanical studies carried out in Van
Province in eastern Turkey report on the analysis of
plant remains recovered from Early Bronze Age levels at
Dilkaya Höyüğü (Nesbitt & Samuel, 1996). The Urartian
texts contain few data on agricultural activities. However,
archaeobotanical investigations at several Urartian
sites, such as Anzavurtepe and Değirmentepe at Patnos
(Ağrı) (Oybak Dönmez, 2003) and Yoncatepe (Van)
(Oybak Dönmez & Belli, 2007) in eastern Turkey, Bastam
* Correspondence: polen@hacettepe.edu.tr
282
and Karmir Blur (Teishebaina) (Bedigian, 1985) in
Armenia, provided some significant information on
Urartian plant-related activities.
The present investigation was performed on plant
remains from a highly defensible Urartian fortress, Ayanis
(Rusahinili), situated in Van Province (Figure 1). There
has been only a preliminary report of 2 archaeobotanical
samples from the site so far (Cocharro et al., 2001). The
main objective of the present study was to provide further
information on Urartian plant-related activities in the
area, based on many archaeobotanical samples. The site
has been excavated under the direction of Prof Dr Altan
Çilingiroğlu (Çilingiroğlu, 1991).
2. The study area
The province of Van is situated in the east Taurus
Mountains in eastern Turkey. Ayanis lies 35 km north of
the city of Van, near the modern village of Ağartı, on the
eastern shore of Lake Van (Figure 1). The site overlooks
a large plateau where there are several tributaries of the
Karasu Stream at an altitude of about 2000 m, supporting
agricultural activities by irrigation.
 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot
Patnos
T U R K E Y
Mount Süphan
Lake Haçlı
Lake Nazik
Lake Van
Mount
Nemrut
0 50 km
Figure 1. Location map of Ayanis in the area of Van and some of the sites mentioned
in the text.
The sediments of Lake Van have been investigated to
document environmental changes in the region in the
past (Kempe & Degens, 1978; Landmann et al., 1996a,
1996b; Lemcke & Sturm, 1997; Wick et al., 2003; Litt et
al., 2007). In addition, widely exposed terraces around
Lake Van have provided complementary data on the
chronology of past lake-level and lake-volume changes,
and their link to past climatic change (Kuzucuoğlu
et al., 2010). Litt et al. (2007) have suggested that the
>400-m-thick sediments deposited at the bottom of
the lake could correspond to several stages. They have
published the first evidence of a Last Glacial maximum
record in Lake Van sediments.
Based on high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic,
and geochemical analyses, the study of sediments from
Lake Van, which span about 13,000 varve years, indicated
several different climatic phases and vegetation change
during the Late Quaternary in the region of Ayanis (Wick
et al., 2003). The study showed that the Late-Glacial period
in the region was cold and dry. Steppe vegetation was
dominant at that time. Geochemical and isotopic records
have proved a strong increase in moisture, high fire
frequencies, and rising lake level at the beginning of the
Holocene. Meanwhile, Pistacia L. (pistachio) and Quercus
L. (oak) started to expand. The steppe–forest vegetation
was dominated by oak and it advanced at about 6200 BP.
After 4000 BP, aridity increased again. The modern climatic
situation was set at about 2000 BP. In the pollen diagram,
human activity has been traced since 3800 BP. The forest
elements declined and herbs expanded. However, wood
Mount Tendürek
Aladağlar
Bendimahi
Plain
Lake Erçek
AYANİS Karagündüz
Mount Varak
Van
Mount Erek
Tushpa Yoncatepe
Dilkaya Çavuştepe
charcoal analysis from the Ayanis site suggested that the
area of Lake Van would have supported a vegetation with
different species of Pinus L. (pine) about 2600 years ago
(Cocharro et al., 2001). In addition, a study by Newton and
Kuniholm (2007) revealed that a variety of wood species,
including elm (Ulmus L.), juniper (Juniperus L.), oak,
and poplar (Populus L.), was employed in construction at
Ayanis. According to Wick et al. (2003), human impact in
the catchment of Lake Van has increased over the last 600
years.
Today, the climate in the Van region is continental.
Average monthly temperatures are below 0 °C from
December to February and around 20 °C during the
summer months (Kuzucuoğlu et al., 2010). The annual
precipitation shows a strong spatial gradient, declining
from 907 mm year–1 in Tatvan in the south-west to 396
mm year–1 in the city of Van in the centre and 487 mm
year–1 in the north-east of the region (Kuzucuoğlu et al.,
2010).
The present natural vegetation of Van Province has
received a great deal attention from botanists, and many
floristic studies have been conducted in various parts of
the region [Çadır (Artos) Mountain by Boynukara and
Öztürk (1992), Toprakkale by Öğün and Altan (1992), the
islands of Lake Van by Behçet and Altan (1993), Kurubaş
Pass by Öztürk and Behçet (1998), and Özalp by Özgökçe
and Behçet (2007)]. New dicotyledonous species and
some lichen species have been recorded from the province
(Hamzaoğlu et al., 2011; Karagöz & Aslan, 2012). There is,
however, no detailed floristic study in the area of Ayanis.
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The natural vegetation of the Van region belongs to
the Irano-Turanian phytogeographic region (Özgökçe
& Behçet, 2007). The region is in general dominated by
steppic formations, including species of Astragalus L.,
Acantholimon Boiss, Centaurea L., Euphorbia L., Salvia
L., and Verbascum L. There is little woodland left in
the province, probably owing to thousands of years of
human impact. However, in the south of the region some
patches of oak forest are present at elevations of 2500–
2700 m. The forest includes several oak species [Quercus
infectoria Oliver subsp. boissieri (Reut.) O.Schwarz, Q.
brantii Lindley, and Q. libani Olivier], Celtis L. species
(C. glabrata Steven ex Planch. and C. tournefortii Lam.),
Juniperus species (J. oxycedrus L. subsp. oxycedrus and
J. excelsa M.Bieb.), Crataegus meyeri Pojark., Rhamnus
pallasii Fisch. & C.A.Mey., Ephedra major Host, and Rosa
pisiformis (Christ) D.Sosn.
3. The Ayanis site
The Ayanis excavations have been carried out in the 2 main
areas of the site: the fortress and the outer town.
3.1. Fortress
The Ayanis fortress was built on a rocky hill at an altitude
of 1866 m, covering an area of approximately 40,000 m2
(Çilingiroğlu, 1991; Çilingiroğlu & Erdem, 2006). During
the excavations, 2 main occupation levels, Medieval (11th
century AD) and Iron Age II, have been recovered in
the fortress (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000; Çilingiroğlu et
al., 2002). Here, the Iron Age II features of the fortress
representing the Urartians are summarised in the light
of the results of the excavation studies by the team. Three
main features have been unearthed in the fortress: the
temple complex, storerooms, and houses (Figure 2).
Rampart
Temple
Complex
Houses
Monumental
Gate
Storerooms
N citadel was constructed just after 673–672 BC (Newton &
Figure 2. A general plan of Ayanis Fortress (modified from the
plan of the fortress in the Ayanis excavation archive).
284
3.1.1. Temple complex
The temple complex is located in the middle of the
fortress. There is a square core area built in the name of
the Urartian god Haldi. Some weapons, a bronze cauldron,
and bone fragments were found to have been filled with
plant products (Çilingiroğlu, 2004).
In the south, several storerooms built adjacent to the
complex were excavated and they are supposed to be
related to the temple. The storerooms contain many large
and small vessels, including pithoi (large storage jars) and
plates. A total of 18 pithoi were found to have been placed
in 2 rows. Each pithos is 2.15 m high and 1.5 m wide,
without any descriptions. The vessels would have stored
crops, food, and liquids. It is thought that the vessels in
the complex may have been maintained for rituals and the
temple personnel.
3.1.2. Storerooms
The storerooms were found in the south-west of the mound
and are also called “western magazines”. In the storerooms
hundreds of pithoi were found to have been half buried in the
ground, mostly in 3 rows. They are 1.5–2.5 m high and 0.78–
1.5 m wide. Among these pithoi, several small pots were also
recorded. The pithoi recovered bear both cuneiform and
hieroglyphic inscriptions on their upper sections, indicating
measurement units (Sağlamtimur, 2005). It is estimated that
these vessels would have stored crops, food, and liquids. All
these finds indicate that the site was also used as a centre for
the storage of agricultural surplus and liquids.
3.1.3. Houses
A total of 8 houses have been found, located on the western
side of the temple complex. It is thought that the houses
may have been inhabited by the elites of the fortress. The
houses have been identified by their installations: metal
objects, pits, mortars, grinding stones, pounders, baskets,
stone pots, ovens, and hearths.
3.2. Outer town
The outer town, located outside the fortified walls of the
citadel, covers an area of about 80 ha (Çilingiroğlu &
Derin, 2000). It is characterised by settlement complexes,
probably inhabited by the local people during the Urartian
period. In the houses many objects, some of which have
been related to crop processing and cooking activities,
such as mortars, grinding stones, pounders, and ovens,
were recovered (Çilingiroğlu & Sağlamtimur, 2003).
It is known from the Urartian texts found in the citadel
that the fortress was built by the king Rusa II (680–640
BC) (Çilingiroğlu & Salvini, 2001; Çilingiroğlu, 2007).
According to the dendrochronological studies, the
Kuniholm, 2007). Display rock inscriptions found in front
of the monumental gate of the fortress and those recovered
in the temple explain the activities of Rusa II (Çilingiroğlu
& Derin, 2000).
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It is thought that the Urartian site of Ayanis was damaged
by a catastrophic fire, probably caused by an earthquake.
Archaeobotanical remains come from both the Urartian
fortress and the outer town burnt during the fire.
4. Materials and methods
The Ayanis archaeobotanical samples were taken from
various contexts in the fortress and outer town, such as
pithoi, vessels (pots), and floor. A total of 162 samples
were taken. Seventy-nine samples produced seeds. Large
grain samples, with the exception of fragile millet remains
[Panicum miliaceum L. (broomcorn millet) and Setaria
italica (L.) P.Beauvois (foxtail millet)], were floated to
remove soil particles.
Plant remains were identified using the reference
collections in the Department of Biology at Hacettepe
University and also identification manuals (Schoch et
al., 1988; Cappers et al., 2006). Some weedy/wild plant
seeds could not be identified because they were severely
corroded and they are grouped under unspecified taxa.
Since most of the samples contain numerous grains,
about 1000 grains/remains were randomly taken and
analysed to estimate the quantities of the grains/remains
on the basis of the weight of the bulk. Estimated quantities
are indicated by asterisks in Appendix 1. The plant remains
in small samples were counted. Since broomcorn millet
and foxtail millet remains were similar and mixed, their
quantities were estimated together. In addition, to obtain
a broad indication as to relative abundance of broomcorn
millet and foxtail millet, 100 identifiable millet grains
from 5 large samples were randomly taken and separated
(Appendix 2). Ground cereal grains and cereal stem
fragments were weighed. Codes for the samples were
given by the excavation team.
In order to examine the starch microstructure of the
ground cereal grains, some grains were coated with gold.
Their starchy endosperms preserved were investigated
under a Zeiss EVO 50 EP scanning electron microscope
(SEM). The SEM photographs were compared with those
given in Valamoti et al. (2008).
The measurements of the archaeobotanical remains
were made using a Nikon SMZ-800 zoom stereomicroscope.
Percentage of embryo length of millet grains (embryo L
%) was also calculated. The rachis internodes of Hordeum
vulgare L. (barley) and Triticum L. (wheat) found in some
samples were measured according to the criteria given by
Jacomet (1987) and Nesbitt (1993), respectively.
Photographs were taken with a Coolpix-995 digital
camera connected to the stereomicroscope.
5. Results
The results of the archaeobotanical analysis are presented
in Appendices 1 and 2. Most of the Ayanis archaeobotanical
remains are charred, while some the husks of millets are
uncharred. The samples predominantly include remains
of hulled barley, broomcorn millet, and foxtail millet
with some remains of Triticum aestivum L. (bread wheat),
Triticum L. (wheat), Secale cereale L. (rye), cereal stem
fragments, and condiments/medicinal herbs, namely
Carum carvi L. (caraway, Persian cumin), Coriandrum
sativum L. (coriander), and Petroselinum crispum (Mill.)
Fuss (parsley). The identification criteria for these plant
remains are given below.
Charred Sitophilus granarius L. (granary weevil)
remains have been retrieved from the 2 barley deposits
in the fortress area. An evaluation of the granary weevil
remains from the site is given elsewhere (Oybak Dönmez
& Solmaz, 2012).
5.1. Cereals
Hordeum vulgare (barley): All grains are hulled (Figure
3). Cross sections of the grains of the genus are angular.
While 98% of grains are symmetrical, 2% are asymmetrical
(ventral furrow not symmetrical), suggesting 2-row barley.
Few rachis fragments were found and they were also
identified as 2-rowed barley characterised by the bases
of the side florets being somewhat stunted (Figure 4).
The mean dimensions of well-preserved grains (n = 200
grains) are 7.06 (length) × 2.9 (width) × 2.2 (thickness)
mm. The (mean) dimensions of rachis fragments (n = 3)
are 2.76 (rachis segment length) × 0.8 (basal width) × 1.43
(maximum width) mm.
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and Setaria
italica (foxtail millet): Grains are rounded. In broomcorn
millet the embryo groove is short and wide (Figure 5). In
foxtail millet it is longer and narrower than in broomcorn
millet (Figure 6). The husk fragments belong to both
species; in the former fragments are smooth and glossy,
while in the latter they are finely rugose or punctuate.
The husk fragments have been designated as broomcorn
millet/foxtail millet (Figure 7). All grains and some husks
1 mm
Figure 3. Grains of barley.
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1 mm
Figure 4. Rachis fragment of barley.
1 mm
Figure 5. Grains of broomcorn millet.
of the millets are charred. Some husks recovered in the
lower levels of several contexts are uncharred (Figure 8).
The mean dimensions of broomcorn millet and foxtail
millet grains are 1.82 × 1.47 × 1.24 mm (n = 250) and 1.6 ×
1.4 × 1.07 mm (n = 100), respectively. The embryo groove
on average is 70% of the length of the grain (range 60–90)
in the former (n = 100), while it is 102% (range 90–130) in
the latter (n = 100).
Triticum aestivum (bread wheat): Grains have rounded
flanks, being rounded in cross section. They have a compact
form (Figure 9). Most are deformed and measurements of
286
1 mm
Figure 6. Grains of foxtail millet.
1 mm
Figure 7. Husks of millets.
1 mm 4 mm
Figure 8. Uncharred husk fragments of millets.
a single kernel are 5.8 × 3.4 × 3.1 mm. The designation of
T. aestivum seeds is based on the presence of T. aestivum
rachis internodes. The rachis internodes found is obovate
with thin lips left below the gluma bases (Figure 10). The
dimensions of 2 fragments are 2.2–3 (rachis internode
length) × 1 (basal width) × 1.4–1.5 (maximum width) ×
0.6–0.8 (thickness) mm.
Ground cereal grains: In some contexts, pure charred
and ground cereal remains with a few intact bread wheat
grains have been recovered (Figure 11). The endosperm
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1 mm
Figure 9. Grain of bread wheat.
1 mm
Figure 10. Rachis internode of bread wheat.
microstructure of these ancient fragments is characterised
by lumpy pancake-shaped starch granules that survive,
suggesting a bulgur-like food preparation (Figure 12).
Cereal stem fragments: Some charred cereal stem
fragments have been found either alone or mixed with
barley grains.
Triticum sp. (wheat): Some wheat grains could not be
determined because of deformations due to carbonisation.
They were determined as wheat (Triticum).
4 mm
1 mm
Figure 11. Ground cereal grains.
sg sg
2 µm
Figure 12. Endosperm area of ground cereal from Ayanis with
starch granules (sg) having lumpy pancake form (under SEM).
Secale cereale (rye): Only 2 grains were found. The
grains have pointed embryo ends and truncated upper
ends. The ventral side is slightly convex, with a narrow
furrow, and the dorsal side is laterally compressed (Figure
13). Measurements of the 2 grains: 4.9 × 2.1 × 1.1–6.8 ×
2.4 × 3 mm.
5.2. Condiments/medicinal herbs
The fruits of 3 condiments/medicinal herb species were
recorded.
Carum carvi (caraway, Persian cumin): Fruits are
slender, spindle-shaped, bent into an arch, tapering at both
ends (Figure 14). There are longitudinal ribs on the dorsal
side. Surface between the ribs is slightly wrinkled or has
longitudinal stripes. Ventral side is rather narrower than
the width of the fruit, more or less flat, with a central ridge.
Measurements (n = 100): 2.9 (length) × 1.07 (width) mm.
Coriandrum sativum (coriander): Composite fruits are
spherical and pointed below (Figure 15). There are distinct
vein traces running along the meridian. Measurements (n
= 100): 2.03 × 1.8 mm.
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1 mm

Figure 16. Fruits of parsley.

1 mm

5.3. Weedy/wild taxa

Seeds/fruits of some weedy/wild taxa were also recorded
in small amounts in the Ayanis archaeobotanical samples,
including Adonis L. (pheasant’s eye) and Ajuga L.
Figure 13. Grains of rye.
(bugle), Aizoon hispanicum L., Asteraceae (aster family),
Centaurea L., Chenopodium L. (goosefoot), Euphorbia L.
(spurge), Galium L. (bedstraw) (Figure 17), Lithospermum
tenuiflorum L., Lolium L. (rye grass) (Figure 18), Malva
L. (mallow), Peganum harmala L. (harmal), Polygonaceae
(knotweed family), Ranunculus arvensis L. (corn
buttercup), Silene L. (campion), Teucrium L. (germander),
Vaccaria Medik. (cowherb), and Trifolieae (clover tribe)
and Vicieae tribes of Fabaceae.

6. Discussion and conclusion

1 mm
Archaeobotanical reports from Early Bronze Age sites
in Van Province indicate that plant cultivation was
established in the region before the Iron Age (Nesbitt &
Figure 14. Fruits of caraway. Samuel, 1996). The remains of hulled barley and bread
wheat from Dilkaya Höyüğü give some direct evidence of
prehistoric farming activities.
The Ayanis archaeobotanical samples yielded a larger
spectrum of cereals, including hulled barley, broomcorn
millet, foxtail millet, bread wheat, and rye. Combined

1 mm

Figure 15. Fruits of coriander.

Petroselinum crispum (parsley): Composite fruits are

broadly ovate and pointed on top (Figure 16). Dorsal side
1 mm
is strongly domed with narrow ribs. Measurements (n =
11): 1.40 × 0.76 mm. Figure 17. Fruits of bedstraw.

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1 mm
Figure 18. Fruit of ryegrass.
with some archaeological findings, such as storerooms
containing pithoi for crop storage, the present data provide
some complementary data to the studies of Urartian plant-
based agricultural activities in the Iron Age of eastern
Anatolia.
Large-scale storage of cereals, mainly hulled barley and
millets, found at Ayanis points to an agricultural economy
based mainly on grain production during Iron Age times
in the study area, as is the case today. It also indicates
the storage of agricultural surplus. Archaeobotanical
information from other Urartian settlements, such Patnos
(Oybak Dönmez, 2003), Yoncatepe (Oybak Dönmez &
Belli, 2007), Karmir Blur (Bedigian, 1985), and Bastam
(Hopf & Willerding, 1988) also suggested that heavier
reliance was placed mainly on cereals in the times of
Urartian dominance. Based on the botanical remains found
in association with the archaeological finds recovered
from the temple at Ayanis, Çilingiroğlu (2004) writes that
cereal grains may have also played an important role in the
religious rites of the Urartians. He suggests that the grains
would have been used as ritual offerings to the Urartian
god Haldi and that the grains would be related to a fertility
cult.
It has been widely assumed that agricultural production
would have been difficult in the land of Urartu, which is
described as mountainous with long winters and warm
summers. For many crops, the growing season is limited
to a few months of the spring and early summer, and
grain is harvested in July (Zimansky, 1998). However, it
appears that, despite harsh environmental conditions,
the Urartians would have achieved extensive cultivation
of crops to meet the needs of a large population, possibly
mainly in the plains of their land. This would be in part
judged by the emphasis that royal inscriptions give to the
creation of agricultural fields, orchards, vineyards, and
irrigation canals; the large-scale of storage of crops; and the
enormous capacities of storerooms seen in the excavated
citadels, such as the study site Ayanis (Sağlamtimur,
2005) and Çavuştepe (Erzen, 1988) in the region of Van.
In addition, more than 30 irrigation facilities have been
discovered in the Urartian land (Belli, 1997). Display
rock inscriptions found in front of the monumental gate
of the Ayanis fortress mention that Rusa II built a new
town, fortress, and temple, and created agricultural fields,
orchards, and vineyards (Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000).
In the study area, the fertile plains in the area of
Karasu Stream would have also supported crop fields. The
predominance of barley at Ayanis and other Urartian sites
suggests that it was the most important staple of Urartian
agriculture. Barley may have been preferred at least in
part in the Urartian land because it has a shorter growing
season than wheat, and thus it would give better crop
security, with or without irrigation.
Barley was also the dominant crop at some other
Anatolian Iron Age sites: Troy VIIb (1190–950 BC) and
Miletus (750–650 BC) in the west (Riehl & Nesbitt, 2003)
and Gordion (800 BC) in central Anatolia (Miller, 2010).
This is consistent with the contention of Nesbitt (2005)
that barley was abundantly used as food as well as fodder
and for brewing in the past. Today barley is chiefly grown
in most areas of Turkey and in other temperate regions for
animal feed and for brewing. According to the information
gathered during our interviews with the local people at
the modern village of Ağartı near Ayanis, barley is mainly
grown as fodder and to produce flour to soften wheat
bread paste. In addition, it has been used in traditional
medicine as a diuretic and for strengthening the body in
case of illness (Baytop, 1999).
Large samples of grains of millets, broomcorn millet
and foxtail millet, were collected from both the fortress
and outer town at Ayanis. The former appears to be more
abundant than the latter. Numerous husks of the millets
have been also found in the study area. It is likely that
the grain was stored in the husk, which then somewhat
disintegrated on charring. Most of the millet remains are
charred, while some husks in the lower levels of some
contexts are uncharred (for example, those unearthed on
the floor of the storerooms, and in Pithos 1 recovered in the
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temple complex), which would be related to both context
features, such as distance to fire, and to large quantities of
silica present in husks. The purity of the deposits, with no
remains of straw or rachises of the millets, shows that they
were stored after threshing, sieving, and winnowing. The
presence of many millet remains found in both the temple
complex of the fortress and the outer town suggests that
the elites of the fortress and the inhabitants of the outer
town consumed similar plant products.
Millet was also recovered from some other Urartian
settlements, such as Karmir Blur (Tumanian, 1944) and
Bastam (Hopf & Willerding, 1988), and from the Iron
Age levels of Sos Höyük (Erzurum) in eastern Anatolia
(Longford et al., 2009), Tille Höyük (Adıyaman) in the
south-east (Nesbitt & Summers, 1988), and Gordion
(Miller, 2010). According to Zohary and Hopf (2000),
neither broomcorn millet nor foxtail millet belongs to the
Neolithic Near East crop assemblage. It is likely that they
entered this assemblage during the Middle–Late Bronze
and Iron Ages. Based on chronology and context of early
records of these millet species, Hunt et al. (2008) suggest
that broomcorn millet may have been domesticated in
China or Central Asia, while foxtail millet may have been
domesticated in northern China.
Around the Lake Van area today millet is still grown
and used for bread making after mixing with milk or
“ayran”, a drink made with yogurt and water (Özçelik,
1989). In many areas of Turkey the seeds of broomcorn
millet are used to make a fermented drink called “boza”,
while those of foxtail millet are sold as green fodder and
as food for birds. Millet flour is also used traditionally
for treatments related to respiratory health, fever, and
diarrhoea (Baytop, 1999).
No ancient pure wheat grain deposits have been found
yet at the study site. Wheat grains (bread wheat) occur
occasionally in the barley and millet samples of Ayanis.
However, in some vessels found in the houses pure charred
and ground wheat remains with a few intact bread wheat
grains have been recovered. Since the starch microstructure
of the wheat fragments is characterised by the presence of
lumpy pancake-shaped granules, it is thought that these
remains may represent bulgur. Mortars and grinding
stones have also been found in the same area (Çilingiroğlu
& Erdem, 2006). Transformation of cereal grains into
easily cooked products such as cracked wheat, bulgur, or
flour has been common practice since prehistoric times
(Valamoti et al., 2008). Remains of ground cereals were
also recorded at the Neolithic site of Kapitan Dimitrievo
in Bulgaria and on 2 Greek Bronze Age sites, Mesimeriani
Toumba and Archondiko (Valamoti, 2002). Use of ground
cereals is also mentioned in the Hittite written sources, the
cuneiform tablets, recovered from the capital Boğazköy
(Hattusha) in north–central Anatolia, complementing
290
the archaeological record of the kingdom, spanning the
period from the 17th to the 12th century BC (Ünal, 2007).
Rye grains occur very occasionally in the barley
samples of Ayanis. Rye may have infested the barley fields
and entered the agricultural production during harvesting
in the study area. It occurs commonly as a tolerated weed
of wheat in Anatolia (Hillman, 1978). However, it would
be considered that the grains found at Ayanis show typical
features of the cultivated type. The archaeobotanical data
from Karmir Blur suggest that the Urartians would have
cultivated rye (Bedigian, 1985).
There are no pulses or grapes in the Ayanis samples.
Both are in general less abundantly represented at other
Urartian sites. However, the scarcity of the Near Eastern
pulses (lentil, garden pea, grass pea, bitter vetch, chickpea,
and fava bean) does not necessarily indicate a minor role
in the economy. At Urartian Yoncatepe (Oybak Dönmez
& Belli, 2007) and Upper Anzaf Fortress in the region of
Van (Aydaş et al., 2010) lentil is well presented. Lentil was
also recovered from the Iron Age Sos Höyük (Erzurum)
(Longford et al., 2009), while chickpea was recovered from
some Urartian settlements, such as Yoncatepe (Oybak
Dönmez & Belli, 2007), Karmir Blur (Bedigian, 1985), and
Bastam (Hopf & Willerding, 1988).
Concerning grapes, there are definite signs of grape
cultivation in the Levant from (at least) the Early Bronze
Age (Miller, 2008). Several Urartian texts also mention
plantation of vineyards and wine production (Belli
2006). As stated above, vineyards are also mentioned in
the display rock inscriptions found in the Ayanis fortress
(Çilingiroğlu & Derin, 2000).
Fruits of caraway, coriander, and parsley found at the
study site are of special interest here because, among the
Urartian sites, these plants have been recovered only at
Ayanis so far. They may have been used by the Urartians
for their aromatic fruits as condiments and/or medicinal
herbs about 2600 years ago. The remains of these plants
have been found to be mixed on the floor of Building 2 in
the area of Houses at the Ayanis fortress. In the same area
20 vessels have also been recorded. It is likely that these
taxa were stored separately but became mixed when the
building was destroyed in the fire.
Evidence of caraway was found in the Near East about
5000 years ago and the plant was well known to the ancient
Egyptians (Malhotra, 2006). The fruits have been mainly
used as a condiment for flavouring food preparations.
The plant is also popular for its use in folk medicine as a
digestive (improves appetite), carminative, galactagogue,
anticolic, antiseptic, antianaemic, antibacterial, anticancer,
antihistamine, antispasmodic and stimulant, and to treat
scabies and mycosis (Baytop, 1999; Malhotra, 2006).
Coriander remains were retrieved from several
archaeological places in the Near East, for example in
 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot
the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Nahal Hemel Cave in Israel,
1325 BC Tutankhamun tomb in Egypt, and the Iron Age
Deir Alla in Jordan (Diederichsen, 1996; Zohary & Hopf,
2000). Coriander seeds are also known for their medicinal
properties and are considered carminative, diuretic, tonic,
stomachic, antibilious, refrigerant, and aphrodisiac (Başer et
al., 1986; Baytop, 1999; Kaya et al., 2000; Özbek et al., 2006;
Sharma & Sharma, 2006). Today in the area of Van coriander
is grown and used as a condiment (Tunçtürk, 2011).
It is thought that parsley originated in Asia, and the
plant and its seeds were important for culinary, medicinal,
and cult purposes in classical antiquity in Asia and Europe
(Charles, 2004; Çağın, 2005; Özsoy et al., 2005; Altunbaş &
Türel, 2009). Parsley is said to increase female libido, also
helping to promote menstruation and ease the difficulties
of childbirth. It can also be used to treat hives and other
allergy symptoms. In addition, it has been used as a liver
tonic and helps in the breaking up of kidney stones. The
powdered seeds of parsley are a folk remedy for hair
growth and scalp stimulation. It also has strong antioxidant
properties and anti-inflammatory effects (Charles, 2004;
Altunbaş & Türel, 2009). Parsley and its seeds have been
found mainly in classical texts and archaeobotanical
records of the classical periods in Europe so far (Livarda &
van der Veen, 2008; Bosi et al., 2009). However, the present
study in Urartian archaeobotany provides earlier evidence
for parsley seed use in Eurasia.
The clover tribe Trifolieae, Vicieae, and other plants of
pastoral lands would have formed a part of the vegetation
of grazing terrains in the study area. They may have been
brought to the site of Ayanis incorporated in animal
dung. The archaeozoological evidence from the study
area includes some domestic species, but it has not been
published yet. Today, some legumes, including Trifolium
L. (clover) and Vicia L. (vetch), and many grass species are
Appendix 1.
Quantities of Urartian plant remains from the Ayanis fort-
ress and outer town. Estimated quantities are indicated by
an asterisk. Abbreviations N, NW, E, NE, W, S, SE, and SW
have been used for directions. Codes for the samples were
given by the excavation team.
Fortress
Monumental Gate
Context: Building 4, NW corner, Floor; Code CUC;
cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 140000*
Context: Building 4, Floor; Code CRE; cereals: Pani-
cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox-
tail millet) (grain and husk) 50000*
still important elements of forage in the Lake Van Basin
(Deveci & Andiç, 1992).
The common weedy taxa, such as bedstraw and rye
grass, would have infested the cereal crop fields. They may
have arrived on the site of Ayanis as weeds of cultivated
fields.
In conclusion, the archaeobotanical assemblage of the
Ayanis site indicates that in the area heavier reliance was
placed mainly on hulled barley and millets in the Iron Age
(685–645 BC). The inhabitants also cultivated bread wheat.
Cereal cultivation may also have included rye at that time.
One of the remarkable contributions of this study is the
finding of fruits of caraway, coriander, and parsley, which
may have been used as condiments and/or medicinal
herbs. This finding provides a new insight into such plants
used by the Urartians in Anatolia about 2600 years ago.
Acknowledgements
This paper is a result of MSc research carried out by the
first author at Hacettepe University. We are indebted
to the director of the Ayanis excavation, Prof Dr Altan
Çilingiroğlu, for giving us the opportunity to work at
the site. Thanks are due to Dr Aylin Erdem for kindly
giving information about the archaeological contexts
and providing the plan of Ayanis Fortress, and to Assoc
Prof Dr Osman Sert for confirming the identification of
the carbonised remains of granary weevil. We also wish
to express our sincerest thanks to Gamze Pişkin and
Volkan Serin for their help during the separation of some
archaeobiological remains, to Research Assistant Çiğdem
Özenirler and Soner Günel for their help during the
organisation of the figures, and to the Electron Microscopy
Unit of the Department of Geology at Hacettepe University
for access to their SEM. We also gratefully acknowledge
the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.
Temple Complex
Context: Pithos 1; Code CNZ; cereals: Hordeum vulga-
re (barley) (grain) 29000*
Context: W Floor; Code DAY; cereals: Panicum milia-
ceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet)
(grain and husk) 23000*
Context: NW Floor; Code DKE; cereals: Panicum mili-
aceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet)
(grain and husk) 8200
Context: SE Vessel 2; Code HHB; cereals: Hordeum
vulgare (barley) (grain) 20000*
Context: W of hearth, Vessel 4; Code HHP; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 16200*; weedy/wild
plant (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw) 2
Context: SE, Hearth; Code HHV; cereals: Hordeum
vulgare (barley) (grain) 33000*, Triticum sp. (wheat) (gra-
291
 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot
in) 3; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s
eye) 1, Aizoon hispanicum 3, Ajuga (bugle) 1, Asteraceae
(aster family) 5, Galium (bedstraw) 157, Malva (mallow)
43, Polygonaceae (knotweed) 2, Ranunculus arvensis (but-
tercup) 2, Teucrium (germander) 2, Vaccaria (cowherb)
26, Vicieae 39, unspecified taxa 7
Context: NE Building 7, Bronze cauldron; Code IAU;
cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 980000*
Context: E, Building 7; Code IBT; cereals: Hordeum
vulgare (barley) (grain) 24000*, Panicum miliaceum
(broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (gra-
in and husk) 14, Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (gra-
in) 1, (rachis segment) 1; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed):
Galium (bedstraw) 43, Malva (mallow) 13, Polygonaceae
(knot-weed) 7, Silene (campion) 1, Trifolieae (clover tribe)
15, Vicieae 21
Context: E corner, Pithos 1; Code IFG; cereals: Pani-
cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox-
tail millet) (grain and husk) 380000*
Context: NE, Pithos; Code COF; weedy/wild plants
(fruit/seed): Asteraceae (aster family) 5, Galium (bedst-
raw) 40, Lolium (rye grass) 2, Malva (mallow) 9, Polygo-
naceae (knotweed) 2, Vaccaria (cowherb) 9, Vicieae 13,
unspecified taxa 1
Storerooms
Context: SE mudbrick wall, Floor; Code CCF, CFZ,
CMU; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 30000*
Context: near W wall; Code COF, CMK; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 50000*, Triticum aestivum
(bread wheat) (grain) 8
Context: Room, Floor; Code CRT; Panicum miliaceum
(broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain
and husk) 62000*
Context: S wall of room with a platform, around ves-
sels; Code DCD; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain)
8300
Context: S of wall 2, Floor; Code KJZ; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 30
Houses
Context: SE corner of Building 2, Vessel; Code JEP;
cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 34000*, Pani-
cum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (fox-
tail millet) (grain and husk) 37, Triticum aestivum (bread
wheat) (grain) 3, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 8; weedy/
wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw) 58, Lolium
(rye grass) 4, Malva (mallow) 3, Polygonaceae (knotweed)
2, Trifolieae (clover tribe) 3, Vaccaria (cowherb) 1, Vicieae
5, unspecified taxa 2
Context: SE corner of Building 2, Floor; Code JKI; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 16000*
Context: W wall of Building 2, Vessel 4; Code JLH; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 574, Triticum aes-
292
tivum (bread wheat) (grain) 2; weedy/wild plants (fruit/
seed): Galium (bedstraw) 22, Lolium (rye grass) 1, Vicieae
3, unspecified taxa 1
Context: E wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JLU; cereals:
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica
(foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 17000*
Context: S wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JLY, JLZ; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 16000*, Panicum
miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail
millet) (grain and husk) 550000*, Triticum aestivum (bre-
ad wheat) (grain) 1, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 1 ; weedy/
wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s eye) 1, Galium
(bedstraw) 48, Malva (mallow) 17, Vicieae 3, unspecified
taxa 2
Context: Building 2, Floor; Code JNU; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 266, Panicum miliaceum
(broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain
and husk) 41; Condiments/medicinal herbs (fruit) Carum
carvi (caraway, Persian cumin) 32000*, Coriandrum sa-
tivum coriander 61000*, Petroselinum crispum (parsley)
2600; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Adonis (pheasant’s
eye) 1, Chenopodium goosefoot 2, Peganum harmala har-
mal 3
Context: Building 2, Vessel 27; Code JNZ; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000*, (rachis segment) 2,
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) (grain) 1, Triti-
cum aestivum (bread wheat) (grain) 11, (rachis segment)
1, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 6, Secale cereale (rye) (gra-
in) 2; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedstraw)
9, Lolium (rye grass) 4, Malva (mallow) 2, Polygonaceae
(knotweed) 4, Vaccaria (cowherb) 7, unspecified taxa 8
Context: Building 5, Basin; Code JOA; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 9400, (rachis segment) 2,
Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (grain) 1, (rachis seg-
ment) 3, Triticum sp. (wheat) (grain) 7, cereal stem frag-
ments 12; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed): Galium (bedst-
raw) 65, Lithospermum tenuiflorum 1, Lolium (rye grass)
3, Malva (mallow) 4, Polygonaceae (knotweed) 4, Vaccaria
(cowherb) 3, Vicieae 12, unspecified taxa 5
Context: Building 2, Vessel 1; Code JOE; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 5, Panicum miliaceum (bro-
omcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet) (grain and
husk) 350000*
Context: S wall, Building 2, Floor; Code JOG; cereals:
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica
(foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 420000*
Context: N wall, Building 2, Vessel; Code KBN; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000*
Context: Building 2, Vessel 2; Code KCZ; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 14000*
Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 3; Code KDA; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 234000*
 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot
Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 4; Code KDB; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 123000*
Context: Building 2, Vessel 13; Code KDK; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 24000*
Context: E wall, Building 2, Vessel 4; Code KDL; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 432000*
Context: N wall, Building 2, Floor; Code KDM; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 12000*
Context: S wall, Building 4, Floor; Code KGH; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 7000
Context: Building 4, Floor; Code KGM; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 89000*
Context: Building 4, Vessel 23; Code KIZ; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 74000*
Context: N Building 4, Vessel 4; Code KMH; cereals:
ground cereal grains 826 g
Context: N Building 4, Vessel 11; Code KMI; cereals:
ground cereal grains 737 g
Context: W Building 4, Vessel 6; Code KMJ; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 5230
Context: NW corner, Building 4, Gate; Code KMK;
cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 158000*
Context: NW corner, Building 5, Basin; Code KJA,
KHV; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 666000*
Context: W wall, Building 5, Vessel 1; Code KJH; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 173000*
Context: S wall, Building 5, Vessel 4; Code KJI; cereals:
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica
(foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 290000*
Context: W Building 7 (outer), Floor; Code KLZ; cere-
als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 55
Context: W Building 7, Floor; Code KMB; cereals:
ground cereal grains 360 g
Context: SW Building 7, Floor; Code KMC; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 37200*
Context: S wall, Building 7, around vessel; Code KOY;
cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 4000
Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KRO,
KSB; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley)S (grain) 65000
Context: SE corner, Building 7, Vessel; Code KSI; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 49000*
Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KSJ, KTK;
cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 37300*
Context: SE corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KTD; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 22000*
Context: Building 7, S of Silo, Floor; Code KTF; cere-
als: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria ita-
lica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 22000*
Context: SW corner, Building 7, Floor; Code KUC; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 226000*
Context: E wall, Building 7, Vessel 2; Code KVN; Cere-
al stem fragments 49 g
Context: E wall, Building 7, Vessel 8; Code KVS; Cereal
stem fragments 30 g
Context: NW corner, Building 7, Vessel 21; Code KYH;
cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 132000*
Context: NW corner, Building 7, Vessel 22; Code KYI;
cereals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 1000000*
Context: SW corner, Building 7, Vessel 24; Code KYT;
cereals: ground cereal grains 55 g
Context: SW corner of Building 7, Floor; Code KZB;
cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 25000*
Context: NE of Building 7, Silo 1; Code LAG; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 100000*
Context: SW corner, Building 8, Floor; Code LCG; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 22000*
Context: Building 8, Floor; Code LDD; cereals: Hor-
deum vulgare (barley) (grain) 70000*
Context: E wall of Building 9, Floor; Code LGO; cere-
als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 18000*
Context: Middle, Building 9, Floor; Code LHH; cere-
als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 20000*
Context: Middle, Building 9, around bronze belt; Code
LIF; cereals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 14; weedy/
wild plants (fruit/seed): Ajuga (bugle) 1, Asteraceae (aster
family) 1, Centaurea 6, Chenopodium (goosefoot) 1, Gali-
um (bedstraw) 7
Context: N wall, Building 9, Vessel 6; Code LIH; ce-
reals: Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria
italica (foxtail millet) (grain and husk) 177000*
Context: Middle, Building 11, Floor; Code LUP; cere-
als: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 28
Context: N wall, Building 11, Vessel 1; Code LUR; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 50
Context: NE corner, Building 11, Floor; Code LUS; ce-
reals: Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 66000*
Context: E, Building 11, Floor; Code LVU; cereals:
Hordeum vulgare (barley) (grain) 100
Outer Town
Context: 0096 NW; Code JFG; cereals: Panicum milia-
ceum (broomcorn millet) & Setaria italica (foxtail millet)
(grain and husk) 75200*
Context: 0070 SW; Code MHF; cereals: Hordeum
vulgare (barley) (grain) 23; weedy/wild plants (fruit/seed):
Ajuga (bugle) 1, Centaurea 1, Euphorbia (spurge) 1, Galium
(bedstraw) 6, Lolium (rye grass) 1, Vaccaria (cowherb) 7
293
 SOLMAZ and OYBAK DÖNMEZ / Turk J Bot
Appendix 2.
Relative abundance of broomcorn millet and foxtail
millet grains from Ayanis.
Fortress
Houses
S wall, Building 2, Floor: Panicum miliaceum
(broomcorn millet) 90%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 10%
S wall, Building 2, Floor: Panicum miliaceum
(broomcorn millet) 98%, Setaria italica (foxtail millet) 2%
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E wall, Building 2, Vessel 14: Panicum miliaceum
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