ACI 307-98

Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete

Chimneys (AC1 307-98)
Reported by ACI Committee 307

Victor A. Bochicchio David J. Bird

Chairman Secretary

John J. Catty Jagadish R. Joshi Randolph W. Snook

Brian Cooley Erick N. Larson John C. Sowizal
Phillip B. Davidson Robert A. Porthouse Barry J. Vickery
Shu-Jin Fang Ronald E. Purkey Chung-Yee John Wei
Milton Hartstein Scott D. Richart Edward L. Yordy
Thomas Joseph Wadi S. Rumman

Thts standard grves material, constructton, and design requirements for 3 .AForms
cast-in-place and precasireinforced concrete chimneys. It sets forth mini- 3.5-Reinforcement placement
mum loadings for design and contains methods for determining the con-
3.6-Concrete placement
crete and reinforcement required as a result of these loadings. The method
of analysis applies primarily to circular chimney shells; however, a general 3.7-Concrete curing
procedure for analysis of noncircular shapes is included. 3.8-Construction tolerances
This standard IS written in explicit, mandatory language, and as such, is 3.9-Precast erection
intendedfor rejerence in project specifications.
Equations are providedfor determining the temperature gradient through
the concrete resulting from the difference in temperature of the gases inside
Chapter 4-Service loads and general design
the chimney and the surrounding atmosphere. Methods for combining the
criteria, p. 307-3
effects of dead and wind (or earthquake) loads with temperature both verti-
4. l-General
cally and circumferentrally are included in the standard. These methods 4.2-Wind loads
permit the desrgner to establish minimum concrete and reinforcement 4.3-Earthquake loads
mquirements. 4.4-Special design considerations and requirements
This standard refers extenstvely to “Building Code Requirements for
4.5-Deflection criteria
Structural Concrete” (AU 318); constructton requirements are generally
in accordance with ACI 3Ig; and notation is in accordance with ACI 104.
Chapter !+Design of chimney shell:
Strength method, p. 307-9
Keywords: chimneys; compressive strength; concrete construction; 5.1 -General
earthquake-resistant structures; formwork (construction); foundations; high 5.2-Design Loads
temperature; linings; loads (forces); moments; openings; precast concrete; 5.3-Required strength
quality control; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels; specifications;
static loads; strength; structural analysis; structural design; temperature:
5.4--Design strength
thermal gradient; wind pressure. 5.5-Nominal moment strength: Circular shells
5.6-Noncircular shapes
I CONTENTS 5.7-Design for circumferential bending
Chapter l-General, p. 307-2
I. 1 -scope Chapter 6-Thermal stresses, p. 307-12
1.2-Drawings 6. l-General
1.3-Regulations 6.2-Vertical temperature stresses
1 &---Reference standards 6.3-Circumferential temperature stresses

Chapter P-Materials, p. 307-2 Appendix A-Notation, p. 307-14

2. I-General
2.2-Cement
2.3-Aggregates
2.AReinforcement
AC1 307-98 becam effective lunc 23,1998, and supersedes AC1 307-95
Chapter 3Construction requirements, p. 307-2 Copyright 0 1998, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by, any
3.1 -General means, including the making of copied by any photo process, or by any elcctronrc or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
3.2-Concrete quality tion or for use in any knowledge or rcaieval system or device. unless permission in
3.3-Strength tests writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

307-l
 307-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

CHAPTER l-GENERAL ASTM A 706-96 Standard Specification for Low-Alloy

7. l-Scope Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
This standard covers the design and construction of Reinforcement
circular cast-in-place or precast reinforced concrete chimney ASTM C 33-93 Standard Specification for Concrete
shells. If other shapes are used, their design shall be substan- Aggregates
tiated in accordance with the principles used here. The standard Standard Specification for Portland
ASTM C 150-95
does not include the design of linings, but includes the Cement
effects of linings on the concrete shell.
ASTM C 309-95 Standard Specification for Liquid
A~ precast chimney shell is defined as a shell constructed
Membrane-Forming Compounds for
wholly from precast reinforced concrete sections, assembled
Curing Concrete
one atop another, to form a freestanding, self-supporting
ASTM C 595-95 Standard Specification for Blended
cantilever. Vertical reinforcement and grout are placed in
Hydraulic Cement
cores as the precast sections are erected to provide structural
continuity and stability. The use of precast panels as stay-in-
CHAPTER P-MATERIALS
place forms is considered cast-in-place construction.
P.l-General
All materials and material tests shall conform to AC1 3 18,
1.2-Drawings except as otherwise specified here.
Drawings of the chimney shall be prepared showing all
features of the work, including the design strength of the
2.2-Cement
concrete, the thickness of the concrete chimney shell, the
The same brand and type of cement shall be used through-
size and position of reinforcing steel, details and dimen-
out the construction of the chimney. The cement used shall
sions of the chimney lining, and information on chimney
accessories. conform to the requirements for Type I, Type II, Type III,
or Type V of ASTM C 150, or Type IS or Type IP of
1.3--Regulations ASTM C 595.
1.3.1 The design and construction of the chimney shall
meet the requirements of all ordinances and regulations 2.3-Aggregates
of authorities having jurisdiction, except that where such 2.3.1 Concrete aggregates shall conform to ASTM C 33.
requirements are less conservative than the comparable 2.3.2 The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be not
requirements of this standard, this standard shall govern. larger than l/s of the narrowest dimension between forms
1.3.2 Consideration shall be given to the recommendations nor larger than ‘/2 the minimum clear distance between
of the Federal Aviation Administration with respect to chim- reinforcing bars.
ney heights and aviation obstruction lighting and marking,
and the standards of the Underwriters Laboratories regarding 2.4-Reinforcement
lightning protection and grounding. Reinforcement shall conform to ASTM A 615, A 617, or
A 706. Deformed reinforcement with a specified yield stress
1 .EReference standards fY exceeding 60,000 psi shall be permitted provided the ul-
Standards of the American Concrete Institute, the Ameri- timate tensile strain shall equal or exceed 0.07.
can Society of Civil Engineers, and the American Society for
Testing and Materials referred to in this standard are listed in
the following with their serial designations, including the CHAPTER 3-CONSTRUCTION
year of adoption or revision, and are declared to be a part of REQUIREMENTS
3.1-General
this standard as if fully set forth here.
Concrete quality, methods of determining strength of con-
AC1 104-71 Preparation of Notation for Concrete crete, field tests, concrete proportions and consistency, mix-
(Revised 1982) ing and placing, and formwork and details of reinforcement
(Reapproved 1987) shall be in accordance with AC1 318, except as stated
otherwise here.
AC1 318-95 Building Code Requirements for Re-
inforced Concrete
3.2-Concrete quality
AXE 7-95 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings The specified concrete compressive strength shall not be
and Other Structures less than 3000 psi at 28 days.
ASTM A 615-95~ Standard Specification for Deformed
and Plain Billet Steel Bars for Concrete 3.3-Strength tests
Reinforcement The 28-day compressive strength of the concrete shall
ASTM A 617-96 Standard Specification for Axle-Steel be determined from a minimum of two sets of cylinders
Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete (consisting of three specimens each) per 8-hr shift (slipform)
Reinforcement or per lift (jump form). For precast sections, a minimum of
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS
two sets shall be taken from each class of concrete cast each
day and from each 100 yd3 of concrete placed each day.
3.4-Forms
3.4.1 Forms for the chimney shell shall be made of metal,
wood, or other suitable materials. If unlined wooden forms
are used, they shall be of selected material with tongue-and-
groove joints and shall be kept continuously wet to prevent
shrinking and warping due to exposure to the elements. A
nonstaining form oil shall be permitted to be used. Form oil
shall not be used unless it is a nonstaining type and it has
been established that specified protective coatings or paint
can be applied to concrete exposed to form oil.
3.4.2 Forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage
of mortar.
3.4.3 No construction load shall be supported upon any
part of the structure under construction until that portion of
the structure has attained sufficient strength to safely support
its weight and the loads placed thereon.
3.4.4 Forms shall be removed in such manner as to ensure
the safety of the structure. Forms shall be permitted to be
removed after concrete has hardened to sufficient strength to
maintain its shape without damage and to safely support all
loads on it, including temporary construction loads.
3.4.5 Ties between inner and outer chimney shell forms
shall not be permitted.
3.4.6 Construction joints shall be properly prepared to
facilitate bonding. As a minimum, all laitance and loose
material shall be removed.
3.5-Reinforcement placement
3.5.1 Circumferential reinforcement shall be placed
around the exterior of, and secured to, the vertical bars. All
reinforcing bars shall be tied at intervals of not more than
2 ft. Particular attention shall be paid to placing and securing
the circumferential reinforcement so that it cannot bulge or
be displaced during the placing and working of the concrete
so as to result in less than the required concrete cover over
this circumferential reinforcement.
3.5.2 Vertical reinforcement projecting above the forms
for the chimney shell or cores of precast sections shall be so
supported as to prevent the breaking of the bond with the
freshly placed concrete.
3.5.3 Not more than 50 percent of bars shall be spliced
along any plane unless specifically permitted and approved
by the responsible engineer.
3.5.4 The concrete cover over the circumferential rein-
forcement shall be a minimum of 2 in. for cast-in-place
chimneys and 11i2 in. for precast units manufactured under
plant control conditions.
3.6-Concrete placement
No vertical construction joints shall be used for cast-in-
place chimney shells. Horizontal construction joints for
jump-form and precast construction shall be maintained at
approximately uniform spacing throughout the height of the
chimney. Concrete shall be deposited in approximately level
3074
layers no greater than 16-in. deep. Particular care shall be ex-
ercised when casting concrete in thin wall sections and when
casting cores of precast sections. Grout used to seat precast
sections shall have a compressive strength at least equal to
the design strength of the shell.
3.7-Concrete curing
3.7.1 Immediately after the forms have been removed all
necessary finishing of concrete shall be done.
3.7.2 As soon as finishing has been completed, both faces
of concrete shall be cured by coating with a membrane cur-
ing compound or other method approved by the engineer.
The curing compound shall comply with ASTM C 309 and
shall be applied in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. If coatings are to be applied to the con-
crete, the curing compound shall be of a type compatible
with these coatings.
3.8-Construction tolerances
3.8.1 The chimney shell shall be constructed within the
tolerance limits set forth here.
3.8.1.1 Vertical alignment of centerpoint-The center-
point of the shell shall not vary from its vertical axis by more
than 0.001 times the height of the shell at the time of mea-
surement, or 1 in., whichever is greater. Locally, the center-
point of the shell shall not be changed by more than 1 in. per
10 ft.
3.8.1.2 Diameter-The measured outside shell diameter
at any section shall not vary from the specified diameter by
more than 1 in. plus 0.01 times the specified or theoretical
diameter.
3.8.1.3 Wall thickness-The measured wall thickness
shall not vary from the specified wall thickness by more
than -1/4 in., +l/* in. for walls lO-in.-thick or less, or by more
than-‘/Z in., +l in. for walls greater than lo-in.-thick. A single
wall thickness measurement is defined as the average of at
least four measurements taken over a 60-deg arc.
3.8.2 Openings and embedments-Tolerances on the size
and location of openings and embedments in the shell cannot
be uniformly established due to the varying degrees of accuracy
required depending on the nature of their use. Appropriate
tolerances for opening and embedment sizes and locations
shall be established for each chimney.
3.9-Precast erection
3.9.1 The precast sections shall be erected in a manner and
at a rate that ensures that sufficient strength has been attained
in grout, core concrete, and all connecting components to
safely support construction and applicable design loads.
3.9.2 Precast sections shall be keyed if necessary to transfer
shear and grouted to level and seal joints.
CHAPTER 4-SERVICE LOADS
AND GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
4.1-General
4.1.1 The chimney shell shall be designed for the effects
of gravity, temperature, wind, and earthquake in accordance
 3074 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

with AC1 3 18, except as stated otherwise here. At a height z ft above ground, the mean hourly design
4.1.2 The chimney shell shall be designed for load combi- speed ‘i7< 2) in ft/sec shall be computed from Eq. (4- 1)
nations in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 5,
Design of chimney shell: Strength method.
j7cz) = (1.47)“~(~)““54(0.65)
RI.3
4.1.3.1 The chimney shell shall not be less than 8-in.
thick when cast in place, or less than 7-in. thick when com- The provisions with respect to wind load take account of
posed of precast sections. dynamic action but are simplified and lead to equivalent static
4.1.3.2 The chimney shell thickness, through openings, loads. A properly substantiated dynamic analysis may be
shall not be less than 1/24 the height of the opening. used in place of these provisions.
The thickened shell shall extend at least ‘/a the height of 4.2.2 Along-wind load: Circular shapes-The along-wind
the opening above and below the opening. Properly designed load, w(r) per unit length at any height z ft, shall be the sum
buttresses or other means of lateral restraint may be used in of the mean load F(z) and the fluctuating load w ‘(z).
place of this requirement; however, the buttresses shall be The mean load w(z) in lb/ft shall be computed from
ignored when calculating vertical strength. Eq. (4-2)
4.1.3.3 When the internal diameter of the shell exceeds
28 ft, the minimum thickness shall be increased l/s in. for
each I-ft increase in internal diameter. E(z) = C,,(z). d(z) l B(z) (4-z)
4.1.4 A chimney shell that supports lining loads shall com-
ply with the requirements of this standard with the lining in where
place. The interaction of the liner with the shell shall be
C&Z) = 0.65 for z < h - 1.5d(h) (4-3a)
considered.
4.1.5 Consideration shall be given to loadings during the C&(z) = 1 .O for z > h - 1.5d(h) (4-3b)
construction phase.
4.1.6 If required during construction, temporary access p(z) = 0.0013 l&z>]2 (4-4)
openings may be provided in the concrete shell. For the design
of the shell, these openings shall be designed as permanent d(z) = outside diameter at height z, ft
openings. h = chimney height above ground level, ft
4.1.7 d(h) = top outside diameter, ft
4.1.7.1 The maximum foundation bearing pressure shall
be established using unfactored chimney loads. The fluctuating load w’(z) shall be taken equal to
4.1.7.2 The foundation shall be designed by the strength
method in accordance with the procedures of AC1 318. The 3.02 l G,, . M,(b)

foundation design shall be based on a pseudo-bearing pressure w’(z) = (4-5)

h3
distribution, or pile loads, using the loading combinations
given in Section 53.1 and 5.3.2. where Ml;(b) = base bending moment due to w(z) and
4.1.7.3 The minimum factor of safety against overturning
shall be 1 SO using unfactored loads. ”
4.1.7.4 Consideration shall be given to the effects of G _ o 3. + ll.O[T, l &33)1°.47
)$y- . (4-6)
radiant heat of gases on any part of the foundation, including (h + 16)“.86
the foundation floor area which is exposed within the liner
and also concrete floors supported from the concrete shell.
where v(33) is determined from Eq. (4-l) for z. = 33 ft.
For preliminary design and evaluation of the critical wind
4.2-Wind loads
4.2.1 General-Reinforced concrete chimneys shall be speed V,, , as described in Section 4.2.3.1, the natural period
of an unlined chimney T,, in seconds per cycle, may be
designed to resist the wind forces in both the along-wind and
across-wind directions. In addition, the hollow circular cross approximated using Eq. (4-7). However, for final design, the
section shall be designed to resist the loads caused by the period shall be computed by dynamic analysis
circumferential pressure distribution.
The reference design wind speed in mph, which shall be
(4-7)
T

denoted as V,, shall be the “3-set ust” wind speed at 33 ft 1

over open terrain where V, = (I)‘. 9V. This speed V and im-
portance factor I shall be as specified by AXE 7. All
where
chimneys shall be classified as Category IV structures as
defined in ASCE 7-95. Terrain effects referenced in Sec- h chimney height above base, ft
tion 6.5.5 of ASCE 7-95 are omitted. t(h) z thickness at top, ft
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-5

t(b) = thickness at bottom, ft h

z(b) = mean diameter at bottom, ft F,(B) = - 0.089 + o.33710g,do (4-12)
&k = mass density of concrete, kip-sec2/ft4
Eck = modulus of elasticity of concrete, kip/ft2 but not > 1 .O or < 0.20.
If the lining is supported in any manner by the shell, the Pa = density of air = 0.075 lbs/ft3
effect of the lining on the period shall be investigated. Vcr = critical speed at 5/6h, ft/sec
42.3 Across-wind load: Circular shapes
4.2.3.1 General-Across-wind loads due to vortex v =fd(u) (4-13)
shedding in the first and second modes shall be considered in CT
4
the design of all chimney shells when the critical wind speed
V,, is between 0.50 and 1.30 v(z,,) as defined here. Across-
wind loads need not be considered outside this range. f = first-mode frequency, Hz
St = Strouhal number
4.2.3.2 Analysis-When the outside shell diameter at
‘lgh is less than 1.6 times the top outside diameter, across-
S, = 0.25F,(A) (4- 14)
wind loads shall be calculated using Eq. (4-8) which defines
the peak base moment M,
where

F,(A) = 0.333 +0.2061og h (4-15)

e4u)

but not > 1 .O or < 0.60.

(4-8)
d(u) = mean outside diameter of upper third of chimney,
ft
h = chimney height above ground level, ft
Eq. (4-8) defines the peak base moment MT for values of
i7, where v is evaluated between 0.5 and 1.30 V(z,,). When ij
2 &z,,), M, shall be multiplied by O.lO[V- V((z,,,l
p, = 0.01 + (4-16)
YzCT )

(4-8a) but not < 0.01 or > 0.04.

Pa = aerodynamic damping
where
V(zcr) = the mean design wind speed at zcr, zcr = 5/6h, (4-17)
ftJsec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ftlsec*
G = peak factor = 4.0 Ka = Km FdB) (4-18)
ss = mode shape factor = 0.57 for first mode, 0.18 for
second mode where

CL = C,,F,(B) (4-9)
-1.0 (4-19)
K(10 =
where

CL, = - 0.243 + 5.648i- 18.182i2 (4-10)

where
where
P
k =-
(4-l 1) V C,

G(u) = average weight in top third of chimney, lb/ft

zc = exposure length = 0.06 ft sp = spectral parameter
307-6

by reference to model tests or observations or test reports of

similar arrangements.
s* = (4-21) 4.2.3.5 Combinakon of across-wind and along-wind
loads-Across-wind loads shall be combined with the
coexisting along-wind loads. The combined design moment
where M,(z) at any section shall be taken as
B = band-width parameter
0.5
(4-22)

{
= O.l0+2i
1
B
L = correlation length coefficient M,(z) =
[M,(z)12 + [WzN2
L = 1.20
c, = end effect factor = 3
where
After solving for M,, across-wind moments at any height
M,(z) may be calculated based on the corresponding mode M,(z)= moment induced by across-wind loads
shape of the chimney column. Ml(z) = moment induced by the mean
4.2.3.3 Second mode-Across-wind response in the sec- along-wind load wl(z)
ond mode shall be considered if the critical wind speed VCR where
as computed by Eq. (4-23) is between 0.50 and 1.30 v(z,,),
where v(zcr) is the mean hourly wind speed at 5/6h
(4-26)
5d(u)
V cr2= T (4-23)
‘2

except that w,(z) shall not exceed $z).

The period T2 in seconds per cycle for an unlined shell 4.2.4 Circumferential bending-The maximum circum-
may be estimated by Eq. (4-24). For final design, T2 shall be ferential bending moments due to the radial wind pressure
calculated by dynamic analysis distribution shall be computed by EIq. (4-27) and (4-28)

Mi(z) = 0.3lpr(z) [r(z)]‘, ft-lb/ft (tension on inside) (4-27)

T2 = 0.82 h2 p[‘ur[ Er (A-24)
d ( b ) E,, r(b) M,(z) = 0.27pr(z) [r(z)12, ft-lblft (tension on outside) (4-28)

where t(h) and r(b) are the thicknesses at the top and bottom,
respectively, and z(h) and d(b) are the mean diameters at the
top and bottom, respectively.
The effect of a shell-supported liner on the period of the
second mode shall also be investigated.
Any method using the modal characteristics of the chim-
ney shall be used to estimate the across-wind response in the
second mode.
4.2.3.4 Grouped chimneys-When two identical chim-
neys are in close proximity, the across-wind load shall be in-
creased to account for the potential increase in vortex-
induced motions. In such cases, the lift coefficient CL in
Eq. (4-9) shall be modified as follows
4 if sld(zJ > 12.75, CL is unaltered
b). if 3 < sld(z,,) < 12.75, CL shall be multiplied by:
[0.26 - 0.015 sld(z,,)] + [2 - sll2d(&]
where
s = center-to-center spacing of chimneys, ft
d(z,,.) = outside diameter of chimney at critical height
zcr, ft
For chimneys that are not identical and for identical chim-
neys where s/d&,.) < 3, the value of CL shall be established
where
r(z) = mean radius at height z, ft
pr(z) = O.O013[‘i;i(~)]~ l GXz), lb/ft2 (4-29)
G,(z) = 4.0 - 0.810gloz, except G;(z) = 4 for z I 1.0(4-30)
a.
The pressure pr(z) shall be increased by 50 percent for a
distance 1.5d(h) from the top.
4.2.5 Wind loads: Noncircular shapes-The provisions of
ASCE 7 shall be followed including force coefficients and
gust response factors. Unusual cross-sectional shapes not
covered in ASCE 7 shall require wind tunnel testing or other
similar documentation to verify along- or across-wind loads,
or both. Similarly, horizontal bending due to wind pressure
distributions shall also require wind tunnel testing or other
documentation from reliable sources.
4.3-Earthquake loads
4.3.1 General-Reinforced concrete chimneys in earth-
quake areas shall be designed and constructed to resist the
earthquake effects in accordance with the requirements of
this section. Applicable effective peak velocity-related
accelerations A, shall be in accordance with the ASCE 7
maps for the site.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS W-7

Chimneys shall be designed for earthquakes by means of 4.4.3 The circumferential reinforcement for a distance of
the dynamic response spectrum analysis method given in 0.2d(h) from the top of the chimney or 7.5 ft, whichever is
Section 4.3.2. In place of the dynamic spectrum analysis greater, shall be at least twice the amount required by
method, time history analysis based on accelograms repre- Section 5.7.
sentative of the locality may be used. 4.4.4 Where a segment between openings is critical as
The effects due to the vertical component of earthquakes related to the height of the openings, this segment shall be
are generally small and can be ignored in the earthquake de- investigated as a beam-column. Where more than two open-
sign of chimneys. ‘Ihe horizontal earthquake force shall be as- ings occur at the same elevation, appropriate design methods
sumed to act alone in any lateral direction.
consistent with the cases shown by Fig. 5.5.1 (a), (b), and (c)
4.3.2 Dynamic response spectrum analysis method-The
shall be used.
shears, moments, and deflections of a chimney due to earth-
quake shall be determined by using a site-specific response 4.4.5 In addition to the reinforcement determined by design,
spectrum and the elastic modal method. The site-specific extra reinforcement shall be provided at the sides, top, bot-
response spectrum shall be based on a 90 percent probability tom, and comers of these openings as hereinafter specified.
of not being exceeded in 50 years with 5 percent damping. If This extra reinforcement shall be placed near the outside
a site-specific response spectrum is unavailable, the design surface of the chimney shell as close to the opening as proper
response spectrum for the site shall be obtained by scaling spacing of bars will permit. Unless otherwise specified, all
down the normalized l.Og peak ground acceleration
spectrum for 5 percent damping shown in Fig. 4.3.2 or Table 4.3.2(a)- Special values for maximum
Table 4.3.2(a) by the scaling ratios given in Table 4.3.2(b) ground acceleration of 1 .Og*
for the A, of the site.
velocity
The normalized design response spectrum given in Displacemetlt Acceleration
Fig. 4.3.2 or Table 4.3.2(a) is suitable for firm soil condi- spectNm,in. “W sptctrum g
tions. The tisponse spectrum shall be modified for soft and
shallow soil conditions by any method that is properly 50.7 318.6f 5.186f2
substantiated and complies with the basic principles herein.
The analytical model of a chimney used in the dynamic 10.39 65.26
response spectrum analysis shall be sufficiently refined to 0.25 Sf 5 2.5 0.1436 1.062f o.8s64
f'.'436 f
represent variations of chimney and liner masses, variations
of stiffness, and the foundation support condition. A mini-
25.32 159.1 2.589
mum of 10 elements shall be included. The total dy- 2.5.Sf.59 2ll58
namic response of the chimneys in terms of shear and f f ‘.“58 f o.‘158
moment shall be computed using the SRSS over a minimum
of five normal modal responses. SRSS means taking the 63.87 6.533
9SfS33 25369
square root of the sum of the squares of modal maxima. The f f o.5369
use of the CQC method (complete quadratic combination)
is also permitted.
f>33 9e
f
61.37
f
1.00
4.4-Special design considerations and
requirements * Damping ratio = 0.05.
4.4.1 Two layers of vertical and circumferential reinforce-
ment are required. The total vertical reinforcement shall be
Taa:.;2(h)-Response spectrum scaling ratio
not less than 0.25 percent of the concrete area. The outside
V
vertical reinforcement shall be not less than 50 percent of the
total reinforcement. Outside-face vertical bars shall not be &efkctivepeak

smaller than No. 4, nor shall they be spaced more than 12 in. velocity-related
acccletations Scaling ratio
on centers. Inside-face vertical bars shall not be smaller than
No. 4, nor shall they be spaced more than 24 in. on centers. 0.05 0.04
4.43 The total circumferential reinforcement shall not be
0.08 0.06
less than 0.20 percent of the concrete area. The circumferen-
tial reinforcement in each face shall be not less than 0.1 per- 0.15 0.11
cent of the concrete area at the section.
0.20 0.15
Spacing of outer face circumferential reinforcement shall
not exceed the wall thickness or 12 in. Spacing of circumfer- 0.30 0.23
ential reinforcement on the inner face shall not exceed 12 in. 0.40 0.30
The minimum size of circumferential reinforcing bars shall
be No. 3. tinem intapohtion may be wed in between 4 coefficients not given.
307-a MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Fig. 4.3.2-Normalized horizontal elastic seismic response spectra.
extra reinforcement shall extend past the opening a minimum
of the development length.
4.4.6 At each side of the opening, the additional vertical
reinforcement shall have an area at least equal to the design
steel ratio times one-half the area of the opening. The extra
reinforcement shall be placed within a distance not exceed-
ing twice the wall thickness unless otherwise determined by
a detailed analysis.
4.4.7 At both the top and bottom of each opening, addi-
tional reinforcement shall be placed having an area at least
equal to one-half the established design circumferential rein-
forcement interrupted by the opening, but the area A, of this
additional steel at the top and also at the bottom shall be
not less than that given by Eq. (4-31), unless otherwise
determined by a detailed analysis
O.O6f,‘tI
A, = - (4-3 1)
fY
where
f,’ = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
t = concrete thickness at opening, in.
1 = width of opening, in.
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing steel, psi
One-half of this extra reinforcement shall extend com-
pletely around the circumference of the chimney, and the
other half shall extend beyond the opening a sufficient
distance to develop the bars in bond. This steel shall be
placed as close to the opening as practicable, but within a
height not to exceed three times the thickness t.
4.4.8 For openings larger than 2-ft wide, diagonal rein-
forcing bars with a total cross-sectional area in square inches
of not less than 1/5 of the shell thickness in inches shall be
placed at each comer of the opening. For openings 2-ft wide
or smaller, a minimum of two No. 5 reinforcing bars shall be
placed diagonally at each comer of the opening.
4.5-Deflection criteria
The maximum lateral deflection of the top of a chimney
under all service conditions prior to the application of load
factors shall not exceed the limits set forth by EQ. (4-33)
Y-=O.O4h (4-33)
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-9

where 5.3.2 For earthquake loads or forces E, the load combina-

maximum lateral deflection, in. tions of Section 5.3.1 shall apply except that l.lE shall be
Y,, =
substituted for W.
h = chimney height, ft 5.3.3 Required circumferential strength UC to resist wind
load W and-normal temperature load T shall be
CHAPTER 5-DESIGN OF CHIMNEY SHELLS:
STRENGTH METHOD UC = l.O5T+ 1.3W (5-ld)
5.1-General
5.1.1 Except as modified herein, design assumptions shall W-Design strength
he in accordance with AC1 318, Chapter 10. The chimney 5.4.1 Design strength of a section in terms of moment shall
shell shall be designed by the strength method. be taken as the nominal moment strength calculated in accor-
5.1.2 The equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribu- dance with the requirements of this standard multiplied by a
tion described in Section 10.2.7 of AC1 3 18 and as modified strength reduction factor $ equal to 0.70 for vertical strength
herein shall be used. For vertical strength the maximum and 0.90 for circumferential strength.
strain on the concrete isassumed to be 0.003 and the maxi-
mum strain in the steel is assumed to be 0.07. Whichever val- 5.5-Nominal moment strength: Circular shells
ue is reached first shall be taken as the limiting value. 5.5.1 The following equations apply [refer to Fig. 5.5.1(a),
and 5.5.1(b)]
In place of the equivalent rectangular concrete compres-
sive stress distribution used in this chapter, any other rela-
P,/rtf,’ = K, = 1.7Qh + 2~,K,m,Qt + 20,ht (5-2)
tionship between concrete compressive stress and strain may
be assumed that results in prediction of the strength of hol-
low circular sections in substantial agreement with results of where
comprehensive tests. PU = factored vertical load
5.1.3 The design and detailing of precast chimney shells r = average radius of section
shall emulate the design of cast-in-place chimney shells un- t = thickness of section
less specifically stated otherwise herein. Particular attention
should be given to the spacing and reinforcement of cast-in- h = z - n, p (radians) (5-3)
place cores and closures joining precast units to ensure that
the reqirements of this and other applicable standards are
met. Q, = sinv - si;y;iy-- p)cosa
(5-4)
5.1.4 Refer to Section 5.7 for design procedures of noncir-
cular shells.
Al = p + W-K (radians) (5-5)
5.2-Design loads
5.2.1 Dead loads and wind or earthquake forces at service p, 2, w = angles shown in Fig. 5.5.1(a).
conditions prior to the application of load factors,shall be in
accordance with Chapter 4 of this standard. Thermal effects COST = 1 - pt( 1 - cosct) (5-6)
at service conditions shall be in accordance with Chapter 6.

5.3--Required strength cosyi = cosa-(~)(~)~-l.o (5-7)

5.3.1 Required vertical strength U, to resist dead load D,
or wind load W, and normal temperature T, shall be the largest
of the following
cosp= cos,.(~)($)~ 1.0 (5-8)
lJv= 1.40 (5-la)
where
U,= l.lD + 1.4T+ 1.3W* (5-lb)
a = one-half the central angle subtended
and by neutral axis
a = one-half opening angle
U,=O.9D+ 1.4T+ 1.3W* (5-lc) 8, = 0.85 for f,’ S 4000 psi
= 0.85 - O.OSv; - 4000)/1000 2 0.65,
*The load factor 1.3 shall be used for the along-wind loads for f,’ > 4000 psi
of Section 4.2.2. For the across-wind loading combined with
the along-wind loading (Section 4.2.3.5), a load factor of 1.2 K, = WfY
shall be used. 0, = PlJ$fC
 307-l 0 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS

compression
T <

- -
vertical reinforcement

Pct=area of vertical
zone- reinforcement
per unit length
-COs a)=fy r(l-cos a)
EmEs
Em= 1-cosa
x0.07 ; :. cosp=cosa +(1-cos a) fy
( l+cosa > 4 I I Em Es
50.003 in./in. I .., I I A--r(cosa-cl os$)=fy r(l-cos a)
7 EmRs
;,cas *=cos a -(1-cos a) fy
Em Es
r(l-cos a) -
cos T=l-81 (I-cos
compression zone
7 STRAIN DIAGRAM

&r(l-cosa)-

r(l-cos y,>_ tension zone

I

Fig. 5.5. I (a)-Stress diagram.

PLAN ’ ” PLAN
TWO OPFNINGS IN COMPRESSION ZONE i
COMPRESSION ‘ZONE
(Dimensions not shown same as Fig 5.5.10) (Dimensions not shown same as Fig. 5.5.10)

Fig. 5.5.1(c)-Two symmetric openings partly in

Fig. 5.5.1(b)-Two openings in compression zone. compression zone.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-l 1

PI = ratio of total vertical reinforcement
to total area of concrete
n1 = number of openings entirely in compression zone
(maximum 2)
E, = 0.07( 1 - cosa)/( 1 + cosa) I 0.003
M,,IP,,r = K3 = cosa + K21KI, :. M,, = P,,rK3
K2 = 1.7QR + &,,,K,o,Qz + 2qK
ForaI5deg
Q = (- 0.523 + 0.181a - 0.0154a2)
+ (41.3 - 13.2a + 1.32a2)(t/r)
For5deg<a<lOdeg
c.
Q = (- 0.154 + 0.01773a + 0.00249a2)
+ ( 16.42 - 1.980a + 0.0674a2)(t/r)
For lOdegcal17deg
Q = (-0.488 + 0.076a) + (9.758 - O.fMla)(t /r)
For 17degcaI25deg
Q = (- 1.345 + 0.2018a - 0.004434a2)
+ (15.83 - 1.676a + 0.03994a2)(t/r)
For 25 deg < a < 35 deg
Q = (0.993 - 0.00258a) + (-3.27 + O.O862a)(t / r)
Y = */2 angle between center lines of two openings
and for no openings, n1 = y = p = 0; for one
opening in compression zone, n, = 1, y = 0;
for two openings in compression zone, n1 = 2
5.53 Two symmetric openings partly in compression zone-
(5-9) Refer to Fig. 5.5.1(c). This condition exists when y + p > z
and y - p < z. For this case, let 6 = y- p. Then in Elq. (5.2),
(5-10) h=ii
And in Eq. (5-l 1)
(5-l 1)
R = sin8 - &osa (5.15b)
5.5.3 Openings in tension zone-openings in the ten-
sion zone are ignored since the tensile strength of the con-
(5.12a)
crete is neglected and the bars cut by the openings are
replaced at the sides of the openings.
5.5.4 Openings in compression zone-In calculations of
the forces in the compression reinforcement only, openings
in the compression zone are ignored since the cut bars are re-
placed at the sides of the openings.
(5-12b)
5.5.5 Limitation-The one-half opening angle p shall not
exceed 30 deg.
5.5.6 Calculation procedure-Given r, t, f,‘, p, y, P,,, MU,
and the number of openings (where P,, and M,, are the fac-
tored vertical load and the factored moment, respectively),
(5-12~)
use the following procedure:
Step 1. Assume a value for the total vertical steel ratio p,
Step 2. By trial and error, find the value of a that
satisfies Eq. (5-2).
(5-12d)
Step 3. Substitute this value of a in Eq. (5-10)
and calculate M,,.
Step 4. If +M,, < MU, increase pt; if +M,, > M,,, decrease p,
(5-12e) Step 5. Repeat Step 2 through Step 4 until $M, = MU.

For a > 35 deg 5.5.7 For load combinations with temperature effects,
modifyfY and& using Eq. (5-16a) and (5.17a).
Q = 0.89 (5.12f)
Replacef, with
where
(5.16a)
lu, = nominal moment strength of section

1
(w-l.r)(l + 2cos2a) Replacef,’ with
+ (1/2)(4sin2a + sin2y - sin2l.t)
f/(v) =f,’ - 1.4Of’&/ (5-17a)
[ - 4cosa( sina + sinyr- sinl.t)
Q2 = (1 - cosa)
(5-13)
where yt, fsw, f ‘;Tv , and f’& are as defined in Chapter 6.

K=sinW+sinll+((x-v-p)cosa (5-14) BB-Noncircular shapes

5.6.1 General-All applicable sections of this Standard
R=sinz-(z-nlP)cosa- shall be followed, including horizontal bending and temper-
(n,/2)[sin (r + p) - sin(y - B)] (5-15a) ature effects.
307-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

5.6.2 Design assumptions-Strain in reinforcement and

concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
For vertical strength, the maximum strain in the concrete is
assumed to be 0.003 and the maximum strain in the steel is
assumed to be 0.07. Whichever value is reached first shall be
taken as the limiting value.
Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength
& for grade of reinforcement used shall be taken as ES times I 1 I
Strain ’ b EC
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to&, I I
stress in reinforcement shall be assumed equal to<,, . 0.002 0.003
Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected. Strain

L&2-(&,'I
Relationship of concrete compressive stress and concrete
strain shall be assumed in accordance with stress-strain curve a)fc = O.SSfi
as shown in Fig. 5.6. j;= 0.85f,'(1OOO~, - 250$00~,*)
5.6.3 Calculation procedure-For a given geometry and
given P, and M,, (where P, is the factored vertical load and f, = 85O&‘E,(l - 250 E=)
I
MU is the factored moment), use the following procedure:
Step 1. Assume a value for the total vertical steel ratio pt b)fc=0.85f,' [I -0.15(Ec;;~)]
Step 2. By trial and error, find the location of the neutral f,= 0.85&'(1 - 150~~ + 0.30)
axis which makes the total vertical force in the sec-

Step 3.
tion equal and opposite to P,.
With this location of the neutral axis, calculate I$,,
I f,= 0.85&'(1.30 - 150~

the nominal moment strength of the section. Fig. 5.bStress-strain curve for concrete.
Step 4. If $M,, < M,,, increase pt.
to temperature f '& and f ‘& , respectively, shall be com-
If $A4,, > M,,, decrease p,.
puted by Eq. (6-la) and (6-lb)
Step 5. Repeat Step 2 through Step 5 until $A4,, = M,,.

5.6.4 Horizontal bending-Design for horizontal bending

f'& =are.c.T,.E, (6- 1 a)
shall comply with the requirements of Section 5.7.
f & = a,< (c - 1 + y2) T,nE, (6-lb)
5.7-Design for circumferential bending
5.7.1 Any horizontal strip of the concrete column shall be where
designed as a horizontal beam resisting circumferential ate thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete and
bending moments as given in Section 4.2.4 and thermal ef- of reinforcing steel, to be taken as 0.0000065 per
fects described in Section 6.3. F
5.7.2 For loads combined with temperature effects, modify EC modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
fY andf,‘using Eq. (516b) and (5-17b). r
C -PM1 + 1) +

Replace& with&‘(c) =fY - l.O5f,, (5-16b) &pn(Yl + III2 + 2Pn[y2 + Y1(l -r2)1 (6-z)

P ratio of total area of vertical outside face

Replacef,’ with&“(c) =f,‘- l.OSf’&c (5-17b)
where fsTc and f ‘kc are as defined in Chapter 6.
CHAPTER 6-THERMAL STRESSES
6.1-General
6.1.1 The equations for temperature stresses given in this
chapter are based on working stress procedures and shall be
considered in the calculation of the nominal moment strength
in Chapter 5.
6.2-Vertical temperature stresses
6.2.1 The maximum vertical stresses in the concrete and
steel, in psi, occurring at the inside of the chimney shell due
reinforcement to total area of concrete chimney
shell at section under consideration
Yl ratio of inside face vertical reinforcement area
to outside face vertical reinforcement area
Y2 ratio of distance between inner surface of
chimney shell and center line of outer face
vertical reinforcement to total shell thickness
n 44
T,, the temperature gradient across the concrete shell, shall
be computed by Eq. (6-3a), (6-3b), (6-3c), (6-3d), or by a
complete heat balance study for all operating conditions.
a) For unlined chimneys
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-l 3

I 1
Ki = coefficient of heat transmission from gas to inner
td,i T,-To surface of chimney lining when chimney is lined,
TX = rd. (6-3a)
CA L+ CI : d.CI or to inner surface of chimney shell when chimney
is unlined, Btu/ft*/hr/F difference in temperature
Ki ‘cd, Kodco
K, = coefficient of heat transmission from outside
surface of chimney shell to surrounding air,
b) For lined chimneys with insulation completely filling Btu/ft*/hr/F difference in temperature
the space between the lining and shell K, = coefficient of heat transfer by radiation
between outside surface of lining and inside
surface of concrete chimney shell, Btu/ft*/hr/F
rdbi T,-To difference in temperature
T, = - (6-3b)
fbdbi + -
‘sdbi + -
‘dbi + d,i KS = coefficient of heat transfer between outside surface
Gdc _I. + - of lining, and inside surface of shell for chimneys
Ki Cbdb C&s C&c K&CO 1
with ventilated air spaces, Btu/ft*/hr/F difference
in temperature
c) For lined chimneys with unventilated air space between dbi = inside diameter of uninsulated lining or insulation
the lining and shell around liner, ft
db = mean diameter of uninsulated lining or insulation
around liner, ft
Ti - To
TX = (6-3~) d, = mean diameter of space between lining and shell, ft
L+-
‘bdbi +-
dbi +-+dbi
‘dbi
d, = inside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
Ki ‘bdb Krdb cc4 fvco
d, = mean diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
dco = outside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
d) For lined chimneys with a ventilated air space between
the lining and shell 6.2.2 Unless complete heat balance studies are made for
the particular chimney, it is permissible to use the approxi-
mate values given below. These constants when entered into
TX = 2 Ti - To
(6-3d) equations for temperature differential through the chimney
c c fbdbi dbi ‘dbi dbi shell T, will give values of accuracy in keeping with the
1. -+-+-+-
KS4 CA 04, I basic design assumptions.
r9Ki r9Cbdb
= 0.5
‘9
where cc = 12
rq = ratio of heat transmission through chimney shell C, = to be obtained from the manufacturer of the
to heat transmission through lining for chimneys materials used
with ventilated air spaces Cb = to be obtained from the manufacturer of the
t = thickness of concrete shell, in. materials used
f, = thickness of air space or insulation filling the space Ki = to be determined from curves in Fig. 6.2.2
between the lining and shell, in. K, = 12
tb = thickness of uninsulated lining or insulation
around steel liner, in. K, = ?I120
T = maximum specified design temperature of gas KS = Till50
inside chimney, F The value of r9 = 0.5 shall apply only where the distance
To = minimum temperature of outside air surrounding between the lining and the chimney shell is not less than 4 in.
chimney, F throughout the entire height of the lining and air inlet and
cc = coefficient of thermal conductivity of the concrete outlet openings are provided at the bottom and top of the
of chimney shell, Btu/ft*/in. of thickness/hr/F chimney shell. The area of the inlet and outlet openings in
difference in temperature (12 for normal weight
square feet shall numerically equal two-thirds the inside
concrete)
diameter in feet of the chimney shell at the top of the lining.
c, t coefficient of thermal conductivity of chimney Local obstructions in the air space between the lining and the
uninsulated lining or insulation around steel liner,
Btu/ft*/in. of thicknessA@ difference in chimney shell shall not restrict the area of the air space at any
temperature horizontal section to less than that specified for air inlet or
c, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of insulation outlet.
filling in space between lining and shell, Btu/ft*/in. 6.2.3 The maximum stress in the vertical steel fsn in psi,
of thickness/hr/F difference in temperature occurring at the outside face of the chimney shell due to
(3 for lightweight concrete) temperature, shall be computed by Eq. (6-4)
 867-l 4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

0 200 400 800 MO 1000 1200 1400 1800 moo ZOO0

GAS TEMPERATURE OF

Flw gas film corfficids

Fig. 6.2.2-Curves for determining Ki .

f STV = a,, l (~2 - c) l T, l E, (6-4) Yl’ = ratio of inside face circumferential reinforcing
steel area to outside circumferential reinforcing
steel area
where ratio of distance between inner surface of chimney
Yi =
Es = modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement, psi shell and circumferential outside face reinforcing
steel to total thickness t
6.3-Circumferential temperature stresses All other notations are the same as for vertical temperature
6.3.1 The maximum circumferential stress in psi in the stresses. L
concrete due to temperature f ‘& occurring at the inside of
6.3.2 The maximum stress in psi in the outside circumfer-
the chimney shell shall be computed by Eq. (6-5)
ential reinforcementfflc due to temperature shall be comput-
ed by Eq. (6-7)
f ‘kc = a, l c’ l TX l E, (6-5)

where fSTC = %I? l (~;-c’)*T,*E,~ (6-7)

cJ =
APPENDIX A-NOTATION
A, = area of reinforcing steel at top and bottom of
-p’Wl’ + 1) opening, in.2 (Chapter 4)
(6-6) B = band width parameter (Chapter 4)
+ [p’Wl’+ III2 + 2p’dy2’+Yl’(l -Y2’)1
C = ratio of distance from extreme compression
fiber to neutral axis for vertical stresses to total
and thickness t (Chapter 6)
TX = value determined for vertical temperature stresses c’ = c for circumferential stresses (Chapter 6)
p’ = ratio of cross-sectional area of circumferential c, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of chimney
outside face reinforcing steel per unit of height to uninsulated lining or insulation around steel
cross-sectional area of chimney shell per unit of liner, Btu/ft2/in. of thickness/hr/F difference
height in temperature (Chapter 6)
 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-l 5

cc coefficient of thermal conductivity of concrete

of chimney shell, Btu/ft2/in. of thickness/hr/F
f,' = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
(Chapter 4)
difference in temperature
(12 for normal weight concrete) (Chapter 6) fc"W = f,’ modified for temperature effects,
circumferential, psi (Chapter 5)
drag coefficient for along-wind load
cdr
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) fc"W : f,’modified for temperature effects, vertical, psi
(Chapter 5)
end effect factor (Chapter 4)
cE
f'&c = maximum circumferential stress in concrete due
CL rrns lift coefficient (Chapter 4) to temperature at inside of chimney shell, psi
rms lift coefficient modified for local turbulence (Chapters 5 and 6)
CL0
(Chapter 4) f’;nv = maximum vertical stress in concrete at inside of
coefficient of thermal conductivity of insulation chimney shell due to temperature, psi
G
tilling in space between lining and shell, (Chapters 5 and 6)
Btu/ft2/in. of thickness/hr/F difference fSTC = maximum stress in outside circumferential
in temperature (3 for lightweight concrete) reinforcement due to temperature, psi
(Chapter 6) (Chapters 5 and 6)
d diameter of chimney (Commentary Chapter 4) f!vv = maximum stress in outside vertical
reinforcement due to temperature, psi (Chapters
db mean diameter of uninsulated lining or
5 and 6)
insulation around liner, ft (Chapter 6)
f’;TV = maximum stress in inside vertical reinforcement
dbi in&de diameter of uninsulated lining or
insulation around liner, ft (Chapter 6) due to temperature, psi (Chapters 5 and 6)
4J = specified yield strength of reinforcing steel, psi
4 mean diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
(Chapter 6) (Chapters 4 and 5)
f;(c) = fy modified for temperature effects,
dci inside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
(Chapter 6) circumferential, psi (Chapter 5)
dco outside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft fyw = fy modified for temperature effects, vertical, psi
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 5)
FIA = strouhal number parameter (Chapter 4)
4 mean diameter of space between lining
and shell, ft (Chapter 6) FIB = lift coefficient parameter (Chapter 4)
0) bottom outside diameter of chimney, ft
g
= acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ftfsec2
(Chapter 4) (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
;i(b) mean diameter at bottom of chimney, ft G = across-wind peaking factor (Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4)
GXZ) = gust factor for radial wind pressure at height z
d(h) top outside diameter of chimney, ft (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
G,,,t = gust factor for along-wind fluctuating load
JW mean diameter at top of chimney, ft (Chapter 4) (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
0) mean outside diameter of upper third h = chimney height above ground level, ft
of chimney, ft (Chapter 4) (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
d(z) outside diameter of chimney at height z, ft i = local turbulence parameter (Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
I = importance factor for wind design in Chapter 4
dkcr) outside diameter of chimney at critical height and AXE 7
z,,, ft (Chapter 4)
k = ratio of wind speed (n to critical wind speed (V,,)
D dead load (Chapter 5)
k, = aerodynamic damping parameter (Chapter 4)
E earthquake loads or forces (Chapter 5)
k (10 = mass damping parameter of small amplitudes
EC modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Chapter (Chapter 4)
6)
k, = equivalent sand-grained surface roughness factor
Ec k modulus of elasticity of concrete, kip/ft2 (Commentary Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4)
K = parameter for nominal moment strength
E, modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi in Chapter 5 or horizontal force factor
(Chapters 5 and 6) for earthquake design in Commentary
EPV effective peak velocity (Commentary Chapter 4) Introduction
f frequency, Hz (Chapter 4) K, = Eslfy (Chapter 5)
307-l 6
Ki = coefficient of heat transmission from gas to inner
surface of chimney lining when chimney is lined,
or to inner surface of chimney shell when chimney
is unlined, Btu/ft2/hr/F difference
in temperature (Chapter 6)
K, = coefficient of heat transmission from outside
surface of chimney shell to surrounding air,
Btu/ft2MF difference in temperature (Chapter 6)
K, = coefficient of heat transfer by radiation between
outside surface of lining and inside surface of
concrete chimney shell, Btu/ft2/hr/F difference in
temperature (Chapter 6)
KS = coefficient of heat transfer between outside
surface of lining and inside surface of shell for
chimneys with ventilated air spaces,
Btu/ft’/hr/F difference in temperature (Chapter 6)
Kl, K2,
K3 = parameters for nominal moment strength (Chapter
5)
1 = width of opening in concrete chimney shell, in.
(Chapter 4)
L 4 length coefficient (Chapter 4)
Ma(z)= moment induced at height z by across-wind loads,
ft-lb (Chapter 4)
M,iz)= maximum circumferential bending moment due to
radial wind pressure, at height z, tension on inside,
ft-lb/ft (Chapter 4)
Ml(z)= moment induced at height z by mean along-wind
load, ft-lb (Chapter 4)
M,, = nominal moment strength at section (Chapter 5)
M,(z)= maximum circumferential bending moment due to
radial wind pressure, at height z, tension on
outside, ft-lb/ft (Chapter 4)
M,, = factored moment at section (Chapter 5)
M;;(b)= bending moment at base due to mean along-wind
load, ft-lb (Chapter 4)
M,(z)= combined design moment at height z
for across-wind and along-wind loads (Chapter 4)
= VCT
n modular ratio of elasticity Es/EC (Chapter 6)
nl = number of openings entirely in compression zone
(Chapter 5)
F(z) = pressure due to mean hourly design wind speed
at height z, lb/ft2 (Chapter 4)
PAZ) = radial wind pressure at height z, lb/ft2
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
PCT = pressure due to wind at critical speed (Chapter 4)
P, = factored vertical load (Chapter 5)
Q = stress level correction parameter
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
Q’l Ql,
Q2, Q3= parameters for nominal moment strength
(Chapter 5)
r = average radius of section (Chapter 5)
rq = ratio of heat transmission through chimney shell
to heat transmission through lining for chimneys
with ventilated air spaces (Chapter 6)
mean radius at height z, ft (Chapter 4)
r(z) =
R = parameter for nominal moment strength
(Chapter 5)
s = center-to-center spacing of chimneys, ft
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
sp = spectral parameter (Chapter 4)
s, = mode shape factor (Chapter 4)
St = strouhal number (Chapter 4)
t = thickness of concrete shell (Chapters 5 and 6)
t,, = thickness of uninsulated lining or insulation
around steel liner, in. (Chapter 6)
ts = thickness of air space or insulation tilling the
space between lining and shell, in. (Chapter 6)
t(b) = thickness of concrete shell at bottom, ft
(Chapter 4)
t(h) = thickness of concrete shell at top, ft (Chapter 4)
T = normal temperature effect (Chapter 6)
q = maximum specified design temperature
of gas inside chimney, F (Chapter 6)
To = minimum temperature of outside air
surrounding chimney, F (Chapter 6)
TX = temperature drop across concrete shell
(Chapter 6)
T, = fundamental period of vibration for unlined shell,
set per cycle (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter
4)
T2 = second mode period of vibration for unlined shell,
set per cycle (Chapter 4 and
Commentary Chapter 4)
UC = required circumferential strength (Chapter 5)
U” = required vertical strength (Chapter 5)
v = basic wind speed, mph (ASCE 7 $nd Chapter 4)
= critical wind speed for across-wind loads,
corresponding to fundamental mode ft/sec
(Chapter 4)
VCR = critical wind speed for across-wind loads
corresponding to second mode
v, = V(1°.5), mph (Chapter 4)
ji =
mean hourly wind speed at 5/6_h varying
over a range of 0.50 and 1.30 V(z,,), ft/sec
v(h) = mean hourly wind speed at top of chimney, ft/
set (Chapter 4)
vz> = mean hourly design wind speed at height z, ft/
set (Chapter 4)
Vz,,) = mean hourly design wind speed at 5/6h, ft/sec
(Chapter 4)
77(33) = mean hourly wind speed at a height
of 33 ft, ft/sec (Chapter 4)

w(t) = total along-wind load per unit length at height z,
lb/ft (Chapter 4)
i xz, = mean along-wind load per unit length at height
z, lb/ft (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
w’(h) = fluctuating along-wind load per unit length
at top of chimney, lb/ft (Commentary Chapter
4)
w’(z) = fluctuating along-wind load per unit length
at height z, lb/ft (Chapter 4)
w,(N = across-wind load per unit length at top
of chimney, lblft (Chapter 4)
w,(z) across-wind load per unit length at height z, lb/
ft (Chapter 4)
WG) average weight per unit length for top third of
chimney, lb/ft (Chapter 4)
WI(Z) mean along-wind load per unit length as given
by Eq. (4-27), lb/ft (Chapter 4)
W wind load (Chapter 5)
ymax maximum lateral deflection of top of chimney,
in. (Chapter 4)
Z height above ground, ft
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
ZC, height corresponding to V,, (Chapter 4)
ZC exposure length factor (Chapter 4)
a on chimney cross section, one-half
the central angle subtended by neutral axis
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
ale thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete
and of reinforcing steel, O.OOOOO65 per F
(Chapter 6)
P on the chimney cross section, one-half
central angle subtended by an opening
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
Pa aerodynamic damping factor (Chapter 4)
Ps fraction of critical damping for across-wind
load (Chapter 4)
Pl factor defined in Section 10.2.7.3 of AC1 318
(Chapter 6)
Y on chimney cross section, one-half central angle
subtended by the center lines of two openings
(Chapter 5)
307-17
d(h)/@) (Chapter 4)
ratio of inside face vertical reinforcement area
(Chapter 6)
ratio of distance between inner surface of
chimney shell and outside face vertical
reinforcement to total shell thickness (Chapter
6)
ratio of inside face circumferential
reinforcement area to outside face
circumferential reinforcement area (Chapter 6)
ratio of distance between inner surface of
chimney shell and outside face circumferential
reinforcement to total shell thickness (Chapter
6)
y - p for two symmetric openings partly
in compression zone (Chapter 5)
maximum concrete compressive strain
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
z - ntP (Chapter 5)
p + ~JJ - x (radians) (Chapter 5)
angles shown on Fig. 5.5.1(a) (Chapter 5)
3.1416 (Chapter 5)
ratio of area of vertical outside face
reinforcement to total area of concrete shell
(Chapter 6)
ratio of area of circumferential outside face
reinforcement per unit of height to total area
of concrete shell per unit of height (Chapter 6)
specific weight of air, 0.075 lb/ft3 (Chapter 4)
mass density of concrete, kip-sec2/ft4 (Chapter
4)
ratio of total area of vertical reinforcement
to total area of concrete shell cross section
(Chapter 5)
strength reduction factor
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
P,& if,’ (Chapter 5)