Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 77 (1990): 203-234 203

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography and

paleobiogeography in northwest South America and the
evolution of the Panama Seaway

HERMANN DUQUE-CARO

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras, Bogota (Colombia)

(Received May 17, 1988; revised and accepted April 20, 1989)

Abstract

Duque-Caro, H., 1990. Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography and paleobiogeography in northwest South America
and the evolution of the P a n a m a Seaway. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 77:203 234.

The Atrato Basin in the Pacific coastal region of NW South America (Colombia) exhibits stratigraphic and
biostratigraphic characteristics similar to other Neogene Pacific coastal basins of southern Central America and
n o r t h e r n South America.
An evaluation of the Neogene stratigraphy and foraminiferal biostratigraphy with emphasis on paleoceanographic
and paleobiogeographic phenomena indicate the following. (1) Previous to the middle Miocene, well aerated deep and
open oceanic conditions, and free and active water circulation prevailed along the steep continental margins of NW
South America. (2) During the early middle Miocene, right after the Neogene Hiatus NH 2 (15.2 Ma), tectonic
disturbances triggered the initial uplift of the P a n a m a sill. Bottom water circulation, foraminiferal and sedimentation
changes are observed in both the Pacific and Caribbean coastal areas of NW South America. (3) During the middle
Miocene, coinciding with the Neogene Hiatus NH 3 (12.9--11.8 Ma), an abrupt paleobathymetric change from lower to
middle bathyal depths indicates a major uplift of the P a n a m a sill to about 1000 m, reflecting the middle Miocene
tectonic disturbances in NW South America. (4) During the late middle Miocene, immediately following this uplift a
distinctive Pacific benthic foraminiferal fauna abruptly appeared and extended from Ecuador to California. Because
these assemblages do not occur in the adjacent Caribbean region, a circulation barrier between the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans as a result of intensification of the cool, marginal California Current is proposed. Anoxic middle to
upper bathyal environments prevailed under well aerated cool surface waters in the Pacific coastal areas of NW South
America. (5) During the latest Miocene, immediately following the Neogene Hiatus NH 6 (7.0- 6.3 Ma), surface water
circulation between the Caribbean and the Pacific was re-established and the previous influence of the California
Current disappeared. A rapid filling and shallowing of the basin to mostly neritic depths is indicated along the Pacific
and Caribbean coastal basins of Colombia as well as a progressive increase in similarity between the coastal Pacific
and Caribbean benthic biotas. This shallowing in the early late Miocene, also appears to have been associated with
the earliest terrestrial i n t e r c h a n g e of ground sloths to North America and raccoons and their allies to South America.
(6) Immediately following early Pliocene time, the P a n a m a n i a n isthmus became completely emergent providing a
terrestrial e n v i r o n m e n t favourable for intermingling of terrestrial faunas and floras between North and South
America. I correlate this Pliocene uplift with the Neogene Hiatus NH 8 (3.7-3.1 Ma).
Four regional unconformities associated with tectonic disturbances in the NW corner of South America, have also
been recognized and correlated with Neogene hiatuses recorded from the oceans: early middle Miocene, middle
Miocene, late Miocene and early Pliocene.

Introduction comprises the swampy and forested plains of

the Atrato valley area, at the western side of
The Atrato Basin in the Pacific coastal the Cordillera Occidental in northwestern
region of the NW corner of South America Colombia (Fig.l).

0031-0182/90/$03.50 ~:~ 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

204 H.DUQUE-CARO

800 79 ° 78 ° 77 ° 76 ° 75 °

LATE MIDDLE MIOCENE TO PLIOCENE MARINE DEPOSITS OF THE ATRATO BASIN EPISODE. GREAT
TERRIGENOUS INFLUX AT THE EASTERN SIDE. INCLUDES TERRESTRIAL DEPOSITS, UNDIFFERENT-
IATED.

OLIGOCENE TO MIDDLE MIOCENE DEEP MARINE DEPOSITS OF THE ATRATO PRE-BASIN EPISODE.
TERRIGENOUS I N F L U X AT THE EASTERN SIDE.

MOSTLY OCEANIC VOLCANIC COMPLEXES OF DIFFERENT AGE (LATE CRETACEOUS TO NEOGENE) OF

THE SERRANIA DE BAUDO, NORTHWESTERN FLANKS OF THE CORDILLERA OCCIDENTAL TO SERRA-
NIA DEL DARIEN CHARACTERISTICALLY INCLUDES EXOTIC SEDIMENTARY BLOCKS OF V A R I A B L E
SIZE (UP TO KILOMETERS LOP*G) AND OF DIFFERENT AGES (LATE CRETACEOUS TO NEOGEI~IE}.
INCLUDES FELSIC INTRUSlVES OF MID-TERTIARY AGE, PARTICULARY AT THE NW FLANKS OF THE
CORDILLERA OCCIDENTAL AND SERRANIA DEL DARIEN.

Fig.1. General geology and location of the Atrato Basin.

This feature is part of the strait belt of land
of s o u th er n Central America (Panama and
Costa Rica), presently a geographic bar r i er
separating the Pacific Ocean from the Carib-
bean Sea.
Identification of the different phenomena
associated with the emergence and subsidence
during the tectonic history of NW South
America is critical to r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the
paleogeographic, paleoceanographic and pa-
leobiogeographic interactions between the Pa-
cific and Atlantic Oceans.
NEOGENE ~TRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
Three major and independent approaches
have been used to a reconstruction of the
emergence history of the Panama land bridge:
(1) A physical approach has been used which
include mainly observations on the physical
and geophysical phenomena both on land and
in the oceans. On land (northwestern Colombia
and southern Central America), studies com-
bining structural, geophysical, stratigraphical
and petrological observations (Nygren, 1950;
Lloyd, 1963; Haffer, 1967, 1970; Case and
others, 1971; Dengo, 1973, 1983; Barrero, 1979;
Weyl, 1980, among others) have indicated that
this region has undergone four major periods
of tectonic disturbances during the Cenozoic:
during the Paleocene, during the middle Eo-
cene, during the middle Miocene, and during
the Pliocene-Pleistocene. In the oceans, paleo-
ceanographic and geophysical observations in
the equatorial Pacific and in the adjacent
Panama and Colombian basins have indicated
that: (a) the eastern Panama Basin was formed
at 27 Ma (Lonsdale and Klitgord, 1978), (b) the
first change in oceanic circulation across
Central America, possibly related to a tectonic
uplift of the Panama sill, occurred during the
early Miocene (Keller and Barron, 1983;
McDougall, 1985), (c) the straits of Panama
were restricted during the middle Miocene
(Holcombe and Moore, 1977; Moore et al., 1978;
McDougall, 1985), (d) the shallow water corri-
dor across Panama was restricted during the
late Miocene (McDougall, 1985; Savin and
Douglas, 1985), and (e) the final closing of the
Central American seaway took place during
the early Pliocene (Van Andel et al., 1971;
Emiliani et al., 1972; Kaneps, 1979; among
others).
(2) A biostratigraphic and paleobiogeogra-
phic approach based on observations of marine
and terrestrial fossil faunas and floras has been
used to interpret the emergence of the Panama
isthmus and its implications in (a) the cessa-
tion of the water circulation between the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Berggren and
Hollister, 1974; Saito, 1976; Keigwin, 1978,
1982, among others), and (b) for migration and
intermingling of terrestrial faunas and floras
205
between North America and South America
(Whitmore and Stewart, 1965; Woodring, 1965,
1978; Keast et al., 1972; Olsson, 1972; Marshall
et al., 1982; Petuch, 1982; Marshall, 1985; Jones
and Hasson, 1985, among others). There is
common agreement among these studies that
both the cessation of surface circulation be-
tween the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and the
great American interchange of terrestrial fau-
nas took place during the Pliocene between 3.1
and 2.4Ma, and that during the early late
Miocene, a first interchange occurred between
9.3 and 8.0 Ma (Marshall, 1985; Webb, 1985).
(3) A paleobathymetric approach, based on
biostratigraphic observations of foraminifera
and radiolaria in the Cenozoic record of
northwestern Colombia and Panama (Bandy,
1970; Duque-Caro, 1972, 1975; Bandy and Ca-
sey, 1973) and comparisons with present distri-
butions of these organisms in the oceans has
been used to interpret the resulting paleoba-
thymetric oscillations of southern Central
America and northwestern Colombia. These
studies have indicated a deep water cycle from
Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene time which
was followed by a shallowing marine cycle of
late Miocene to Pleistocene time.
An integration of the different phenomena
and corresponding ages given by these inter-
pretations indicates that prior to the early
Miocene there is no indication of paleocircula-
tion changes between the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans that could be related to the emergence
of the Central American isthmus, and that
deep water conditions prevailed in most of
southern Central America and northwestern
Colombia during the Late Cretaceous to the
middle Miocene interval. However, the pre-
Neogene record in southern Central America
and northwesternmost coastal areas of Colom-
bia is uncoherently exposed and poorly docu-
mented. Scattered, discontinuous and chaotic
occurrence of Late Cretaceous and Paleogene
blocks, including shallow water environments
(Duque-Caro, 1990) have prevented coherent
paleogeographic reconstructions.
Most of the paleoceanographic interpreta-
tions dealing with this subject have originated
206
from studies in the equatorial Pacific and in
the adjacent Panama and Colombian basins,
and none from the geology of the adjacent land
areas. Very few stratigraphic and biostrati-
graphic studies have been done in the land
areas of NW South America based on marine
fossil faunas, including benthic foraminifera.
The known references mostly deal with Neo-
gene molluscan faunas (Olsson, 1932, 1972;
Woodring, 1965, 1978; Bandy, 1970; Petuch,
1982; Jones and Hasson, 1985). Therefore, this
study aims to document more precisely the late
Oligocene to Pliocene stratigraphy and foram-
iniferal biostratigraphy of the Atrato Basin
because of its geographic position and abun-
dant Neogene foraminiferal faunas.
This study has benefited from access to basic
and unpublished information in the files of
Ecopetrol in Bogota, Colombia supplementing
field work along the Medellin-Turbo, Medel-
lin-Quibdo and Quibdo-Istmina-Pereira high-
ways. Surface samples from typical stratigra-
phic localities, and subsurface material from
exploratory wells in the Atrato Basin area
were made available by Ingeominas, Bogota.
Foraminiferal samples from Miocene and Plio-
cene formations in coastal Ecuador and
eastern Panama were kindly supplied by Prof.
Alfred G. Fischer, and samples from DSDP
Sites 158 and 154A were supplied through the
Deep Sea Drilling Project and the interna-
tional Ocean Drilling Program (ODP). This
reference material has allowed more precise
correlation o f the benthic foraminiferal bio-
stratigraphy of the Miocene-Pliocene terres-
trial sequences in the NW corner of South
America.
Stratigraphy
Previously, the stratigraphy of the Atrato
Basin has not been sufficiently well known.
However, an unpublished lithostratigraphic
nomenclature originally described by Haffer
(1967) has been selected: the Oligocene to
Pliocene Uva, Napipi, Sierra and Munguido
formations. The Munguido Formation, not
described in Haffer's original stratigraphy, is a
H.DUQUE-CARO
new name here proposed for the upper part of
the Sierra Formation. This stratigraphic no-
menclature has been selected for two main
reasons: (1) it was originally described from
surface sections at the western side of the
basin (Fig.l) where benthic and planktic as-
semblages are very rich, and less terrigenous
influx has been observed (Nygren, 1950; Haffer,
1967), and (2) the most continuous and repre-
sentative subsurface stratigraphic and bio-
stratigraphic section, the Opogado-1 well, is
also located at the western side of the basin
(Fig.l). Planktic foraminifera and radiolaria
predominate in the Oligocene to lower Mio-
cene, whereas benthic foraminifera are domi-
nant within most of the middle Miocene to
Pliocene. These features are accompanied by
conspicuous occurrences of pyrite, glauconite
and volcanic ash layers, and molluscan and
fish remains. All of this information has
provided most of the data and basis for the
stratigraphic and biostratigraphic characteri-
zation and interpretation of the Atrato Basin.
Ditch cuttings were the only material avail-
able from the Opogado-1 well. However, artifi-
cal down-hole contamination and mixing of
rocks have been minimized, (a) by checking
against electric logs and casing levels (b) by
using highest abundances of micropaleontolo-
gic and lithologic features as major stratigra-
phic controls, and (c) by checking the highest
and lowest occurrences of foraminiferal spe-
cies, with reference material from surface
sections in the surrounding areas, i.e. the
Napipi, Munguido and Uva rivers on the
western side of the basin, the Medellin-Quibdo
highway on the east (Fig.l), and the Carmen--
Zambrano highway on the north. These bio-
stratigraphic ranges have been compared with
the known ranges on the Caribbean side
(Redmond, 1953; Petters and Sarmiento, 1956;
Renz, 1948; Blow, 1959) and in the Pacific
coastal areas of NW South America and
California (Sigal, 1969; Kleinpell, 1938, 1980,
among others). The planktic foraminiferal
biostratigraphy, in turn, has been checked
with some of the most current standards in
both the Caribbean and the equatorial Pacific
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
(Blow, 1969; Bronnimann and Resig, 1971), and
with material from continuous Caribbean and
Pacific late Neogene deep-sea sequences (DSDP
sites 158 and 154A). The identification of most
foraminiferal species was carried out at the U.S.
National History Museum, Washington, D.C.
The paleobathymetric, paleoceanographic
and paleobiogeographic evolution of the
Atrato Basin will be here discussed within the
frame of the Atrato Pre-Basin and Basin
stratigraphic sequences. These sequences rep-
resent the pre-middle Miocene episode when
the areas to the west of the Cordillera Occiden-
tal were open to the ocean, and the post-middle
Miocene episode when the Atrato and Chucu-
naque basins began to develop (Duque-Caro,
1990).
Atrato Pre-Basin sequence
This stratigraphic feature corresponds to the
upper portion of the Late Cretaceous to middle
Miocene deep water cycle recognized in the
NW corner of South America (Bandy, 1970).
Two stratigraphic units, the Uva and Napipi
formations, represent this sequence as de-
scribed below.
Uva Formation
General characteristics
This formation (Haffer, 1967), the oldest
outcropping unit in the basin area, was origi-
nally described from the Uva river, on the
western side of the basin (Fig.l). There, it
consists of a carbonate sequence of white and
gray foraminiferal and radiolarian limestones
and mudstones with inclusions of volcanic
glass. The Uva facies appear typically devel-
oped at the outer margins of the basin where
they rest on mostly oceanic igneous rocks,
both at the Serrania de Baudo (Uva river
section) and the northwestern flanks of the
Cordillera Occidental (Quibdo-Medellin high-
way). On the western flanks of the Cordillera
Occidental, along the rivers flowing into the
Atrato River, and along the Medellin-Quibdo
highway, inclusions of fine to medium grain
207
sandy to silty interbeds to the north, and an
increase in both grain size and thickness in the
south overlying the basal limestones and
calcareous mudstone interbeds are character-
istic. At the Opogado-1 well (Fig.2), this
formation was recognized between 2759.1m
(9050 ft) and the 3186 m (10,450 ft) depth inter-
val. Uphole, it mostly consists of a light to
yellowish brown (2.5Y) and very dark brown
(10YR) carbonate sequence, with cherty inter-
beds at the base (Fig.2), followed by olive gray
(5Y) and brown to dark brown (10YR) calcare-
ous mudstones including volcanic sand layers
at the top. Great abundance of planktic
foraminifera and radiolaria, and a planktic to
benthic ratio greater than 100:1 are the most
characteristic features. The benthic assem-
blages are poor and mostly represented by the
Cibicidoides-Uvigerina assemblage (Table I).
The upper boundary is marked at 2759.1m
(9050 ft) by the occurrence of volcanic sand
interbeds and an abrupt change in both the
microfaunal abundance and lithology (mostly
less calcareous mudstones). The planktic to
benthic ratio decreases to less than 80:1. The
base is marked at 3186m (10,450ft) by the
occurrence of an unknown turbidite sequence
(Duque-Caro, 1990).
Age
The Uva Formation ranges in age from the
Oligocene Zone P.21, Globigerina angulisutu-
ralis/Globorotalia opima opima to the earliest
middle Miocene zone N.9 Globorotalia peri-
pheroronda (Blow, 1969).
At the Opogado-1 well these zones were
recognized as follows (Table II):
Zone P.21 (Oligocene): between the highest
occurrence of Globigerina angulisuturalis at
3064 m (10,050 ft) and the top of the unknown
turbidites at 3186 m (10,450 ft; Fig.2). No evi-
dences for underlying older Oligocene zones
were found.
Zones P.22 to N.4 (Oligocene-Miocene):
these zones were not clearly recognized due to
the very poor recovery immediately above the
P.21 stratigraphic interval and they are pos-
sibly missing.
Zones N.5 to N.6 (early Miocene): between
208 H. DUQUE-CARO

STRAI'IGR APHY LITHOLOGY FORAMINIFERA ENVIRONMENT

2, i,,,,.i- __ _~ --I

2300
Abrupt decrease in the
planktic abundance and
~ N.!1
i

i _L_
Mostly mudstones,
__
_L_

~ i
i

gradual increase upward Waters rich in organic

less calcareous [ ~ )
i ]
of benthic foraminifera. ~nutrients. Anoxic bottom
pyritic remains at Water depths about
•' o 2500 CIBIClDOIDES-UVIGERINA
the uppermost 91 m, and arenaceous assemb- 2000 m.
- -~ - ~- - , - ~
- pyritized pl anktic lages. Disappearance of
--°" Z n.lO ...... ='foraminifera and radiolarians at 2515m.
m.
M,.i , ~ ~-~ -" framboidal pyrite

0 2700 -~"
N.9

"4 v.v ~.v, v.

5
- ~ v.v. v
•C ~ I Calcareous mudstones
z >, N.II
_o _ .... -~ (':~=J and volcanic
z.o - ~~ _ ~~: =_ ~~ ~ sand interbeds (v++~y~) Great abundance of IWell aerated waters in
5 m planktic foraminifera ~deep and open oceanic
c~~ ~N.7
--
. . . . .
-L- ~ -u---~
and radiolaria.
q"
conditions. Water depths
~-~- - ~ - ~ ~,. Planktic to benthic more than 2000m.
m
i
~-,-~---~-¢-=,~= ~ Carbonate sequence ratio=.lO0- 1
sine ~ * ~ , ~ , ~ (e~=~) and cherty
. . . . ~.~+~ ~ interbeds ( , , ~ ]
• -t-~---~:-~ j T URB I D I T E S ' MIXED ASSEMDLADES
Fig.2. General stratigraphic characteristics of the Uva and Napipi formations(Pre-Basin Sequence) at the Opogado-1well.

the highest occurrence of Catapsydrax dissim- foraminiferal faunas, and the occurrence of
ilis at 3003 m (9850 ft) and the top of zone P.21. Melonis pompilioides and Gyroidina soldanii
Zone N.7: between the highest occurrence of (Table I; Fig.2) recall comparable associations
Catapsydrax stainforthi at 2972 m (9750 ft) and from DSDP sites in the equatorial Pacific (cf.
the top of Zone N.6. Douglas, 1973) and the Ocean Margin/High
Zone N.8: between the highest occurrence of Sedimentation assemblages (Woodruff, 1985),
Praeorbulina glomerosa curva at 2789.6m at water depths about 2000 m or deeper (cf.
(9150 ft) and the top of Zone N.7. Bandy, 1961; Ingle, 1967, 1980). Likewise the
Zone N.9 (early part, earliest middle Mio- characteristic occurrence of carbonate strata
cene): between the co-occurrence of Orbulina accompanied by great abundance of planktic
suturalis, Globigerinoides sicanus and Globi- foraminifera indicate well-aerated waters (Ber-
gerinoides diminutus at 2759.1 m (9050 ft), im- ger, 1970).
mediately above the highest occurrence of
Praeorbulina glomerosa curva. The top of this Correlation
zone is recognized within the overlying Napipi The planktic and benthic foraminiferal fau-
Formation (see below). nas of the Uva Formation are also character-
istic of the Oligocene to early Miocene forma-
Environment tions in coastal Ecuador (Galloway and Moo-
The predominance of planktic foraminifera rey, 1929; Sigal, 1969; Fig.3), Panama (ICSC,
and radiolaria and the few associated benthic 1968), NW Colombia (Petters and Sarmiento,
NEOGENESTRATIGRAPHYAND EVOLUTIONOF PANAMASEAWAY 209

TABLE I

Benthic foraminifera of common occurrence within the Oligocene to middle Miocene Uva
and Napipi formations (Pre-Basin Sequence), Opogado-1 Well

Level of
highest occurrence

2225.6 m (7300 ft) Martinottiella sp.

2225.6 m (7300 ft) MartinottieUa communis D'Orbigny
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Stilostomella nuttalli Cushman and Jarvis
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Bolivina pisciformis Galloway and Morrey
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Bulimina cf. aUigata Cushman and Laiming
2225.6 m (7300 ft) t Bulirnina mexicana Cushman
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Sphaeroidina bulloides D'Orbigny
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Globocassidulina subglobosa (Brady)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Melonis pompilioides (Fichtell and Moll)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Melonis barleeanus (Williamson)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) PuUenia bulloides D'Orbigny
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Oridorsalis urnbonatus (Reuss)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Oridorsalis ecuadorensis (Galloway and Morrey)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) t Uvigerina carapitana Hedberg
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Uvigerina rustica Cushman and Edwards
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Cibicidoides crebbsi (Hedberg)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Cibicidoides floridanus (Cushman)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Hanzawaia mantaensis (Galloway and Morrey)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) tPlanulina renzi Cushman and Stainforth
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (Schwager)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Gyroidina soldanii (D'Orbigny)
2225.6 m (7300 ft) *Siphogenerina lameUata Cushman
2225.6 m (7300 ft) t* Siphogenerina collorni Cushman
2314.0 m (7590 ft) tAnomalinoides trinitatensis (Nuttall)
2314.0 m (7590 ft) tUvigerina mantaensis Cushman and Edwards
2314.0 m (7590 ft) Nodosaria stainforthi Cushman and Renz
2314.0 m (7590 ft) Nodosaria longiscata D'Orbigny
2314.0 m (7590 ft) Siphogenerina hubbardi Galloway and Heminway
2347.5 m (7700 ft) tPlanulina karsteni Petters and Sarmiento
2347.5 m (7700 ft) t Uvigerina gaUowayi Cushman
2347.5 m (7700 ft) Pseudonodosaria comatus (Batsch)
2359.7 m (7740 ft) Anomalinoides cicatricosa (Schwager)
2423.8 m (7950 ft) Bulimina alazanensis Cushman
2515.2 m (8250 ft) tAnomalinoides pornpilioides (Galloway and Heminway)
2515.2 m (8250 ft) Guttulina irregularis (D'Orbigny)
2515.2 m (8250 ft) t Vulvulina spinosa Cushman
2713.4 m (8900 ft) t Uvigerina schwageri Brady
2881.0 m (9450 ft) tCibicidoides perlucidus (Nuttall)
2942.0 m (9650 ft) tCibicidoides mexicanus (Nuttall)

*Species with highest occurrence within the lower portion of the overlying Atrato Basin
Sequence.
tRobust species.

1956), a n d o t h e r a r e a s i n t h e C a r i b b e a n coastal hemipelagic mudstone facies of nodular gray

margins. mudstones including scattered rounded calcar-
eous nodules and lenticular nodular limestone
Napipi Formation interbeds conformably overly the Uva Forma-
tion. On the eastern side, along the northwest-
General characteristics ern flanks of the Cordillera Occidental, more
The type locality of this formation crops out terrigenous sediments are found and the typi-
along the Napipi river (Fig.l), at the west of cal Napipi mudstone facies are missing. There,
the Atrato R i v e r ( H a f f e r , 1967). A m o s t l y these facies are replaced by a monotonous sand
210 H. DUQUE-CARO

TABLE II

Planktic foraminifera of common occurrence within the Oligocene to middle

Miocene Uva and Napipi formations (Pre-Basin Sequence), Opogado-1 Well

Level of
highest occurrence

*Orbulina universa D'Orbigny

*Orbulina suturalis B r o n n i m a n n
*Globorotalia siakensis Le Roy
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Globorotalia mayeri Cushman and Ellisor
2225.6 m (7300 ft) Globigerinoides subquadratus B r o n n i m a n n
2271.3 m (7450 ft) Globorotalia praemenardii Cushman and Stainforth
2484.7 m (8150 ft) Globorotalia peripheroacuta Blow and B a n n e r
2500.0 m (8200 ft) Globorotalia praefohsi Blow and B a n n e r
2637.2 m (8650 ft) Globorotalia peripheroronda Blow and B a n n e r
2759.6 m (9050 ft) Globigerinoides sicanus De Stefani
2789.1 m (9150 ft) Praeorbulina glomerosa curva Blow
2820.1 m (9250 ft) Globigerina pseudociperoensis Blow
2881.1 m (9450 ft) Globigerina angustiumbilicata (Bolli)
2972.5 m (9750 ft) Catapsydrax stainforthi Bolli, Loeblich and Tappan
3003.0 m (9850 ft) Catapsydrax dissimilis (Cushman and Bermudez)
3018.3 m (9900 ft) Globigerina tripartita Koch
3064.0 m (10050 ft) Globorotalia opima opima Bolli
3064.0 m (10050 ft) Globigerina angulisuturalis (Bolli)

*Species with level of highest occurrence within the overlying Sierra and Munguido
formations.

P A C I F I C CARIBBEAN
AOi: NW PERU ECUADOR COLOMBIA PANAMA COLOMBIA
BORBON
CARDALiTOS PROORESO MUNOUIDO 6ATUN TUBARA
CERRITO
MONTERA DAULE

as ZORRITOS CHARAPOTO PERDICES

Z i
ANOOSTURA SIE RRA SABANA CUESTA
~ ONZOLE
~ ////////////////////////////z
~/IIIIIIII/I///II/II/~
MLOO£LMLOCENE HIATUS /, , CULEnRA
NAPIPI RANCHO
cm ~ USCARI
TOSAGUA
I
--!'~" MANCORA VICHE CLARITA CARMEN
I,I AGUAGUA
X m UVA AGUASVIVAS
ARUSA

Fig.3. Oligocene to early Plioeene formations in the NW corner of South America bearing diagnostic benthic foraminifera.
Modified and simplified after Bandy (1970) and Duque-Caro (1972, 1975).
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAV
and mudstone sequence which increase in both
grain size and thickness to the south. At the
Opogado-1 well, the Napipi Formation is pre-
sent between the 2759.1m (9050ft) and the
2225.6 m (7300 ft) depth interval (Fig.2). There,
it consists of a brown and dark brown (10YR)
mudstone accompanied by conspicuous pyritic
foraminiferal and organic remains, particu-
larly in the uppermost 91 m.
In contrast to the abundance and predomi-
nance of planktic assemblages of the underly-
ing Uva Formation, this formation is distin-
guished by much reduced abundance of plank-
tic microfaunas and a gradual increase upward
in benthic foraminifera. Robust forms of Cibici-
doides, Uvigerina and Planulina accompanied
by an arenaceous microfauna are common
(Table I; Fig.2). The upper boundary is marked
at 2225.6 m (7300 ft) by the highest occurrence
of 21 benthic foraminiferal species, not typical
of the overlying Sierra Formation, and of
critical importance to the paleoceanographic,
paleobiogeographic and tectonic evolution of
the Pacific-Atlantic seaway. The base is
defined by the same features that identify the
top of the underlying Uva Formation. Other
features of note within this stratigraphic
interval are the disappearance of radiolarians
at 2515.2 m (8250 ft) after a gradual decrease,
accompanied by the highest occurrence of
Anomalinoides pompilioides, Vulvulina spi-
nosa and Guttulina irregularis (Table I). In
fact, these bioevents are very useful for corre-
lation because these three species are distinc-
tive of, and occur no younger than early middle
Miocene in the coastal areas of NW South
America, i.e., in Ecuador (cf. Sigal, 1969), in
northern Colombia (Guttulina caudriae
Subzone, Petters and Sarmiento, 1956), and in
Venezuela (cf. Renz, 1948; Blow, 1959).
Age
The Napipi Formation ranges from the
earliest middle Miocene Zone N.9, Orbulina
suturalis-Globorotalia peripheroronda to the
middle Miocene Zone N.11, Globorotalia prae-
fohsi (Blow, 1969). At the Opogado-1 well these
zones were recognized as follows (Table II):
211
Zone N.9 (earliest middle Miocene): between
the co-occurrence of Orbulina suturalis, Globi-
gerinoides sicanus and Globigerinoides diminu-
tus within the upper portion of the underlying
Uva Formation and the co-occurence above of
Globorotalia peripheroronda and Globorotalia
peripheroacuta at 2667.7 m (8750 ft).
Zone N.10: between the co-occurrence of
Globorotalia peripheroronda and Globorotalia
peripheroacuta and the co-occurrence above of
G. peripheroacuta and G. praefohsi at 2500 m
(8200 ft).
Zone N.11: between the co-occurrence of
G. peripheroacuta and G. praefohsi below and
the base of the overlying Sierra Formation
which is marked by contrasting foraminiferal
and environmental characteristics (see below).
Environment
Most of the benthic species recognized
within this formation are also found within the
previous Uva Formation (Table I). Thus, water
depths equal or greater than 2000m are
indicated, particularly by the co-occurrence of
Melonis pompilioides and Gyroidina soldanii.
On the other hand, the predominance of robust
benthic foraminifera and of the reduced lesser
abundance of planktic organisms, accompan-
ied by the common occurrence of Uvigerina
spp. and pyritized planktic foraminifera and
framboidal pyrite indicate t h a t the Napipi
Formation was affected by waters rich in
organic nutrients. The preference of Uvigerina
for organic-rich sediments deposited under low
oxygen conditions (Lohman, 1978; Miller and
Lohman, 1982; Woodruff, 1985; Mullins et al.,
1985, among others), as well as the planktic to
benthic abundance, and low calcium carbonate
concentrations associated with poor preserva-
ton in highly productivity areas (Berger, 1970;
Berger and Soutar, 1970) have already been
pointed out. Additionally, the occurrence of
sedimentary pyrite within the Napipi Forma-
tion in the Opogado-1 well, can be linked with
conditions of high surface productivity due to
reduction of organic matter in an anoxic
sulfidic environment under the sedi-
m e n t - w a t e r interface (cf. Berner, 1970, 1981).
212
Correlation
As with the U v a Formation, the foramini-
feral faunas of the Napipi Formation are also
common in the middle Miocene marine forma-
tions of coastal Ecuador (Sigal, 1969; Fig.3),
Panama (Cushman, 1918; ICSC, 1968), NW
Colombia (Petters and Sarmiento, 1956), and in
the rest of the Caribbean area.
Atrato Basin sequence
In contrast to the open marine conditions of
the previous Pre-Basin Sequence, this Basin
Sequence developed in an inner borderland
basin, comparable to those along the present
southern California borderland (cf. Douglas
and Heitman, 1979). This sequence which was
deposited immediately after the middle Mio-
cene tectonic disturbances, is represented by
the Sierra and Munguido formations. These
two stratigraphic units, now correspond to the
lower and upper portions, respectively, of the
Sierra Formation as originally described (Haft-
er, 1967).
Sierra Formation
General characteristics
The type section of this formation was
originally described at the western side of the
basin, from the Munguido river (Fig.l), and the
Uva and Naipi rivers, as supplementary refer-
ence sections. It consists mostly of a calcare-
ous succession of massive dark gray to gray
hard siltstones grading locally into silty mud-
stones or argillaceous fine-grained sandstones,
for the lower portion, and mostly mudstones
accompanied by medium grained blue-gray
sandstones, a few conglomeratic and carbona-
ceous levels, for an upper portion. The total
thickness estimated for this sequence was
approximately 3000 m (Haffer, 1967). Enough
lithostratigraphic and geomorphic contrast
(for mapping purposes) exists in the type area
between the scarps built by the lower portion
and the valleys of the upper portion of the
original Sierra sequence, to formally subdivide
this feature into two formations. Furthermore,
H.DUQUE-CARO
the stratigraphic interval comprised by the
Haffer's Sierra Formation has two lithostrati-
graphic counterparts in the adjacent eastern
Panama and northwestern Colombia (Fig.3).
Thus, the Sierra Formation will only comprise
here the lower part of the former Sierra
sequence.
At the Opogado-1 well, this formation was
recognized from 1420.7m (4660ft) down to
2225.6m (7300ft) in a dark grayish brown
(2.5Y) calcareous mudstone facies including
some limestone, dolomitic and silty interbeds
(Fig.4).
Abundant benthic and planktic foraminifera
distinguish this interval where large and
robust specimens of Uvigerina, Valvulineria
and Bulimina predominate (Tables III and IV).
The base of the Sierra Formation is marked by
the contrast between the highest occurrence of
21 benthic species at the top of the underlyin~
Napipi Formation, and completely different
and abundant benthic species above (Ta-
ble III). The top is marked at 1420.7 m (4660 ft)
by a distinctive glauconite layer accompanied
by the highest occurrence and predominance of
large and robust benthic foraminiferal species
including Uvigerinella and Bolivina (Table III).
Age
The Sierra Formation ranges from the mid-
dle Miocene Zone N.13, Sphaeroidinellopsis
subdehiscens subdehiscens-Globigerina druryi
to the early part of late Miocene, Zone N.17,
Globorotalia tumida plesiotumida (Blow, 1969).
At the Opogado-1 well these zones were
recognized as follows (Table IV; Fig.4):
Zones N.13 to N.14 (Middle Miocene): be-
tween the co-occurrence at 2195.1 m (7200 ft) of
Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens,
Globorotalia siakensis and Globorotalia contin-
uosa and the highest occurrence of G. siakensis
at 1829.3 m (6950 ft). Here, it is important to
note that at the Opogado-1 well, the highest
occurrence of Siphogenerina coUomi, a middle
Miocene marker (Lamb and Miller, 1984) is
common and occurs with Bulimina uvigerina-
formis uvigerinaformis (Table III), at 1996.9 m
(6550 ft). Thus, this boundary should not be
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY 213

STRATIGRAPHY LITHOLOGY FORAMINI F ERA ENVIRONMENT

NONIONELLA-BULIMINELLA Anoxic bottom, organic matter
100 . . . . . . . . . .
Low diversity Water depths less than 50m

i~ z"',.,., >,
~2 I

3o0 _,:-~ . . . . ... . . .

L:

I,--" I.
; ca ~ It.l! SO0 " ~J- ~ - " Mostly calcareous
_ L =: ~ . ~ :~:. mudstones ~=<-:=); less
--, ~ ,~, calcareous [:~ ~ ) .
B O L I V I N A - U V I G E R I N A

i 7oo , __ _ = =~_ v61auconite

o l c a n i c t u f [o
f s. . .[.. . .1,
. . ]. High diversity, small size.
. . . . . . . Pyrite, molluscan, fish Disappearance of large and Anoxic bottom, organic mattes
- -=:: and carbonaceous • robust benthics at 1265.2m. Water depths less than 150m
---.--?--?- 900 ' : - ~ : : : : = remains.

llOO
N.ll -' '- - - ~ ~ -

,7 1300 - :h~ ~:~-

lu N.17 ~._

UVIGERINA-VALVULINERIA Anoxic.bot.tom~ orgapic mat|or

¢..I N.16 ~ 1500 - ~ upRer oat hypt oaliths, coot
Large and robust benthics ann aorazeo surl'aco waters
_~ ~ ~'-
=) ...... Calcareous mudstones VA LVUL INERIA - GL O B I G E R I N I D S
c~ N.15 1700
I(
• . . . . . Limestones ~'~e~), Large and robust plonktics
Anoxic bottom, organic matter
~-- _ ___ ~ delemites ~ , Less abundance of benthics upper middle kothyoldepths
"- N.14 lOOO - ~ ~ ~, siltstenes ( = - - ~ - ~ cool and aerated surface
,~'I ,~ . . . . . . . . 61auconite [. . . . ~1. waters.
BULIMINA -UVIGERINELLA

"" "~EN.I3 2100 ~ _ ~ - - ~ a Large and robust bonthics

Less abundance of planktics

Fig.4. Stratigraphic characteristics of the Sierra and Munguido formations (Basin Sequence) at the Opogado-1 well.

y o u n g er th an middle Miocene Zone N.13 (cf. Environment

Lamb and Miller, 1984). Three characteristic microfaunal assem-
Zone N.15 (middle Miocene): between the blages distinguished primarily on major
highest occurrence below of G. siakensis and co- benthic abundances, have been intimately
occurrence immediately above, at 1585.4m associated with the environmental evolution of
(5200 ft) of Globorotalia acostaensis tegillata and the Atrato Basin (Fig.4):
Globorotalia merotumida. At 1631.1 m (5350 ft),
is the highest occurrence of Globorotalia para- (1) Bulimina Uvigerinella Assemblage. This
lenguaensis a distinctive marker for recognizing benthic assemblage, at the Opogado-] well has
the late Zone N.15 through early Zone N.16. been recognized from 2225.6 m (7300 ft) at the
Zones N.16 to early N.17 (late Miocene): top of the Napipi Formation to 1996.9m
between the co-occurrence of G. acostaensis (6550 ft). It is distinguished by a predominance
tegillata and G. merotumida above Zone N.15, of benthic microfauna and by great abundance
and the lowest occurrence of Globortalia cono- of large and robust specimens of Bulimina
miozea at 1478.7 m (4850 ft) above a casing level uvigerinaformis uvigerinaformis and Uvigeri-
at 1581.7 m (5188 ft). nella obesa impolita, and minor abundances of
214 H. DUQUE-CARO

T A B L E III

B e n t h i c f o r a m i n i f e r a of c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e w i t h i n t h e late middle M i o c e n e to Pliocene S i e r r a

a n d M u n g u i d o f o r m a t i o n s (Basin Sequence), Opogado-1 Well

Level of
highest occurrence

Surface Buliminella curta C u s h m a n (2)

Surface Nonionella basispinata ( C u s h m a n a n d Moyer) (1)
Surface Bolivina acutula B a n d y (2)
Surface Textularia panamensis C u s h m a n
Surface Buccella frigida (Cushman) (1)
18.3 m (60 ft) Cancris auricula (Fichtell a n d Moll) (1)
18.3 m (60 ft) Lenticulina rotulata ( C u s h m a n )
18.3 m (60 ft) aUvigerina curticosta ( C u s h m a n )
27.4 m (90 ft) Fursenkoina pontoni ( C u s h m a n )
45.7 m (150 ft) Lenticulina vaughani ( C u s h m a n )
73.2 m (240 ft) Uvigerina adiposa (White)
73.2 m (240 ft) Hanzawaia nitidula (Bandy) (2)
82.3 m (270 ft) Buliminella elegantissirna (D'Orbigny) (1)
201.2 m (660 ft) Bolivina decurtata C u s h m a n (3)
201.2 m (660 ft) Bolivina charapotoensis C u s h m a n a n d S t e v e n s o n
201.2 m (660 ft) Cassidulina californica C u s h m a n a n d H u g h e s (3)
219.5 m (720 ft) Bolivina acuminata N a t l a n d (2)
265.2 m (870 ft) Bolivina rnarginata C u s h m a n (3)
265.2 m (870 ft) Epistominella bradyana C u s h m a n (2)
265.2 m (870 ft) aUvigerina juncea C u s h m a n a n d Todd (2 a n d 3)
265.2 m (870 ft) Nonion obducum C u s h m a n a n d S t e v e n s o n
265.2 m (870 ft) Bolivina bicostata C u s h m a n (2)
265.2 m (870 ft) aUvigerina incilis Todd (2)
411.6 m (1350 ft) Bolivina floridana ( C u s h m a n ) (4)
411.6 m (1350 ft) Sphaeroidina bulloides D ' O r b i g n y (4)
472.5 m (1550 ft) Valvulineria depressa C u s h m a n (2)
503.0 m (1650 ft) Hanzawaia illingi (Nuttall) (2)
807.9 m (2650 ft) aUvigerinella obesa C u s h m a n var. (3)
807.9 m (2650 ft) Cassidulina carinata Silvestri (3)
868.9 m (2850 ft) Gypsina vesicularis ( P a r k e r a n d Jones)
929.9 m (3050 ft) Epistominella srnithi (Stewart a n d Stewart) (4)
1112.8 m (3650 ft) Buliminella subfusiformis C u s h m a n (3)
1143.3 m (3750 ft) Bolivina cf. turnida C u s h m a n (3)
1192.0 m (3910 ft) Valvulineria araucana malagensis Kleinpell (4)
1192.0 m (3910 ft) Epistorninella exigua (Brady) (3)
1192.0 m (3910 ft) Chilostomella ovoidea Reuss (4)
1265.2 m (4150 ft) aUvigerina peregrina C u s h m a n (4)
1265.2 m (4150 ft) Bulimina pagoda C u s h m a n (4)
1265.2 m (4150 ft) Valvulineria ecuadorana C u s h m a n a n d S t e v e n s o n (3)
1265.2 m (4150 ft) bBolivina sinuata Galloway a n d Wissler (4)
1297.7 m (4250 ft) Nonion goudkoffi Kleinpell
1326.2 m (4350 ft) Uvigerina kernensis B a r b a t a n d v o n Storff (3)
1326.2 m (4350 ft) bRotalia ecuadorana C u s h m a n a n d S t e v e n s o n
1387.2 m (4550 ft) bSphaeroidina variabilis Reuss (4)
1417.7 m (4650 ft) bpullenia salisburyi S t e w a r t a n d S t e w a r t
1417.7 m (4650 ft) bGyroidina multilocula Coryell a n d M o s s m a n (4)
1417.7 m (4650 ft) a'bUvigerineUa obesa obesa C u s h m a n (3)
1417.7 m (4650 ft) Bolivina girardensis R a n k i n (4)
1417.7 m (4650 ft) bUvigerinella californica cf. ornata C u s h m a n (3)
1417.7 m (4650 ft) Planulina ornata (D'Orbigny) ( )
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Quadrimorphina sp.
1448.2 m (4750 ft) bBolivina dispar C u s h m a n a n d S t e v e n s o n
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHYAND EVOLUTIONOF PANAMASEAWAY 215

TABLE III (continued)

Level of
highest occurrence

1448.2 m (4750 ft) bBolivina bramlettei Kleinpell (3)

1448.2 m (4750 ft) bBolivina interjuncta C u s h m a n (3 and 4)
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Concavella gyroidinaformis ( C u s h m a n and Goudkoff) (4)
1448.2 m (4750 ft) bValvulineria araucana (D'Orbigny) var. (4)
1448.2 m (4750 ft) bEpistominella s u b p e r u v i a n a (Cushman) (3)
1478.6 m (4850 ft) bUvigerinella californica californica C u s h m a n (3)
1509.1 m (4950 ft) Valvulineria californica californica C u s h m a n (3)
1509.1 m (4950 ft) bUvigerina joaquinensis Kleinpell (4)
1509.1 m (4950 ft) bValvulineria alicia Pierce
1554.9 m (5100 ft) Bulimina uvigerinaformis charapotensis C u s h m a n and S t e v e n s o n
1554.9 m (5100 ft) Bolivina benedictensis Pierce (3)
1554.9 m (5100 ft) Buliminella ecuadorana C u s h m a n and S t e v e n s o n (2)
1554.9 m (5100 ft) bGlobobulirnina ovula (D'Orbigny) (4)
1692.0 m (5500 ft) bValvulineria araucana araucana (D'Orbigny) (4)
1996.9 m (6550 ft) bSiphogenerina collomi C u s h m a n (4)
1996.9 m (6550 ft) bBulimina uvigerinaformis uvigerinaformis C u s h m a n and Kleinpell
1996.9 m (6550 ft) a'bUvigerinella obesa impolita C u s h m a n and Laiming (3)
1996.9 m (6550 ft) bLenticulina smiIeyi (Kleinpell)
1996.9 m (6550 ft) bCancris baggi C u s h m a n and Kleinpell (3)
1996.9 m (6550 ft) bBulimina ecuadorana C u s h m a n and S t e v e n s o n

aCostate species.
~Large and robust species.
( ) P a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c i n d i c a t o r s after Ingle (1980), and S m i t h (1964).
(1) I n n e r Shelf Biofacies: 0 50 m.
(2) Outer Shelf Biofacies: 50 150 m.
(3) U p p e r B a t h y a l Biofacies: 150 500 m.
(4) U p p e r Middle B a t h y a l Biofacies: 500 1500 m.

Siphogenerina collomi, Cancris baggi, Bulim- (2) Valvulineria-globigerinids Assemblage.

ina ecuadorana, among others (Table III), ac-
companied by occurrences of framboidal pyrite
and pyritized planktic foraminifera. The in-
ferred paleodepth for most of these species
(Table III; Ingle, 1980), the abundance of
costate Uvigerina spp. (cf. Douglas, 1979; Ta-
ble III), and the large and robust size of these
species (cf. Bandy, 1963; Table III) are predomi-
nantly indicative of upper middle bathyal
depths (500-1000m, cf. Ingle, 1980; Douglas
and Heitman, 1979). Likewise, the abundance
of Uvigerina and the presence of Globobulim-
ina ovula, associated with the occurrence of
pyrite and pyritized planktic foraminifera also
indicates association with organic rich sedi-
ments under low oxygen conditions (Lohman,
1976; Ingle, 1980; Miller and Lohman, 1982;
Woodruff, 1985; Mullins et al., 1985).
This assemblage at the Opogado-1 well has
been recognized from 1996.9m (6550ft) to
1585.4 m (5200 ft). In contrast with the previous
benthic assemblage, this one is distinguished
by a great abundance of floods of large and
robust planktic foraminifera accompanied by
lesser numbers of benthic foraminifera (plank-
tic to benthic ratio more than 70:1). Valvulin-
eria araucana araucana predominate associ-
ated with lesser numbers of mostly Bolivina
and Uvigerinella (Table III). This benthic asso-
ciation, like the previous Bulimina-Uvigeri-
nella Assemblage also indicates upper middle
bathyal depths associated with organic-rich
sediments within the oxygen minimum zone.
The occurrence of costate Uvigerinella obesa
obesa and Globobulimina ovula accompanied
by increasing abundance of Bolivina sp. (Doug-
216 H. DUQUE-CARO

TABLE IV

Planktic foraminifera of common occurrence within the late middle Miocene to Pliocene
Sierra and Munguido formations (Basin Sequence), Opogado-1 Well

Level of
highest occurrence

Surface Globigerina rubescens Hofker

Surface Globigerina decoraperta Takayanagi and Saito
Surface Globigerinoides quadrilobatus trilobus (Reuss)
14.6 m (48 ft) Globigerina bulloides bulloides D'Orbigny
14.6 m (48 ft) Globigerina calida praecalida Blow
14.6 m (48 ft) Globoquadrina altispira altispira (Cushman and Jarvis)
14.6 m (48 ft) Globorotalia conomiozea subconomiozea Bandy
18.3 m (60 ft) Globigerinoides ruber (D'Orbigny)
27.4 m (90 ft) Turborotalita quinqueloba (Natland)
45.7 m (150 ft) Globorotalia acostaensis tegiUata Bronnimann and Resig
45.7 m (150 ft) Globigerinoides obliquus obliquus Bolli
73.2 m (240 ft) Hastigerina siphonifera involuta (Cushman)
128.0 m (420 ft) Globigerinoides quadrilobatus quadrilobatus (D'Orbigny)
210.4 m (690 ft) Globorotalia cultrata limbata (Fornasini)
350.6 m (1150 ft) Globigerinoides quadrilobatus sacculiferus (Brady)
411.6 m (1350 ft) Globigerina falconensis Blow
746.9 m (2450 ft) Globigerina juvenilis Bolli
777.4 m (2550 ft) Globorotalia acostaensis acostaensis Blow
868.9 m (2850 ft) Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina seminulina (Schwager)
868.9 m (2850 ft) Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann
868.9 m (2850 ft) Orbulina universa D'Orbigny
899.4 m (2950 ft) Globorotalia merotumida Blow and Banner
990.8 m (3250 ft) Globorotalia cultrata menardii (Parker, Jones and Brady)
1082.3 m (3550 ft) Globigerinita incrusta Akers
1143.3 m (3750 ft) Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens (Blow)
1143.3 m (3750 ft) Globigerina nepenthes Todd
1265.2 m (4150 ft) Globigerina foliata Bolli
1265.2 m (4150 ft) Globorotalia scitula Brady
1265.2 m (4150 ft) Globigerinoides obliquus extremus Bolli and Bermudez
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Globigerina venezuelana Hedberg
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Globigerinoides elongatus (D'Orbigny)
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Globorotaloides hexagona hexagona (Natland)
1448.2 m (4750 ft) Pulleniatina praepulleniatina Bronnimann and Resig
1631.1 m (5350 ft) Globorotalia paralenguaensis Blow
1692.1 m (5550 ft) Globorotalia lenguaensis Bolli
1814.0 m (5950 ft) Globorotalia siakensis Le Roy
2149.4 m (7050 ft) Globorotalia fohsi lobata (Bermudez)

l a s , 1979; R e s i g , 1981; I n g l e , 1980; W o o d r u f f , w a t e r s (cf. B a n d y , 1960, 1969; K e n n e t t a n d

198,5) s u p p o r t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r
hand, the very abundant large and robust
planktic microfauna, characterized by a low
d i v e r s i t y a s s o c i a t i o n o f Globigerina, Globoqua-
drina, Turborotalia a n d Globigerinoides is
accompanied by very few and scarce occur-
r e n c e s o f Globorotalia. T h i s c o n t r a s t i n g a s s o c i -
aton indicates that this interval was also under
the influence of well aerated cool surface
o t h e r s , 1985). I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l c u r -
r e n t s , i.e. t h e C a l i f o r n i a C u r r e n t , c o u l d e x p l a i n
t h i s p h e n o m e n o n , a s is d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .
(3) U v i g e r i n a - V a l v u l i n e r i a A s s e m b l a g e . A t t h e
Opogado-1 well, this assemblage was recog-
n i z e d b e t w e e n 1585.4 m (5200 ft), i m m e d i a t e l y
o v e r l y i n g t h e p r e v i o u s Valvulineria-globigeri-
n i d s A s s e m b l a g e a n d 1420.7 m (4660 ft) a t t h e t o p
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
of the Sierra Formation. This benthic associa-
tion is also very distinctive and is character-
ized by great abundance of large and robust
Uvigerinella, Valvulineria and Bolivina (Ta-
ble III) accompanied by less abundant large
and robust planktic foraminifera (Table IV).
Most of the species listed within this stratigra-
phic interval belong to both upper middle
bathyal and upper bathyal depths (cf. Ingle,
1980). However, the great abundance of Uviger-
inella obesa obesa and U. californica ornata,
indicates a shallowing from upper middle to
upper bathyal depths. This is supported by the
abrupt change both in the planktic abundance
and in the size of the benthic microfauna at the
top of the Sierra Formation as is discussed
below. Likewise, the increasing abundance of
large and robust Bolivina interjuncta and
Bolivina dispar (Table IID and the abundance
of costate Uvigerina indicate association with
organic-rich sediments within the oxygen mini-
mum zone (cf. Douglas, 1979; Resig, 1981,
among others). The environmental conditions
indicated by the Uvigerina Valvulineria As-
semblage agree with those indicated by the
associated occurrences of glauconite. The
known setting for glauconite formation in-
volves a marine environment, water depths
between outer neritic and upper bathyal,
temperatures in the range of 7 15°C, with
decaying organic matter and weakly reducing
conditions (Cloud, 1955; Porrenga, 1967; Odin
and Letolle, 1980; Odin and Matter, 1981;
Berner, 1981).
In summary, the Sierra Formation indicates
a shallowing episode from upper middle to
upper bathyal depths in an inner borderland
basin (Douglas and Heitman, 1979), all within
the oxygen minimum zone. This in turn was
accompanied by well-aerated cool surface
water currents, particularly during the late
middle to late Miocene Valvulineria-globigeri-
nids and Uvigerina Valvulineria assemblages.
Correlation
Most of the foraminiferal assemblages listed
for the Sierra Formation are typical of the
northeastern Pacific basin, and were originally
217
described from the Californian borderland
basins, i.e. Mohnian Stage (cf. Monterey For-
mation, Kleinpell, 1938, 1980; Ingle, 1967, 1980,
among others). Comparable benthic associa-
tions have also been found in coastal Ecuador
within the latest middle to late Miocene
Charapoto, Angostura and Onzole formations
(cf. Cushman and Stevenson, 1948; Sigal, 1969;
Figs.3 and 5), and in the late Miocene of DSDP
Site 570, offshore Guatemala (McDougall,
1985).
The corresponding late middle to late Mio-
cene formations along the Caribbean coastal
margins of NW Colombia, i.e. the Cuesta
Formation, in the Carmen-Zambrano area,
bearing the Bulimina carmenensis Zone (Pet-
ters and Sarmiento, 1956) and the upper
portion of the Perdices Shale (Duque-Caro,
1990) bear different benthic foraminiferal as-
semblages. The same differences are also
observed in the whole Caribbean coastal areas
of NW South America (cf. Renz, 1948; Blow,
1959).
Munguido Formation
General characteristics
As stated earlier, this new name is proposed
to formally discriminate the upper portion of
Haffer's Sierra Formation in the Munguido
river area (Fig.l; Haffer, 1967). This feature
comprised by a disected valley (Haffer, 1967),
conformably overlies the Sierra Formation.
The top is unconformable (see below). A
predominantly gray mudstone interval fea-
tures some medium-grained sandstone inter-
beds accompanied by distinctive occurrences
of molluscan beds, few conglomerates and
carbonaceous zones, which are the lithostrati-
gaphic features that comprise the original
description.
At the Opogado-1 well, the Munguido For-
mation was recognized from the surface down
to 1420.7m (4660ft). There, a comparable
lithology was recognized consisting mostly of
olive gray (5Y5/2) calcareous mudstones in-
cluding a pyroclastic layer (tufts in carbonate
and zeolitic matrix) at 304.9 m (1000 ft), a thin
218 H.DUQUE-CARO

PACIFIC IATES~r MIDDLE 20 IATE MIOCENE FORMATIONS

NW COLOMBIA ECUADOR SUAT~|ALA CALIFORNI~
Sierra Formation Charapoto
Angostura Site 570 Monterrey
Opogado-i Well
Onzole
Uvigerlna peregrina X X
Bulimina pagoda X X
Valvulineria ecuadorana X X
Bolivina sinuata X X
Nonion goudkoffi
Uvigerina kernensis X
Rotalia ecuadorana X
Sphaeroidina variabilis X
Pullenia salisburyi X
Cyroidina multilocula X
Uvigerinella obesa obesa X
Bollvina glrardensis
Uvigerinella californica cf. ornata
Planulina ornata
Quadrimorphina sp.
Bolivina dispar X
Bolivina bramlettei X
Bolivina interjuncta X X
Concavella gyroidinaformie
Valvulineria sraucana var. X X
Epistominella subperuviana X X
Uvigerinella califarnica californica X
Uvigerina joaquinensis
Uvigerina hootsi X
Valvulineria alicia X
Bulimlna uvigerinaformis charapotoensis X
Bolivina benedictensis
Buliminella ecuadorana X
Globobulimin~ ovula X
Valvulinerla araucana araucana X X
Siphogenerlna collomi
Bulimina uvigerinaformis uvigerinaformis X X
Uvlgerinella obesa impolita X
Lenticulina smileyi X
Cancris baggi
Bulimina ecuadorana X

Fig.5. Selected benthic foraminifera of the Sierra Formation arranged by highest occurrence (Table III), and comparable
occurrences in some Pacific latest middle to late Miocene formations.

glauconitic layer at 183 m (600 ft), and thin
limestone interbeds within the uppermost
300m (Fig.4). Mostly benthic foraminifera
(Table III) accompanied by conspicuous occur-
rences of pyritic, carbonaceous, molluscan and
fish remains are also characteristic features of
the Munguido F o r m a t i on at the Opogado-1
well.
A marked co n tr as t in size, an average of 3 to
1, approximately is observed between the
benthic assemblages of the Sierra and Mungu-
ido formations, respectively. Whereas the Si-
erra F o r m a t i o n is distinguished by large and
robust benthic assemblages, part i cul arl y in-
cluding Bolivina and Uvigerina, the same taxa
within the Munguido Form at i on are smaller.
An abrupt decrease both in abundance and
diversity of planktic foraminifera also takes
place at the base of the Munguido Formation.
This cont rast is marked by the glauconite layer
separating these two formations.
The Munguido Form at i on at the Opogado-1
well exhibits very abundant and diverse
benthic assemblages (more t han 500 specimens
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
per sample) below 244m (800ft) and less
diverse and abundant (less t h a n 300 specimens
per sample) above, accompanied by conspicu-
ous occurrences of pyritic, carbonaceous, mol-
luscan and fish remains.
Age
The age of the Munguido Formation both in
the type section and at the Opogado-1 well, is
difficult to assess due to the rarity of diagnostic
planktic foraminifera. This is particularly
noticeable above 747 m (2450 ft) where very
rare occurrences of globigerinids are noted
(Table IV). However, the co-occurrence of
Globigerina rubescens, Globoi~uadrina altis-
pira, Globigerina decoraperta, Globorotalia co-
nomiozea subconomiozea indicates a chronos-
tratigraphic interval not younger t h a n the late
Pliocene Zone N.21 (Berggren et al., 1985),
based on the highest occurrence of Globoqua-
drina altispira (cf. extinction datum at 2.8 Ma,
Berggren, 1973). However, I consider the top of
the Munguido Formation not being younger
than the extinction datum of Globorotalia
margaritae margaritae at 3.4 Ma (Berggren and
others, 1985). The planktic assemblages noted
within the upper Munguido Formation occur
associated with Globorotalia margaritae in NW
Colombia, i.e. the Tubara beds, Barranquilla
area. The Globorotalia margaritae Zone in the
interior basins of NW Colombia marks the
closing of the marine episodes prior to the
middle Pliocene tectonic disturbances (cf. Sin-
celejian Stage, Duque-Caro, 1984).
The base of the Munguido Formation is
dated within the late Miocene Zone N.17 based
on the continued occurrence of Globorotalia
conomiozea subconomiozea immediately above
the Sierra Formation. Similarly, the top of the
early Pliocene Zone N.18 has been placed at
899.4 m (2950 ft; Fig.4) at the highest occur-
rence of Globorotalia merotumida.
Environment
As with the Sierra Formation, the Munguido
Formation is distinguished by two benthic
assemblages associated with the final stage of
the environmental development of the Atrato
Basin.
219
(1) Bolivina-Uvigerina Assemblage. This as-
semblage is characterized by very abundant
benthic foraminifera where Bolivina bicostata
and costate species of Uvigerina (U. curticosta,
U. incilis and U. juncea, Table III) are common.
At the Opogado-1 well this zone was recognized
from the top of the Uvigerina-Valvulineria
Assemblage, at the top of the Sierra Formation
(Fig.4) to 201.2 m (660 ft). Within the lowermost
portion, below 1265.2 m (4150 ft), the large and
robust benthic species distinctive of the upper
portion of the Sierra Formation, i.e. Sphaeroid-
ina variabilis, Rotalia ecuadorana, Uvigerina
kernensis and Bolivina sinuata (Table III) gra-
dually disappear, and are replaced by the
characteristic smaller benthic species of this
biostratigraphic interval.
Most of the species listed (Table III) have
their upper depth boundaries within upper
bathyal depths in the California borderlands
(cf. Bandy, 1961; Bandy and Arnal, 1969; Ingle,
1980, among others). However, the abrupt
decrease in abundance and diversity of plank-
tic foraminifera and the variation in size in the
benthic microfauna immediately above the
Sierra Formation, indicate a drastic paleoba-
thymetric change to 150 m water depth, imme-
diately above the shelf slope juncture (cf.
Bandy, 1963; Smith, 1963; Ingle, 1980). It
follows that during the latest Miocene Plio-
cene time, along the Pacific coastal areas of
the NW corner of South America, the former
upper bathyal biofacies species apparently
extended their upper bathymetric boundaries
into the outer shelf domain. Investigations
performed on living benthic foraminifera off
the Pacific coast of Central America (Bandy
and Arnal, 1957; Smith 1963, 1964; Thompson,
1982) have recognized the common benthic
taxa of California, and have also indicated
greater depth boundaries for these biofacies,
i.e., in the Middle America Trench sediments.
However, this situation is complicated by the
fact t h a t during the latest Miocene-Pliocene
time, the Atrato Basin was an '~inner border-
land basin" (sensu Douglas and Heitman,
1979). These kinds of basins are relatively
shallow (900 m and less) and are anoxic at
220
water depths corresponding to the lower slope
and basin floor because their sills are within
the oxygen minimum zone. Also, the depth
distribution of slope and basin benthic foram-
inifera, and especially the considerable varia-
tion in species depth limits, complicate the
application of empirical paleoecologic models
(cf. Douglas and Heitman, 1979).
As described earlier conspicuous occurrences
of pyritic and carbonaceous remains is a
characteristic feature of the Munguido Forma-
tion and also of the Uvigerina-Valvulineria
Assemblage Zone. Therefore, this indicates the
association of these faunas with organic rich
sediments within the oxygen minimum zone
during the final development of the Atrato basin.
(2) Nonionella-Buliminella Assemblage. This
assemblage distinguishes the uppermost part of
the Munguido Formation and marks the closing
of the marine episode in the Atrato Basin. A
new and contrasting benthic foraminiferal
association, characterized by major abun-
dances of Nonion.ella basispinata (70-98%) and
Buliminella curta (Table III), overlies the previ-
ous Bolivina-Uvigerina asemblage, above
201.3 m (660 ft) at the Opogado-1 well. Low
microfaunal diversity, occurrence of framboi-
dal pyrite, either as free grains or as infillings of
foraminiferal tests (i.e. Nonionella basispinata,
in particular), occurrence of phosphatic and
fish remains, and molluscan shell fragments are
also distinctive features within this uppermost
biostratigraphic interval. All are suggesting
shallowing depths in an environment rich in
organic matter under very low oxygen condi-
tions. In fact, the great abundance of Nonion-
ella basispinata accompanied by the occurrence
of Buccella frigida, Cancris auricula, Bulimi-
nella elegantissima and Buliminella curta (Ta-
ble III) suggest shallower depths than the
underlying Bolivina- Uvigerina assemblage, all
within the outer shelf domain of the near-shore
basins (Douglas and Heitman, 1979).
Correlation
Only a few references are known for the
latest Miocene to Pliocene stratigraphy and
H. DUQUE-CARO
foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the NW cor-
ner of South America. However, the known
data indicate comparable benthic foramini-
feral associations (Fig.6) in coastal Ecuador
within the Borbon, Progreso and Daule forma-
tions (Sigal, 1969), in the Panama Canal Zone,
within the Gatun Formation (Cushman, 1918;
Vaughan, 1919), on the Caribbean side of NW
Colombia within the Tubara beds (Redmond,
1953), and in the Uvigerina subperegrina Zone
and Ammonia beccarii Zonule (Petters and
Sarmiento, 1956) within the Cuesta Formation
in the Carmen-Zambrano area.
Here, it is important to note that the basal
parts of the former stratigraphic units, particu-
larly those of coastal Ecuador and NW Colom-
bia which also bear Woodring's well known
Miocene molluscan faunas, are apparently
synchronous (cf. Sigal, 1969; Duque-Caro,
1971), and bounded by a regional unconfor-
mity.
Paleoceanography and paleobiogeography
Uva Formation
The abundance of planktic foraminifera and
radiolaria in most carbonate and hemipelagic
strata within the late Oligocene to earliest
middle Miocene is a common feature along the
Pacific and Caribbean coastal areas of NW
South America (cf. Cushman and Stainforth,
1951; Riedel, 1959; Sigal, 1969; Bandy 1970;
Bandy and Casey, 1973; Duque-Caro, 1975,
1984). It indicates free and active communica-
tion between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
during this interval (cf. Keller and Barron,
1983; Romine and Lombari, 1985; Figs.7,8), at
water depths equal to or greater than 2000 m
without indication of uplift or any sill develop-
ment along the present coastal areas of NW
South America, including southern Central
America. Similarly, the great abundance of
planktic foraminifera and radiolaria, a plank-
tic to benthic ratio greater than 100:1 for the
Uva Formation, and the gradually decreasing
abundance of microfaunal assemblages within
the Napipi Formation mark a contrasting
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHYAND EVOLUTIONOF PANAMASEAWAY 221

PACIFIC CARIBBEAN
ECUADOR PANAMA NW COLOMBIA
NW COLOMBIA
Bor bon
Munguido Formation Gatun Carmen-
Progreso Tubara
Opogado-1 Well Zamhrano
Daule
Buliminella curta X X X X
Nonionella basispinata X X X X
Bolivina acutula
Textularia panamensis X X X X
Buccella frigida X X X
Cancris auricula X X X
lenticulina rotulata X X X X
Uvigerina curticosta X X X X
Fursenkoina pontoni X X X X
lenticulina vaughani X X X
Uvigerina a~iposa
Hanzawaia nitidula X X X
Buliminella elegantissima X X X
Bolivina decurtata X
Bolivina charapotoensis X
Cassidulina californica X X X
Bolivina acuminata X X
Bolivina marginata X X X X
Epistominella ~ a d y a n a X X
Uvigerina juncea X X
Nonion obducum X
Bolivina bicostata X X X X
Uvigerina ineilis
Ammonia heecarii X X X X
Bolivina floridana X X X X
Sphaeroidina bulloides X X X
Valvulineria depressa
Hanzawaia illingi X X X
Uvigerinella obesa X X
Cassidulina carinata X X X
Gypsina vesieularis
Epistominella smithi
Buliminella subfusiformis X X
Bolivinacf. tumida
Valvulineria araucana malagensis
Epistominella exigua
Chilostomella ovoidea X X X
Uvigerina peregrina X X X
Bulimina pagoda X
Valvulineria ecuadorana X X
Iblivina s i n ~ t a
Nonion goudkoffi
Uvigerina kernensis
Rotalia ecuadorana
Sphaeroidina variabilis

Fig.6. Selected b e n t h i c f o r a m i n i f e r a of the M u n g u i d o F o r m a t i o n a r r a n g e d by h i g h e s t o c c u r r e n c e (Table III), and c o m p a r a b l e

o c c u r r e n c e s in the Pacific and Caribbean latest Miocene to Pliocene f o r m a t i o n s in the NW c o r n e r of S o u t h America.

boundary within the earliest middle Miocene the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean (Keller and
Zone N.9 (Fig.2). This boundary, at about Barron, 1983), also coincides with Miocene
15.2Ma (cf. Berggren et al., 1985) which hiatus NH 2 (Keller and Barron, 1983). Accord-
coincides with the disappearance of radiolar- ing to these workers intensification of bottom
ian faunas in the Caribbean (Riedel, 1959) and water flow due to a change in circulation
with the changeover in silica deposition from during the late early to middle Miocene was
 L~
MIDDLE MIOCENE MIDDLE MIOCENE LATE MIDDLE TO LATE MIOCENE
15.1 TO ]2.! Ma ]2.D TO 11.1 Mu 11.11 TO 7.D Mu
-

connection open.
?,
Atlantic to Pacific ntermed ate and shallow water Partial emo.~enee of the Panama Isthmus and disruption Shallow water connection open but disrupted by the
of the Atlaoflc to Pacific flow. ¢ool and well aerated surface waters of the California
Common benthic foraminiferal faunas. Isolation of
North American and South American vertebrate fauna. Closing of the intermediate water connection and onset of Current. Anoxic bottom accompanied by sea level rise
the cool California Current flow. Sea level drop and drops.
CaUforn0an benthic foraminiferal affinities.
First recorded intermingling of terrestrial faunas
LATE MIOCENE LATE MIOCENE TO EARLY PLIOCENE -9.3 to S.O Ma.-
, 7.0 TO 6.3 Ma 6.3 TO 3.1 Me
EARLY PL I O C E N E
3.7 TO 3.1 Ma

Uplift to water depths less than 150m and restriction Atlantic to Pacific shallow water connection restricted Uplift and complete emergence of the Panama Isthmus and
of the shallow water connection. Anoxic bottom accompanied by shallowin~ and sea level ¢losi~ of the Atlantic to Pacific shellow water connection.
The cool California Current influence ends, and the shallow rise. Caribbean affinities. Woodring's M~oceneCaribbean Onset of the Great American Terrestrial Interchange.
Atlantic to Pacific flow is re-establisbod Province.
Fig.7. Neogene paleoceanographic and paleogeographic evolution of the NW corner of South America. Hypothetical surface circulation resulting from th~
disruption of the warm Caribbean flow and intensification of the cool California current. Supplemented with data by Keller and B a r r o n (1983, 1986), Vail and c~
Hardenbol (1979), McDougall (1985) and Webb (1985).
©
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY 223

r' '

PA LE 0 B 1 0 6 E 0 URA PHY HIATUSES

A 6 ES T ECT 0 N I CS PALEOCEANOGRAPHY M AR I NE TERRESTRIAL CLIMATE
EARLY PLIOCENE UPLIFTAND OF
EMERGENCE COMPLETE
THE SHALLOW
CLOSED. WATERCONNECTION DIMINISHING OF ONSETOF THE GREAT NH 8
3.7.3.1 Ma PANAMAiSTHMUS. SEA LEVEL DROP. CARIBBEAN AFFINITIES AMERICANINTERCHANGE COLD
SHALLOWWATERCONNECTION
LATE MIOCENETO SHALLOWINGTO WATER RESTRICTED. CALIFORNIAN AND
EARLY PLIOCENE ANOXICBOTTOM. WARM
6.3-3.7 Ma OEPTHSLESS THAN SOre SEA LEVELRISE. CARIBBEAN AFFINITIES
SHALLOWWATERCONNECTION
LATE MIOCENE UPLIFTTO WATERDEPTHS RESTRICTED. END OF THE NH 6
CALIFORNIA CURRENTACTION. COLD
7.0- 6.3 Ma LESS THAN 150 m SEA LEVEL DROP.
CALIFORNIAN
LATE MIOCENE SHALLOWINGTO UPPER SHALLOWWATER CONNECTION EARLIESTRECORDOF
OPEN. COOL AND WELL INTERMINGLING
8.6-7.0 Ma BATHYALDEPTHS. AERATED SURFACEWATERSOF 9.3 TO S.OMa
THE CALIFORNIACURRENT. AFFINITIES PROCYONIDS (RACCOONS) COOL
ANOXIC BOTTOM. AND MEGALONYCHIDS
LATE MIDDLE TO SEA LEVEL RISE.
LATE MIOCENE APPARENTSTABILITY (GROUND SLOTHS)
11.$- B.5 Ma
UPLIFT TO UPPERMIDDLE CLOSINGOF INTERMEDIATE
MIDDLE MIOCENE BATHYAL DEPTHS.
INNER BORDERLAND
WATER CONNECTIONAND
ONSETOF THE CALIFORNIA
ABRUPT END OF NH ]
BASINS FORMED.
12.9-11.8 Ma PARTIAL EMERGENCEOF CURRENT ACTION. CARIBBEAN AFFINITIES COLD
SEA LEVEL DROP.
THE PANAMAISTHMUS.
INTERMEDIATE AND SHALLOW NO
MIDDLE MIOCENE APPARENTSTABILITY WATERCONNECTIONOPEN. CARIBBEANAFFINITIES WARM
15.1 -12.9 Ma SEA LEVEL RISE. INTERCHANGE
EARLY-MIDDLE UPLIFT TO LOWER CLOSINGOF THE DEEP WATER CARIBBEANAFFINITIES. NH 2
MIOCENE CONNECTION. RADIOLARIANSDISAPPEAR COLD
1B.1-15.1 Ma BATHYAL DEPTHS SEA LEVEL DROP. IN THE CARIBBEAN.
EARLY MIOCENE DEEP WATER CONNECTION CARIBBEANAFFINITIES WARM
~, 23.7-16.2 Ma APPARENTSTABILITY OPEN. SEA LEVEL RISE.

Fig.8. Neogene tectonic, paleoceanographic and paleobiogeographicevolution of the Pacific NW corner of South America.
Supplemented with data by Keller and Barron (1983, 1986),Vail and Hardenbol (1979), McDougall (1985), and Webb (1985).

the major cause of this hiatus (see early-mid-
dle Miocene Un co nf or m i t y below).
Napipi Formation
The contrasting much reduced abundance of
planktic microfaunas and the disappearance of
radiolarians in the Napipi formation, and the
corresponding disappearance of radiolarians
in the nearby Caribbean during the earliest
middle Miocene time (Riedel, 1959) indicate a
change in surface w a t e r circulation in the
Atrato Basin and adjacent borderland basins
in the NW co r n er of South America. an initial
uplift of the Darien-San Blas and Baudo sills,
as part of the P a n a m a sill (Keller and Barron,
1983) could be sufficient to disrupt bottom
water circulation into the Atrato, C hucunaque
and Sambu basin areas during the earliest
middle Miocene.
On the other hand, all of the benthic species
listed for both the Uva and Napipi formations
(Table I) are common in, and have been re-
ported from, the Oligocene t h r o u g h middle
Miocene formations in both the Pacific and
Caribbean coastal areas of the NW corner of
South America (Fig.3). This indicates t hat
water connection along the Pacific and Carib-
bean coastal areas of NW South America
included depths in the range of 2000m
t h r o u g h o u t all of the late Oligocene to middle
Miocene. Similarly, microfaunal similarities,
particularly Uvigerina, also indicate t hat or-
ganic-rich waters prevailed along these coastal
areas. This suggests t hat the middle Miocene
high surface productivity after 16 Ma (Woo-
224
druff, 1985) also extended into the present
coastal areas of NW South America. This
period of high surface productivity, on the
other hand, corresponds with a general warm-
ing of the equatorial sea surface (cf. Savin et
al., 1975; Savin et al., 1981; Woodruff et al.,
1981; Savin et al., 1985) and with a maximum
sea level rise (Vail and Hardenbol, 1979; Figs.7
and 8).
The Colombian middle Miocene transgres-
sion reached interior basins as distant as the
eastern Llanos region in the vicinity of the
Guyana Shield and the borders with Peru and
Ecuador. There, I have observed an ingression
of middle Miocene neritic benthic foraminifera
marking a single Cenozoic marine event,
interbedded within predominantly terrestrial
sequences.
Sierra Formation
As it has already been noted, there is a
marked contrast in benthic composition be-
tween the Napipi and Sierra Formations of the
Pre-Basin and Basin Sequences respectively
(Tables I and III). Except for Siphogenerina
collomi and Siphogenerina lamellata, the Na-
pipi and Sierra formations have different
benthic faunas. On the other hand, the benthic
foraminiferal faunas of the Uva and Napipi
formations, as mentioned earlier, are common
and widely recognized elements within the
Oligocene to middle Miocene biostratigraphy
of the Caribbean and Pacific costal areas of
NW South America. In contrast, the late
middle to late Miocene benthic faunas of the
Sierra Formation, typical of the higher lati-
tude borderland basins off California, with no
Caribbean affinities, appear restricted to the
coastal Pacific areas of NW South America and
Central America. The corresponding late mid-
dle to late Miocene benthic foraminiferal
assemblages in the immediately adjacent Ca-
ribbean coastal areas of NW Colombia are
markedly different (cf. Bulimina carmenensis
Zone, Petters and Sarmiento, 1956). Therefore,
a change from a tropical (Napipi Formation) to
a temperate cool water (Sierra Formation)
H.DUQUE-CARO
regime, and the emergence of a circulation
barrier disrupting the flow of the warm Carib-
bean current through the Panamanian straits,
is indicated. The appearance of this barrier
seems to be associated with the paleobathyme-
tric variants already noted between the Napipi
and Sierra formations, and with the intensifi-
cation of ocean circulation during a rapid fall
of sea level and declining temperatures in
associaton with the growth of the Antartic ice
sheet (Shackleton and Kennett, 1975; Vail and
Hardenbol, 1979; Keller and Barron, 1983;
McDougall, 1985; Savin and Douglas, 1985).
The timing of this phenomenon coincides with
the Neogene hiatus NH 3 (12.9-11.8 Ma, Keller
and Barron, 1983, 1986) which was associated
with a cool period along the Pacific coastal
areas of Ecuador, Colombia and Central
America (cf. McDougall, 1985). This cool re-
gime prevailed throughout the latest middle to
late Miocene, represented by the Sierra Forma-
tion.
The abrupt faunistic contrast between the
top of the Bulimina-Uvigerinella Assemblage
(Fig.4) where the highest Bulimina uvigerina-
formis uvigerinaformis and Siphogenerina col-
lomi, are replaced above by the low diversity
planktic association of the Valvulineria-globi-
gerinids Assemblage apparently coincides with
the Miocene hiatus NH 4. This contrasting
faunal turnover correlates fairly well with the
timing of other foraminiferal changes occur-
ring during this hiatus such as the disappear-
ance of the middle Miocene planktic assem-
blages and replacement by a relatively cool,
low diversity fauna that persists through the
late Miocene (cf. Keller and Barron, 1983). This
hiatus, dated with the planktic zones N.14 to
N.15 (10.2-9.5 Ma, Keller and Barron, 1986)
corresponds to another cold pulse associated
with increased polar glaciation (Keller and
Barron, 1983; Fig.8).
No comparable evidences for recognizing the
Miocene hiatus NH 5 which is placed within
the planktic Zone N.16 (Keller and Barron,
1983), has been noted in the Atrato Basin and
vicinity. However, the top of the Valvulineria-
-globigerinids Assemblage (Fig.4) is also
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
marked by a foraminiferal change which indi-
cate another major paleoceanographic event,
and which could be an expression of this
hiatus. Similarly, Miocene hiatus NH 6, placed
within the planktic Zone N.17, could also
correspond with a major faunal paleobathyme-
tric and paleoceanographic change noted be-
tween the Sierra and Munguido formations
(Fig.4; see below).
Paleobathymetric constraints
The closing of the Atrato Pre-Basin Se-
quence as described earlier, was characterized
by the abrupt disappearance of the Caribbean
benthic: biotas in the pacific coastal areas of
NW South America, including southern Cen-
tral America, and by the abrupt replacement of
these faunas by completely different assem-
blages with no apparent evolutionary relation
or Caribbean affinities. How can this phenome-
non be interpreted and what happened in the
Caribbean coastal areas of NW Colombia?
Pacific Coast
The abrupt disappearance of the Caribbean
benthic biotas in the Pacific coastal areas of
NW South America is associated with the
abrupt paleobathymetric contrast between the
Atrato Pre-Basin and Basin Sequences from
lower to middle bathyal depths, a shallowing in
the range of 1000 m. Thus, the Darien-San Bias
and Baudo sills underwent another major
uplift, and a circulation barrier emerged, i.e.,
the cool California Current, resulting from
middle Miocene intensification of water circu-
lation, sea level drop and declining temper-
atures following Miocene hiatus NH 3 (Keller
and Barron, 1983). Therefore, none of the deep
• benthic dwellers could adapt to the new middle
bathyal environment in the resulting inner
borderland basins, except Siphogenerina col-
lomi and S. lameUata (Tables I and III). It is
interesting to note the apparent coincidence of
this phenomenon with the extinction of Paleo-
gene benthic foraminiferal faunas during this
middle Miocene interval (Woodruff and Doug-
las, 1981; Keller and Barron, 1983).
225
As to the abrupt replacement by completely
different benthic microfaunas within the Si-
erra Formation, with no apparent evolutionary
relation to those of the underlying Napipi
Formation, it can be said that most of the
species occurring within the Sierra Formation
are typical of, and have originally been de-
scribed from, the Miocene and Pliocene forma-
tions of the Californian borderland areas.
There, species such as Uvigerinella obesa,
Valvulineria californica, Valvulineria arau-
cana, among others (Table III) occur associ-
ated with more diverse benthic assemblages,
and display longer stratigraphic ranges and
phyletic origins extending into the Oligocene
(cf. Kleinpell, 1938, 1980; Ingle, 1980, among
others). Therefore, a northern origin for the
late middle to late Miocene benthic assem-
blages characteristic of the Pacific coastal
areas of NW South America, including
southern Central America, seems likely. Inten-
sification of a cool marginal current coming
from the northern latitudes, i.e. the California
Current, bringing benthic foraminifera as far
south as the Ecuadorian latitudes (Golfo de
Guayaquil) could explain this phenomenon.
Presently, the California Current flow
slowly equatorward delivering cool waters
south along the Pacific margin, only to about
25°N latitude where it turns west. However, at
the end of the middle Miocene (Fig.7), during
the major cooling episode accompanied by the
growth of the Antarctic ice cap, an intensifica-
tion of the California Curent should occur. A
bifurcation of this current at about 2 f i n in the
fashion described by Abbott (1966) to explain
the factors influencing the zoogeographic affin-
ities of the equatorial Galapagos Island in-
shore faunas, would also explain these obser-
vations. An eastern segment of this current
continued on farther southward along the
coasts of Mexico and Central America, distri-
buting California borderland benthic foramini-
feral faunas along the Pacific coastal areas of
NW South America. The California Current,
according to this interpretation of the biostra-
tigraphy recorded in the Atrato Basin, influ-
enced the entire interval represented by the
226
Sierra Formation, above which other major
faunal contrast within the Munguido Forma-
tion occurs.
Caribbean side
With the exception of two species of Sipho-
generina (Table III) none of the benthic assem-
blages reported from the late middle to late
Miocene of the Pacific coastal areas of NW
South America have been reported from correl-
ative Caribbean formations. In NW Colombia
the late middle to late Miocene Bulimina
carmenensis Zone (Petters and Sarmiento,
1956), bears typical and distinctive benthic
foraminiferal species for the lower Magdalena
Basin and offshore areas of the Guajira penin-
sula: Bulimina carmenensis Petters and Sarmi-
ento, and Bulimina dentoni Petters and Sarmi-
ento, which are accompanied by Bolivina
marginata multicostata Cushman, Bolivina rio-
ridana, Cibicidoides crebbsi, Gyroidinoides ven-
ezuelana and Uvigerina peregrina, among oth-
ers. To date, no occurrence nor mention of the
first two species is known from surrounding
areas in the Caribbean. This indicates that late
middle to late Miocene provincialism spread
over other coastal areas of NW South America
(cf. Petters and Sarmiento, 1956).
Vertebrate terrestrial faunas
Within the interval covered by this study,
being mostly Neogene, the first recorded inter-
mingling of terrestrial faunas occurs during
the late Miocene (9.3-8.0 Ma, Marshall et al.,
1979; Marshall, 1985; Webb, 1985). Procyonids
(raccoons and their allies), a group of North
American origin, migrated to South America
and megalonychids and mylodontids (ground
sloths) from South America migrated to North
America.
Based on the present paleobathymetric inter-
pretation, the Atrato and Chucunaque inner
borderland basins began to develop at upper
middle bathyal depths (1000 m or slightly less)
immediately after the middle Miocene tectonic
disturbances. Therefore, the intermediate and
deep w a t e r connection across the isthmus of
Panama was closed (cf. McDougall, 1985). In
H.DUQUE-CARO
the same fashion, the paleogeographic pano-
rama of the late Miocene depicts a partially
emerged land mass, the Serrania de San Bias-
Darien, as a major topographic feature be-
tween the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific ocean
(Fig.7), and the Baudo sill at water depths not
deeper than 1000 m. All of these features were
accompanied by decreasing temperatures and
sea level falls possibly below the shelf edge (cf.
Vail and Hardenbol, 1979). By this argument,
the '~new island hoppers" (Simpson, 1950), i.e.,
the raccoons and ground sloths, being good
swimmers (Webb, 1985), could easily migrate to
either South America or North America.
Munguido formation
The abrupt contrast in benthic faunal size,
and the abundance of pyrite and organic
matter between the Sierra and Munguido
formations, and the similarities of benthic
biotas between the latest Miocene to Pliocene
Pacific and Caribbean formations indicates: (1)
the cessation of the cool California Current,
involving the entire interval represented by
the Sierra Formation in the Atrato and Chucu-
naque basins, (2) re-establishment of warm
water circulation between the Caribbean Sea
and Pacific Ocean, (3) restriction of the water
circulation in the Atrato and Chucunaque
basins due to the abrupt paleobathymetric
change which left these basins at shallower
depths (less than 150 m), and (4) a new episode,
characterized by very abundant organic matter
and sediment supply, replacing the former
Sierra Formation episode. The timing of these
phenomena coincides with Miocene hiatus NH
6 (Keller and Barron, 1983). In fact, the upper
boundary of this hiatus, dated at 6.3 Ma (Keller
and Barron, 1986) also coincides with the late
Miocene Carbon Shift and the isolation of the
Mediterranean Basin (cf. Vincent et al., 1980),
and with the increase in biologic productivity,
and the rate of supply of sediments and organic
carbon from coastal lowlands and exposed
shelves (cf. Vincent et al., 1980; Barron, 1980;
Keller, 1980). These phenomena, which have
been recorded throughout the world oceans,
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
are recognized in the latest Miocene to Plio-
cene stratigraphic record in the NW corner of
South America. In NW Colombia (the Tubara
Group and the Cerrito and Cuesta formations),
I have observed a great accumulation of
terrigenous sediments in excess of 2O0Om,
associated with deltaic environments, both
very organic-rich and containing costate Uvi-
gerina (Uvigerina peregrina).
The coincidence of most Miocene hiatuses
recorded in the oceans with biostratigraphic
and sedimentation phenomena in the Pacific
and Caribbean coastal stratigraphy of NW
Colombia might well indicate that the marked
change between the Bolivina-Uvigerina and
the NonioneUa-Buliminella assemblages
(Fig.4) and the occurrence of glauconite are
effects of the cooling pulse associated with the
Neogene Hiatus NH 7 (Keller and Barron,
1983). In the inner borderland basins of NW
South America, this phenomenon also marks
the onset of a gradual impoverishment of the
benthic microfauna on a regional scale. There,
Nonionella Buliminella and Ammonia are the
most common and characteristic faunas (cf.
Renz, 1948; Blow, 1959, in Venezuela; Red-
mond, 1953; Petters and Sarmiento, 1956, in
NW Colombia; Cushman, 1918; Bandy, 1970, in
eastern Panama; and this study).
Because the biostratigraphic interval en-
compassing the Munguido Formation episode,
the Globorotalia margaritae Zone, corresponds
to a general sea level rise (Vail and Hardenbol,
1979; Haq et al., 1987), this shallowing cycle
(regression) apparently resulted from a very
rapid rate of emergence due to the tectonic
interaction between southern Central America
and the NW corner of South America (cf.
Lloyd, 1963; Dengo, 1973). On the other hand,
the end of this shallowing cycle also coincides
with the Neogene Hiatus NH 8 (3.7 3.1 Ma,
Keller and Barron, 1983, 1986). This date
coincides with that given for the final emer-
gence of the P a n a m a n i a n isthmus from 3.5 to
3.1 Ma (Saito, 1976; Keigwin, 1978, 1982) which
finally closed communication between the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This event also
marks the closing of the Neogene marine
227
episode and the emergence of the interior
coastal areas of Colombia (Duque-Caro, 1984).
Paleobiogeographic constraints
The latest Miocene to Pliocene (6.0 3.1 Ma),
in the NW corner of South America (Fig.6)
includes similar benthic foraminiferal faunas
for both the Pacific and Caribbean coastal
areas. It also includes Woodring's Neogene
molluscan beds of the Pacific and Caribbean
coastal areas of NW South America, (Fig.3).
These beds served as the basis for the well
known "Miocene Caribbean Province"
(Woodring, 1965, 1978), originally dated too old
(Petuch, 1982). Thus, the latest Miocene to
Pliocene species, including benthic foramini-
fera, from Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and
eastern Panama are closely related and often
identical to the common latest Miocene to
Pliocene forms of the Caribbean. When the
Panamanian isthmus finally emerged, it iso-
lated the eastern Pacific region from the
Caribbean and disrupted the seaway which had
previously existed.
The terrestrial environment which replaced
the previous latest Miocene to Pliocene shal-
lowing marine episode in the Atrato and
Chucunaque basins (after 3.5 and 3.1 Ma) also
marks the onset of the great American inter-
change of vertebrate faunas.
Unconformities
Previously, three Neogene unconformities
on the Caribbean side of NW Colombia have
been discussed, based mainly on the structural
and tectonic development of the adjacent Sinu
and San Jacinto belts (Duque-Caro, 1984).
However, the timing of these phenomena has
not been precisely defined. Based on the new
information gathered from the paleoceanogra-
phic, paleobathymetric and paleobiogeogra-
phic events recorded in the Atrato Basin, the
timing of the former pre-middle and middle
Miocene, and early Pliocene unconformities is
more precisely defined and a new late Miocene
unconformity is identified.
228
Early-Middle Miocene Unconformity
As described earlier, the stratigraphic
boundary between the Uva and Napipi forma-
tions correlates with the Miocene hiatus NH 2
(Keller and Barron, 1983). One of the alterna-
tives proposed to explain this hiatus was an
initial uplift of the Panama sill. Lithostrati-
graphic and sedimentological evidence in NW
Colombia, both in the Pacific and Caribbean
coastal areas, may be associated with some
kind of tectonic activity during this interval.
In the Atrato Basin, volcanic activity related
to that reported in southern Central America
(Weyl, 1980) is indicated by volcanic sand
interbeds at the top of the Uva Formation
(Fig.2). In the adjacent San Jacinto and Sinu
belts (Duque-Caro, 1984), and in the lower
Magdalena Basin (Cf. Plato Geofracture, Du-
que-Caro, 1979), contrasting stratigraphic phe-
nomena can be correlated with the timing of
this paleoceanographic event: (a) in the Sinu
Belt, the stratigraphic boundary between the
upper Oligocene to lower Miocene pelagic and
hemipelagic Aguas Vivas Formation (Fig.3),
and the overlying middle Miocene turbidite
strata of the Sinuian Series (Duque-Caro et al.,
1987), and (b) the stratigraphic boundary
between the upper Oligocene to uppermost
lower Miocene hemipelagic strata of the Car-
men Shale Formation, and the overlying mid-
dle Miocene clastic Rancho Formation (Fig,3;
Duque-Caro et al., 1983, 1987) both in the San
Jacinto Belt and lower Magdalena Basin
areas.
This boundary in the Sinu Belt marks the
closing of mostly pelagic and hemipelagic low
energy carbonate and silicic sedimentation
and the beginning of high-energy clastic sedi-
mentation during the initial phase of diapiric
deformation and uplift of the Sinu Belt (early
Sinuian Diapirism, Duque-Caro, 1984). In the
San Jacinto Belt, this boundary also repre-
sents the closing of low-energy, hemipelagic
sedimentation of the Carmen Formation in a
deep environment, and the onset of a marine,
high-energy, clastic episode of fluvial origin
represented by the Rancho Formation also in a
I4. DUQUE-CARO
deep environment. This phenomenon corre-
lates with the time when the Proto-Magdalena
River formerly flowing into the Maracaibo
Basin (Forero-Esguerra, 1974), due to some
kind of tectonic instability diverged its course
from the northeast to the northwest and began
to shed its sediments into the Lower Magdal-
ena Basin (Duque-Caro, 1979; Duque-Caro et
al., 1983; Kolla et al., 1984).
In summary, these data indicate that the
early middle Miocene Unconformity, now cor-
related with the Neogene Hiatus NH 2
(16.1-15.1 Ma, Keller and Barron, 1983, 1986)
was associated with major tectonic disturb-
ances along the present Pacific and Caribbean
coastal areas of NW South America.
Middle Miocene Unconformity
The middle Miocene Unconformity coincides
with the Miocene hiatus NH 3 (12.9-11.8 Ma,
Keller and Barron, 1983, 1986). The disappear-
ance of 21 benthic species (Table I) at the top of
the Napipi Formation, accompanied by an
abrupt paleobathymetric displacement in the
range of 1000 m, and the absence of planktic
Zone N.12, mark the middle Miocene Uncon-
formity in the Atrato Basin. This feature, dated
within the Zone N.11, was previously recog-
nized in the Pacific and Caribbean coastal
areas of NW South America (Duque-Caro,
1972, 1975), primarily based on the absence of
the wholly carinated forms of the Globorotalia
fohsi lineage group, mainly Zone N.12, i.e., in
northern Peru (Weiss, 1955), Ecuador (Sigal,
1969), and northwestern Colombia (Duque-
Caro, 1972). In other areas of the Caribbean,
this unconformity has also been recognized,
i.e., in Trinidad (Bolli, 1957; Stainforth, 1968;
Blow, 1969). In fact, widespread middle Mio-
cene tectonic disturbances in NW Colombia
(Haffer, 1970; Van Houten, 1976; Duque-Caro,
1979, 1984, 1990) have been reported and
coincide with the timing of this phenomenon.
In the Atrato Basin area, this unconformity is
marked by the contact between the low relief
mudstone lithology of the Napipi Formation
and the higher relief of the overlying Sierra
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF PANAMA SEAWAY
Formation (Duque-Caro, 1990). This feature in
the adjacent Sinu Belt marks the climax of
diapirism and major deformation of this belt
(Duque-Caro, 1984). This unconformity
throughout the Circum-Pacific region appears
to have major tectonic implications (cf. Ujiie,
1984; Duque-Caro, 1990).
Late Miocene Unconformity
Tectonic disturbances at the end of Sierra
deposition are also indicated by an abrupt
paleobathymetric contrast between the upper
bathyal depths of the Sierra Formation, and
the shallower depths (less than 150 m), of the
overlying Munguido Formation, as earlier
discussed. This unconformity, not previously
recorded in the NW corner of South America,
and coinciding with the Neogene Hiatus NH 6
(7.0-6.3 Ma, Keller and Barron, 1983, 1986),
marks contrasting formational boundaries in
NW Colombia, i.e., between the late middle to
late Miocene shaly Perdices and Cuesta forma-
tions, and the overlying latest Miocene to
Pliocene Tubara Group, a thick terrigenous
unit rich in organic remains. This major
unconformity has also been recorded at the top
of the Californian Monterey Formation, within
the Miocene Hiatus NH 6, and between a cool
water event below and warm water event
above (Barron, 1986).
Early Pliocene Unconformity
In the Atrato Basin area, the end of the
latest Miocene to early Pliocene shallowing
marine episode of the Munguido Formation,
and replacement by a terrestrial environment
is marked by an unconformity. This event, also
coincident with the Neogene Hiatus NH 8
(3.7-3.1Ma, Keller and Barron, 1983, 1986)
marks the base of terrestrial formations associ-
ated with the initiation of the major inter-
mingling of terrestrial faunas between North
and South America. In the San Jacinto Belt
area, NW Colombia (Duque-Caro, 1984), this
unconformity has also been recognized mark-
ing the contact of the marine Carmenian Series
229
(Duque-Caro et al., 1987) and the overlying late
Pliocene to Pleistocene terrestrial Sincelejian
Stage.
Summary and conclusions
The Atrato Basin is an inner borderland
basin which exhibits stratigraphic and bio-
stratigraphic characteristics similar to other
Neogene Pacific coastal basins in southern
Central America and northern South America.
Three major stratigraphic sequences have
been identified and include, (1) a late Oligo-
cene to middle Miocene sequence composed of
mainly pelagic and hemipelagic formations,
deposited in open and deep oceanic conditions,
and preceding effective development of the
Atrato and Chucunaque basins, (2), a late
middle Miocene to early Pliocene sequence,
composed of hemipelagic and terrigenous sedi-
ments, deposited from middle bathyal to neritic
depths, and developed in inner borderland
basins. Contrasting benthic assemblages typi-
cal of the Californian Neogene biostratigraphy
with no evolutionary relation with those of the
early to middle Miocene of NW South America
are distinctive, and lastly (3) a post-early
Pliocene sequence, composed of mostly fluvial
and lacustrine deposits not specifically dis-
cussed in this study.
An evaluation of the data with emphasis on
paleoceanography, paleobathymetry and pa-
leobiogeography has indicated (Figs.7 and 8):
(1) Prior to the middle Miocene, at about
16 Ma, well-aerated, deep, open oceanic condi-
tions and free active water circulation pre-
vailed along the steep continental margins of
NW South America.
(2) During the early middle Miocene Hiatus
NH 2 (16.1-15.1 Ma), a change in both bottom
water circulation and sedimentation occurred
due to tectonic disturbances that triggered the
initial uplift of the Panama sill. These changes,
which are observed in both the Pacific and
Caribbean coastal areas of NW South America,
continued through most of the middle Mio-
cene. Waters rich in organic nutrients and
depleted in oxygen, a general warming of the
230
equatorial sea surface, a maximum sea level
rise, and bathyal depths of about 2000 m. were
distinctive.
(3) During the middle Miocene, coinciding
with the Miocene Hiatus NH 3 (12.9-11.8 Ma),
an abrupt foraminiferal paleobathymetric
change from lower to middle bathyal depths
indicates a major uplift of the Panama sill to
about 1000 m, reflecting the middle Miocene
tectonic disturbances in NW South America.
(4) Immediately following this uplift in the
late middle Miocene a distinctive benthic
foraminiferal fauna with homogeneous coastal
Pacific assemblages appeared and extended
from Ecuador to California, following the
Pacific coastal areas of NW South America and
Central America. These Miocene to Pliocene
assemblages are characteristic of the Califor-
nian borderland biostratigraphy and appear
abruptly with no evolutionary relation with
the early to middle Miocene faunas of NW
South America. Because these assemblages do
not occur in the Caribbean region I interpret:
(a) that the prevous uplift which left the
Panama isthmus partially emergent appar-
ently developed a circulation barrier between
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; and (b) that
this was the result of intensification of the
cool, marginal California Current, bringing
benthic foraminifera to the south as far as the
Golfo de Guayaquil. This phenomenon coin-
cided with documented drops in sea level and
cooling episodes associated with the growth of
a major Antarctic ice cap. Middle to upper
bathyal environments were anoxic under well-
aerated cool surface waters in the Pacific
coastal areas of NW South America.
The resulting paleogeographic picture in-
cluded a partially emergent Serrania de San
Bias-Darien as a major island mass between
nuclear Central America and the corner of NW
South America. This situation gave rise, for
the first time during the Cenozoic to a paleobi-
ogeographic panorama favourable for the ear-
liest intermingling of terrestrial faunas be-
tween North and South America, i.e., procyo-
nids (raccoons and their allies), megalonychids
and mylodontids (ground sloths).
H. DUQUE-CARO
(5) During the latest Miocene, coinciding
with the Neogene Hiatus NH 6 (6.3-7.0 Ma)
water surface circulation between the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans was re-established and the
influence of the cool California Current disap-
peared. This major paleoceanographic event
coincided with the late Miocene Carbon Shift,
the isolation of the Mediterranean Basin and
the global increase of biologic productivity
and the rate of supply of sediments. A rapid
filling and shallowing to mostly neritic depths
of the Pacific and Caribbean inner borderland
basins of NW South America is indicated by
the great thickness of terrigenous sediments,
gradual impoverishment of microfaunal assem-
blages, and a progressive increase in similarity
between benthic biotas.
(6) Immediately following early Pliocene
time, the P a n a m a n i a n isthmus became com-
pletely emergent providing a terrestrial en-
vironment favourable, to intermingling of ter-
restrial faunas and floras between North and
South America. I correlate this Pliocene uplift
with the Neogene Hiatus NH 8 (3.7-3.1 Ma).
(7) Four regional unconformities, always
associated with tectonic disturbances in the
NW corner of South America, have also been
recognized and correlated with some of the
Neogene hiatuses recorded from the oceans:
early-middle Miocene, middle Miocene, late
Miocene, and early Pliocene.
(8) The paleobiogeographic evolution inter-
preted in this study agrees with the existing
data both on land and in the oceans. However,
a new result has emerged: the appearance of
the cool California Current in the Pacific
coastal areas of NW South America, and the
resulting disruption of the surface water circu-
lation between the Atlantic and the Pacific
oceans during the late middle to late Miocene.
(9) All of these data from the Pacific and
Caribbean coastal areas of the NW corner of
South America supplement the corresponding
paleoceanographic data recorded in the adja-
cent oceans. However, the existing correlation
between the timing of tectonic disturbances
recorded in the continental margins of NW
South America and some of the ocean-wide
NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHYAND EVOLUTIONOF PANAMASEAWAY
Neogene hiatuses is significant. This has major
implications for interpreting aspects of conti-
nental margin evolution, at least in the NW
corner of South America: climatic changes,
and ocean circulation as factors associated
with sedimentation and tectonics. In the NW
corner of South America, i.e., in the adjacent
Sinu and San Jacinto belts tectonic disturb-
ances (diapirism) appears associated with
abrupt sedimentological changes from low
energy (pelagites and hemipelagites) to high
energy (turbidites; Duque-Caro, 1984). There,
the corresponding hiatuses (cold pulses, Keller
and Barron, 1983; Fig.8) are represented by
stratigraphic planes separating these contrast-
ing lithologies. These hiatuses, in this conti-
nental margin, appear associated with low
sedimentation rates due to inactivity of terri-
genous sources, widespread erosion, sea level
drops, and intensification of the cool marginal
currents. In contrast, the high-energy sedimen-
tation periods, coinciding with both warm
periods (Keller and Barron, 1983; Fig.8) and sea
level rises (Vail and Hardenbol, 1979; Fig.8),
result from great terrigenous influx and high
sedimentation rates due to greater sediment
transport and activity of terrigenous sources.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of my Ph.D. thesis at the
Department of Geological and Geophysical
Sciences, Princeton University. In this matter,
I want to express my sincere thanks to A. G.
Fischer, F. B. Van Houten, G. Keller and N.
Lundberg for their invaluable critics and
suggestions during various stages of its com-
pletion. Similarly, my sincerest thanks go to
J. P. Kennett for reading and helping to im-
prove this particular paper.
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