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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR HYDRAULIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DELFT

APPLIED HYDRAULICS

Prof. Dr P. Novak

1981
page

21 = 2QdQ _
dxgA

222
so = =!_+3.9_
2 2
=
C R gA x

22 t::.J = (57)

24 Q = by V(2g (E-y»

y = Yl at x = 0

27 Y = O.5x1.85

29 Q = ~ C I~ b (H 3/3_8 3/2)
(72)
3 d - 1 2

35 .•. spi11way and h' the overfa11 jet thickness.at


distanee 1).

42 "
Cábe1ka J.
page

21 = 2QdQ _
dxgA

222
so = =!_+3.9_
2 2
=
C R gA x

22 t::.J = (57)

24 Q = by V(2g (E-y»

y = Yl at x = 0

27 Y = O.5x1.85

29 Q = ~ C I~ b (H 3/3_8 3/2)
(72)
3 d - 1 2

35 .•. spi11way and h' the overfa11 jet thickness.at


distanee 1).

42 "
Cábe1ka J.
CONTENTS

page
List of symbols
1. Introduction 1

2. Basic Principles 2
3. Specific Energy and Critical Depth 3
4. Momentum Function and Hydraulic Jump 6
5. Some Applications of the Specific Energy and 8
Momentum Principles
5.1. Changes in channel width or bed elevation 8
without loss of energy
5.2. Flow through bridges 8
5.3. Outflow from a reservoir 10
5.4. Flow under a gate 10
6. Channel Transitions 11
7. Gradually Varied Non-uniform Flow 16
7.1. Basic differential equation 16
7.2. Surface Profiles 17
7.3. Introduction to methods of computation 18
8. Spatially Varied Non-uniform Flow 20
8.1. Side channel spillway-lateral inflow 20
8.2. Side weir-lateral outflow 23

8.3. Bottom withdrawal 24

9. Spillway Design 25
9.1. Artificial control 25
9.2. Basic approach 26

9.3. Spillway types and principles of design 27


9.4. Energy dissipation on spillways 35
10. Stilling Basins 35
11. Drop Structures and Flow through Culverts 38
12. Cavitation and :Vibration 40
References 42
- 10 -

flow the effect of skew can be taken into account by assuming the effective
width of the pier as the width projected normal to flow for angles of
deviation from the flow up to 200•

5.3. Outflow from a reservoir


y
I
E

E
o
- _ 11

Q
Fig. 7a
Fig. 7b
The task is to compute the outflow from a reservoir for a given height of
water above the crest of the outflow with a channel downstream of the crest.
This generally simple computation for the case of S > S i.e. a steep
o c
channel is more complicated for the case when S < S . In any case the value
o c
of S depends on the discharge which we are seeking (see eq. 23 and 24).
c
The problem is best solved by the application of the energy principle to the
crest and plotting fig. 7b which is a combination of fig. 2 and the stage
discharge curve for the channel slope S and known roughness. If the channel
o
is long enough for uniform flow to,be established then in case of channel
rating curve 11 the outflow will be given by Q , in case of the curve I
max
by the discharge QI' which alone satifies both conditions of given energy
Eo and channel slope and roughness. (If the rating curve passes through the
point where on the energy curve y = Yc' than the channel has a critical slope
and again Q = Q ) •
max
The problem is a clear example of flow "control". For S .::.
S the spillway
o c
~rest controls the flow, for S < S the channel (roughness) controls the
o c
discharge.

5.4. Flow under a gate

Some of the problems associated with the flow under a gate - e.g. the force
acting on the gate and the energy 1055 downstream of the gate can best be
appreciated from fig. 8 where both figs. 1 and 5 are combined:
List of symbols (continued)

!J.v difference between local and mean velocity


v volume, storage
x coordinate, distance
y depth
y' stilling basin depth
y+ depth of centroid of section A
critical depth
A
mean depth (= 'B)
height above datum
Cl energy (Coriolis) coefficient
S momentum (Boussinesque) coefficient
.0 thickness of laminar sub-layer
e- velocity coefficient
cp function
y specific weight (= Pg)
À friction coefficient
\) coefficient of viscosity
P specific mass
o safety coefficient
'T. shear stress at wallof channel
o
(head loss) coefficient
1. Introduction

These lecture notes form the background to the lectures in applied hydraulics
at the International Institute for Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering
in Delft. They assume the knowledge of basic fluid mechanics and are oriented
towards the application of basic principles to hydraulic engineering design,
particularly in non-uniform open channel flow and spillway and stilling basin
design. Delait~d non-uniform flow computations and unsteady flow problems are
not included.

2. Basic principles

In hydraulics we can apply to any situation two out of three principles:

(i) the principle of conservation of matter (continuity) and the


principle of conservation of energy (if we can account for all
enercjy "losses") or
(ii) the principle of continuity and the momentum principle (if we
can account for all external forces).

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q


is stated by the equation:

(1)

Where A and vare the cross-sectional area and the mean velocity of flow in
sections 1 and 2. If the velocity remains constant (vI = V2) the cross-sectional
area remains constant; this implies in a prismatic channel a constant depth
and uniform flow. The uniform flow results from an exact balance between
forces of gravity and frictional resistance.

Denoting the total energy head in a section H, the height above datum z,
the pressure head ~ and the velocity head 2~' (kinetic energy) :

H = z + ...E....
pg
v2
+ 2g (2)

In an ideal fluid the total energy head H remains constant throughout the
flow; equation 2 then becomes a statement of the Bernoulli equation for an
ideal fluid.
For the flow of the real fluid we must take into account the velocity distri-
bution in the cross-section where the local (time average) velocity u will be
different from the mean velocity v:

u = v + l:!.v (3)
- 32 -

a h
H

fig. 21

For the free overfall the discharge is given by

Q = ~3 C
d
1T D
c
I (2g) H3/2 (78)

and for the drowned (submerged) regime by

D2
Q = c~ 1T '4 I (2g(H + Z) ) (79)

The symbols are clear from fig. 21.

The discharge coefficient in equation (78) can be estimated from fig. 22.

0.5

0.4

fig. 22

0.3

0.2

O. 1

o ~ L- ~ J_ -L- Ho/Rs
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
- 3 -

where À is the friction coefficient in the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

(11)

11·6v .
and "a" is a length characterising the roughness and 0 = v
~s the thickness
. ~. ~s the Manning
of the laminar sublayer. Another frequently used express~on
equation using a constant n which is a function of the roughness:
%
v = ~ Is (12)
n 0
1/6
(Le. C = ~ )
n
From the second law of Newton by equating the sum of all external forces P
to the rate of change of momentum PQv we can write for sections 1 and 2 in
a flow:

(13)

In rea 1 fluid flow we have to take again into account the velocity distribution
by introducing a coeffiecient 8(Boussinesque coefficient):

(14)

Therefore 1 < p < a.. Under normal conditions 1 < a. < 1.1 but the value of a. can be (15)
higher in irregular sections, downstream of hydraulic pumps, etc. As8 is alway,s
smaller than a. it is often taken as 1.0.

3. Specific Energy and Critical Depth

From equation 6 we may write the total head in a cross-section as:

(16)

In equation (16) h = z + Y is the height of the water level (or in pipe flow the
height of the hydraulic gradient line) above a datum;- in river engineering this
is denoted as the "stage". The expression

(17)

is termed the specific energy ; this is the energy referred to the lowest point
in the channel cross-section. The concept of specific energy is very important
in open channel design.
- 4 -

For a constant discharge Q, equation 17 can be plotted in a graph y x E


- see fig. 1. For any particular value of El>E. we obtain two possible
m1n
depths - the alternate depths belonging to two different flow regimes i.e.
the subcritical flow (y > y , v<v ) and the supercritical flow (y<y ,v>v )
c c c c

y subcritical flow
ClV2

B
t y
2g

Yl
/ supercritical flow
/
/
(El)yc --- -/--
__
/
....4_ - '7
.....;
alternate depths
(Ql)yc 50/ ..-
/ ..-
:r .,...
~ - - _I - - -
Y2 ,/ I

Emin El E

Fig. 1

At E = E. there is only one solution for the depth y = y - the critical depth
m1n c-
(resuIting in the critical velocity (v). We can find the minimum energy and
c
thus critical depth from the conditions ~~ = O. From equation 17:
1- ClQ2 dA - 0
~dy -
c
From fig. 1 it is evident that dA = B i.e. the water surface width and thus
dy
at E min:

(18)

ClQ2B 2
The dimensionless term ~ is the square of the froude number -Fr - for a
general channel shape. Thus the condition for critical depth becomes:

(18a)

For subcritical flow Frf< 1 and for supercritical flow Fr > 1. We could draw
similar curves for any value of Q. Thus in fig. 1 another curve is drawn for
Q2>Q and line "a" separates the region of supercritical and subcritical flow.
A
The term B can be denoted as the mean depth Ym' The condition for critical
velocity then becomes from equation 18:
A Y
V = .R. = I(!I ~) = I(L mc) (19)
c A ClB Cl
c c
and we can write for the minimum energy:
y
E . = y c + ~ 2g y + __m.c_ (20 )
m1n c 2
- 5 -

For a rectangular section, width b = B = constant, equation 18 results in

(18b)

and thus for Q = q b

(21)

From equation 20

!c_3 (20a)
Emin = Yc + 2 = '2 Yc

In a rectangular channel line "a" in fig. 1 has thus a slope 2:3.


From fig. 1 it can be seen that for a given specific energy El the maximum
discharge that can pass through the section with this energy will be Q2 for
which the depth at El will be critical. Another way of getting the same result,
would be to rewrite equation 17 for a constant value of El as:

(22)

and·put ~; = 0
A ~ B
From equation 20 we obtain E - Y = _:::_ which together with (22) gives a __ ax_3_c_
= 1,
1 c 2Bc g ~
which is of course identical with equation 18.
A plot of equation 22 is shown in figure 2.

Equation 18 also unables us to find the critical depth for a given discharge
Q for any general cross-section as shown in figure 3.

y y

subcritical
flow

I
Isupercritical
: flow
I
Q

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
- 6 -

The bed slope of a channel where the uniform flow depth y (also called "normal"
o
depth) is critical,(yo = Yc) is the critical slope. From equation 12 and 19
we get
2
g Ymc n
sc (23)
. 4/3
R (l
c
for (l = 1 and a wide rectangular channel with ymc = Yc = R c we get from
equation 23 and 21:

sc = g
~3 2
n g
- 719 (24)

A channel with a slope S >S has a super-critical slope and is called "steep"
o c
and with S <S a subcritical slope usually called "mild".
o c

4. Momentum Function and Hydraulic Jumps

Let us consider a channel with water levels as indicated in fig. 4 where the
change in water levels between sections 1 and 2 is caused by an obstacle
exerting an (external) force P on the flow.

_-
Y2
y

_.L-.,.-- _- --
.conjugate
depths

~in

Fig. 4 Fig. S

From equation 13 it follows that

where Pi and Pz are the hydrostatic forces in sections 1 and 2 with Pl =


+ . +
pgA1Y1 where Y1 is the depth of the centre of gravity of area Al. Thus
+ + _ 2 2
pg Al Yl - P - pg A2 Y2 - pR2 Q IA2 - pB1 Q lAl
- 7 -

p
-= (25)
pg

Denoting the term in the brackets as M·- momentum function - we can write:

p
-=
pg

Fig. 5 shows a plot of depth y against M; as for specific energy we get two
flow regimes i.e. sub- and supercritical and for each value of M bigger than
Mmin at y = Yc' two depths Yl and Y2 which are called initial and sequent depths
or conjugate depths. Writing the expression for the momentum function for a
rectangular channel with y+ =~, for B1 = B2 = 1 and unit width as:

M = y2 + ~
2 gy

results for dM
dy
o in

which is identical with equation 21 (for a. = B = 1).


Equation 25 permits the computation of one unknown among four variables

- Pl'Ql'Al'A2 -
for a given channel shape and B1 = S· = 1 (y+ is a function of
2
channel shape and position of water level i. e. A) .

The transition from supercritical to subcritical flow occurs through the


hydraulic jump (standing wave). The equation for the sequent depth from the
initial depth (or vice-versa) can be derived from eq. 25 for P = O. Thus e.g.
for a rectangular channel

resulting in

(Ut +'LJ_=~ and


Y2 y g Y. .
2 2

~ = 1.. (-1 + 1(1 + 8 Fr2


2 ) ) (26)
Y2 2

or similarly

X2.1= - (-1 + 1(1 + 8 Fr12 ) )


y1 2 (27)
- 8 -

The height of the hydraulic jump is given by (Y2 - Yl) and is a function of
the Froude number. The length of the jump 1 is given by

(28)

The energy loss in the jump can be computed from equation 26 (or 27) as the
difference between the energies of section 1 and 2:

(29)

5. Some Applications of the Specific Energy and Momentum Principles

5.1. Changes in channel width or bed elevation without loss of energy

Figure 1 and equations 16 - 22 can be used to compute changes in depth


or specific discharge resulting from a change in channel width and/or
from a change in bed level assuming that energy losses can be neglected.

If a channel is constricted or its bed raised so that a critical dep th


occurs a hydraulic jump will form downstream of the (contracted) section
and a standing wave flume or venturi flume is formed. The discharge through
this flume for a rectangular section with a throat width bt is given by

(30)

Q2
In equation 30 the discharge is implicit (as E = Y + -2=g-A-2~'
where A is the
upstream cross-sectional area of flow) and has to be found by iteration.

5.2. Flow through bridges

__.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1 2 3
Fig. 6a Fig. 6b

Figures 6a and 6b show two possible longitudinal sections through the flow
between bridge piers. In fig. 6a the flow remains subcritical throughout
whereas in fig. 6b it changes from subcritical to supercritical and back to
subcritical. (Both cases assume that the normal flow depth is > y )
c
- 9 -

The parameter required for design is the increase in depth ~y, caused by
the flow through the bridge, for various values of Q, y and ~
b . The condi-
o
tion for a critical depth to occur in the bridge is y
2
= yc = 1 zz2. From the
g
assumption E ':! E2 we obtain for È2
b1
= r
1
27 Fr-f_.
r 2 = ___;;;..,..--
... (31)
c (2 + Fr ~)j
1

The disadvantage of equation 31 is that it uses an (unknown) upstream Fr! and


that the assumption El = E2 is not really justified. It is, therefore, better
to put M2 = M3 and work from downstream, where the depth Y3 is known for a
given discharge. For Y2 = Yc' this gives:

1 -
(2 + -) 3 Fr4 -
r 3
c
r (32)
c
(1 + 2 Fr 2)3"
-3

Thus if r >Pr the flow in fig. 6a will occur, if r < r fig. 6b will be valide
c c
For r < reit is then best to compute M2 for the section between the piers
(from M2 ~ M3) and to calculate Y1 from the energy equation all~~ing for a
head loss between section 1 and 2. This can be taken as ~ = c ~, where
c = 0.18 for a roundheaded pier and c = 0.35 for a square pier head. ~Y is
then calculated aS-Y1 - Y3 taking into account energy losses in the hydraulic
jump and between sections 1 and 2.•

For the case when r > r , i.e. the bridge is not choked, Yarnell on the basis
c
of experiments (carried out for ~ > 0.5) suggested the equation:
1

~ __ 2 2 + +4
K ~r3 (K + Fr3 - 0.6) (r + 15 r ) (33)
Y3

where r+ =
bl - b2 = 1 - rand K is a coefficient.
b1
K = 0.9 for piers with a semicircular nose and tail, K = 1.25 for piers with
a square nose and tail. Equation 33 is valid for ratio of pier length and
width L/ B about 4. For more slender piers ~y can be reduced by about 10 %

(for ~ = 7 to 13 the reduction is 17 % to 4 %). The case of subcritical flow


throughout (fig. 6a) is also sometimes solved by the equation (d'Aubuisson)

(34)

(which is derived from the assumption Y2 = Y3 and using a coefficient Cb to


account for the entry energy loss and the inaccurate assumption) with

0.90 < Cb < 1.05 according to pier geometry. For piers not parallel to the
- 10 -

flow the effect of skew can be taken into account by assuming the effective
width of the pier as the width projected normal to flow for angles of
deviation from the flow up to 200•

5.3. Outflow from a reservoir


y
I
E

E
o
- _ 11

Q
Fig. 7a
Fig. 7b
The task is to compute the outflow from a reservoir for a given height of
water above the crest of the outflow with a channel downstream of the crest.
This generally simple computation for the case of S > S i.e. a steep
o c
channel is more complicated for the case when S < S . In any case the value
o c
of S depends on the discharge which we are seeking (see eq. 23 and 24).
c
The problem is best solved by the application of the energy principle to the
crest and plotting fig. 7b which is a combination of fig. 2 and the stage
discharge curve for the channel slope S and known roughness. If the channel
o
is long enough for uniform flow to,be established then in case of channel
rating curve 11 the outflow will be given by Q , in case of the curve I
max
by the discharge QI' which alone satifies both conditions of given energy
Eo and channel slope and roughness. (If the rating curve passes through the
point where on the energy curve y = Yc' than the channel has a critical slope
and again Q = Q ) •
max
The problem is a clear example of flow "control". For S .::.
S the spillway
o c
~rest controls the flow, for S < S the channel (roughness) controls the
o c
discharge.

5.4. Flow under a gate

Some of the problems associated with the flow under a gate - e.g. the force
acting on the gate and the energy 1055 downstream of the gate can best be
appreciated from fig. 8 where both figs. 1 and 5 are combined:
- 11 -

P/Pg dE
/
y

Fig. 8

The computation proceeds from section 3 upstream with M2 = M3 and E2 - E3 = 6Ei

then El ~ E2 and Ml - M2 = p/Pg i.e. the force exerted on the gate.

6. Channel transitions

Channel transitions are changes of direction, slope or cross-section.


All controls are transitions (but not vice-versa). The flow through gradual
smooth channel transitions can be solved or at least approximated by assuming
no energy loss and using methods described in chapter 3 and section 5.1.
For flow through "sudden" transitions and particulary for flow through short
expansions and contractions the assumption of no energy loss is not valid
and the energy loss-enabling the application of the energy principle - is not
known beforehand. Furthermore for supercritical flow additional complications
in the form of standing wave~ (waves of interference) arise. In these situations
it is better to approach the problem through the application of the momentum
principle under certain.assumptions:

I
I P2/2 i
!'~ P2~:
;
I
.- -. P3 P 1--- - ____; - I
I
.. P3
P1 I
I
1

:
y.
,,: P2/2:
I
I
I
I

~
I
I

I
1 2 3 j
1 2
Fig. 9 Fig. 10

For a contraction (fig. 9) we can write

2
For a rectangular section, 81 = 82 and Y2 = Y3 with P = ~g y2 and Fr12 = 2L_
9 y1
- 12 -

this reduces to

(35)

Similarly for an expansion (fig. 10) and assuming Y1 = Y2 we get:

·22
Fr 2 = (b..
db1) (Y3/Yl) (Y3 !Yl - 1) (36)
1 2(Y3/Y1 - b/b3)

Both equations may be represented by a series of curves in a plot of F.:r:.f.


against Y3/Y1 with b3/b1 as a parameter - Fig. 11. This figure permits a quick
application of equations 35 and 36 in design. There are 4 zönes in the
figure representing:

1) supercritical flow throughout the transition


2) change from supercritical to subcritical flow
3) subcritical flow throughout the transition
4) change from subcritical to supercritical flow

The head loss, particulary in subcritical transitions, can then be calculated


2
as ~E = El - E3. For a tapered contraction this shouldfe 6E ~ c vig with c
in the region of 0.2. For an expansion 6E ~ c (V12~ V3) with 0.3 <- c < 1
(limits for a tapered and sudden expansion). The above values are only approxi-
mate and sometimes the applications of figure 11 leads-because of the assump-
tions made - to seemingly impossible results with no energy loss or even a
negative value of 6E.

For supercritical flow further complications are caused by the standing waves
and associated losses. The waves, dynamically similar to short waves in super-
sonic gas flow, occur whenever there is an interference with supercritical flow.
Using for the wave celerity c the expression for long waves of small amplitude

c = .lgy) (37)

the ratio of the flow velocity v and of c becomes the Froude number (Mach number
in compressible fluids). For an inclination 8 of the wave to the direction of
flow (see figure 12a)

v 1
- = Fr = --- (38)
c sin 8
- 13 -
[j)
t::
0
..-l
.j..)
o
-- lIS
l-t
.j..)

0'1
..-l
r...
t::
0
o
.-!
lIS
.j..)
>.
<,
r")
>.
-
t::
0
N
•.-l
l-t
0
..c::
..c::
0'1
::l [j)
0 c
l-t 0
..c::
.j..)
..-l
til
3: ~
0 0..
.-! X
<:r'. ~ QJ
CD
\I l-t '0
1.0
~
0
~ ·
~ r")
..Q >. - ......


<, IJ")
r")
>.
:> ~
N_
-

lol
r... r")

CD --~----~I.O~--~~;.--~N~-
r--. • 10
..... ...... ......
c v>c

Fig. 12a Fig. 12b

Thus, if there is a change in direction 9 of a channel wall (see fig. 12b)


a shock wave, inclination 8, will be created. With no force acting along the
front of the wave:

.vI cos 8 = v2 cos (13 - 9)

From the momentum equation for the wave (jump) we get:

(see equation 26) resulting in

sin (39)

(For values of Y2/Yl approaching 1 equation 39 reduces to 38). As from


continuity:

VI Yl sin 8 = v2 Y2 sin (13 - 9)

we can 5ubs
stt i t.ut;e
ä
.
Lrrt.o eq. 39 f or ~ .t.an S
v", = -__;=~__;-
Y1 tan (8 - 9)
with the result:

tan 13 1
(I (1 + 8 sin 2 13 Fr 2) - 1) (40)
tan (B - 9) 2 1

(Equation 40 is an implicit equation for 13 which is more accurate than eq. 38


valid for very small waves). If the wave caused by the change in direction
indicated in fig.12b hits an opposite wall an unfavourable train of wave
fronts is set up in the channel (see fig. 13a)

.--
Fig. 13a
- 15-

This can be offset, for one value of Fr1, only by asymmetrical contraction
of a length L satisfying the condition (see figure 13b):

L = b2 - b2 = ~ __b~l + =b~ _
(41)
2 tan 8 2 tan 81 2 tan (82 - 8)

For the design of a gradual smooth transition without energy loss in super-
critical flow (see fig. 14) we may use the above equations for continuous
small changes in 8:
2
v (42)
dy/d8 =
sin 8 cos 8
= g
tan 8

Integration of equation ~2)yields

1 h -1 ____ ,;;.1___ _ 8 (43)


.8 = h (tan - - tan
f(Fr2 - 1) f (Fr2 _ 1) 1

If we plot (8 + 81) against Fr we can use the graph - Fig. 15 - for design.
We enter the graph for the upstream Froude number Fr 1 with 8 = 0 and get 81;
adding 8 to 81 for a positive wave or subtracting for a negative wave the next
Froude number is obtained etc. The depth is computed for a constant E from

v2 v2 Fr2
E = Y + 2g = Y (1 + 2 g y) = y (1 + -2-)

positive waves negative waves


increasing depth decreasing depth
converging contours diverging contours
Fig. 14
- 16 -

7. Gradually Varied Non-uniform Flow

7.1. Basic differential equation

The concept of uniform flow was introduced in chapter 2. The flow discussed
in chapters 3 - 6 were mainly examples of rapidly varied non-uniform flow
where the changes in depth and velocity occured over a relating short
distance. If these changes are gradual we refer to the flow as gradually
varied non-uniform flow. In both cases the flow does not vary with time and
is thus steady. The equation for gradually varied flow and its solution is
derived on the assumption (substantiated by experiment) that uniform flow
equations may be used to evaluate the energy slope at a given channel
section. In a general non-prismatic channel from equation 6 and for

70°
65°53

60•
l-\ l-
j

I
50· \
1\
\
\
--
CD
+
CD
.\_ f- ec • 43)
'\
I
i

20'
t+- Fr I---
H"I'-.. 8

Fr, t4- ti- -


.. l
10°
Star af'
cur~ Ie
!

9,
r---t---
- !

f
o·I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IQ 11 12 13 !4 15
=r

Fig. 15
- 17-

v 2 - v 2 - ~ v2 with
1 2

= d(~) 2 = -2 ---or (aA dy + dA db)


AQ2
A 1'\..) dY db

we get

and thus

S
~_ 0
dx- (44)

db
For a prismatic channel -- = 0 and eq. 44 reduces to
dx

(45)

Introducing the channel conveyance K = C A I ~)


(i.e. the discharge for a slope 1) eq. 45 becomes:

d l-(!o.) 2
~ - S K (46)
dx - 0 1 _ FrZ·

(equation 46 simplies that To = pg R Sf - see equation 8 - as weil as


T
o
= pg R
0
S)
0

Equation 46 can be conveniently used to analyse various surface profiles in


non-uniform flow as generally K2(l yN where the exponent N is called the
hydraulic exponent.

7.2. Surface profiles

In open channel flow the slope S of the channel can be S < S (mild),
o 0 c
S > S (steep), S = S (critical),S = 0 (horizontal) S < 0 (adverse
o coc 0 0
slope). In the first three cases uniform flow is possible with yo >yc in
the mild channel, y 'C.. Y in the steep channel and y = y in the case of
o coc
the critical slope. Uniform flow is not possible for So ~ O. We can thus
have 12 surface profiles: M1 M2 M3' Sl S2 S3' Cl C3, H2 H3' A2 A3·
Curves in zone 1 are called backwater curves (positive slope), curves in
middle zone 2 are called drawdown curves (they have a negative slope).
In all cases the uniform flow depth is approached asymtotically and the
critical depth is intersected at sight angles. At the upper limits of depth
the curves become asymptotic to a horizontal water level, at the bed they
- 18 -

intersect it at right angles. Figure 16 summarizes the surface profiles

o-~~_:
_ ~----o --.
c_ - ,
=i-:
-
------

c--_____ '
- --
\
0_ __ ~\ -_ C
__
"'-------
nJI51/11/1/1
- -;-c
..._,
o
co -.J
__ '
,"_
_....---==---cl

____ c - --- --- =: - - -


\

c , -
,~
IJlhlll7 1/ 71/ 77 7/111
H
Fig. 16

When using the surface profile curves we have to stablish first of all the
various controls i.e. sections where there is a definite relationship between
depth and discharge. (e.g. dams, weirs, gates, channel entries and exits etc.

see also chapter 5). In the transition from subcritical to superciitical flow
the critical depth is the control; in the reverse case the transition occurs
through a hydraulic pump the location of which is generally not known in
the first instance. Profile plotting and depth computation proceed from
the control upstream in subcritical flow and downstream in supercritical flow.

7.3. Introduction to methods of computation

As stated in chapter 1 only an introduction to the actual computation of the


depth of gradually varied non-uniform flow is given here. Generally equation
46, valid for prismatic channels, may be solved by direct integration, by
numerical methods or by a combination of numerical and graphical techniques.

a) direct integration
------------------ 2 A3
wr a't'l.ng f or F r 2 = ~-
a Q B = i.e. assuming that ï3 varies as
g A

M and subsituting for (-~ol = (Yo.)N i.e. assuming that K2 =


Y K Y
N
as Y we get from equation 46:
- 19 -

1 _ (Ya.) N
~ = So ---,y~- = S (47)
dx 1 _ (Yc.) M 0
y

where 8 = a.- c2 Sa B

g P

From eq. 47:


1 - 8

denoting y/yo = U and f l-uN"-


du - B(u) we get

(48)

The function B (u) - the Bachme_te:vfunction - can be evaluated for var Lous.
values of N and u and tables of the function B(u) are available.
For the ease of a wide rectangular channel using Chézy equation we get
N = M = 3 and the functions in equation 48 revert to the Bresse functions.
Eq. 48 can be used to compute (xl - x2) for given values of u1 and u2
- an explicit solution - or to compute u2 from given values of (xl - x2)
and u1 - and implicit solution.

b) numerical methods

Various step methods may be used. E.g. for prismatic channels evaluating
the nominator and denominator for the mean depth in a depth incremental
interval yields directly ~y/~x and the distance between Yl and Y2 as L~X.
Alternatively we can compute the distance from eq. 16 where ~!So - Sf
=
with Q = K ISf .
The computation of depth from a given distance is always more troublesome
as a trial and error or a graphical procedure must be used.

In non-prismatic channels equation 44 applies and generally this with the


introduction of local losses can be evaluated only by a step-by-step method.
v2
In principle we use again equation 6 (16) introducing a local loss ~ 2g
as weIl as the frictional head loss hf between sections 1 and 2.
The computation of distance from stage is simpie, the computation of stage
from distance is by teration which can be reduced to a single one by
adopting
- 20 -

(49)

where ~Y2 is the correction of the assumed depth in section 2 which resulted
in an error ~H in the computed and assumed energy head. The whole computation
for longer river reaches is best handled by using a computer with a simple
programme.

8. Spatially Varied Non-uniform Flow


8.1. Side channel spillway - lateral inflow

Rllll!_!
L __
I:"
] ~
I
a b c
Fig. 17

For a lateral inflow into a channel (fig. 17a) the inflow has no momentum
in the direction of flow, but there is substantial energy dissipation in the
channel. Thus we can apply the momentum principle but not the energy
principle.

Taking the slope of the channel and the resistance into account results in:

pgt.M + pg.MZ + L Pt.x = 0


0

thus
pgRSf
dl-1 dz
-= A(- -- (50)
dx dx PgR ) = A(S 0 - S f )

Equation (50) can be solved by numerical methods similar to non-uniform


computations. Also:

dM d + +
dx
= dx
(-Q2
gA
+ Ay ) =
2Q dQ _ Q2
gA dx
dA d
gA2 dx + dx (Ay )
- 21 -

+ dv + ~+
From A(y + dy) + dA 2'" = (A + dA) (y + dy dy)

+
A dy = y+ dA + A ~
dy
dy =

Therefore A(S _ S ) = 2Q dQ _ Q2~ ~ + A ~


o f d x qA gA dx dx

(51 )

Critical flow occurs a~ Fr1 1 but ~ has a finite value.

Thus for critical flow:

S - S - 2Q2 dQ = 0
o f gA dx

For Q = a x, where "a" is a constant,

dQ (52)
dx = a

Thus:

S = S + 2Q2 = v2 + ~ = Q2B ~ + Q2B 2A


o f gA2x C2R gA2x gA3 BC2R gA3 BX

with

Q2B
--- = 1 at the critical section and
gA3

this results in:

(53)
- 22 -

For a critical section to occur, the slope must be bigger than the value
given by eq. (53) with x = L or the length of the spillway L must be
bigger than

8a2
x = ----~~------ (54)
gB2 (S _ 2:_) 3
o C2B

For a rectangular section and for So = Sf = 0 equation (51) can be


integrated as for a unit width (B = 1):

and

2a2x a2x2
-- dx + (gy - --)dy = 0
y y2

OD1 OD2
(as ~ = ~ in the equation Dl dx + D2 dy = 0):

(x) 2 = ( 1 + ____;1;:___ (55)


L
2 Fr2
L

with YL and FrL applying to the downstream end section (x = L) .

Returning to equation (50), the scheme for numerical integration could


be expressed as follows:

dQ + A ~
dx dx

thus

_ S _ v dv v2 dQ
~=
dx
S
0 f g dx -
gQ dx
(56)

vl + v2 vl + v2
ó,y- - 2g
(ó'v+ ó'Q)+ (S - Sf)ó'x
Ql + Q2 0

aQ1 (v1 + v2) v2ó'Q


ó,y- - g(Ql + Q2)
(ó,v+ --) + (S0 - S f )Ó, (57)
Ql
- 23 -

Equation (57) can be solved by trial and error for Óy with Q1' v1, So'
ÓX, Q2 and channel shape known and an assumed value of Y2 (and therefore
v2) which must agree with óy = Y2 - Y1' given by eq. (57)

8.2. Side weir - lateral outflow

For this type of flow the energy principle may be applied (see fig. 17b):

dE (58)
-= S - S
dx 0 f

3x. + Q dQ _ ~ dA
-= S - S
dx gA2 dx dx 0 f
gA3

Q dQ
S - S -
~= 0 f 2AZ dx (59)
dx _ F2
1
r

Substituting for Q = A/(2g(E - y) ) and for the outflow

_ ~ = C, 1(2g) (y - d) 3/2 (60)


dx

where C, is a constant, leads to a computational scheme; similarly, to


eq. (57) we can write:

~Q 1 (v1 + v 2) Óv
Óy = - (61)
g(Q1 + Q2)

The main difficulty in the solution is the unknown value of the boundary
conditions i.e. depths at the beginning or end of the outflow and the
location of the control section; a trial and error computation is
necessary.

For a rectangular channel section with a horizontal overflow and So = Sf ~ 0


equation (59) together with eq. (60) yields:

~ _ - QA ~ = 2c11( (E - y) (y - d) 3 )
(62)
dx - gA3 _ Q2B b(3y - 2E)
- 24 -

Integrating eq. (61) results in:

XCI 2E - 3d IE - Y -1 I E - y
b = E - d (y _ d) - 3 sin (y d' + const. (63)

The constant of integration must again be obtained by trial and error as


the boundary condition at the downstream end is not known.

8.3. Bottom withdrawal

From fig. 17c we can again apply the energy principle resulting in
eq. (59). Assuming a negligible energy loss and the head on the opening
as Eresults in:

_ dQ = rcBI (2gE) (64)


dx
where r is the ratio of the area of the opening to the corresponding
total bed area and c is a coefficient. For S = S ~ 0 and a rectangular
o
channel with Q = by/(2g(e - y) ) equations (59) and (64) result in

~ _ 2rc/(E(E - y)
(65)
dx - 3y - 2E

Integration of eq. (65) results for y = Yl' at o in:

1
X = rc
(66)

The value of c has been determined experimentally as 0.4 < c < 0.5
(MOstkov)• This coefficient and eq. (66) are applicable to an opening
with longitudinal bars (i.e. negligible energy loss) .
2
For an opening with transverse bars there is an energy loss ~.~ and thus
2g
in equation (64) E is replaced by y resulting in

~ _ 2rc/(y(E - y)
(67)
dx - 3y - 2E

Integration of eq. (67) gives:

E
X = 4rc

For this case 0.75 < c < 0.8


- 25 -

Equations (66) and (67) may be used for designing the opening in a
channel bottom for complete withdrawal of the water by finding the distance
x = L for y = O.

9. Spillway Design

9.1. Artificial control

All notches, weirs and flumes are examples of artificial control. The
most common type of sharp-crested weirs, i.e. notches, is the rectangular
notch. If T is the height of the crest above the approach channel bed -
see fig. 18- we can write for discharge:
2 a.v
a.v 3/2
«h + ~)
2g
(~) 3/2)
2g
(68)

In eq. (68) b is the width (length) of the notch and h is the head above
the crest. Eq. (68) may for small values of v also be written as:
o

(68a)

For a notch without side contractions in eq. (68)

h
= 0.611 + 0.08 T (Rehbock)

h
or Cd = 0.602 + 0.083 T (BS 3680)

or in (68a) (Bazin):

Cd = 0.608 + 0.~05

a.v2
with (1 + ~)3/2
2gh
= 1 + 0.55(h h
+ T
)2

For a notch with side contractions in eq. (68):

Cd = 0.616 (1 - 0.1 ~) (Hamilton-Smith)

For a triangular (V) notch with an included angle e at the vertex the
discharge is given by:

(69)
- 26 -

For a 900 notch (Thomson weir) tan ~ = 1 and Cd :< 0.59.

Sharp-crested notches are used for discharge measurement in the laboratory;


in the field they are used primarily as temporary measurement structures
only, because they cause sediment accretion, have a large afflux, are
sensitive to upstream velocity distribution and their crests may easily
be damaged.

For more permanent artificial control we use in the field flumes and/or
broad-crested weirs. Flumes are either standing-wave or venturi flumes,
trapezoidal flumes, steep-slope flumes, Parshall flumes, etc. Broad-
crested weirs have either the form of a streamlined hump in the bed or a
triangular cross-section usually with a 1:2 upstream and 1:5 downstream
slope with the crest acting as control (Crump weir - see BS 3680 Ackers et. al
(1979) ).

The discharge in these cases is usually given by the critical depth section
- see eq. (30). It is worth noting that the coefficient 0.385 in this
3
equation corresponds to 20.385 = 0.578 = Cd in equa~on (68). For both
equations to represent the discharge correctly the downstream depth must
be sufficiently low for a critical depth to form at the crest i.e. for
"modular flow".

9.2. Basic approach

The selection of the size and type of spillway depends on the inflow hydro-
graph and size, purpose and operation of the reservoir.

The selection of the inflow hydrograph (I) for spillway design depends on
the dam location and type and on the availability of past records.
For any given inflow hydrograph the outflow - which is the basis for the
selection of the spillway - will depend on the flood routing process,
which in turn is determined by the spillway size and type. Thus the
whole process of spillway design is an iterative one, particularly for
large reservoirs.

Reservoir flood routing is based on the unique relationship between


water level and discharge over the spillway resulting in a unique relation-
ship between storage and outflow.
- 27 -

Thus the continuity equation together with the relationship between


storage V and outflow 0 determine the process as

(70)

Equation (70) can be solved by iteration or by numerical or graphical


techniques (Puls, Goodrich etc.).

In spillway design we assume for flood routing the initial reservoir


stage as high as can be expected at the start of a major flood. For
ungated spillways regulated outlets must also be considered as they can
influence the peak outflow. In gated spillways gates are often closed
to use the additional storage for control except in cases where there is
no automatic gate operation and/or where there is no attendant. Rigid
regulations are required for spillway gate operations~ Freeboard
for wind and wave action has also to be considered in design.

The spillway size and type can appreciably influence the bene fits from
flood control and the cost of dam construction.

9.3. Spillway types and principles of design

Spillways are either free or gated and used as service, auxilliary or


emergency spillways. In principle there are five types of spillways:
overfall, side channel, chute, shaft and siphon spillways. Only some
basic comments on design principles are.given here. Further information
...,
may be obtained from literature .(e.g. Novak and C~elka (1981) ).

The basic shape of the overfall spillway is derived from the lower
envelope of the overfall nappe flowing over a high vertical rectangular
notch with approach velocity v
o
= 0 - see fig. 18. - and fully aerated
space beneath the nappe. Scimeni expressed this shape as y = 0.5 x 1.85
for a value of the head above the spillway crest H = 1. For any value of
H the equation thus becomes

(71 )

or (71a)
- 28 -

with K = 0.5 and n = 1.85. For values of K > 0.5 there would be
negative pressures acting on the spillway (shape 1 fig. 18) and for
K < 0.5 positive pressures (shape 3 fig. 18).

UPSTREAM WATER LEVEL

Fig. 18

There are thus three posibilities for the choice of the relationship
between the design head used for the derivation of the spillway shape
and the maximum actual head:

H
max

For H.> H the pressure on the spillway is bigger than atmospheric and
-1) max
the coefficient of discharge will be 0.578 < Cd < 0.75. .(Inequation
(68) we now have to use H for h) .

For H
D
max
= H
the pressure is atmospheric and Cd 0.75. =
For HD < H
m~
negative pressures result reaching cavitation level for H =2HD with

Cd = 0.825. For safety it is thus recommended not to exceed the value


H
rnax
=
1.65 HD with Cd 0.81. =
In the last case the intrusion of air
on the spillway surface must be excluded, as otherwise the overfall jet
may start to vibrate.
- 29 -

For gated spillways the placing of their sills by 0.2 HD downstream from
the crest also reduces substantially the tendency towards negative
pressures for outflow under partially raised gates.

OriQin of coordinotn

0.124 H

Fig. 19

Fig. 19 shows some further details of the standard overfall spillway with
H
max.

The discharge through partially raised gates may be computed from

(H 3/2 - H 3/2) (72)


1 2

Side channel spillways are mainly used when it is not possible or advisable
to use a direct overfall spillway. They are placed on the side of the
dam and have a spillway proper, the flume (channel) downstream of the spill-
way, followed by a chute or shaft. Sometimes a complicated spillway,
curved in plan, is used but most frequently a straight spillway, more or
less perpendicular to the dam axis, is used (see fig. 17a).

The hydraulics of the flow in the channel of the side channel spillway has
been dealt with in section 8.1. The spillway proper is usually designed
as anormal overfall spillway.
- 30 -

The most suitable cross-section of the flume is a rectangle or a trape-


zoid with steep sides. The depth, width and bed slope of the flume
must be designed in such a way that even the maximum f~ood discharge
passes with a free overfall over the entire spillway crest. The width
of the flume increases, therefore, in the direction of the flow with a
control section as far as possible at the outflow from the flume or
downstream of it.

Chute spillways are in principle steep channels carrying the flood dis-
charge from a low overfall spillway or from a side channel spillway.
The problems associated with channel transitions in supercritical flow
and the resulting waves of interference have already been discussed in
chapter 6. Under certain conditions translation waves, causing unsteady
loading of the stilling basin, mayalso be present in supercritical flow.
These waves, which should be avoided whenever possible in chute spillway
design, occur at slopes 0.02 < S < 0.35 but even then can be avoided if
Y1
the ratio of the depth and wetted perimeter is greater than 0.1 (ï?> 0.1).
Translatory waves mayalso be avoided by increasing the roughness of the
chute.

Aeration is another factor which has to be taken into account in design,


as it increases the depth of flow, although it contributes to energy
dissipation. Aeration starts at a point where the turbulent boundary
layer penetrates the full depth of flow - see fig. 20. The distance 1
of this point from the crest has been estimated by Hickox as

1 = 14.7qO.S3 (m) (73)

fig. 20
- 31 -

or approximately as 1 = 100 h
cr

The velocity of the aerated stream for smooth channels can be expressed as

52 SO.4 (m/s)
55RO•. (Ehrenberger) (74)
v = 1
or

v = .!.RO.67S 0.5 (Hall) (75)


n1

(where n1 < n)

The depth of the aerated flow Yl can be estimated from Oe Lapp's equation:
2
Yl = c 3/(~) (76)

with 0.316 < c < 0.372

Oenoting the specific gravity of the aerated flow as Pl (p1


ignoring the weight of air and taking v = v1) .

Hall suggested the equation

s = (77)

where cl for concrete chutes is 0.006.

From equation (77) it is possible to compute P1 and thus Al and Yl i.e.


the depth of aerated flow, which determines the required height of the
chute side walis.

A shaft spillway consists of a funnel shaped spillway, usually circular


in plan, a vertical (sometimes sloping) shaft, a bend and a tunnel
terminating in an outflow • Shaft spillways can also be used as com-
bined structures with outlets or turbines. The shape of the shaft
spillway is derived in a similar way to the overfall spillway from the
shape of the nappe flowing over a sharp-edged circular spillway. For
ratios H /0 < 0.225 the s.i?ilhlay
is f,reeand for H /0 > 0.5 the over-
s s s s
fall is completely drowned (H j.sthe head above the sharp edged circular
S
spillway and 0 s is the spillway diameter) .
- 32 -

a h
H

fig. 21

For the free overfall the discharge is given by

Q = ~3 C
d
1T D
c
I (2g) H3/2 (78)

and for the drowned (submerged) regime by

D2
Q = c~ 1T '4 I (2g(H + Z) ) (79)

The symbols are clear from fig. 21.

The discharge coefficient in equation (78) can be estimated from fig. 22.

0.5

0.4

fig. 22

0.3

0.2

O. 1

o ~ L- ~ J_ -L- Ho/Rs
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
- 33 -

In the case of a drowned spillway a vortex, which reduces the capacity,


is formed; for its prevention piers or other antivortex devices are
sometimes used. These devices are particularly effective in case of
a spillway placed at the side of the reservoir in a cut into the valley.

In the case of free-flowing and free-standing spillways it is of ten


advisable to induce a vortex by low curved vanes below the spillway
crest to reduce the vibration and pressure fluctuations of the shaft by
the resulting spiral flow in the shaft.

For safety we design shaft spillways nearly always to function only as free
flowing i.e. with H /D < 0.225.
s c-
The tunnel below shaft spillways can be designed for four different flow
regimes, illustrated in fig. 23, depending on the relative position of
the downstream water level and the tunnel ceiling.

fig. 23

The configuration in fig. 23d is the most favourable one from the point
of view of stability of flow in the tunnel and prevention of vibrations.

Siphon spillways are closed conduits in the form of an inverted U with


an LnLet, short upper leg, throat (control section) lower leg and outlet.
Fig. 24 is an example of three adjacent siphons with inlets at slightly
different levels.
- 34 -

. .. ..••
. .. . • ·

.
•• • " ~ I·

SECTION A. A

, fig. 24

Initially the discharge is given by the "weir" equation (eq. (68) )


but with further increase in discharge air in the bend ,at the crest is
exhausted,and after priming,the siphon operates according to the "pipe"
equation (e.g. eq. (79) ). An air vent may control the discharge to a
certain extent. The main advantages of siphon spillways are their large
capacity at low reservoir levels and automatic operation. The disad-
vantages are the danger of clogging or freezing, difficulties in the
regulation of discharge and danger of cavitation and vibration.
- 35 -

9.4. Energy dissipation on spillways

The passage of water from a dam spillway crest into the downstream
reach involves a whole number of hydraulic phenomena such as the trans-
ition into the supercritical flow, supercritical flow on the spillway,
transition to subcritical flow in the stilling basin and echoes of
macroturbulence in the stream beyond. The share of these phases in
the energy dissipation of the overfall jet will depend on the actual
spillway and stilling basin construction details. concentratin~ on the
(lVI
spillway surface alone, the energy loss can be expressed as ~~
where VI is the supercritical velocity at the end of the spillway.
Using a velocity coefficient e

1 (80)
62=1+~

where e is the ratio of the actual to the theoretical velocity (without


head-loss) the following expression may be used for s/H < 30

e ~ 1 - 0.0155 : (81)

where H is the overfall head and s the height of the spillway crest above
its end (e.g. the bed of stilling basin). Equation (81) may be used for
smooth streamlined spillways only. Usually 0.75 < e < 1. (The lower
limit applies to high dams with the ratio I/hl = 100 where 1 is the length
of the spillway).

For more complicated cases with baffles, ski-jump etc. e may reach lower
values - even 0.3 - depending on construction details and the specific
discharge; an increase in discharge results in a decrease in ~ and thus
v
increase in e: (For further details see Novak Cábelka (1981) ).

The most important share of energy dissipation, even for aerated flows,
occurs in the stilling basin.

10. Stilling Basins

The design of the stilling basin below overfall spillways of dams and weirs
is best based on the theory of the hydraulic jump (see chapter 4).
- 36 -

Using the notation in fig. 25 and equations (26) - (29) we can write

> Ycr

fig. 25

for the depth of the basin:

(82)

and the length of the basin

1
s
= n 1 = K(y - Y )
2 1
(83)

The discharge q and thus y is usuall~ known.· The depths Y2 and Y1 are
o
conjugate depths

. (27)

and Y1 is given from Bernoulli equation:

T (84)
o

For the safety coefficient crthe value 1.05 < cr < 1.1 is sufficient,
provided that the values of e in eq. (84) and y
o
in eqo (82) are well
known. On the basis of laboratory experiments the value of K in eq.
y
(83) should be 4 < K < 5.5 for 20 > ~ > 3. Thus K is a function of
y
Froude number decreasing with an incr~ase in Fr.

The general shape of the stilling basin is evident from fig. 25.
- 37 -

In order to reduce the size of the stilling basin beyond that given by the
above analysis laboratory tests may be necessary. Many other types of
basins have been developed using various baffles - e.g. the basins
developed by the U.So Bureau of Reclamation (1965), or the bas ins with
the so-called surface jumps (Novak- Cábelka (1981) ), sloping aprons,
divergent stilling basins, "bucket" stilling basins etc. The choice of
the basin type is strongly influenced by the relationship between the con-
jugate and the downstream (tailwater) depths.

Stilling basins below chutes, shaft spillway outlet tunnels etc. usually
are of a divergent,shape with sills and are developed on the basis of
y
laboratory studies. In sloping channels the value of ~ for the hydraulic
y
jump increases with channel slope as compared with the vÀlue for a horizontal
channel and some Froude number (eq.27). Thus for a slope S = 0.20 the
value of Y2 is double that of Y2 for S = 0 (Ven Te Chow (1~50) ).
Y1 Y1 0

~~====================~

fig. 26

t------l 04,312 -----~

fig. 27
- 38 -

Fig. 26 is an example of the US Bureau of Reclamation bas ins and fig. 27 of


a stilling basin downstream of a chute.
It should be borne in mind that in stilling basin design we are aiming
at reducing and localising the scour downstream of the spillway. To
design for a complete removal of localscour is not only economically
wasteful, but almost impossible, as some scour will always occur as the
transition from the energy dissipator into the river.
110 Drop Structures and Flow through Culverts

Drop structures are used to dissipate energy in steep channels and are based
on the hydraulics of a free overfall.

fig. 28

Fig. 28 illustrates the parameters and fig. 29 shows a schematic view of a


bot type inlet drop structure with three streams meeting at the bottom of
.. ," .. ---
_.;;F.:.
I.~·'
'I
.,_ .:.p.~

.l: $~'
.
. I .:.• _
.c_ .".\ •.•.. '

.., ." ··v \,


.>:

1
'j I.
"-, ~, fig. 29
....,
,I
ol

/ ...

~ r •

~.
"
. I' ,. 10 I ':

.r r'--:
) .
I,
' . .I /
\'/" Co
.~ .
\1 '/"
- 39 -

a drop which could also be used as a culvert inlet structure.

The brink depth Yb in fig. 28 is smaller than the critical depth Yc because
of the strongly curved flow where the pressure distribution is not hydro-
2 Yb -
static. Theoretically 3 < y-
< 1 and practically Yb ~0.715 Yc with Yc
occuring at a distance of aboHt 3 to 4 y upstream of the brink. The
c
following equations use the notation in fig. 28:

1(2)
(85)
flz 3
1.06 + I(~ +-)
y 2
c

Y 2
El Y1 c
-=-+ 2yL (general energy equation) (86)
y~ Yc 1

Y2
- = 1.66 (-
»; )O.Sl (87)
flz flz
o 0

(88)

(89)

Equations (85) and (86) follow,from theoretical analysis and equations (87) -
(89) from experimental results (Henderson (1966) ).

The flow regime through culverts will depend on the culvert shape and size,
the downstream water level, the discharge and the inlet conditions. The

Hydraulie jump wheneulvert is


: long or tailwoter is high
,,,...,.,._. .. , '" _. ".','

Profiles for short eulvert orrow ;oilwoter


(a) Constant slope fig. 30

(bI Voryinq slope


- 40 -

principles are shown on fig. 30. In order to stabilize the flow and
avoid vibrations, should it not be possible to have a culvert with a free
surface, a scheme shown in fig. 31 may be used at major structures for
culverts both of circular or rectangular cross-section (box culverts) •

fig. 31

12. Cavitation and Vibration

Cavitation is associated with separation of high velocity flow causing the


surrounding pressure to drop to the value of saturated vapeur pressure p •
v
Bubbles of vapour carried from the cavity to regions of high pressure will
suddenly implode with a violent impact of surrounding water on any boundary
surface. depends on temperature and may for normal temper-
The value of p
v p - Pv
atures be taken as 0 < p < 3 m (H20). The term L Z = cr is called
V "'2.pv c
the cavitation number and cavitation will begin at a value cr < cr (critical)
c cr
(e.g. a = 3). Turbulence, accompanied by fluctuating pressures, can also
cr
trigger cavitation e.g. in stilling basins. It is therefore important to
avoid zones of separation in design of hydraulic structures, particularly in
regions of supercritical flow, and to be aware of places where a very high
turbulent flow can cause instantaneous pressures to drop to values causing
cavitationo In a hydraulic jump on a plane bed this danger zone is at a
distanee of about 12Y1 from the beginning of the j~mp, where in jumps with
I (p 12)
.a l:lighFroude number the maximum value of cr= 2/2 occurs (about 5%)
P v1
(p I = P _ p).. Chapter 9 mentioned several instanees where cavitation on
spillways could occur and methods used to avoid it.
- 41 -

Vibration of structures, gates etc. may be associated with any instability


in the flow and resulting pressure fluctuations, where cavitation is only
one and extreme example. The best method of preventing, or at least
reducing, vibrations is by the reduction of the pressure fluctuations -
e.g. the inducement of spiral flow at low discharges in shaft spillways
(see chapter 9 ) - or by stabilising the flow - e.g. the stabilisation of
a jump in a tunnel or culvert (see chapter 11).

Flow over partially lowered gates can easily induce vibrations, if there
is not sufficient access of air into the space below the jet. The
necessary dimensions of air vents may be found in literature (e.g. Novak -
Cábelka (1981) ). A thin sheet of water, falling from a partially
lowered gate, could also easily start vibrating, causing self-induced
vibrations in the gate. The best method of prevention is by splitting
the jet with projections from the end of the gate or by shaping the end
of the gate in such a way that the jet cross-section becomes discontinuous
or wavy.
- 42 -

References

Ackers, P. et al. Weirs and Flumes for Flow Measurement,


(1978) Wiley, London

Chow Ven Te Open channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill,


(1959) New York.

Davis, C.V. Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, 3rd edition,


( 1969) McGraw-Hill, New York.

Elevatorski, E.A. Hydraulic Energy Dissipators, McGraw-Hill,


(1959) New York.

Henderson, F.M. Open Channel Flow, Macmillan, New York


(1966)

Linsley, R.K. and Water Resources Engineering, McGraw-HiII,


Franzini, J.B. New York
(1972 )

Novak, P. and Cábelka, Y. Models in Hydraulic Engineering - Physical


(1981 ) principles and design applications, Pitman,
London.

u.s. Bureau of Reclama- Design of Small Dams, Third Printing, U.S.


tion Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.
(1965)

Webber, N.B. Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineers, Spon,


( 1965) London

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