MANOMETER

The difference of pressure in terms of the difference of heads is given by:

To obtain a reasonable value of x for accurate measurement of small 
pressure differences by an ordinary U‐tube manometer, it is important 
that the ratio ρm/ρw should be close to unity.
PROBLEMS
 Difficult to find a manometric liquid of density very close to that of the 
working liquid and giving at the same time a well defined meniscus at 
the interface.
 Moreover if the working fluid is a gas, this is not possible.

Therefore, for measuring very sensitive pressure differences, inclined 
manometer, Inverted tube manometer and micromanometer are used.
 INVERTED TUBE MANOMETER
 Used to measure small pressure differences. Here ρm < ρw.
(ρw and ρm are the densities of working fluid and manometric liquid 
respectively.)
 Equating the pressure at the level X‐X’
For the left hand side:
Px = P1 – ρwg(h + a)
For the right hand side:
PX’ = P2 – (ρwga + ρmgh)
Since Px = Px’
P1 – ρwg(h + a) = P2 – (ρwga + ρmgh)
P1 – P2 = (ρw – ρm)gh
If the manometric fluid is chosen in such a way that ρm<< ρw then,
P1 – P2 = ρwgh
 For an inverted manometer, the manometric fluid is usually air
 INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER
 In this, the manometer tube is set at an angle θ to the horizontal.
 A manometer with an inclined tube arrangement helps to amplify the pressure reading, especially
in low pressure range.
 Inclined tube manometer amplifies the length of measurement by 1/sinθ.
 By changing the area of the tank with which the inclined tube is connected additional increase in
sensitivity is achieved.
 If θ is small, a considerable magnification of the movement of the meniscus may be achieved.
 However, angles less than 5⁰ are not usually satisfactory, because it becomes difficult to determine
the exact position of the meniscus.
 MICROMANOMETER
 Additional gauge liquid is used in a U‐tube manometer
 A large difference in meniscus levels may be obtained for a 
very small pressure difference

The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium at PQ can be written as:

p1 + ρwg(h + Δz) + ρGg(z – Δz + y/2) =
p2 + ρwg(h ‐ Δz) + ρGg(z + Δz ‐y/2) + ρmgy
Where,
ρw, ρG, and ρm are the densities of working fluid, gauge liquid and 
manometric liquid respectively.

From continuity of gauge liquid, 
A*Δz = a*y/2
Substituting for Δz,
p1‐ p2 =gy{ρm – ρG(1‐a/A) – ρw(a/A)}

If a << A, then
p1‐ p2 = {ρm – ρG) gy
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES

Hoover Dam
The point of intersection of the line of
action of the resultant force and the
surface is the center of pressure (CP).
The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some common geometries.
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACES

Hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface.

x0  3m z0  7.5m
Ly  b  15m
Fluid is water
  9.8 kN/m 3
 The hydrostatic force acting on a
When a curved surface is above the The hydrostatic force on a surface
circular surface always passes
liquid, the weight of the liquid and  submerged in a multilayered fluid can
through the center of the circle 
the vertical component of the  be determined by considering parts of
since the pressure forces are 
hydrostatic force act in the  the surface in different fluids as
normal to the surface and they all 
opposite directions. different surfaces.
pass through the center.

A flat plate of uniform thickness h
submerged in a liquid parallel to the
free surface.
BUOYANCY
The buoyant force FB acts upward A solid body dropped into a fluid will
through the centroid C of the displaced sink, float, or remain at rest at any point
volume and is equal in magnitude to in the fluid, depending on its density
the weight W of the displaced fluid, relative to the density of the fluid.
but is opposite in direction. For a solid
of uniform density, its weight Ws also
acts through the centroid, but its
magnitude is not necessarily equal to
that of the fluid it displaces. (Here Ws
>W and thus Ws > FB; this solid body
would sink.)
When a body is completely or partially 0.4  0.4  3.0 m3 body  2300 kg/m3
(floating) submerged, it results into two laws
of buoyancy.

• The buoyant force acting on a body immersed

in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.
This is known as Archimedes’ principle
• A floating body displaces its own weight in the
fluid in which it floats.

 water  1025 kg/m3

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the
center of gravity G is directly below the center of
buoyancy B of the body, (b) neutrally stable if G and B
are coincident, and (c) unstable if G is directly above B.

When the center of gravity G of an immersed neutrally buoyant

body is not vertically aligned with the center of buoyancy B of
the body, it is not in an equilibrium state and would rotate to its
stable state, even without any disturbance.
 STABILITY OF SUBMERGED BODY
  

Neutrally Stable
Stable (RESTORING MOMENT) Unstable (DISTURBING MOMENT)

An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the center of gravity G is directly below
the center of buoyancy B of the body, (b) neutrally stable if G and B are coincident, and (c)
unstable if G is directly above B.
 STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY
A floating body is stable if the body is bottom‐heavy and 
thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the 
body, or if the metacenter M is above point G. However, the 
body is unstable if point M is below point G.

A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM, which is the distance between the center
of gravity G and the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force through the
body before and after rotation.

The condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in terms of metacentric height as follows:

GM > 0 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium

GM = 0 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium
GM < 0 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium
 CALCULATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT

View along C‐C
M

B 
B
zB  z B 

 B
C C xB  xB