CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801 SM - Modulos 1-6

CompTIA A+
Certification,
Exam 220-801
Student Manual
Revised
CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Chief Executive Officer, Axzo Press: Ken Wasnock
Series Designer and COO: Adam A. Wilcox
Vice President, Operations: Josh Pincus
Director of Publishing Systems Development: Dan Quackenbush
Writer: Andy LaPage
Development Assistance: Toby Skandier
Copyeditor: Ken Maher
Keytesters: Cliff Coryea,
Don Tremblay
COPYRIGHT © 2013 Axzo Press. All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced, transcribed, or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval
systemswithout the prior written permission of the publisher.
For more information, go to www.axzopress.com.
Trademarks
ILT Series is a trademark of Axzo Press.
Some of the product names and company names used in this book have been used for identification purposes only and
may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective manufacturers and sellers.
Disclaimer
We reserve the right to revise this publication and make changes from time to time in its content without notice.
The logo of the CompTIA Authorized Quality Curriculum (CAQC) program and the status of this or other training
material as “Authorized” under the CompTIA Authorized Quality Curriculum program signifies that, in CompTIA’s
opinion, such training material covers the content of CompTIA’s related certification exam.
The contents of this training material were created for the CompTIA A+ Hardware 220-801 (2012) exam, covering
CompTIA certification objectives that were current as of January, 2013.
ISBN 10: 1-4260-3753-8

ISBN 13: 978-1-4260-3753-5
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 GL 06 05 04 03
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by calling 888.534.5556 or emailing customerservice@axzo.com.

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Contents
Introduction iii
Topic A: About the manual............................................................................... iv
Topic B: Setting your expectations ...................................................................vii
Topic C: Re-keying the course ......................................................................... xi
Safety procedures and power supplies 1-1

Topic A: Safety procedures.............................................................................. 1-2
Topic B: Power supplies ................................................................................. 1-16
Unit summary: Safety procedures and power supplies ................................... 1-28
Motherboards and CPUs 2-1

Topic A: Motherboards .................................................................................... 2-2
Topic B: Central processing units (CPUs) ...................................................... 2-14
Topic C: BIOS settings ................................................................................... 2-28
Topic D: Expansion cards ............................................................................... 2-34
Unit summary: Motherboards and CPUs ........................................................ 2-40
Memory and physical storage 3-1

Topic A: RAM types and features ................................................................... 3-2
Topic B: Storage devices and media............................................................... 3-14
Unit summary: Memory and physical storage................................................. 3-43
Connections and peripherals 4-1

Topic A: Serial vs. parallel interfaces .............................................................. 4-2
Topic B: Modern peripheral connections ........................................................ 4-9
Topic C: Keyboards and mice ........................................................................ 4-19
Unit summary: Connections and peripherals .................................................. 4-25
Media devices 5-1

Topic A: Media connectors .............................................................................. 5-2
Topic B: Display devices ................................................................................ 5-10
Topic C: Audio and multimedia devices ........................................................ 5-20
Unit summary: Media devices ......................................................................... 5-28
Printers 6-1
Topic A: Imaging processes............................................................................. 6-2
Topic B: Printer installation............................................................................ 6-16
Topic C: Printer maintenance ......................................................................... 6-24
Unit summary: Printers ................................................................................... 6-29
Notebooks 7-1
Topic A: Notebook hardware components ...................................................... 7-2
Topic B: Notebook displays ........................................................................... 7-25
Topic C: Laptop features ................................................................................ 7-29
Unit summary: Notebooks ............................................................................... 7-34
ii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Networking basics 8-1

Topic A: Networks .......................................................................................... 8-2
Topic B: Internet connection types ................................................................ 8-11
Topic C: Network devices .............................................................................. 8-17
Unit summary: Networking basics.................................................................. 8-28
The physical network 9-1

Topic A: Network cable and connector types ................................................. 9-2
Topic B: Cable and connector properties ........................................................ 9-9
Topic C: Networking tools ............................................................................. 9-19
Unit summary: The physical network ............................................................. 9-35
Networking protocols 10-1

Topic A: TCP/IP ............................................................................................. 10-2
Topic B: Ports and protocols ......................................................................... 10-13
Unit summary: Networking protocols ........................................................... 10-22
Wireless networking 11-1

Topic A: Wireless networking standards........................................................ 11-2
Topic B: Wireless SOHO networking ............................................................ 11-6
Unit summary: Wireless networking ............................................................. 11-19
Professional conduct 12-1

Topic A: Communication and professionalism .............................................. 12-2
Topic B: Environmental issues...................................................................... 12-13
Topic C: Incident response ............................................................................ 12-20
Unit summary: Professional conduct ............................................................. 12-23
Custom configurations A-1

Topic A: Custom configurations ..................................................................... A-2
CompTIA A+ acronyms B-1

Topic A: List of abbreviations ......................................................................... B-2
Certification exam objectives map C-1

Topic A: Comprehensive exam objectives ...................................................... C-2
Course summary S-1

Topic A: Course summary............................................................................... S-2
Topic B: Continued learning after class .......................................................... S-4
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
iii
Introduction
After reading this introduction, you will know

how to:
A Use ILT Series manuals in general.
B Use prerequisites, a target student

description, course objectives, and a skills
inventory to properly set your expectations
for the course.
C Re-key this course after class.

iv CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Topic A: About the manual

ILT Series philosophy
Our manuals facilitate your learning by providing structured interaction with the
software itself. While we provide text to explain difficult concepts, the hands-on
activities are the focus of our courses. By paying close attention as your instructor leads
you through these activities, you will learn the skills and concepts effectively.
We believe strongly in the instructor-led class. During class, focus on your instructor.
Our manuals are designed and written to facilitate your interaction with your instructor,
and not to call attention to manuals themselves.
We believe in the basic approach of setting expectations, delivering instruction, and
providing summary and review afterwards. For this reason, lessons begin with
objectives and end with summaries. We also provide overall course objectives and a
course summary to provide both an introduction to and closure on the entire course.
Manual components
The manuals contain these major components:
• Table of contents
• Introduction
• Units
• Appendices
• Course summary
• Glossary
• Index
Each element is described below.
Table of contents
The table of contents acts as a learning roadmap.
Introduction
The introduction contains information about our training philosophy and our manual
components, features, and conventions. It contains target student, prerequisite,
objective, and setup information for the specific course.
Units
Units are the largest structural component of the course content. A unit begins with a
title page that lists objectives for each major subdivision, or topic, within the unit.
Within each topic, conceptual and explanatory information alternates with hands-on
activities. Units conclude with a summary comprising one paragraph for each topic, and
an independent practice activity that gives you an opportunity to practice the skills
you’ve learned.
The conceptual information takes the form of text paragraphs, exhibits, lists, and tables.
The activities are structured in two columns, one telling you what to do, the other
providing explanations, descriptions, and graphics.
Introduction v
Appendices
An appendix is similar to a unit in that it contains objectives and conceptual
explanations. However, an appendix does not include hands-on activities, a summary, or
an independent practice activity.
Course summary
This section provides a text summary of the entire course. It is useful for providing
closure at the end of the course. The course summary also indicates the next course in
this series, if there is one, and lists additional resources you might find useful as you
continue to learn about the software.
Glossary
The glossary provides definitions for all of the key terms used in this course.
Index
The index at the end of this manual makes it easy for you to find information about a
particular software component, feature, or concept.
Manual conventions
We’ve tried to keep the number of elements and the types of formatting to a minimum
in the manuals. This aids in clarity and makes the manuals more classically elegant
looking. But there are some conventions and icons you should know about.
Item Description
Italic text In conceptual text, indicates a new term or feature.
Bold text In unit summaries, indicates a key term or concept. In

an independent practice activity, indicates an explicit
item that you select, choose, or type.
Code font Indicates code or syntax.
Longer strings of Ź In the hands-on activities, any code that’s too long to fit
code will look Ź on a single line is divided into segments by one or more
like this. continuation characters (Ź). This code should be
entered as a continuous string of text.
Select bold item In the left column of hands-on activities, bold sans-serif
text indicates an explicit item that you select, choose,
or type.
Keycaps like e Indicate a key on the keyboard you must press.

vi CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Hands-on activities
The hands-on activities are the most important parts of our manuals. They are divided
into two primary columns. The “Here’s how” column gives short instructions to you
about what to do. The “Here’s why” column provides explanations, graphics, and
clarifications. Here’s a sample:
Do it! A-1: Creating a commission formula

Here’s how Here’s why
1 Open Sales This is an oversimplified sales compensation
worksheet. It shows sales totals, commissions,
and incentives for five sales reps.
2 Observe the contents of cell F4

The commission rate formulas use the name
“C_Rate” instead of a value for the commission
rate.
For these activities, we have provided a collection of data files designed to help you
learn each skill in a real-world business context. As you work through the activities, you
will modify and update these files. Of course, you might make a mistake and therefore
want to re-key the activity starting from scratch. To make it easy to start over, you will
rename each data file at the end of the first activity in which the file is modified. Our
convention for renaming files is to add the word “My” to the beginning of the file name.
In the above activity, for example, a file called “Sales” is being used for the first time.
At the end of this activity, you would save the file as “My sales,” thus leaving the
“Sales” file unchanged. If you make a mistake, you can start over using the original
“Sales” file.
In some activities, however, it might not be practical to rename the data file. If you want
to retry one of these activities, ask your instructor for a fresh copy of the original data
file.
Introduction vii
Topic B: Setting your expectations

Properly setting your expectations is essential to your success. This topic will help you
do that by providing:
• Prerequisites for this course
• A description of the target student
• A list of the objectives for the course
• A skills assessment for the course
Course prerequisites
Before taking this course, you should be familiar with personal computers and the use
of a keyboard and a mouse. Furthermore, this course assumes that you’ve completed
one of the following courses or have equivalent experience:
• Windows 7: Basic
• Windows Vista: Basic
• Windows XP: Basic
Target student
This course will prepare you for the CompTIA A+ 220-801 certification exam. It is
designed for students seeking to become entry-level IT professionals. You will gain the
skills and knowledge necessary to perform the following tasks on personal computer
hardware and operating systems:
• Identify PC components
• Configure PC network connections
• Provide IT support for portable computers
• Complete preventative maintenance tasks
viii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Course objectives
These overall course objectives will give you an idea about what to expect from the
course. It is also possible that they will help you see that this course is not the right one
for you. If you think you either lack the prerequisite knowledge or already know most of
the subject matter to be covered, you should let your instructor know that you think you
are misplaced in the class.
After completing this course, you will know how to:
• Observe workplace and electrical safety procedures, and install power supplies.
• Describe motherboard components, identify CPU socket and package type,
configure BIOS settings, and install expansion cards.
• Identify memory characteristics, and install and configure storage devices.
• Identify and distinguish among peripheral interfaces, connections, and devices.
• Identify and distinguish media connectors, and install and configure displays and
multimedia devices.
• Install and configure printers.
• Support and maintain notebook computers.
• Explain basic networking principles.
• Describe physical network components, and use basic networking tools.
• Describe TCP/IP properties, and use TCP/IP port numbers.
• Explain the basics of wireless networking, and install and configure a SOHO
network.
• Conduct themselves professionally, identify environmental issues, and respond
to incidents using standard forensic techniques.
How to become CompTIA certified

To achieve CompTIA A+ certification, you must register for and pass the CompTIA A+
220-801 exam and the CompTIA A+ 220-802 exam.
In order to become CompTIA certified, you must:
1 Select a certification exam provider. For more information, visit
http://www.comptia.org/certifications/testprep.aspx.
2 Register for and schedule a time to take the CompTIA certification exam(s) at a
convenient location.
3 Read and sign the Candidate Agreement, which will be presented at the time of
the exam. The complete text of the Candidate Agreement can be found at
http://www.comptia.org/certifications/policies/agreement.aspx.
4 Take and pass the CompTIA certification exam(s).
For more information about CompTIA’s certifications, such as its industry acceptance,
benefits, or program news, students should visit
http://www.comptia.org/certifications.aspx.
CompTIA is a not-for-profit information technology (IT) trade association. CompTIA’s
certifications are designed by subject matter experts from across the IT industry. Each
CompTIA certification is vendor-neutral, covers multiple technologies, and requires
demonstration of skills and knowledge widely sought after by the IT industry.
To contact CompTIA with any questions or comments, please call (630) 678-8300 or
e-mail questions@comptia.org.
Introduction ix
Skills inventory
Use the following form to gauge your skill level entering the class. For each skill listed,
rate your familiarity from 1 to 5, with five being the most familiar. This is not a test.
Rather, it is intended to provide you with an idea of where you’re starting from at the
beginning of class. If you’re wholly unfamiliar with all the skills, you might not be
ready for the class. If you think you already understand all of the skills, you might need
to move on to the next course in the series. In either case, you should let your instructor
know as soon as possible.
Skill 1 2 3 4 5
Safely opening a computer case
Identifying office and computer-related hazards
Selecting proper methods for computer disposal
Examining characteristics of electricity
Considering electrical safety
Installing a new power supply
Examining motherboard components
Identifying bus types
Identifying front panel connectors
Identifying CPU sockets and package type
Examining BIOS settings
Researching BIOS updates
Installing a video adapter card
Installing a sound card
Installing an expansion card
Examining the cooling system
Identifying and comparing RAM packages
Installing an optical drive
Installing a hard disk
Installing a floppy drive
Distinguishing among connection interfaces

x CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Skill 1 2 3 4 5
Identifying cables and connectors
Installing a display device
Attaching a keyboard and mouse
Installing a peripheral device
Describing various printing processes
Installing a printer
Maintaining a printer
Identifying notebook components
Identifying laptop features
Identifying network cables and connectors
Using networking tools
Describing TCP/IP properties and ports
Comparing wireless networking standards
Install a SOHO network
Communicate effectively in a professional manner
Identify important environmental issues
Respond to incidents using basic forensic techniques
Research and recommend hardware for custom configurations

Introduction xi
Topic C: Re-keying the course

If you have the proper hardware and software, you can re-key this course after class.
This section explains what you’ll need in order to do so, and how to do it.
Hardware requirements
Your desktop computer should have:
• A keyboard and a pointing device such as a mouse
• 1 GHz or higher 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
• 1 GB or higher RAM on 32-bit processor computers or 2 GB or higher RAM on
64-bit processor computers
• At least 30 GB of free hard disk space on 32-bit processor computers or at least
40 GB of free hard disk space on 64-bit processor computers
• DVD-R ROM drive
• Floppy disk drive
• Monitor with DirectX 9 graphics support; Windows Display Driver Model
(WDDM) 1.0 or higher
• Wired NIC
• Modem
• Sound card and speakers
• Microphone
• Webcam
• A video card with two monitor ports for the independent practice activity in the
“Media devices” unit. If the video adapter cards in your computer has only one
monitor port, you can do all other activities in the course, but you will not be
able to complete this independent practice activity.
Software requirements
You will need the following software:
• Windows 7 Professional installation files and product key.
Network requirements
The following network components and connectivity are also required for this course:
• Internet access, for the following purposes:
– Downloading the latest critical updates and service packs from
www.windowsupdate.com
– Completing activities within the units.
• Your computer needs to be connected through TCP/IP and receive IP addressing
information from a DHCP server.
xii CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Activity hardware requirements

In addition to the hardware requirements for your desktop computer, you will need the
following hardware to complete various course activities, including identification and
installation activities. If you don’t have enough hardware, you might not be able to
complete some of the activities.
• Any hardware and equipment listed in the CompTIA A+ hardware list, included
with the A+ 220-801 objectives.
• Various types of adapter cards or photos of adapter cards
• Various motherboards or photos of motherboards
• CPUs
• Cables and connectors for internal and external devices, and the compatible
devices, including serial, parallel, coax, DVI, HDMI, RCA, RGB, component,
composite, S-video, mini-HDIMI, USB, FireWire, IDE/EIDE, PATA, SATA,
and eSATA
• KVM switch
• Speakers
• Microphone
• Multimedia device (coax, MIDI)
• Various CDs, DVD, and Blu-Ray discs
• Optical drives
• Hard disks
• Solid-state drives
• Floppy drives and disks
• Media cards, including CompactFlash, SD, Micro-SD, Mini-SD, xD
• USB flash drives
• LCD monitors
• Digital cameras
• Web cameras
• Local Windows 7-compatible inkjet printer
• Printer maintenance kit
• Wired and wireless network cards
• Network cables and connectors
• Network hardware tools, including tools for working with a BNC connector and
an RJ-45 connector, a punchdown block and tool, network testing devices, a
toner probe, a loopback plug, and a multimeter
• Wireless access point
• Wireless client
• Notebook computers with PC cards and user manuals
• Port replicator or docking station
• Hot-swappable devices
• Multimeter
• UPS
Introduction xiii
Setup instructions
1 Install Windows 7 Professional according to the software manufacturer’s
instructions. Leave at least 1 GB of unallocated space on the drive.
• Select your country or region, time and currency, and keyboard layout.
• Enter a user account: ADMIN01, with a password of !pass1234.
• Enter a computer name of COMPUTER01.
• Enter your product key.
• Select Ask me later when prompted for Automatic Updates.
• Set the appropriate time zone, and time and date for your location.
• Select the Work network.
2 In Network and Sharing Center, Advanced Sharing Options, turn on File and
Printer Sharing.
3 Use Device Manager to verify that all devices are functional. If you need to
download drivers for any devices from the manufacturers’ Web sites, keep a
copy of the drivers for use later.
4 Verify that you have received an IP address from a DHCP server and your
computer has Internet access.
Online test preparation

An online test prep program is available for this course. To access this free program,
complete the following steps:
1 Go to www.axzopress.com and click Test Prep (under Downloads).
2 If this is your first visit to the Test Preparation page, please download and
review the Instructions document.
3 Click the link for A+ 220-801.
4 In the Access Code box, enter c_a_exam1 and then click Go.
(You might need to log in first.)
xiv CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
1–1
Unit 1
Safety procedures and power supplies
Unit time: 225 minutes
Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to:
A Use appropriate safety procedures.
B Install a power supply.

1–2 CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801
Topic A: Safety procedures

This topic covers the following CompTIA exam objectives for A+ 220-801.
# Objective
5.1 Given a scenario, use appropriate safety procedures.

• ESD straps
• ESD mats
• Self-grounding
• Equipment grounding
• Personal safety
– Disconnect power before repairing PC – Electrical fire safety
– Remove jewelry – CRT safety – proper disposal
– Lifting techniques – Cable management
– Weight limitations
• Compliance with local government regulations
Electrostatic discharge
Explanation Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a phenomenon that occurs when the charges on
separated objects are unequal. One object has an excess positive or negative charge,
compared to the other. Typically, the objects are made of an insulating material (one
that doesn’t transmit electricity easily) or a conductive material that’s insulated from
ground. The charge imbalance creates an electric field that can cause objects to attract or
repel each other—such as when a static field makes your hair stand on end.
From the perspective of a PC technician, the most interesting (and dangerous) aspect of
ESD happens when statically charged objects are brought near each other. When that
happens, a current can flow between them to balance their charges. This current flow is
characterized by a high voltage, but low amperage.
Static dangers
Electrostatic discharges (the current flow) aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the
voltage in the system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such
discharges are potentially harmful to electronics.
The microscopic wires and components that make up chips and other devices are very
sensitive to even small amounts of current. A static spark can melt such components,
rendering them useless. Smaller discharges can alter the data stored in chips or
otherwise upset their operation, without causing physical damage.
Discharge voltages
To feel a static shock, you must experience a discharge of approximately 3,000 volts or
more. Discharges of more than roughly 8,000 volts might generate a visible spark.
Walking across a carpet on a dry day can generate a charge of up to 35,000 volts. Yet
electronics can be damaged by a 30-volt discharge or less—much less than the
minimum discharge you can feel.
Safety procedures and power supplies 1–3
Preventing problems with static electricity

There are two ways to prevent problems from static electricity:
• Prevent the buildup of static charges.
• Prevent discharges, or discharge the charge safely.
Preventing static buildup

To reduce the buildup of static charges, follow these tips:
• Don’t shuffle your feet as you walk.
• Increase the humidity in the room or building to 50 to 60%—static charges can
dissipate before growing large if the humidity level is sufficiently high.
• Keep yourself grounded as you work and move around. Use the tools found in a
typical ESD kit, such as wrist straps (shown in Exhibit 1-1) and mats. You and
the components you’re servicing can remain connected to ground so that charges
can’t build up.
• Wear cotton clothing, which is less likely to generate static charges than is
clothing of many synthetic materials.
• Remove carpeting from rooms where you service computers and from computer
rooms.
• Use an air ionization system to build up an opposite, and thus neutralizing,
charge in the air.
Preventing static discharge

If a charge differential does build up, you can follow these tips to prevent or reduce the
likelihood of damage from static discharges:
• Equalize the charge safely. Unplug the equipment, and then touch a metal
portion of its chassis.
• If you must move around as you work, keep yourself grounded with an antistatic
wrist strap, so that charges can’t build up.
To prevent damaging discharge from occurring, you need to be at equal charge potential
with the device you’re servicing, not at equal charge with ground. Do not leave the
computer plugged in while servicing it. Always service computers on a properly
grounded bench.
If there’s a fault in the building’s wiring system, full wall current could be flowing
through the ground wire. You could be injured or killed if you came into contact with
the ground.
Exhibit 1-1: Antistatic (ESD) wrist straps

ESD toolkits
An ESD toolkit includes tools that you can use to prevent the buildup of charge
differentials and to equalize them safely. You should purchase and use a good ESD
toolkit. An antistatic wrist strap is a common component of such a kit. Two antistatic
wrist straps, one wired and one wireless, are pictured in Exhibit 1-1,
Inside the case

Electrostatic discharge isn’t typically a problem when the computer case is closed. The
static current is dissipated through the computer’s metal case to ground or is otherwise
dampened before reaching sensitive components. (Of course, you should still avoid
discharging static through the case!) The biggest problems with static arise when you
have the computer’s case open and are working with its internal components.
Typical internal components

The typical components that you find inside a computer case include:
• System board (the motherboard)
• Hard drive
• Removable drives, such as floppy, DVD, and CD-ROM
• Power supply
• Cooling fan
• Adapter cards
• Wires, cables, and connectors
Such components are shown in Exhibit 1-2.
Exhibit 1-2: Internal components of a typical computer

Opening the case

Computer cases come in a variety of styles, all of which provide some means to access
the internal components. For a typical tower (upright) case, the sides slide backward
after you remove some sort of restraining mechanism.
Older cases are held closed with screws, typically three per side. Newer cases use slide
latches or push-button clips that require no tools and make opening the case much
easier. Such a slide latch is shown in Exhibit 1-3.
Which side to open

When removed, one side exposes the internal components, while the other side reveals
the underside of the main circuit board. Although you occasionally need to open both
sides of the case, most often you open the side that gives you access to the components.
You can usually tell which side to open by looking at the connectors extending through
the back of the computer. Those connectors are attached directly to the main circuit
board. Thus, their location tells you to which side of the case the board is nearest. You
typically open the side opposite the rows of connectors, as shown in Exhibit 1-3.
Sometimes the component-side panel is released with convenient slides or buttons,
while the other side is held fast with screws.
Exhibit 1-3: Typically, you open the side opposite the port connectors.
Note the slide latch used to release the side panel.
Front cover
Most modern computer cases include a removable front cover. You might remove this
panel to install a new disk drive into the system or to replace a failed unit.
Typically, the front cover is held in place with snap-clips and one or more alignment
posts. The alignment posts help you line up the cover correctly so that the clips engage
and secure the cover. These posts and clips are shown in Exhibit 1-4.
Exhibit 1-4: Front-cover alignment and catch mechanisms

Do it! A-1: Opening the computer case while following proper

ESD precautions
1 Follow safety precautions to avoid Place your antistatic mat under the area you’re
electrical shock and use the tools working in and wear your antistatic wrist strap.
in your ESD toolkit
2 If necessary, shut down your

computer
3 Disconnect the power cord from

the computer
4 Disconnect any other external For example, network cables.

cables
5 Release the restraining

mechanisms—screws, slides, or
push-buttons—that secure the side
that exposes the internal
components
If you opened the side covering

the underside of the main circuit
board, open the other side
6 Touch the metal frame of the To discharge any static charges present on your
computer and count slowly to body or on the computer.
three
7 Remove the front cover
8 Close the case

Office hazards
Explanation Part of keeping your computers safe is making sure that the environment in which
they’re used is free of potential hazards and operationally safe. Most of the time, this
involves a simple physical inspection of the work area. Let’s take a look at some of the
factors you should consider when examining office hazards.
Floor surfaces
The following guidelines will help you maintain a safe floor surface:
• Floors should be level and dry.
• Carpets should be secured to the floor.
• Cables and power cords should not cross walkways.
• Equipment should be protected from static electricity. Use antistatic floor mats,
and if necessary, place antistatic mats under the user’s keyboard and/or
computer.
Exhibit 1-5 shows an antistatic mat.
Exhibit 1-5: An antistatic mat
Fire safety
For fire safety, follow these guidelines:
• Keep papers orderly so that, if a fire does break out, loose papers don’t catch fire
easily. It’s best to store papers in metal file cabinets whenever possible.
• If coffee makers, hot plates, personal heaters, and other such small appliances
are used, keep combustibles away from them and be sure they’re used properly.
Not only do these appliances produce heat that can ignite materials, but they can
also catch fire themselves if left on for prolonged periods of time.
• Keep working smoke detectors in all areas of the building.
• Keep fire extinguishers readily available for each type of equipment you have.
Some fire extinguishers use chemicals that shouldn’t be used on certain types of
equipment. Each fire extinguisher lists the types of combustible materials it’s designed
to handle. Newer fire extinguishers have pictures on them to indicate the types of fires
they’re designed to put out, as shown in Exhibit 1-6. Older ones use color-coded shapes
with letters to designate which types of fires they’re for.
Exhibit 1-6: Fire extinguisher label
Some fire extinguishers are made to put out fires on multiple types of flammable
materials. The following table describes them.
Class Used for… Description
A Ordinary Puts out fires involving wood or paper. The label shows either a green
combustibles triangle with an “A” inside it or a wastebasket and a pile of logs on fire.
B Flammable Puts out fires involving grease, oil, gasoline, or similar liquids. The label
liquids shows a red square with a “B” in it or a gas can on fire.
C Electrical Puts out fires involving electrical equipment. The label shows a blue
equipment circle with a “C” in it or a plug and cord on fire.
D Flammable Designed specifically for certain types of flammable metals. The label
metals shows a yellow star with a “D” inside it. There’s no picture label for this
class of extinguisher.
Fire extinguishers are filled with one of four substances for putting out fires. These
substances are described in the following table.
Type Description
Dry chemicals These are designed for putting out fires from multiple types of flammable materials by
using an extinguishing chemical along with a nonflammable gas propellant.
Halon Halon gas interrupts the chemical reaction of burning materials. It’s designed for use
on electrical equipment.
Water Class A fire extinguishers use water, along with compressed gas, as a propellant.
CO2 Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are designed for Class B and Class C fire
extinguishers. CO2 cools the item and the surrounding air.
Electrical safety
To keep your work area free from electrical hazards, follow these guidelines:
• Avoid overloading electrical circuits, which can lead to tripped breakers and
fires.
• Label the breakers in the electrical box so you know which outlets are serviced
by which breakers.
• Use surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to protect
computer equipment from surges and spikes. The delicate connections in a
computer circuit board can easily be damaged by the surges and spikes produced
by inadequate electric circuits.
• Avoid stringing together or overloading power strips, an example of which is
shown in Exhibit 1-7.
• Don’t run electrical cords or network cables across walkways. If the wires inside
the cable or cord become frayed, power cords won’t work properly, and network
cables will fail.
• If there’s no alternative, and power cords must be run across a walkway, they
should be encased in cord protectors. These are most often made of a rubber or
plastic strip through which the cords and cables can be easily inserted. The top
of the strip is slightly domed so that people won’t trip over it, and it contains
ample room for the cords and cables to be protected.
• Provide good ventilation for computer equipment so it doesn’t overheat.
Overheating can lead to melted components.
• Phone cords, network cables, and electrical lines should be secured out of the
way. You can use cable ties, which are commonly available in nylon and Velcro.
Some cable ties include a small tag that you can use to label the cables you’ve
secured together.
Exhibit 1-7: An example of overloaded circuits

Air quality
Computers like clear, clean air, but they’re often used in less than ideal conditions, such
as on factory floors and in other locations where dust, dirt, and particulate matter
abound. To maintain air quality, follow these guidelines:
• If necessary, use fans to keep the air as clear as possible.
• Avoid smoking around computers. The pollutants from cigarette smoke adhere
to computer components and can cause them to fail.
• Periodically clean computer fans to remove dust and debris.
• Place working carbon monoxide detectors throughout the building. This
precaution is more important for users than for computer equipment, but it’s still
important. A carbon monoxide detector is shown in Exhibit 1-8.
Exhibit 1-8: A carbon monoxide detector
Computer hazards
Computers can be hazardous to your health. The two major types of hazards are
physical and electrical. In addition, toner and ozone emissions from laser printers and
photocopiers can be hazardous.
Physical hazards
Computer equipment—especially laser printers, servers, and large CRT monitors—can
be heavy and bulky. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake
of the equipment, but also for the sake of your back and other muscles. When lifting
equipment, take a balanced stance. If the item is on the floor, squat close to it and use
your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight with your chin
tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just your fingers, and
bring the equipment close to your body, keeping your elbows close to your body as
well. With CRT monitors, keep the glass face towards your body. It is the heaviest part
of the monitor and is easier to carry when placed closer to your center of gravity. Also,
make sure that you can see where you’re going with the equipment! Crashing into
another person, a wall, or other equipment can also be hazardous. And know the weight
limitations of any office furniture on which you’re going to place computer equipment.
It’s also important to restrain or remove neckties, loose clothing, dangling jewelry, and
long hair, so that such things don’t become entangled with components.
The electronic components of computers generate heat. Many times, the heat generated
by these components is enough to cause a serious burn, if they’re touched. For example,
while a notebook computer is often referred to as a “laptop,” if placed on your lap
covering the bottom air vents, you’ll find that, after a while, the heat becomes quite
uncomfortable and can actually burn your skin.
If you’ll be working with a notebook computer on your lap, it’s best to purchase a lap
desk. These allow air to circulate through the air vents on the bottom of the notebook as
if on a desk. They also protect your skin from the hot air moving away from the
components.
You should exercise caution working on the internal components of a computer, as they
can retain heat. Even if you aren’t working on a component that generates heat itself,
you’re working in close quarters and can accidently brush up against a component that
is hot.
Electrical hazards
Some components—notably CRTs, power supplies, and laser printers—contain high-
voltage components. When working around these pieces of equipment, take special care
by following these guidelines:
• Always use care when working with any electrical equipment. Be sure that it’s
turned off and unplugged before you begin to make repairs, unless you don’t
have an ESD strap. Without an ESD strap, you need to leave it plugged in for the
electrical ground. Otherwise, you could fry internal components.
• Visually inspect the equipment’s wiring for defects, such as faulty insulation or
loose connections, before each use.
• Don’t use damaged or frayed electrical cords.
• Remove metal jewelry, watches, rings, etc., before working on computer
components.
• Don’t place containers of liquid, including beverages, on or near computer
equipment.
• Always know the electrical ratings of the computers and other equipment in your
work area, so that you don’t overload electrical circuits.
Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair a CRT or the high-voltage
components in a laser printer. Such training is beyond the scope of this course.
Laser printer and copier toner

The toner used in laser printers and photocopiers is usually a mixture of plastic resin,
iron powder, and carbon black. The particles are about 10 microns or smaller. Toner
dust can irritate your respiratory tract, causing you to cough or sneeze. To protect
yourself from inhaling airborne dust, wear a protective face mask.
In addition, the components in toner can cause an allergic reaction, if they come in
repeated contact with your skin. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rashes on
your skin and burning sensations in your eyes. To prevent exposure, you should handle
toner cartridges with disposable gloves and face masks, and always wash your hands
after you handle a toner cartridge or work on a photocopier or laser printer.
Clean up spilled toner with a vacuum specially designed to clean up material this small.
Other vacuums can let the toner through the bag onto the motor, where the toner can
melt onto it or put the dust particles into the air.
Always send used toner cartridges to a recycler for proper disposal. Never send them to
the landfill. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the environment.
You’ll remember that the charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone, an air
pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness. To keep the concentrations of ozone
below the currently regulated standard, many newer laser printers employ replaceable
ozone filters. Make sure you follow the manufacturer’s instructions for replacing the
ozone filter at proper intervals to protect against unsafe levels of ozone emissions.
Incident reporting
An organization should have policies in place for handling accidents. The policy should
include the procedure for reporting incidents. Proper documentation in a timely manner
is necessary for OSHA, workers compensation claims, and insurance purposes.
Do it! A-2: Identifying typical office and computer-related

hazards
Questions and answers
You’ve been called in to repair a printer in a small office. When you arrive, you
can barely get to the printer due to the piles of papers surrounding it, along with
the network and power cords crossing from desk to desk across the walkway.
You find that toner has been spilled inside the printer. That happened when the
table holding the printer collapsed under the weight of the printer and papers. You
find that the printer is plugged into a power strip, along with a scanner, a fax
machine, a lamp, and a portable heater. The power strip is plugged into another
power strip. There’s a fire extinguisher in the office behind the printer table.
1 What physical hazards are present in the office?
2 What computer hazards are present in this scenario?
3 What changes need to be made in this office?
4 If a physical injury were sustained during the service call, what would your
company’s policy be for reporting the incident?
Disposal of computer equipment

Many batteries contain heavy metals that can’t be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the
equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Battery recyclers remove the
heavy metals from the batteries and sell them back to industries that can use them in
products. The rest of the battery can then be safely disposed of. Search the Web to find
battery recyclers. They often offer collection containers in which you can ship them
batteries for recycling.
CRTs contain phosphorous and sometimes mercury switches, as well as lead and other
precious metals, in their components. These can’t be thrown into the landfill, so they
need to be disposed of properly. When sending CRTs for recycling, be sure that they’re
packaged so that the screen doesn’t break. Most recyclers can’t reclaim anything from a
CRT with a broken screen.
The computer itself has many components that can be reclaimed. Precious metals can
often be extracted from circuit boards. The case can be recycled. The metals can then be
sold back to manufacturers for use in new products. If you’re disposing of a storage
disk, it’s important that you physically destroy the area where data is stored. Even if you
use software to erase the disk, your data could be retrieved by a savvy thief.
There are companies that specialize in the disposal of electronic and computer
equipment. They sort the equipment by type and then begin manually dismantling the
equipment. They divide it into plastic, metal, and electronic components and CRTs. The
electronics boards are sent on for recapturing precious metals. A breakdown of the
materials found in one ton of electronics boards can be found at
www.thegreenpc.com/the.htm.
Reusing equipment
The first choice when your computer equipment no longer meets your needs should be
to donate the equipment to an organization that can use it. This might be a local school
or other charitable organization. Many PC recyclers attempt to send usable equipment
back out for use rather than dismantling it for materials reclamation.
Methods of disposal
Some municipalities offer local electronic-equipment recycling services, and local
regulations might dictate the method of disposal. These might be available year round or
offered periodically. There’s often a small fee for disposing of the equipment.
Considering the amount of manual labor involved in recycling these materials, the fees
aren’t exorbitant.
If no local service is offered, you can check the Web for recyclers. If you have pallet
upon pallet of equipment, a recycler might be able to pick it up from you or arrange to
have it picked up.
Do it! A-3: Selecting the proper methods for computer

equipment disposal
1 Open your Web browser You’ll locate a computer recycler on the Web.
2 Search for computer recyclers
3 Determine if the recycler you find

offers equipment for reuse
4 Determine if the organization

recycles other electronic
components or batteries
5 Determine how to get the

equipment to the recycler
When you’re done, close the

browser window
Topic B: Power supplies

# Objective
1.8 Install an appropriate power supply based on a given scenario.

• Connector types and their voltages
– SATA – PCIe 6/8-pin – 24-pin
– Molex – 20-pin – Floppy
– 4/8-pin 12v
• Specifications
– Wattage – Number of connectors – Micro-ATX
– Size – ATX
• Dual voltage options
Characteristics of electricity
Explanation Electricity is the flow of electrons, which are one of the fundamental building blocks of
all matter. In some materials, electrons flow easily, while in others, electrons are tightly
bound to their atoms and hardly flow at all.
A conductor is a material that permits the flow of electricity. An insulator is a material
that inhibits the flow of electricity. Most metals, some plastics, and some liquids are
conductors. Most ceramics, plastics, and gases are insulators.
Voltage
Voltage is the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge, or electrical
potential, at two locations. This value, measured in volts, is also called the potential or
potential difference. The abbreviation for volts is officially an uppercase “V,” though a
lowercase “v” is commonly used.
Electricity flows to equalize potential. More electricity flows when there’s a greater
difference in potential than when there’s a smaller difference in potential. Thus, more
energy can be drawn from a high-voltage system than from a low-voltage system.
Current
Current is a measure of the flow of electrons past a given point—essentially measuring
the speed of the electrons through the conductor. It is measured in amps, or amperes.
For current to flow, there must be a complete circuit, or path, from the source, through
any intervening devices, and back to ground. A complete circuit is called closed; an
incomplete circuit is called open.
Any interruption in the circuit causes the current to stop. This is the principle behind a
switch, which is simply a device with which you can open a circuit to stop the flow of
current.
Alternating and direct current

Current that flows in a single direction at a constant voltage through a circuit is called
direct current (DC). Batteries provide this sort of current, and it’s the type required by
most electronic components. (Especially in nontechnical usage, “component” is
sometimes used to mean a whole device, such as an MP3 player, monitor, and so forth.
However, in this context, components are circuit boards, chips, and other internal
devices.)
Current that flows repeatedly back and forth through the circuit at a constantly varying
voltage level is called alternating current (AC). A building’s electrical service is an AC
system, and most household devices require AC to operate.
AC systems complete a full cycle—voltage change from zero, through maximum
voltage, back to zero, to minimum voltage, and back to zero—many times a second. In
North America and Japan, AC operates at 60 cycles per second (60 hertz, or Hz).
Europe and other countries use 50 Hz AC electricity.
AC electrical systems in the Americas and Japan operate at 110 volts (actually, within a
range of 90–135 V). Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice
that amount—between 220 and 240 volts. Most power supplies are dual-voltage, so you
can operate them anywhere in the world. Some power supplies have a switch that lets
you manually select the voltage; other power supplies are auto-switching and
automatically select the correct voltage. Household devices, such as light bulbs, are
designed to work at the country’s power level. Sensitive electronics inside computers,
televisions, and other devices use a much lower voltage. Computer components use DC
at either 5 V or 12 V.
Resistance and impedance

Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor. Impedance is
like resistance but applies to AC instead. When resistance (or impedance) is present,
electrical energy is converted to heat or some other form of energy. All conductors
possess some resistance (or impedance), though considerably less than that possessed by
insulators.
Resistance and impedance are measured in ohms. This quantity is written using the
Greek letter omega (ȍ). One ohm (1ȍ) is defined as the resistance of a system in which
1 volt maintains a current of 1 amp.
Electrical power and energy

Electrical power, measured in watts (W), is a derived quantity that you can calculate by
multiplying the voltage by the current. It’s a measure of the energy delivered by the
flow of electricity. When calculating electrical power, always use absolute values
(change any negative values to positive for your calculation).
Power supplies are rated according to the watts of electrical power they can supply. A
power supply rated at “450 W” promises to deliver 450 watts of power (though, in
practice, it might deliver a bit more or less than that value).
Electrical energy is electrical power delivered over time. For example, one kilowatt-
hour (kWh) is the flow of one kilowatt (1000 W) delivered for a one-hour period. The
average home in the U.S. consumes about 800 kWh of electrical energy per month.
Do it! B-1: Examining the characteristics of electricity

1 Which delivers more power: a 500 W power supply or a 1 kilowatt power supply?
2 Why might you be concerned about the output power rating of a power supply?
3 Of the various properties of electricity, which are you concerned with as a PC

technician?
4 Given what you’ve learned about electricity (particularly voltage and current),
speculate on the purpose of a PC’s power supply.
Electricity
Explanation Electricity is the source of energy for electronic equipment, including personal
computers. Electricity can be dangerous. If you don’t follow proper safety precautions,
electricity could kill you.
Current can kill

Current, not voltage, is what causes the danger. Even a small amount of current passing
through your heart can be sufficient to cause ventricular fibrillation or stop your heart
entirely. A dangerous level of current is possible, even with low voltage sources, such as
a 9 V battery.
The 1-10-100 rule

The 1-10-100 rule states that you can feel 1 mA (1 milliamp, or 1/1000 amp) of current
through your body, 10 mA is sufficient to make your muscles contract to the point
where you can’t let go of a power source, and 100 mA is sufficient to stop your heart.
This is a rule you should learn and respect.
Calculating current
Voltage, current, and resistance are related through the following formula:
V = i * r
In this formula, V is voltage in volts, i is the current in amps, and r is the resistance in
ohms (ȍ). At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops. A dangerous level
of current can be reached if resistance is reduced sufficiently.
Resistance of the human body

The human body has a resistance of about 500 Kȍ (500,000 ȍ). This value is a
somewhat ideal figure for contact with a small area of dry skin. Moisture and sweat on
your skin lower the resistance to a value nearer 5000 ȍ. Contact with a greater area of
skin—for example, gripping a wire between your fingers or grasping a pipe—further
reduces resistance. If you were to immerse your hand or foot, or puncture the skin so the
electrical connection were made with your more-conductive blood and tissue, the
resistance could be as low as 100 ȍ.
Death isn’t likely if electricity passes from finger to finger through your body, along
your arm, and so forth. However, your heart and brain are considerably more sensitive.
Current that passes from hand to hand or through your head is much more likely to
cause death. Electricity passing elsewhere through your body could cause an electrical
burn.
Visit www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html for more detailed
information about the resistance of the human body and dangers from electricity.
Safety precautions
You should always follow common-sense safety precautions to avoid electric shock.
These precautions include the following:
• Don’t touch exposed electrical contacts with any part of your skin.
• Touch only insulated handles and parts of tools, probes, cords, etc.
• Leave covers on equipment, unless you need to access their internal
components.
• Work one-handed. If you use only one hand, electricity is less likely to flow
through your body (specifically, your heart or head) and cause injury or death.
• Never insert anything into a wall outlet other than a power cord.
• Rings, watches, and jewelry can cause unintended contact with electrified
components. Furthermore, these metallic items can increase the surface area
that’s in contact with an electrical source and thus lower your body’s resistance.
Remove jewelry and watches when working around electricity.
• Keep your hands clean and dry.
• Don’t work with electricity in wet surroundings, especially on wet floors.
Do it! B-2: Considering electrical safety

1 Which is more dangerous: exposed leads in a 500 W power supply or a 12 V
automotive battery?
2 Could you feel the current generated if you were to wet your fingers and touch
both leads of a 9 V battery?
3 Is a shock from an electrical outlet sufficient to cause pain, contract your

muscles, or kill you?
PC power supplies
Explanation A PC power supply, shown in Exhibit 1-9, is the internal component that converts AC
wall voltage (110 VAC or 220 VAC) to the various DC voltages used by the computer’s
other components. Power supplies have a fan to cool their components and to help cool
the other components inside the PC. Typically, a power supply provides some
conditioning functions and can maintain DC supplies during very brief drops in and
outages of supply voltage.
Exhibit 1-9: A PC power supply
Power supply specifications

Power supplies are rated according to the number of watts of DC power they can put
out. Modern power supplies typically offer at least 300 watts to power the PC and its
internal components. Older power supplies typically offered 200 watts or less.
The power supply’s rating isn’t necessarily an indicator of the amount of power that the
unit draws from the outlet: a 350 W power supply doesn’t necessarily use more
electricity than a 200 W model. Power supplies draw only as much power as is needed
to supply the internal components. If your system needs less than the power supply’s
full capability, the power supply draws enough electricity to power the PC and no more.
Most power supplies provide three output voltage levels at various amperage ratings to
supply power to the internal components: +/-5 V, +/- 12 V, and 3.3 V. More devices
draw power at the +12 V level than at any of the other levels.
The following table lists typical power requirements for common PC components. You
can usually find out an exact power requirement from technical specification documents
posted on manufacturers’ Web sites. It’s often not possible, however, to separate
memory and CPU power requirements from the motherboards.
Component Typical power requirement
Motherboard 30 W, not including the power for the CPU chip and memory. This is for
full power mode. Sleeping states use less.
Memory 10 W per 2 GB module.*
CPU chip AMD Phenom processors use 65–140 W; AMD Athlon 64 processors use
45–125 W; single- and dual-core Itanium processors use approximately
100 W; Pentium 4 and Athlon-class processors use 65 or more watts; older
CPUs use 50 W or less. The voltage can vary based on the processor’s
workload. Voltage spikes as the processor swings between light and heavy
workloads.
Hard drive 5–15 W. Some manufacturers print the power requirement right on the
drive.
Optical drive Newer CD or DVD drives can use as little as 5 W. Older optical drives
may require 10–20 W.
Floppy drive 5–10 W.
Adapter card 5–30 W. For example, the high-end graphics cards used by professional
graphics software developers and computer-aided designers require more
power than a normal graphics card.
* BEHARDWARE.COM determined power consumption in a test system. They measured

power consumption at 2 GB and then at 4 GB, because they state that it really isn’t possible to
load the memory independently of the processor; the difference is an estimate of memory
power consumption.
Sizes
The form factor of a power supply refers to its size and shape. In the past, the most
popular form factor was the AT form factor. Later, the ATX form factor became more
popular, and that popularity continues today. Micro-ATX was developed after ATX, and
it’s designed to be smaller than the ATX form factor.
The form factor you use must not only fit into the case you use, but it must also fit in
relation to the motherboard and other components. The names of power-supply form
factors match those given to system cases, because together these components form a
matched set.
Power connectors
Standard connectors are used to connect the power supply’s output to the various
devices. Separate standards exist for drive and peripheral power connectors and
motherboard power connectors.
Drive and peripheral power connectors

Hard drives, CD and DVD drives, and floppy drives use power connectors that are
standardized in size and shape, as well as in the placement and voltage carried by the
wires connected through them. There are three common power connectors, as shown in
Exhibit 1-10.
• The serial ATA (SATA) connector is a 15-pin connector used to power SATA
devices, such as DVD drives.
• The Molex connector is a 4-pin connector that’s typically used to connect hard
drives and CD or DVD drives to the power supply.
• The floppy connector is a 4-pin Berg connector. It is smaller than a Molex
connector and is used to connect the floppy drive to the computer’s power
supply unit.
Exhibit 1-10: Serial ATA (SATA) power connectors (left), a Molex connector (center),
and a floppy power (Berg) connector (right)
Due to their shapes, these connectors can be inserted into drives in only one orientation.
They are said to be “keyed,” which ensures that you connect the appropriate power
input wires to the correct point on the device.
The following table lists the individual wires and pins that carry power through the
various connectors.
Wire color SATA pin Molex pin Floppy pin Voltage

numbers numbers numbers
Yellow 13, 14, 15 1 4 +12 V
Red 7, 8, 9 4 1 (optional) +5 V
Black 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12 2 and 3 2 (optional) and 3 Ground
Orange 1, 2, 3 +3.3 V
Motherboard power connectors

The motherboard and its components must get power from the power supply. The
motherboard is connected to the power supply with either one or two connectors.
Newer, single motherboard connectors are keyed and use a 20-pin or 24-pin connector;
you can’t insert these connectors incorrectly (unless you force-fit them backwards).
The older standard for motherboard power connectors is the two-connector system.
These older connectors weren’t keyed, so they could be inserted in either direction. Not
only could you connect one of the pair to the wrong motherboard connector, but you
could also connect the plugs backwards.
Such a misconnection sometimes resulted in damage to the motherboard. Exceptions to
this were the P8 and P9 connectors, which were keyed and could not be inserted
incorrectly. However, the P8 and P9 connectors looked identical, so you could
mistakenly attempt to put a P8 connector into a P9 port or vice versa. Although difficult
to achieve, such a mistake causes damage the motherboard.
A single motherboard power connector is shown in Exhibit 1-11, and dual power
connectors are shown in Exhibit 1-12.
Exhibit 1-11: Single motherboard power connector
Exhibit 1-12: Dual power connectors on an older motherboard

The following table describes the various types of power connectors.
Connector Description
SATA 15-pin connector; power SATA peripherals
Molex 4-pin connector; powers hard drives and optical drives
Floppy 4-pin connector to power floppy drives; also called a Berg connector
4/8-pin Connect to motherboard for extra CPU power and graphics cards
PCIe 6/8-pin Connects PCIe devices using 6 pins or a 6+2 pin configuration
20-pin, 24-pin Connects to the motherboard; part of ATX standard
Voltage selection
On dual-voltage supply units, which are most units nowadays, you can adjust the power
supply to run on 110-120 VAC or 220-240 VAC wall voltage. To make this adjustment,
with the computer off, you slide a small switch to the appropriate voltage. This switch is
normally next to the electrical cord port on the back of the PC, as shown in Exhibit 1-
13. Auto-switching power supplies detect the incoming voltage and make the switch
automatically.
The desktop voltage switch shown in Exhibit 1-13 allows you to select an operating
voltage of 115 or 230. The Americas and Japan provide electrical power within a range
of 90–135 V. Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice that
amount—between 220 and 240 volts. When your computer is operating in the Americas
or Japan always have the switch set to 115. If your computer is operating in a country
that supplies power at the higher range, set the power supply toggle switch to 230.
Exhibit 1-13: Voltage selection switch near the electrical cord port
Not having the voltage selection switch set properly for your country can prevent your
computer from turning on, keep it from operating properly, or cause serious damage to
the computer. Some power supplies have an auto-switching feature that senses the
incoming voltage and switches itself accordingly. Most laptop power supplies are auto-
switching.
Do it! B-3: Identifying your computer’s power supply

1 Identify the power supply in your If your computer’s case is not open, follow
computer proper ESD procedures to open the case,
exposing the internal components.
2 Identify your power supply’s This information is normally listed on a label on

rating and output voltages the power supply.
3 Locate a peripheral’s power

connector and examine its shape
4 Locate a floppy drive power

connector and examine its shape
5 Determine if your computer has a The power supplies in newer computers provide
SATA power connector these connectors. You can purchase adapters for
older power supplies.
6 Locate the motherboard’s power

connector
Do you have a single or paired

power connector?
Do it! B-4: Installing a new power supply

1 Carefully disconnect all of the Your computer is already shut down and
power wires from the various unplugged, and the case is open. You’re using
components your ESD tools and following safety precautions
to avoid electrical shock.
2 Remove any retaining screws that

secure the power supply to the
case
3 Remove the power supply and set

it aside
4 Install the power supply provided

by your instructor
5 Connect the power cables to the Make sure to attach connectors in the
motherboard and other internal appropriate orientation.
components
6 Replace the cover or covers
7 Plug the computer into the outlet

and reconnect all of the
peripherals
8 Boot the computer To verify that you have installed the power
supply correctly.
Unit summary: Safety procedures and power

supplies
Topic A In this topic, you identified safety issues and hazards in the computer environment. You
learned how to control static electricity and how to prevent it from destroying
computer equipment. You also examined office hazards, including floor surfaces, fire
safety, and electrical safety.
Topic B In this unit, you learned the characteristics of electricity, including voltage, current,
and resistance. You then learned that power supplies convert wall voltage to the
various DC voltages required by the computer’s components, and you learned about the
power demands of various computer components, power supply ratings, and the
power connector standards used in modern computers. You then installed a power
supply.
Review questions
1 What type of fire extinguisher should you keep handy for computer fires?
A Class A C Class C
B Class B D Class D
2 What type of fire extinguishing substance interrupts the chemical reaction of
burning materials?
A CO2 C Halon
B Dry chemicals D Water
3 True or false? You need to be concerned about electrostatic discharge, because it
can be fatal to humans.
False. Electrostatic discharges aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the voltage in the
system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such discharges are potentially
harmful to electronics.
4 True or false? Laptops are meant to be used on your lap.
False. Laptops are hot, particularly if they are placed on your lap. Components can overheat due
to the lack of airflow through the underside openings, and users can get burned when the laptop
is placed on their laps.
5 True or false? Batteries, toner cartridges, and ink cartridges can be disposed of in
landfills without any consequences.
False. Many batteries contain heavy metals that can’t be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the
equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Toners are usually a mixture of plastic
resin, iron powder, and carbon black. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the
environment. Ink cartridges aren’t usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain
electronic and metal components that can be reclaimed.
6 Which of the following are conductors? [Choose all that apply.]
A Ceramics D Metals
B Gases E Plastics
C Liquids
7 Which of the following are insulators? [Choose all that apply.]

A Ceramics D Metals
B Gases E Plastics
C Liquids
8 Which of the following is a derived quantity that you can calculate by multiplying
the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge at two locations and the
measure of the flow of electrons past a given point?
A Current D Resistance
B Electrical power E Voltage
C Impedance
9 Which of the following is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor?
C Impedance
10 Which of the following is measured in amps?
C Impedance
11 Which of the following are measured in ohms? [Choose all that apply.]
C Impedance
12 What is the formula relating voltage, current, and resistance?
A i=V*r C V=i*r
B r=V*i D V = i/r
13 True or false? At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops.
True.
14 The power requirements of a motherboard are estimated to be which of the
following?
A 5W D 50 W
B 10 W E 100 W
C 30 W
15 Which of the following components requires the most power?
A Adapter card D Memory
B CPU E Motherboard
C Hard drive
16 Which of the following is a serial ATA power connector?

A B
17 Which color wire is typically connected to ground?

A Black C Red
B Green D Yellow
Independent practice activities
Safety procedures
In this activity, you’ll practice applying safety practices to a computer environment.
1 Practice lifting equipment, using the proper technique and moving it from one desk
to another.
2 Compile a list of organizations to which you can donate used equipment.
3 Locate an electronics recycler and obtain a quote for disposing of outdated
equipment in your office.
Power supplies
In this activity, you’ll research power supplies and practice calculating current.
1 Determine the replacement cost for the power supply in your computer.
2 Determine if there is an upgraded power supply you can purchase for your
computer. What’s the cost difference?
3 How much current (in amps) flows through a circuit with a 100 ȍ resistance if 100
V of electricity is applied?
V = i * r, so i = V/r = 100/100 = 1 amp
4 Would you feel that voltage, or would it be sufficient to contract your muscles or
kill you?
A 1 amp current would kill you, if it were to pass through your heart or head. It could instead
cause an electrical burn if it passed through an extremity, such as a leg or arm.
2–1
Unit 2
Motherboards and CPUs
A Differentiate between motherboard

components and explain their purposes.
B Differentiate between CPU types and

choose an appropriate cooling method.
C Configure and apply BIOS settings.
D Install and configure expansion cards.

Topic A: Motherboards
# Objective
1.2 Differentiate between motherboard components, their purposes, and properties.

• Sizes
– ATX
– Micro-ATX
– ITX
• Expansion slots
– PCI
– PCI-X
– PCIe
– miniPCI
– CNR
– AGP 2x, 4x, 8x
• RAM slots
• CPU sockets
• Chipsets
– North Bridge
– South Bridge
• CMOS battery
• Jumpers
• Power connections and types
• Fan connectors
• Front panel connectors
– USB
– Audio
– Power button
– Power light
– Drive activity lights
– Reset button
• Bus speeds
Motherboards and CPUs 2–3
Motherboards
Explanation The motherboard is the main circuit board in a personal computer. It’s made up of
various components, including the CPU and other electronic devices, wires, and adapter
sockets to which additional circuit boards and devices can be attached. Exhibit 2-1
shows a motherboard with some of its primary components labeled.
Exhibit 2-1: A motherboard

The following table describes the functions of various motherboard components.
Component Function
CPU The chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the
interactions of the other components in your computer.
Expansion slots Slots into which you can plug additional circuit boards to expand the
capabilities of your computer.
AGP graphics A slot into which you can plug an AGP graphics adapter card, which produces
adapter slot the output displayed on your monitor.
Hard drive interface A header into which you can plug cables to connect hard drives, CD drives, and
connectors DVD drives to the system.
Floppy drive A header into which you can plug the cable to connect a floppy drive to the
interface connector system.
Optical drive IDE or SCSI connector to connect a CD or DVD drive to the system.
interface connector
Power connections Connector to which you connect the output of the power supply to provide
electrical power to the motherboard. Older systems have a pair of connectors
rather than a single connector.
RAM slots Slots into which you insert memory modules to add system memory to your PC.
PS/2 mouse and Ports into which you can plug PS/2-style keyboard and mouse connectors.
keyboard ports
USB port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect USB devices to
your PC.
IEEE 1394/FireWire One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect FireWire devices
port to your PC.
Serial port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect serial devices,
such as modems or mice, to your PC.
Parallel port One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect parallel devices,
such as printers, to your PC.
CMOS battery A battery to provide power for maintaining system configuration information,
date, and time, while your PC is turned off or disconnected from the outlet.
Network interface Network interface circuitry built into the motherboard to enable connections to a
network without using an add-on adapter card.
Video connector Video circuitry built into the motherboard, which provides a video connector on
the back of the system case.
Fan connectors Cooling fans connected directly to the motherboard use 3- or 4-pin Molex
connectors. Other fans are connected to the power supply instead of to the
motherboard.
Jumpers Jumpers (small conductive sheaths) and jumper pins are used to manually
configure settings on the motherboard. When jumper pins, arranged in pairs, are
connected by a jumper, an electrical circuit is completed, which issues a
command to the motherboard. In older computers, jumpers were used to
configure CPU and other settings. They can also be used to clear and reset
CMOS settings.
The motherboard is sometimes called the system board or main board. However, the
latter term is typically used to describe the main circuit board in non-PC devices, such
as alarm systems, televisions, and so forth.
Daughter boards
A daughter board is a circuit board that connects to a circuit board (sometimes, though
not normally, a motherboard) to provide or assist with its functions. Daughter boards are
often used with video cards to add more video-processing capabilities.
Form factor
The form factor of a motherboard is its size and shape. In addition, the form factor
describes the power supply and case that can be used with a motherboard. It also
describes the general physical layout of the components on the motherboard.
Of course, motherboards must fit into cases, which means that screw holes or retaining-
clip locations between motherboards and cases must match. Standardized dimensions
and mounting layouts help make sure that components work together.
The following table lists some common PC motherboard form factors. Other form
factors are available. Be sure to check the manufacturer’s specification documents for
your PC when choosing a replacement motherboard.
Form factor Dimensions Notes
ATX 9.6 by 12 inches Standard created by Intel in 1996 and still one of the most
popular form factors.
Mini-ATX 8.2 by 11.2 inches
Micro-ATX 9.6 by 9.6 inches Released in 1996. Offered fewer slots than the ATX form.
A smaller power supply could be used in PCs with this
motherboard design.
Mini-ITX 6.7 by 6.7 inches Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2003.
Nano-ITX 4.7 by 4.7 inches Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2004.
Pico-ITX 3.9 by 2.8 inches Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2007.

Do it! A-1: Examining motherboard components and form factor

1 Examine your motherboard
What form factor is your

motherboard?
2 If your instructor has

motherboards with other form
factors, compare the size and
component layout of those
motherboards with yours
3 Identify each of the following CPU and its socket

items on your motherboard: Memory slots
Bus (expansion) slots
I/O ports (serial, parallel, mouse, and keyboard)
Integrated drive controller slots, if applicable
USB and FireWire ports, if applicable
Integrated video port, if applicable
4 Close your system case and

assemble your PC
5 Boot your PC
Log on to Windows 7 as
ADMIN## with a password of
!pass1234
6 Open your browser and visit

www.motherboards.org
7 Under the list of reviews, click

Motherboards
8 Examine the list of reviewed

motherboards
9 What’s the most popular

motherboard form factor for sale?
Computer buses
Explanation In computer terminology, a bus is a communication pathway. A PC has multiple buses
to enable communication among the various components of the PC. A bus is defined by
various characteristics, including how many bits it can transmit at one time, which
signaling techniques are used across it, and how fast it can transfer data.
Bus types
A typical PC has the following types of buses:
• Address — The bus that transmits memory addresses between the CPU and the
RAM. The memory controller also plays a crucial role between the RAM and
the CPU.
• Data — The bus that transfers data between the CPU and the RAM. It’s known
as the system bus or system data bus.
• Expansion — The bus to which add-on adapter cards are connected in order to
enhance the functionality of the PC.
Address and data buses

Address buses and data buses enable the basic operations of the CPU and its
interactions with memory. You generally don’t have to be concerned with these buses,
though their characteristics affect the overall performance of your system.
Expansion bus
An expansion bus is the communications pathway over which non-core components of
your computer interact with the CPU, memory, and other core components. For
example, data sent to and from your computer’s hard drive travels over an expansion
bus.
Expansion slots
Each mother board has slots to accommodate additional components to expand the
capabilities of your computer. By installing cards into expansion slots that connect to an
expansion bus, you can add new hardware to your PC. For example, your desktop
computer might not have come with a wireless network card for connecting to the
network through your wireless router. You can purchase a wireless network adapter
card and plug it into an expansion bus to add this capability to your computer. The
following sections describe the various types of expansion slots.
Audio/Modem Riser (AMR)

Intel developed the AMR standard to support modems and audio cards. An AMR slot
provides both audio and modem support. This slot moved analog input/output functions
off the motherboard and onto an external card.
An AMR-compatible motherboard includes no other analog I/O functions. Such
motherboards don’t have to be subjected to time-consuming Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) certification tests. Thus, AMR-compatible motherboards are faster
and cheaper to produce.
Communications and Networking Riser (CNR)

Intel developed the CNR riser slot standard as an expansion of the AMR slot idea. The
CNR expansion slot supports specialized modems, audio cards, and network cards. CNR
also provides for extensions that would enable manufacturers to create CNR-based cards
to support new technologies, such as cable modems and DSL modems.
AMR slots are typically located in the middle of the motherboard, but CNR slots are
usually near the edge. Both slots are normally brown. A motherboard has either an
AMR slot or a CNR slot, not both.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

Explanation The PCI standard was developed by Intel Corporation and introduced in 1992. The
current crop of PCI adapters and expansion slots generally implements the PCIe
specification.
The PCI specification supports bus speeds of either 33 MHz or 66 MHz. It also supports
both a 32-bit and a 64-bit bus design. With a 32-bit implementation at 33 MHz, the PCI
bus supports a peak transfer rate of 133 MBps. In a 64-bit implementation at 66 MHz,
the PCI bus supports a peak transfer rate of 533 MBps.
You can see PCI slots on a motherboard in Exhibit 2-1 and on the left in Exhibit 2-2. A
PCI card is shown on the right in Exhibit 2-2.
Exhibit 2-2: PCI slots on a motherboard (left), and a PCI card (right)
PCI-X
The PCI-eXtended (PCI-X) standard was developed to address several shortcomings in
the PCI standard, most importantly to increase bandwidth for high-performance
components, running at 133 MHz and transferring up to a theoretical maximum of 1.06
Gpbs. PCI-X has been replaced in newer systems with the PCIe standard.
PCIe
PCI Express (PCIe) uses serial communication instead of the parallel communication
that PCI uses. A connection between a PCIe device and the system is known as a link.
Each link uses a dedicated, bidirectional, serial, point-to-point connection called a lane.
In PCIe version 1.0, each lane can transfer 2.5 Gbps (0.25 GBps) of data simultaneously
in each direction using 8b/10b encoding. A link can use more than one lane at a time,
but all links must support at least a single-lane connection. This is referred to as an “x1”
(pronounced “by-one”) link. PCIe supports x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32 bus widths.
PCIe cards can’t connect to the system through PCI buses, but they are compatible with
software that uses the PCI standard. PCIe cards physically fit into slots designed for
their lane configuration or higher (up-plugging) but not into slots designed for lower
lane configurations (down-plugging).
Mini PCI
Mini PCI was added to the PCI standard to create expansion devices for laptops. Mini
PCI is a 32-bit standard that runs at 33 MHz. Mini PCI devices include wireless
adapters, hard drive controllers, sound cards, and Bluetooth adapters.
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

Intel developed the AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus standard in 1997 to improve
video performance. AGP’s release coincided with the release of the Pentium II chipsets
from Intel. Since this initial release, newer AGP standards have been released. These
include:
• AGP 1.0 • 64-bit AGP • AGP Pro
• AGP 2.0 • Ultra-AGP • Ultra-AGPII
• AGP 3.0
AGP, which is PnP configurable, is technically not a bus standard; it’s a port standard,
so it’s more correct to call it a port rather than a bus. Buses support multiple devices,
but AGP provides a direct connection between the video adapter and the CPU. An AGP
card is shown in Exhibit 2-3, and an AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 2-4.
Before AGP, video cards required, and could use, only memory that was on the adapter
card. Data needed to be transferred from main system memory over the video bus to the
adapter, which would render the data for display on the monitor.
Originally, one of AGP’s biggest performance improvements was its ability to access
and use main system memory. During certain rendering operations— namely, mapping
a texture to a shape—the AGP adapter could access texture data in main system memory
without first transferring the data to the adapter. Intel called this feature Direct Memory
Execute (DIME), and for some operations, it offered as much as a tenfold performance
improvement compared to video adapters that couldn’t access main memory in this way.
Exhibit 2-3: An AGP adapter (note the hook beside the edge connectors)
You will see AGP speeds referred to as #x. Using various techniques, the effective bus
speed of an AGP port is increased, or “pumped,” to a multiple of the standard speed.
The “x” in AGP specifications refers to how many times data is transferred during each
clock cycle. For example, an AGP 3.0 8x slot transfers data 8 times per clock cycle,
making it 8 times faster than the bus speed. The maximum speed would be 2.13 GBps,
assuming an effective clock rate of 533 MHz for the PCI bus.
You might encounter some older systems with slower bus speeds. AGP 1.0 was released
with both 1x and 2x speeds. AGP Pro was released for cards that required more power.
The AGP 2.0 4x bandwidth is up to 1.06 GBps on a virtual 266 MHz bus system. The
AGP 2.0 2x slot would have a bandwidth of up to 533 MBps on a virtual 133 MHz bus
system. This and other information about AGP is summarized in the following table. All
bus widths are 32-bit.
AGP Speed Pumping Frequency Max. data transfer Voltage

version
1.0 1x Single 66 MHz 266 MBps 3.3 or 1.5 V
1.0 2x 2x 66 MHz 533 MBps 3.3 or 1.5 V
2.0 4x Quad 66 MHz 1066 MBps 3.3 or 1.5 V
3.0 8x Octuple 66 MHz 2133 MBps (1 GBps) 1.5 or 0.8 V
AGP slots
AGP slots are typically brown, though sometimes maroon or another dark color.
Modern video adapters require active cooling (fans) and thus more space than other
adapters. For this reason, an AGP slot is typically well separated from other bus slots. A
graphic of an AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 2-4. Most systems include a single AGP slot.
However, some high-end systems include multiple, independent AGP slots.
Exhibit 2-4: An AGP slot

Do it! A-2: Identifying a PCI bus

1 Following all electrical and ESD
safety precautions, shut down
your PC and open the case
2 Locate a PCI slot
How many PCI expansion slots

does your computer contain?
How many of the PCI expansion

slots are in use? How many are
available?
3 Does your computer contain

expansion slots other than PCI?
Identify them
4 Leave the cover removed for the

next activity
Chipsets
In older PCs, separate microchips were used to provide each individual function. For
example, one chip controlled the processor’s interaction with memory, another managed
the CPU’s interaction with add-on peripherals, and so forth. The cost and complexity of
designing motherboards with many separate chips led designers to integrate the
functions into single chips or sets of chips.
A chipset is one or more chips, packaged into a single unit and sold together, that
performs a set of functions in a computer. The term is used most often to describe the
core features of a computer, which often include:
• Memory control • Video display functions
• System bus functions • System management functions
• Audio functions
The chipset doesn’t actually include the CPU. However, each chipset is designed to
support a select few CPUs.
Sometimes the term “chipset” is used with video adapter cards. In such cases, the
(video) chipset combines what used to be separate video chips into a single chip or unit.
Northbridge and Southbridge chips

Two of the most important components of a PC chipset are the Northbridge and
Southbridge chips. Together with the CPU, these chips define the characteristics and
capabilities of the computer.
The Northbridge chip controls interactions among the CPU, memory and cache, AGP
and PCIe video control circuitry, and the Southbridge. The Southbridge chip controls
interactions between buses and devices not controlled by the Northbridge, including the
standard PCI expansion bus, floppy drive controller, and serial, parallel, and PS/2
keyboard and mouse ports.
More modern systems have taken integration even further, transferring most
Northbridge functions such as memory and video control into the CPU itself. As a
result, a motherboard purchased today might have only a single Controller Hub,
essentially an enhanced Southbridge that performs all chipset functions.
Front panel connectors
Exhibit 2-5: Front panel connectors
In addition to the back panel connections shown in Exhibit 2-1, most computers provide
front panel connections, including USB and IEEE 1394/FireWire connections, as shown
in Exhibit 2-5.
Connector Description
USB Connects peripherals, such as USB drives, card readers, a wireless

mouse and keyboard, headphones, and digital devices.
Audio Outputs sound to headphones or speakers.
Power button Turns the computer on and off.
Power light Indicates when the computer is powered. Can also indicate when the
computer has gone to sleep.
Drive activity lights Indicates activity in a hard drive or CD/DVD/Blu-ray drive.
Reset button Causes an immediate reboot. Sometimes this button is behind the
front panel, which must be removed for access to the button.
Do it! A-3: Identifying front panel connectors

1 Can you see a reset button inside
the computer case?
2 List the types of front panel

connectors and indicators
3 How does the list of front panel

connectors compare to the
connectors available at the rear of
the computer?
4 Reassemble your computer and

power it up
Topic B: Central processing units (CPUs)

This topic covers the following CompTIA exam objectives for A+ 801.
# Objective
1.6 Differentiate among various CPU types and features and select the appropriate cooling
method.
• Socket types
– Intel: LGA, 775, 1155, 1156, 1366
– AMD: 940, AM2, AM2+, AM3, AM3+, FM1, F
• Characteristics
– Speeds – Virtualization support
– Cores – Architecture (32-bit vs. 64-bit)
– Cache size/type – Integrated GPU
– Hyperthreading
• Cooling
– Heat sink – Thermal paste
– Fans – Liquid-based
Processors
Explanation The central processing unit (CPU), or processor, is the “brains” of your computer. It’s
the chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of
the other circuits in your computer. A CPU is shown in Exhibit 2-6.
Exhibit 2-6: A CPU
A CPU has these components:

• A control unit
• One or more execution units
• Registers
Older CPUs and processors, in even modern mini-computers and mainframe computers,
were built from multiple chips and components. CPUs contained on a single chip are
called microprocessors. Almost all CPUs in personal computers are microprocessors.
The control unit

The control unit is responsible for managing the flow of a program. It’s the component
that retrieves the next instruction to be acted upon or the data to be processed.
Execution units
Execution units are responsible for the processing of instructions and data. Execution
units are built from the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the floating-point unit (FPU).
The ALU calculates and compares numbers. The ALU does most of the work of the
processor, but it’s best suited to working with operations that act on whole numbers (not
fractions).
The FPU is designed specifically to work with real numbers (numbers with fractional
components, and very large, very small, or very precise numbers). It’s faster and more
efficient at performing mathematical manipulations than the ALU is.
Older CPUs didn’t include an FPU, though one was sometimes offered as a separate
add-on chip called a math coprocessor. The Intel 80386 and some 80486 processors,
which predate the Pentium line of CPUs, didn’t include an FPU. In these older CPUs,
the functions of an FPU were performed by the ALU, but at a slower pace.
A processor can have one or more execution units. A single-core processor has one
execution unit. A core is an execution unit. A dual-core processor has two execution
units, a triple-core processor has three, and a quad-core processor has four.
In a single-core processor, the processor orders, executes, and then selectively stores
strings of instructions in its registers. Registers are very small, yet very fast, memory
locations available on the CPU for holding instructions or units of data. Registers
operate at the same speed as the CPU, whereas normal system memory can be many
times slower. The CPU can access the contents of a register more quickly than it can
access other types of storage.
During operation, CPUs store data and instructions in registers. That information is then
transferred back to main system memory. To speed operations, the control unit can
“pre-fetch” instructions and data from system memory and store them in the CPU’s
registers. When the processor needs data outside its registers, it must retrieve the data
from RAM through the system bus or from a storage device, such as the hard disk. This
process slows down performance to the maximum speed of the bus, memory, or storage
device. This speed is slower than the actual speed of the processor itself. The situation is
worse when the processor must multitask. When multitasking, the processor switches
back and forth between sets of instructions and programs.
CPUs can have many registers, with groups of registers devoted to a specific purpose
(and thus unavailable for other uses). Some modern processors can use registers as
needed for the task at hand, rather than being constrained by a limited quantity of
special-purpose registers.
Multi-core processor
In a multi-core processor, each core handles incoming strings of instructions
simultaneously. When one core is executing instructions, other cores can be accessing
the system bus or executing their own string of instructions. To utilize a multi-core
processor, the operating system must be able to recognize multi-threading, and the
software must have simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) or Non-Uniform
Memory Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) written into its code.
SMT enables parallel multi-threading, meaning that multi-threaded instructions are
delivered to the cores in parallel. NUMA builds upon SMT by providing separate
memory for each processor. Without SMT or NUMA, the software can recognize only
one core.
A multi-core processor is different from a multi-processor system. In a multi-core
processor, system resources are shared and all cores reside on the same chip. In a multi-
processor system, there are two separate processors, each with its own system resources.
All other components being equal, a multi-processor system is faster than a system with
a multi-core processor.
CPU performance
An instruction is the low-level, hardware-specific command that the processor acts on.
It might be something like “ADD AX, BY” to add the contents of the A and B registers.
Before this instruction can be executed, a previous instruction must have moved the
value of the X from a location in memory and stored it in the A register. Another
instruction must have moved the value of the Y from memory to the B register. One
more instruction is required to write the resulting sum back into a register, from where it
is transferred by the control unit to a new memory location.
You can determine the performance of a processor by examining the number of
instructions it can perform in a second. With microprocessors, this amount is usually
rated in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
CPUs are often rated according to their clock speed. In a PC, the clock circuit keeps the
CPU and other chips synchronized so that they can work together.
Older CPUs took more than one clock cycle to perform a single instruction. Modern
processors perform many instructions in a single cycle. In fact, the clock speed is no
longer a good indicator of the performance of a modern CPU. By using the techniques
listed in the following table, a modern CPU can perform more than one instruction per
clock cycle and even perform multiple instructions at the same time.
Ultimately, many factors control the actual speed (performance) of a CPU. The
following table describes some of these factors.
Design Relation to CPU performance
Addressable The total amount of memory accessible to the processor. The width of the address
RAM bus controls the amount of addressable RAM to which the CPU can read or write.
Bus, address The bus (pathway) that connects the processor to main memory. The wider the
address bus, the more memory can be accessed. Data isn’t transferred over this bus.
Bus, data The bus that connects the CPU, memory, and peripherals. The data bus is used to
carry data. The width and the clock rate of the data bus determine its data rate.
Bus, internal The bus that determines how many bits of information the processor can work with at
once. The size of the internal register determines how much data the processor can
handle at one time and how it moves data around internally within the chip. If the
internal bus is smaller than the data bus, data and instructions must be manipulated in
parts. For example, a processor with a 32-bit internal bus and a 64-bit data bus must
deal with data in two halves.
Cache High-speed temporary storage. Accessing data from cache is considerably faster than
accessing it from main memory. Various computer components use caches—such as
CPUs and hard disks. Processors use levels 1, 2, and 3 caching, where level 1 is the
fastest and most closely coupled to the processor, level 2 less so, and level 3 even
less (yet still much faster than normal system memory.)
Graphics Newer processors, including Intel’s Core i series and AMD’s Fusion, have an
processing unit integrated GPU right on the processor. This unit speeds video performance,
(GPU) especially for high-end gaming and other graphics-intensive software.
Hyperthreading Officially called Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT), this is an Intel technology that
enables each single processor core to execute two streams of instructions at the same
time, sharing the workload between two virtual processors when possible. Other
manufacturers use similar hyperthreading technology in their processors.
Multimedia An expanded set of instructions supported by a processor that provides multimedia-

extensions specific functions. Without MMX, a programmer might have to implement multiple
(MMX) low-level commands to perform a multimedia operation. With MMX, the same
function involves a single instruction.
Multiprocessing The use of more than one processor within a system to speed program execution.
Operating systems and applications need to be written to support multiprocessing, or
no speed benefits are realized.
Overclocking Running the CPU at a higher speed than it was rated to run at. Overclocking
increases performance, but also increases the potential for errors. Also, more heat is
generated by an overclocked CPU.
Pipelining The overlapping of the steps involved in processing instructions. Instructions are
normally fetched, decoded, and executed, and the results are written out to memory.
Modern processors overlap these steps to speed overall execution. While one
instruction is being executed, another is being decoded, and a third is being fetched.
Superscalar A technique that enables a processor to execute more than one instruction in a single
clock cycle.
Throttling A technique by which the speed of the processor is scaled back so that it uses less
power and creates less heat. Throttling reduces performance. It’s most useful with
portable computers, for which low power consumption and low heat production are
critical design factors.
Virtualization Not all processors support virtualization, a software feature that allows you to run
support multiple “computers” on a single system. You will need to access your processor’s
documentation to determine if it supports virtualization, and if it does, if you need to
enable it in the BIOS settings.
Multiple processor support

Some computers come with two processors. However, in order to take advantage of the
increased performance gained with two processors, the operating system and
applications you run must include symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) code.
The 32-bit versions of Windows 7 support multiprocessors in the same manner as
Windows Vista does. The 64-bit versions of Windows 7 use Non-Uniform Memory
Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) to support multiprocessors. In
SMP (the traditional model for multiprocessor support), each processor has equal access
to memory and I/O. As you add more processors, the system’s performance becomes
limited by the processor bus. NUMA addresses this problem by providing separate
memory for each processor, avoiding the performance hit when several processors
attempt to address the same memory. In NUMA, the architecture is non-uniform,
because each processor is close to some parts of memory and farther from other parts of
memory. The processor quickly gains access to the memory it’s close to, and it can take
longer to gain access to memory that’s farther away.
Under NUMA, a processor can access its own local memory faster than nonlocal
memory—another processor’s local memory or memory shared between processors.
Processor specifications
There are several manufacturers of CPUs. Probably the two most recognizable in the
personal computer realm are Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). These two
have the largest market share.
CPUs can be compared according to many specifications, including:
• Primary specifications — Clock speed, front-side bus speed, addressable RAM,
and cache sizes.
• Bus width specifications — The width, or number of bits, that can pass at one
time over the processor’s internal bus and data bus, plus the address bus width,
which determines the maximum addressable memory.
• Internal specifications — The internal and external voltages used by the chips,
the number of transistors that make up the processor, and whether it includes an
integrated FPU.
Refer to manufacturer Web sites for specific information about the following items for
individual processors:
• Clock speed • L2 cache size
• Front-side bus speed • Internal bus size
• Maximum RAM • Data bus size
• L1 cache size • Address bus size
These are the appropriate Web sites:
• AMD desktop processors:
products.amd.com/en-us/DesktopCPUResult.aspx
• AMD notebook processors:
products.amd.com/en-us/NotebookCPUResult.aspx
• Intel: www.intel.com/products/processor/index.htm
Internal specifications
The internal specifications of processors refer to the way the CPU’s circuits are
constructed. The core voltage value describes the voltage level required by the core
processing components of the CPU. The I/O voltage value, sometimes called the
external voltage, is the level required by the CPU’s input and output circuitry. In
modern processors, the core and I/O voltage values typically differ.
On modern processors, one or more voltage ID (VID) pins send a signal containing the
exact voltage requirements to the voltage regulator module (VRM) on the motherboard.
The VRM then supplies that specific power to the CPU. Not all motherboards include a
VRM. On many older motherboards, you must set jumpers or switches to match the
voltage supplied to the CPU with what it requires. If you supply the wrong voltage, you
can ruin the CPU.
The number of transistors is simply a count of the transistors (microscopic electronic
switches) that make up the CPU. This count provides a rough estimate of the size and
complexity of the chip.
Older processors didn’t include an integrated floating-point unit (FPU). Modern CPUs
all include this feature.
Again, for information on the specific core and I/O voltage values, number of
transistors, and inclusion of an integrated FPU on a specific processor, refer to the
technical documentation on the manufacturer’s Web site.
Do it! B-1: Identifying CPUs

1 Disconnect the power cord from
the computer
2 Disconnect any other external For example, network cables.

cables
3 Release the mechanisms—screws,

slides, or push-buttons—that
secure the side that exposes the
internal components
4 Touch the metal frame of the To discharge any static charges present on your
computer and count slowly to 3 body or on the computer.
5 Remove the cover So you can view the motherboard and processor.
6 Locate your CPU Modern CPUs typically have a set of cooling

fins glued to them, covering all markings. This
will prevent you from identifying the CPU or its
specifications.
7 Record the manufacturer and Your instructor will provide this information.
model of CPU in your computer Manufacturer: __________________________
Model: _______________________________
Leave the computer open for the next activity.
CPUs inside the case

Explanation Hardware designers must include many other functions to create a complete working
computer. CPUs must be connected to the motherboard circuitry in order to function. In
this section, you’ll examine:
• CPU packaging
• Sockets
• Chipsets
CPU packaging
Any type of microchip is made up of microscopic wires, transistors, and other
components. This plain chip is called the die. To be useful, it must be connected to the
rest of the circuitry of your computer. Due to the size differences between the wires on
the die and the circuit boards of your computer, the die can’t be connected directly to
the circuit board.
Instead, the die is built into a package. A package is in a case made from plastic,
ceramic, glass, metal, or other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge the
microscopic connections on the die with the external circuitry. A package might also
include support function chips, memory, and cooling-related components. A plastic case
package is shown in Exhibit 2-7.
Exhibit 2-7: A PDIP (plastic dual inline package) memory chip
Older package types, such as the PDIP pictured in Exhibit 2-7, used connectors that
were large compared to the die. Newer packages use ever smaller connectors, packing
more connections into a smaller area. The pin grid array (PGA) package, shown in
Exhibit 2-8, includes many more connections into an area not much larger than the die.
Exhibit 2-8: The underside of an 80486DX2 CPU, showing the pins of its Pin Grid
Array package
Even though newer packages use smaller connectors, the need for more functionality
has driven increase in connection count so that overall package size may grow even as
more efficient connectors are developed. Some CPU packages you may encounter will
include support chips, cache memory, and features that enhance the cooling of the
processor. These may be much larger than a typical CPU, often housed on a separate
circuit board which plugs into a slot on the motherboard. One such larger package is
Exhibit 2-9: The Single Edge Contact Cartridge package
Manufacturers vary packages with updated lines, so be sure to check the technical
specifications for your particular CPU on the manufacturer’s Web site.
• AMD: www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/packaging-
technology/Pages/packaging-technology.aspx
• Intel desktop processor packages:
www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/cs-009863.htm
• Intel notebook processor packages:
www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/CS-009864.htm
Exhibit 2-10: A Pentium MMX CPU atop its associated Socket 7 socket
Sockets and slots

Processor packages must be inserted into a socket or slot on the motherboard. The
following table lists common desktop computer sockets and slots. (As with packages,
manufacturers can vary sockets and slots with updated lines, so check the technical
specifications for your CPU on the manufacturer’s Web site.) A desktop processor and
its associated socket are shown in Exhibit 2-10.
Socket Package Processors Notes

type type
LGA775 LGA Celeron D, Pentium 4, Pentium D,

(also called Pentium Extreme Edition, Core2
Socket T) Duo, and Core2 Duo Extreme
LGA 1156 LGA Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, Allows connections to PCIe 2.0 x16
(also called Core i7 (800 series), Xeon graphics card. PCIe 2.0 x4 connection
Socket H) for DMI communication to platform
controller hug. Two memory
channels for DDR3 SDRAM.
LGA 1155 LGA Core i3, i5, and i7 Designed to replace LGA 1156.
(also called
Socket H2)
LGA 1366 LGA Core i7 (900 series), Replaces LGA 775. Access up to
(also called Xeon (5500 series) three channels of DDR3 memory.
Socket B)
940 PGA AMD Operton, Athlon 64 FX
AM2 PGA Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2
AM2+ PGA Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Can work in AM2 slots.
Phenom, Phenom II
AM3 PGA Phenom II, Athlon II, Sempron
AM3+ PGA FX, Bulldozer, Piledriver
FM1 PGA Llano
FM2 PGA Trinity
F LGA Athlon 64x, Opteron Replaced socket 940. Replaced by

Socket C32 for servers and Socket
G34 for high-end servers.
Chipsets
In the same way that the socket is the physical interface between the CPU and the rest
of the computer, the chipset is the logical interface which allows the CPU to
communicate with other devices. This means that a given CPU will only function with a
specific range of chipsets.
Traditionally, the Northbridge chip on the motherboard controlled functions most
closely tied to the CPU: cache, memory control, AGP or PCIe video, and
communications between the CPU and the Southbridge chip controlling other hardware
devices.
Over time, many of these functions became integrated into the CPU itself, such as cache
and later memory controllers. A CPU purchased today may contain most traditional
Northbridge functions internally, and you may see Accelerated Processing Unit (APU)
used to describe CPUs with integrated video functions, such as the AMD Fusion and
Intel HD Graphics architectures.
Usually, a motherboard with a compatible socket for a given CPU also contains a
compatible chipset, but this is not always the case. When placing a CPU into a
motherboard, first verify that its chipset supports the specific CPU you are installing.
Do it! B-2: Identifying your CPU’s socket and package type

1 Examine your CPU and record the Package: ______________________________
socket and package type Socket: _______________________________
2 Identify the chipset chip on your It’s typically a very large chip placed near the
motherboard CPU socket.
3 Close your system case and

assemble your PC
4 Boot your PC
!pass1234
5 Using the manufacturer’s web CPU type: _____________________________

site, determine the specifications Clock speed: ___________________________
of the CPU in your PC
Level 1 cache: __________________________
Number of transistors: ___________________
Internal bus width: ______________________
Cooling techniques
Explanation Processors generate a lot of heat during their operation and require some method to keep
cool. CPUs and the other components in a computer are designed to operate within a
range of temperatures. Temperatures outside that range can damage components. In
particular, too much heat can cause logic errors, in which data within the chips and
wires are altered, or circuit damage, which can melt components!
The current crop of desktop CPUs (excluding the processor classes defined as energy-
efficient or low-power) can draw over 100 watts of power. The CPUs must dissipate the
heat from all that power. To maintain that temperature range, PC designers must include
one or more of the following features to cool the case and the processor itself:
• Fans • Peltier coolers
• Heat sinks and cooling fins • Phase-change cooling
• Heat pipes • Undervolting
• Water pumps
Fans and air openings

To maintain allowable temperatures, hardware designers must devise a way to move
heat away from the components that generate it. In most situations, this means forcing
hot air out of the case to allow cool air to enter.
Older CPUs generated so little heat that a simple fan (typically part of the power
supply) and a few openings in the case were all it took to maintain permitted operating
temperatures. Modern CPUs (and other components) generate too much heat for such
simple thermal management designs.
Modern cases include multiple openings through which air can flow. Some cases
include multiple fans, in addition to the power supply fan, to move air. Exhibit 2-11
shows a system case with both power supply and auxiliary fans.
Exhibit 2-11: A system case with power supply and auxiliary fans to improve air flow
Heat sinks and cooling fins

The amount of heat that can leave a component is directly proportional to its surface
area. Big, hot things cool faster than small, hot things do. Additionally, some materials
transfer heat better than others.
A heat sink is something that absorbs and transfers heat better than its surroundings. The
most common type of heat sink used with CPUs is cooling fins. Fins increase the surface
area that can transfer heat away from the CPU. Hardware designers began adding
cooling fins to CPUs before the Pentium era—an example is shown in Exhibit 2-12.
Exhibit 2-12: Cooling fins on an older 80486DX2 CPU
The fins are normally connected directly to the die or to an integrated metal plate on the
CPU, depending on its packaging design. A thermal compound—a fluid with similar
properties to grease and that transmits heat well—is used between the parts to improve
heat flow. You might also hear thermal compound referred to as thermal paste or
thermal grease.
A heat sink (such as a set of cooling fins) relies on convection—warm air rises away
from the fins while cooler air flows in from below. At some point, heat can’t dissipate
quickly enough on its own. Thermal engineers can add fans to the cooling fins to
forcibly improve convection, as shown in Exhibit 2-13. A heat sink without a fan is
called passive heat sink cooling; a heat sink with a fan is called active heat sink cooling.
Exhibit 2-13: Cooling fins and a fan on a Pentium processor
Heat sinks can get only so large before they no longer fit in the case or are too heavy for
the components to which they’re attached. If more heat must be dissipated, designers
can turn to other techniques, such as heat pipes.
Heat pipes
Heat pipes are small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled with a small amount
of fluid. Heat vaporizes the fluid, which expands and rises to another area of the piping.
There, heat is transferred away, and the fluid condenses, flowing back toward the CPU
and heat source.
Even though no pump is involved, heat pipes provide an effective way of moving heat
away from the CPU. Additionally, the heat can be moved further away so that
convection can be more effective. Heat pipes also permit smaller and lighter fins.
Water pumps
For systems that generate too much heat for fins and heat pipes to cool, designers can
turn to more exotic cooling systems. One such system is a pumped water system. Like
heat pipes, tubes carry water or other liquid past the CPU to pick up heat. The heated
liquid is transported away from the CPU, often outside the computer’s case, where it
passes through cooling fins to transfer its heat away.
Some computer-game aficionados and others who work their PCs hard go even further.
They run the water cooling pipes through an ice-water bath or put the cooling fins
outside their windows during the winter. Typical office computer use rarely requires
such extreme cooling methods.
Peltier coolers
All of the preceding cooling methods rely on some form of convection. Heat moves
from the hot CPU to the cooler surroundings. What if the surroundings aren’t cooler
than inside the PC’s case? Factory floors and some other environments can be very hot.
Convective cooling devices can’t work in those situations.
A Peltier (pronounced “PELT-ee-Ɨy”) device is an electronic component that gets
colder when a voltage is applied. Peltier coolers for CPUs provide cooling when
convective methods won’t work.
A Peltier device is connected directly to the CPU. Devices that can drop the temperature
of a CPU by 70° C are available. If more cooling is needed, Peltier devices can be
combined with water coolers.
Phase-change cooling
Phase-change cooling utilizes a vapor compression unit, much like a window A/C unit,
to cool the processor. The computer sits on the compression unit, and a tube runs from
the compressor to the processor. The compressor compresses a gas or gases into liquid,
and then that liquid runs through the tube to the processor. There it passes through an
expansion device. As the liquid absorbs the heat from the processor, it evaporates and
returns to the compressor in gas form to begin the process again. Phase-changing
cooling systems are more efficient than a single-phase water cooling system—up to 10
times more efficient—but they generate significantly more noise.
Do it! B-3: Examining the cooling systems in your PC

1 Examine the system case. How
many fans does your PC have?
2 Does your PC have a cooling

grille or holes on the side or top?
If so, how does the presence of
these cooling mechanisms affect
how you locate a PC in your work
area?
3 You’re servicing a computer for a

customer who has been
complaining of weird system
crashes and data loss. The
customer’s computer is piled high
with books and shoved in a
cramped space under a desk. It
also sits on a thick carpet. What
would you suggest?
4 If necessary, open your PC’s case Make sure to follow proper electrical and ESD
safety precautions.
5 Does your CPU have cooling

fins? A cooling fan? An “exotic”
cooling device, such as a water
cooler?
6 If your instructor has one To view the thermal compound that connects the
available, examine a CPU with its two components.
cooling fins removed
Reassemble your computer

Topic C: BIOS settings

# Objective
1.1 Configure and apply BIOS settings.

• Install firmware upgrades – flash BIOS
– BIOS component information
– RAM
– Hard drive
– Optical drive
– CPU
• BIOS configurations
– Boot sequence
– Enabling and disabling devices
– Date/time
– Clock speeds
– Virtualization support
– BIOS security (passwords, drive encryption: TPM, lo-jack)
• Use built-in diagnostics
– Monitoring
– Temperature monitoring
– Fan speeds
– Intrusion detection/notification
– Voltage
– Clock
– Bus speed
BIOS
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is the computer’s firmware—a set of software
instructions stored on a chip on the motherboard. The BIOS instructions enable basic
computer functions, such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse, serial ports,
and so on. Without the BIOS, your computer would be a useless collection of wires and
electronic components.
CMOS
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) is memory that stores BIOS
configuration information. CMOS is actually a type of computer chip, and its best
known use is to store BIOS configuration data. The term “CMOS” is frequently used to
refer to the storage location of the BIOS configuration information, rather than to the
chip-manufacturing technology.
BIOS configuration settings

Setting BIOS configuration values is normally a “set and forget” operation. On most
systems, you don’t need to configure anything; the settings from the manufacturer have
been configured to meet the needs of the system. However, you might need to configure
the BIOS when you set up the computer for the first time or when you add new
hardware. Other than that, you typically don’t need to modify the BIOS configuration.
To configure BIOS settings, you use the CMOS setup utility.
Component information
If you ever need basic hardware information, the CMOS setup utility provides data on
the following components:
• RAM — The amount of memory installed, the amount available, the speed, and
the type of memory.
• Hard drive — The type of hard disks and their connection types.
• Optical drive — The type of optical drives and their connection types.
• CPU — The manufacturer, type, and speed of the CPU. You might also see
information about any CPU caches.
Configurable settings
Typical BIOS configuration settings include:
• Date and time — Sets the system date and time.
• Boot sequence — Specifies the order of devices that the BIOS searches when
looking for an operating system to load.
• CPU options — Specifies the type of CPU installed in your system, and
configures clock speed and voltage settings.
• Optical drive options — Specifies which drives (CD and DVD), and in which
order, the system should boot from. You can also typically enable, disable, and
configure optical drive options.
• Floppy drive options — Specifies which floppy drives, and in which order, the
system should attempt to boot from. These include both internal floppy drives
and external floppy drives, such as USB. You can also typically enable, disable,
and configure floppy drive options.
• Hard drive options — Specifies the hard drive’s type, size, and geometry, and
enables or disables onboard hard drive controllers.
• Serial port options — Sets configuration options, such as device addresses and
communication modes.
• Parallel port options — Specifies whether to enable unidirectional or
bidirectional printing, and configures ECP (Extended Capabilities Parallel port)
and EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) settings.
• Integrated devices — Enables or disables integrated devices, such as video
adapter, network adapter functionality, and ports, such as USB, LPT, Serial, and
PS/2.
• Performance features — Configures performance features, such as enabling or
disabling multiple CPU core technologies and setting HDD acoustic mode.
• Plug and Play — Enables or disables hardware support for Plug and Play
features.
• Power management options — Specifies whether to enable hardware-based

power management features. Typically, you must choose a set of supported
power management standards, such as APM (Advanced Power Management) or
ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface), as well as “wake up”
options, such as whether to wake up the computer when the modem rings.
• Security — Enables or disables hardware-based passwords, set passwords,
configure intrusion alerts, and enables or disables Trusted Platform Module
(TPM) hard disk encryption and LoJack, which is usually disabled by default on
laptops that have the tracking software installed by default.
• Virtualization support — Enables or disables hardware-assisted virtualization
(HAV) to support virtualization software.
• Virus detection — Enables or disables hardware-based virus detection.
Monitoring
Some CMOS setup utilities provide a monitoring or diagnostic service that provides
system health data, including the following information:
• Temperature — The temperature of the CPU.
• Fan speeds — The speed of the cooling fans.
• Intrusion detection — Information on whether the computer case has been
opened.
• Voltage — CPU voltage settings.
• Clock — The clock speed of the CPU.
• Bus speed — System bus speed.
This information is useful if you need to troubleshoot performance issues or you want to
make any adjustments to improve performance, such as adjusting the clock speed.
BIOS configuration procedure

To configure the BIOS:
1 If necessary, shut down your PC.
2 From a powered-off state, boot your PC.
3 At the appropriate time in the boot sequence, press the key combination that
opens the CMOS setup utility on your system.
4 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to configure your system.
5 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to save the new configuration
data to CMOS memory.
Do it! C-1: Examining your BIOS settings

1 If necessary, shut down your PC Don’t put the computer in hibernation or sleep
mode. You must turn it all the way off.
2 Turn on the computer
3 At the appropriate time in the boot

sequence, press the key
combination that opens the
CMOS setup utility on your
system
4 Explore your computer system’s To determine its capabilities. Each BIOS

setup utility manufacturer provides similar setup options.
5 Exit and save your configuration Your system automatically restarts when you’re
changes done.
BIOS updates
Explanation The BIOS is provided in a form of a memory chip that doesn’t lose its contents when
the power is turned off. The BIOS can be implemented either in ROM (read-only
memory) or flash memory (a type of electronically reprogrammable memory chip).
• ROM-based BIOS is programmed at the factory. This is an older technology.
You can’t change this kind of BIOS without replacing the chip itself.
• Using a special program provided by the computer (or BIOS) manufacturer, you
can update a flash-memory-based BIOS without changing the BIOS chip. This
action is often called “flashing the BIOS.”
Usually, the BIOS version that ships with your PC is all you ever need. However, you
might need to upgrade your BIOS in the following situations:
• There are device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer identifies as
being caused by BIOS problems.
• There are device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than the
BIOS. Additionally, you have exhausted all other troubleshooting avenues in
trying to fix the problems.
• You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your system,
aren’t supported by your BIOS.
BIOS update sources

BIOS manufacturers don’t provide BIOS updates directly to consumers. Instead, these
companies provide the BIOS to computer manufacturers, who build it into their
computers.
The BIOS manufacturers give the BIOS to PC manufacturers in an incomplete state.
The PC manufacturers make final modifications to tailor the BIOS to their exact
hardware. This tailored BIOS is what’s shipped to you in your new PC. For this reason,
BIOS updates must come from your PC’s manufacturer, not from the original
equipment manufacturer.
Determining the BIOS version

You can find the version of the BIOS installed in your system by using the Windows
System Information tool or running the DirectX Diagnostic Tool (DxDiag.exe.) To
determine the version of BIOS installed in your Windows system:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs (or Programs), Accessories, System Tools,
System Information.
2 Record the value listed in the BIOS Version/Date field. As shown in Exhibit
2-14, this field lists BIOS version data, which you can use to determine if a
newer version is available on your PC maker’s Web site.
3 If it’s present, record the value listed in the SMBIOS (System Management
BIOS) field. The SMBIOS is used by PC inventorying programs to collect data
about your computer. SMBIOS updates are usually included with BIOS updates.
Not all PCs include the SMBIOS.
Exhibit 2-14: The System Information utility displays the BIOS version
Researching BIOS updates

To determine if there is a BIOS update for your system:
1 Visit your PC manufacturer’s Web site and navigate to its support pages to
locate the BIOS update files.
2 Compare the version number and release date with the information reported by
the System Information tool to determine if a new BIOS version is available.
3 Read the support materials to determine if the update is appropriate for your
situation. If so, download the installation file for the new BIOS version. Make
sure you choose the version that matches your PC model.
4 If it’s not part of the BIOS installation file, download the appropriate BIOS
flashing utility from your PC manufacturer’s Web site. Make sure you choose
the version that matches your PC model and operating system.
Flashing the BIOS

To update the BIOS in your system:
1 Download the installation file for the new BIOS version. Make sure you choose
the version that matches your PC model.
2 If it’s not part of the BIOS installation file, download the appropriate BIOS
flashing utility from your PC manufacturer’s Web site. Make sure you choose
the version that matches your PC model and operating system.
3 Close all open applications.
4 Open the flashing utility and follow the instructions it provides to update your
BIOS.
5 Restart your PC when prompted.
Do it! C-2: Researching BIOS updates for your PC

1 Boot your computer If necessary.
2 Log on to Windows 7 as
!pass1234
3 Click Start and choose To open the System Information utility.

All Programs, Accessories,
System Tools,
System Information
4 Determine your current BIOS Manufacturer:

(and SMBIOS, if present) version, Version:
and record those details here:
Date:
Close System Information
5 Visit the support Web site for

your PC’s manufacturer
6 Determine the latest version of the

BIOS for the make and model of
your PC
Is there a newer BIOS version

available for your PC?
7 Read the manufacturer’s

information about the BIOS
update
Should you update?
8 Close your Web browser

Topic D: Expansion cards

# Objective
1.4 Install and configure expansion cards.

• Sound cards • Storage cards
• Video cards • Modem cards
• Network cards • Wireless/cellular cards
• Serial and parallel cards • TV tuner cards
• USB cards • Video capture cards
• Firewire cards • Riser cards
Installing expansion cards

Explanation To install an expansion card, you must consider how to handle the cards safely, as well
as how to configure the device if PnP doesn’t do it for you.
Safe handling
Expansion cards are sensitive to ESD (electrostatic discharge). You should always
follow ESD precautions when working with these cards or any device that must be
installed inside a PC’s chassis. When handling expansion cards, follow these guidelines:
• Unplug the computer before opening it.
• Work at a static-safe workstation, which includes a grounded work surface that
is not prone to a buildup of static charges. Such workstations sometimes provide
built-in antistatic wrist straps or grounded points to which you can connect wrist
straps.
• Ground yourself to the chassis before touching internal components.
• Keep expansion cards inside static-protective bags or packaging until you’re
ready to install them.
• Handle cards by their edges or slot cover plates. Don’t touch board components,
traces, or edge-connector pins.
Drivers
Drivers are utilities that enable a device’s functionality. Every expansion device or
adapter card in your PC requires a driver. Some drivers are supplied with the operating
system. Other devices require drivers supplied by the device manufacturer.
Device vendors often supply their drivers to Microsoft. If Microsoft’s Windows
Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) determines that the driver doesn’t destabilize
Windows, they digitally sign the driver. At that point, Microsoft either includes the
driver in the operating system files or makes the driver available on the Windows
Update Web site. Sometimes, however, you need to use the driver supplied with your
expansion device, either on a CD that comes with it or on the vendor’s Web site.
Riser cards
As shown in Exhibit 2-15, a riser card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard.
Unlike a daughter board, the purpose of a riser card is to provide additional expansion
slots or sockets. Riser cards are most often used with special, small motherboards
designed for small cases.
Exhibit 2-15: An example of a riser card
Inserting cards
This information applies to the types of expansion cards described in the following
table.
Expansion card Provides connection to
Sound Speakers, headphones, and sound recording equipment.
Video Monitors and other display devices.
Network Home, school, office, or public network, and the Internet.
Serial and parallel Printers, video displays, and any other devices that support serial
and parallel transmissions.
USB Tablets, storage devices, smart phones, MP3 players, printers,

scanners, and any other devices that support USB transmissions.
FireWire MP3 players, printers, storage devices, and any other devices that
support FireWire transmissions.
Storage External hard drives, card readers, and any device that provides
external storage capability.
Modem Telephone lines for Internet access.
Wireless/cellular Wireless and cellular network for local network or Internet access.
TV tuner Display television signals.
Video capture Devices that capture and record video, such as video from TV
signals.
Although exact steps might vary for specific hardware, you generally follow these steps
to install an expansion card in a PC:
1 If you’re not using a PnP-compatible expansion card or operating system,
determine the available system resources (IRQs, I/O addresses, and so forth).
Configure the DIP switches or jumpers on the card, as necessary, to assign
available system resources to it.
If you’re using a PnP-compatible card and operating system, the vendor might
direct you to run an installation utility before installing the device. This
installation program puts the necessary drivers in a location where Windows can
find them, when you’re done installing the device. If appropriate, run that setup
program.
2 Shut down the PC, unplug it, and open the case. You might want to remove any
peripheral cables before opening the case. You might need to do so simply to
move the PC to a convenient work location. Removing the cables also prevents
static discharges from traveling from the PC to the peripheral. Also, doing so
prevents an electrical fault in the peripheral from conducting to the PC while
you’re working on it.
3 Locate an empty and available expansion slot of the correct type.
4 Remove the cover for that slot. These covers are generally either screwed in
place or held by spring-clips.
5 If necessary, move or remove wires or other expansion cards that are in the way,
so that you can access the slot.
6 If you need to connect wire assemblies to the expansion board—not to its back
slot cover plate, but to the board itself—connect that end of the wire assembly
before installing the card. That way, you can easily reach the connector and be
sure you’re installing the wire assembly in its correct orientation. Connect the
other end after you’ve installed the card.
7 Begin inserting the end of the edge connector that’s farthest from the slot cover.
When the edge connector is level with the slot, gently push the card into place in
the slot. This helps you line up the connector correctly. Inserting the card at an
angle is usually easier than pushing it straight into the slot.
8 Fix the card in place with screws or clips, as appropriate to the case’s design.
9 Connect any wiring assemblies, including those you temporarily removed to
install this card.
10 Close the case, connect peripherals (if necessary), and start the system.
11 Depending on the operating system, OS version, and adapter card technology,
configure the card. If you’re using PnP-compatible components, PnP handles
this for you.
12 If necessary, install required drivers. If you have to install drivers yourself, you
most likely need to configure them to use the same hardware resources you
configured the card to use.
When you’re done, some devices and operating system versions require you to restart
the computer. This step fully loads the drivers and configures the operating system to
support the new device.
Video adapter slots

Some video adapters are built into the motherboard. Such integrated video cards provide
all of the regular video adapter features without taking up an expansion slot. This design
is common on low-end systems in which the manufacturer’s main goal is to make the
machine as inexpensive to the customer as possible. The BIOS often includes functions
to disable the integrated video adapter. You might do this if you suspect a problem with
it or if you want to use a specialized add-in adapter. For example, gamers often use
very-high-performance aftermarket video adapters to speed up their games.
Other machines most commonly have three types of slots in which the video adapter
might be installed. These are PCI, AGP, and PCIe slots.
Do it! D-1: Installing a video adapter card

1 If specified by the adapter’s To copy the driver installation files to your hard
manufacturer, run the adapter’s disk, where Windows can find them.
setup utility
2 If necessary, shut down your PC Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.
and open its case
3 If a video adapter is already in an

expansion slot, remove that
adapter
4 Install the video adapter
5 Close the PC case
6 If your PC has an integrated video You’ll need to disable the onboard video
adapter, boot the PC and load the adapter.
system’s BIOS setup program
Disable the onboard video adapter

and save your changes
7 If your PC doesn’t have an

integrated video adapter, or after
you’ve disabled the onboard
adapter, start your PC
8 Log on as your ADMIN## user
9 If necessary, configure the driver You’ll probably have to choose a resolution and
color depth at which you want the driver to
operate.
10 Remove the video adapter and Unless your instructor directs you to do
reinstall or re-enable the original otherwise.
adapter
Sound cards
Explanation The sound card you use must be compatible with the expansion bus in your computer.
For example, you’ll need a PCI sound card if your computer has only PCI slots available.
Many motherboards include integrated sound card functionality.
CD audio connection
Older internal CD drives include an audio-out cable that you can connect to your sound
card. When you do so, you can play audio CDs in your CD drive and have the sound
played through your PC speakers. When you install the sound card or the CD drive, if
you don’t connect this cable, you won’t be able to play audio CDs, as no sound will
come from the speakers.
Drivers
As with any add-on hardware, sound cards require device drivers. Typically, you install
the drivers before installing the hardware. This process puts the driver files where
Windows (specifically, Plug and Play) can find them after you install the card.
Do it! D-2: Installing a sound card

1 If specified by the adapter’s To copy the driver installation files to your hard
manufacturer, run the adapter’s disk, where Windows can find them.
setup utility
and open its case
What type of bus will your sound

card connect to?
3 If a sound card is already in an

expansion slot, remove the card
4 Install the sound card
5 Close the PC case
6 If your PC has an integrated sound You’ll need to disable the onboard sound card.
card, boot the PC and load the
system’s BIOS setup program
Disable the onboard sound card

and save your changes
7 If your PC doesn’t have an

integrated sound card, or after
you’ve disabled the onboard
adapter, start the PC
9 If necessary, configure the driver
10 Connect the external speakers and

plug their power adapter into an
outlet
11 In the notification area, To display the volume control.

click
Drag the volume slider up or The computer should play a “ding” sound
down and release it through your speakers.
12 Remove the sound card and Unless your instructor directs you to do
reinstall or re-enable the original otherwise.
card
Do it! D-3: Installing an expansion card

1 If specified by the adapter’s
manufacturer, run the adapter’s
setup utility
and open its case
3 If necessary, remove an unused

adapter from its expansion slot
4 Install the new adapter
5 Close the PC case
6 Start your PC
8 If necessary, configure the driver,

and use Device Manager to verify
that the new adapter is functional
9 If necessary, remove the new Unless your instructor directs you to do

adapter and reinstall the original otherwise.
adapter
Unit summary: Motherboards and CPUs

Topic A In this topic, you learned about motherboards and their various components. You
learned common motherboard form factors, including ATX and ITX. You learned
about expansion slots, such as PCIe and Mini PCI. You learned to identify slots for
RAM and CPUs, and you learned about front panel connectors, such as those used for
USB and audio.
Topic B In this topic, you learned that CPUs are the chips that process instructions, manipulate
data, and control the interaction of other PC components. You examined the
characteristics of popular CPUs, as well as the CPU features that determine its
performance characteristics. You examined the various CPU packages and the
corresponding slots and sockets into which they’re inserted. Finally, you learned that
CPUs generate an enormous amount of heat and require active and passive cooling
mechanisms to prevent overheating.
Topic C In this topic, you learned that the BIOS is a set of programs that control the most basic
hardware interactions within your PC. The BIOS is stored on a chip that isn’t erased
when you turn off the power. You learned how to access and use the BIOS setup utility
and how to update the BIOS.
Topic D In this topic, you learned how to install expansion devices, such as video and sound
cards, into desktop computer systems.
Review questions
1 Which type of bus connects the processor to the main memory?
A Address bus C Internal bus
B Data bus D Generic bus
2 A(n) ________ card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide
additional expansion slots or sockets.
Riser.
3 By convention, PCI slots are typically which color?
A Brown C Tan
B Gray D White
4 Typically, the PCI bus is a(n) ____-bit bus.
32
5 The AGP bus is a(n)____-bit bus.
32
6 The bus speed of a 2x, 4x, or 8x AGP card is _____ MHz.
66
7 Which is not a component of a CPU?
A Bus architecture C Execution unit
B Control unit D Register
8 The math coprocessor was the predecessor to which CPU component?

A ACL C FPU
B Core D Register
9 A single-core processor has one of what component?
A Control unit C FPU
B Execution unit D Register
10 ______________ are very small, very fast, memory locations for holding
instructions or units of data.
Registers
11 Which processor caching level is the fastest for accessing data?
A Level 1 C Level 3
B Level 2 D All are equal
12 Which of the following performance features can overheat the processor?
A Multiprocessing D Superpipelining
B Overclocking E Throttling
C Pipelining
13 True or false? Most current processors have both L1 and L2 caches.
True
14 Which package type has no pins, but uses small raised contacts instead?
A LGA C PDIP
B OOI D SECC
15 True or false? CPUs of the same class are interchangeable. For example, you can
replace any Pentium 4 CPU on a motherboard with any other Pentium 4–class CPU.
False. You must match the physical, electronic, and performance characteristics of a CPU to the
motherboard.
16 True or false? Thermal compound is basically a grease-like fluid used between the
CPU and its heat sink or cooling fins.
True. The compound improves heat flow by closely mating the CPU die to the heat sink or fan.
17 Which cooling system relies on small tubes filled with a small amount of fluid?
A Cooling fins C Heat sinks
B Heat pipes D Peltier coolers
18 Which cooling system uses an electronic component that gets colder when voltage
is applied?
A Cooling fins C Heat sinks
B Heat pipes D Peltier coolers
19 You open your PC and look at the CPU. How can you tell if it uses active or passive
cooling?
If there is just a heat sink on the CPU, it uses passive cooling. If there’s a fan attached to the
CPU, it uses active cooling.
20 Before the Pentium CPU was introduced, what was the most common CPU cooling
mechanism?
A simple fan, typically part of the power supply, was all that was used with the 80286 and 80386
CPUs. Some 80386 and most 80486 CPUs also used cooling fins.
21 True or false? The same key combination get you access to the system utility on all
personal computers, except laptops.
False. BIOS manufacturers provide various ways to access the system setup utility.
22 Which isn’t a reason to update your system BIOS?
A Your system has device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer
identifies as being caused by BIOS problems.
B Your system has device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than
the BIOS.
C Your PC manufacturer has sent out a technical document notifying you of an
update.
D You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your
motherboard, aren’t supported by your BIOS.
23 True or false? Every BIOS manufacturer uses the same flashing utility.
False. Flashing utilities are proprietary to the BIOS manufacturer, and you should always use the
correct version for your BIOS.
24 What is the best source for BIOS updates?
The PC manufacturer’s Web site.
25 Name the typical connectors on a sound card.
Typically, sound cards provide speaker-out, line-out, microphone-in, line-in, and MIDI/game port
connectors.
26 True or false? A TV tuner card allows you to record your favorite television
programs on your hard disk.
False. A TV tuner card allows you only to receive the TV signal for your favorite television shows
and watch them. To record the show on your hard disk, you need a video capture card. Some,
though not all, video capture cards include TV tuners.
Motherboards and CPUs

In this activity, you’ll practice identifying appropriate CPU and motherboard
requirements for a PC.
1 Given a budget of $1000, use the www.motherboards.org Web site to plan the
highest-capability PC that you could purchase. Focus on CPU and motherboard
performance and form factor. Make sure your PC could support a sufficient number
of add-on devices, such as hard drives and CD/DVD drives.
Record the specifications of the system you’d purchase here:
CPU (type, model, speed): _____________________________________________
Motherboard (make and model): ________________________________________
Form factor and drive bay capacity: ______________________________________
2 If available, examine the motherboard and CPU of a computer in your room, other
than your lab station computer. Record the following information about this
computer:
CPU (type, model, speed): _____________________________________________
Motherboard (make and model): ________________________________________
Form factor: ________________________________________________________
Ports (serial, parallel, and so forth): ______________________________________
Integrated peripherals: ________________________________________________
BIOS settings
In this activity, you’ll practice support tasks related to the computer system’s BIOS.
1 Change the boot order, so that your PC attempts to start from disks in this order:
CD-ROM drive, hard drive, floppy drive (if present).
2 Test your work by inserting a bootable CD in the CD-ROM drive and a bootable
floppy disk in the floppy drive. Your computer should boot from the CD, even
though your hard disk is bootable.
Expansion cards
In this activity, you’ll practice completing support tasks for expansion cards.
1 Install the adapter card provided by your instructor. If necessary, install device
drivers. Verify that the card is functional.
3–1
Unit 3
Memory and physical storage
A Compare and contrast RAM types and

features.
B Install and configure storage devices and

use appropriate media.
Topic A: RAM types and features

# Objective
1.3 Compare and contrast RAM types and features.

• Types
– DDR – SDRAM – DIMM
– DDR2 – SODIMM – Parity vs. non-parity
– DDR3 – RAMBUS – ECC vs. non-ECC
• RAM configurations
– Single channel vs. dual channel vs. triple channel
– Single sided vs. double sided
• RAM compatibility and speed
Computer memory systems

Explanation Memory, commonly called RAM (random access memory), is the hardware component
that stores instructions and data, as the CPU works with it. RAM is implemented as
computer chips attached to a specialized module.
Physical memory, or primary memory, is different from storage devices, or secondary
memory, such as hard drives, floppy drives, and optical discs. Storage refers to the
locations where data—including your applications—is held in the long term. Data in
storage remains there when your computer is turned off.
Additionally, some types of chips don’t lose their contents when power is removed. For
example, CompactFlash cards—commonly used with digital cameras—are simply
computer chips in a convenient package. Yet a CF card is storage, not memory, because
you use it for the long-term storage of data (most often photos, but you can store other
files on a CF card, too).
Importance of RAM
Having sufficient RAM in your system is critical for the following reasons:
• Performance — Having more RAM almost always leads to improved computer
performance. When you have insufficient RAM, the CPU must work harder
shuffling data between RAM and the page file.
• Software support — Many applications require a minimum amount of RAM.
Having less RAM than specified can prevent you from running these
applications. Or, if they do run on your system, they perform so badly as to be
unpleasant to use.
Poor-quality or defective RAM is a major source of system crashes. One bad memory
storage location out of the millions of such locations in your RAM chips can bring your
system down. Your computer tests the RAM during the POST, but that test isn’t
exhaustive, and problem chips can slip through.
Memory and physical storage 3–3
Additionally, the type of RAM your system uses, as well as the maximum amount of
RAM supported by your motherboard, has a direct effect on your system’s
upgradeability. Make sure to buy a system that will support your future RAM needs, as
well as those of your current applications.
Measuring memory
The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called cells. Each cell stores a single
bit of data. A bit is a 0 or a 1, representing an on/off or yes/no binary state.
The data you work with and the programs you run are made up of millions and billions
of individual bits of data. Describing such large units is confusing and inconvenient.
Instead, computer professionals use various units of memory storage to describe
memory and storage amounts.
Basic memory units

The following table lists the most basic units of memory storage.
Name Number of bits Number of values that can be

stored in this much memory
Bit 1 2 (a zero or one, equivalent to 21)
Nibble 4 16 (24)
Byte 8 256 (28)
Word Depends on the processor. Varies, but a 32-bit word offers

With a 32-bit CPU, a word is 32 bits. 4,294,967,296 possible values (232)
On a 64-bit CPU, a word is 64 bits.
Larger units
Saying that a computer has 2,147,483,648 bits of RAM is more confusing and less
convenient than saying it has 2 GB of memory. The common units of memory are listed
in the following table.
Name Abbreviation Number of bytes
Byte B 1 byte, which equals 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes, or 210 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 KB or 220 bytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 MB or 230 bytes
Terabyte TB 1024 GB or 240 bytes

Memory types
Memory can be classified in various ways:
• Volatile vs. nonvolatile
• Static vs. dynamic
• Asynchronous vs. synchronous
Volatile and nonvolatile memory

Volatile memory loses its contents when power isn’t present. Nonvolatile memory
doesn’t lose its contents when power is removed. The following table lists the various
types of common memory, categorized as volatile or nonvolatile.
Type Volatile or Description

nonvolatile
RAM Volatile The working memory for your computer. Because RAM is volatile, its
contents are lost when power is removed, even for a very brief period.
CMOS Volatile The storage location for BIOS configuration data. CMOS requires a
battery to retain its information. Without the battery, CMOS loses its
contents. Thus, despite what many sources say, it’s volatile memory.
ROM Nonvolatile Read-only memory. ROM is used to store the BIOS and other
programs and data that must be preserved when the computer is
unplugged. ROM must be written at the factory.
PROM Nonvolatile Programmable read-only memory. PROM must be programmed at the

factory and can be programmed only once using a PROM burner.
EPROM Nonvolatile Erasable programmable read-only memory. You erase the contents of
an EPROM chip by exposing its glass window to ultraviolet light.
Then you can program the chip by using a PROM burner.
EEPROM Nonvolatile Electronically erasable programmable read-only memory. You can

erase and program the contents of an EEPROM chip by using a burner
or special circuitry within your computer.
Flash Nonvolatile (Similar to EEPROMs.) Chips that don’t lose their memory when
power is removed and can be burned using burners or circuitry within
your computer. Flash memory is written block by block.
Dynamic and static memory

Some types of RAM lose their contents quickly, even when power is present. Devices
that use this type of memory must continually refresh the contents of the chips, or data
is lost.
Such memory is called dynamic RAM, or DRAM. DRAM must be refreshed hundreds of
times per second. Circuits using DRAM must include the components necessary to
refresh its contents, adding complexity to the overall system. Due to the design of
DRAM circuitry, simply reading a location in memory results in its being refreshed.
In contrast, static RAM, or SRAM, doesn’t need to be refreshed. Due to the way SRAM
chips are built, this memory holds its contents until power is removed. SRAM chips can
be read more quickly than DRAM chips can.
Main system memory is implemented with DRAM. Cache memory and CMOS memory
are most often implemented with SRAM.
DRAM chips are as much as four times smaller than SRAM chips per unit of storage.
DRAM circuitry is simpler, making DRAM considerably cheaper than SRAM to
manufacture. The refresh circuitry is simple and inexpensive to implement, too.
Thus, DRAM is much cheaper to use than SRAM when large amounts of memory are
needed, such as for main system memory. SRAM is considerably faster, which makes it
well suited to the smaller level 2 and level 3 cache memories that typically use it.
Asynchronous and synchronous memory

Asynchronous DRAM, or ADRAM, isn’t synchronized to the system clock. Regardless of
the clock’s speed, asynchronous DRAM takes the same amount of time to access and
return data from a memory cell.
In contrast, synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. Modern
SDRAM returns data from a memory cell in a single cycle of the system clock. (Older
SDRAMs required multiple clock cycles per access.)
SDRAM is faster than asynchronous DRAM and keeps pace with the rest of your
computer better. For this reason, most modern computers use SDRAM for system
memory. The SDRAM you install must be capable of operating at your system’s bus
speed.
Memory access
To access the data in a particular memory cell, the CPU must have the address of that
cell. Although memory cells could be arranged in one long line, giving each cell an
individual sequential address, such a design would lead to slow and large chips.
Instead, chip designers arrange cells into rows and columns, much like the cells in a
spreadsheet. To read the data of any cell, the CPU needs both row and column
addresses.
The exact way that CPUs address memory, along with many other factors, leads to a
confusing array of abbreviations describing memory types. The following table
compares the types of RAM found in older and more current computers. The
technologies are listed in approximately increasing order of performance.
Abbreviation RAM type Description
DRAM Dynamic RAM Older technology, not used in modern computers.

The CPU sends the row address and then sends the
column address to access a cell. The CPU must repeat
this process for every cell.
FPM Fast Page Mode The CPU sends a row address, followed by a column
address. If the CPU needs more cells from the same
row, it can send just the column address.
VRAM Video RAM A modified version of FPM. VRAM has two ports;
one port can be read to refresh the image on the
screen, while the other can be used to generate the
next image to be displayed.
EDO Extended Data Out Works essentially like FPM, except that a new cell
access request can begin before a previous request has
finished.
BEDO Burst Extended Data Out Adds pipelining technology to EDO to improve
performance. This technology never caught on.
SDR SDRAM Synchronous DRAM Is synchronized with the system clock to improve
performance. Internal interleaving enables overlapped
accesses, as with EDO and BEDO.
DRDRAM Direct Rambus DRAM (Formerly called just RDRAM for Rambus DRAM.)
Uses a 16-bit data bus running at up to 800 MHz,
transferring data on both the rise and fall of the clock
signal.
DDR SDRAM Double Data Rate Doubles the transfer rate by transferring data on both
the rise and fall of the clock signal (compared to
SDRAM, which transfers just on the rise).
DDR2 SDRAM Double Data Rate 2 Doubles the transfer rate of DDR SDRAM by placing
twice as much data on the rising edge and twice as
much on the falling edge.
DDR3 SDRAM Double Data Rate 3 Doubles the transfer rate of DDR2 SDRAM.
Access time
It takes a certain amount of time to access the data in memory, regardless of type or
technology. Of course, some memory types are faster and some are slower.
All memory has an initial latency, the amount of time between when an address (of the
data being requested) arrives on the bus and when the memory is ready to return that
data. After initial latency, a certain time passes before the data is retrieved and put onto
the bus, so that the CPU can use it.
Access time is the overall amount of time between when a request is made and when the
data is available on the bus. In modern RAM, this time is very short, sometimes as little
as a few nanoseconds. A nanosecond is a billionth of a second.
Memory speed
Although RAM speeds are often measured in nanoseconds (ns), you’re more likely to
see modern RAM rated by megahertz (MHz). A hertz is a cycle per second, so a
megahertz is a million cycles per second. The net result is that the MHz rating of RAM
is simply 1 divided by its speed in nanoseconds; alternatively, you can divide 1 by the
MHz rating to determine the speed in nanoseconds.
Overall speed
While you might see a module rated at 10 ns and another rated at 20 ns, you shouldn’t
conclude that the 10 ns module is twice as fast. DRAM ratings don’t include the initial
latency required for address decoding. Furthermore, today’s DRAM, in the form of
SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. The actual speed at which your memory operates
is controlled by your system’s bus speed, which is determined by your motherboard’s
chipset and clock speed.
In reality, the speed rating of a memory module represents a maximum speed at which it
can operate. You simply need to choose memory that’s fast enough to keep up with the
rest of your system. Doing so today is easier, because SDRAM modules are rated to
match the front-side bus speed used with the CPU and motherboard.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth, or maximum theoretical throughput (or just throughput), is the amount of
data that can be transferred to or from memory per second. It’s perhaps even more
important than a raw speed rating. Overall bandwidth is determined by the speed of the
RAM itself, plus the chip’s memory technology design. For example, an SDRAM
module operating at 100 MHz has a lower bandwidth than a 100 MHz DDR module
does.
Multi-channel memory access

The number of channels is the number of pathways between the CPU and memory.
Theoretically, the more channels, the greater the data flow is between the CPU and
memory. Therefore, dual-channel memory would provide greater data flow than single-
channel memory, and triple-channel memory more flow than both single-channel and
dual-channel. While that’s the theory, it doesn’t always happen that way in the real
world. Often the difference between a single-channel and dual-channel setup is almost
immeasurable, providing no noticeable different in performance for a typical end user.
To use multi-channel access, the motherboard must support the level of access (dual or
triple), and the memory sticks must be similar enough to enable them to use multiple
channels. Otherwise, the memory will use the speed of the slowest chip.
Speed ratings
How can you know whether a memory module will be able to keep up with your
system? Memory and motherboard manufacturers have created a speed notation
standard you can use to choose the correct memory.
The following table lists the common PC memory types, along with their technologies,
single-channel-mode bandwidths, and speed ratings.
Module Chips Bandwidth, Front-side System

or maximum bus speed clock speed
throughput
(in MBps)
PC100 SDRAM 800 100 MHz 100 MHz
PC133 SDRAM 1000 133 MHz 133 MHz
PC1600 DDR-200 1600 200 MHz 100 MHz
PC2100 DDR-266 2100 266 MHz 133 MHz
PC2700 DDR-333 2700 333 MHz 166 MHz
PC3200 DDR-400 3200 400 MHz 200 MHz
PC2-3200 DDR2-400 3200 400 MHz 100 MHz
PC2-4200 DDR2-533 4200 533 MHz 133 MHz
PC2-5300 DDR2-667 5300 667 MHz 166 MHz
PC2-6400 DDR2-800 6400 800 MHz 200 MHz
PC2-8500 DDR2-1066 8500 1066 MHz 266 MHz
PC3-6400 DDR3-800 6400 800 MHz 100 MHz
PC3-8500 DDR3-1066 8500 1066 MHz 133 MHz
PC3-10600 DDR3-1333 10600 1333 MHz 166 MHz
PC3-12800 DDR3-1600 12800 1600 MHz 200 MHz
PC3-14900 DDR3-1866 14900 1866 MHz 233 MHz
PC3-17000 DDR3-2133 17000 2133 MHz 266 MHz
Consult your PC owner’s manual to determine which type of memory the PC can
support, or match new modules to existing ones. Then purchase that type of memory.
Often, your system supports faster memory (a type with a higher rating) than its
minimum required type. For example, if your system requires PC2100 memory, you can
probably install PC2700 memory without a problem. However, if the system requires
PC2700, you can’t install PC2100 memory. Make sure to consult your owner’s manual
before installing any type of memory.
Do it! A-1: Identifying memory characteristics

1 You want to install the fastest memory you can in your system. Should you install
DDR2 or DDR3 memory?
2 What does the number in a PC rating, such as PC2100, tell you about that
memory?
3 Which of these memory types are volatile memory? (Choose all that apply.)
A RAM
B Flash
C EEPROM
D CMOS
4 Which of these memory types is synchronous memory?

A SDRAM
B SRAM
C EEPROM
D CMOS
5 One gigabyte is how many bytes?

Packaging
Explanation In the very early days of PC computing, you purchased individual DRAM chips and
installed them into sockets on your motherboard or video card, an example of which is
Exhibit 3-1: Individual memory chips installed on an early video card
That era passed with the release of the IBM AT computer. Since that time, DRAM chips
have been factory-installed on small circuit boards, called packages. You install the
package, more commonly called a module, into a slot in your computer.
Modules are easier to handle and work with than are individual chips. A memory
module has metal pins, or contacts, along its bottom edge. When inserted into the
appropriate motherboard socket, these pins complete the electrical connections between
the computer’s circuitry and the memory module circuits.
Single- and double-sided modules

Early memory packages featured DRAM chips on just one side. Manufacturers quickly
learned how to double the amount of memory in a given area by installing DRAM on
both sides of the module.
Number of DRAM chips

Early module types had eight DRAM chips, one to store each bit in a byte of data.
Think back to the addressing schemes described earlier; while each DRAM chip can
store multiple rows of data, it stores just one column’s worth of data. Thus, eight chips
were required to store the eight bits of a byte that spanned a single row of data.
Thanks to ever-shrinking fabrication technologies, the number of chips on a module no
longer has a 1:1 chip-to-bit limit. A module might have two, four, or some other number
of chips yet hold massive quantities of data. For example, 4 x4 chips can be replaced by
just 2 x8 chips.
Package types
The following table lists the most common memory package (module) types. The
memory package type you use must match the memory slots on your motherboard. Two
common examples of PC memory modules are shown in Exhibit 3-2.
Note that 30-pin SIMMs are 8-bit devices, 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bit devices, and
DIMMs are 64-bit devices. You must install enough devices to satisfy the width of the
system data bus. For example, for a 64-bit Pentium class CPU, you install eight 30-pin
SIMMs, two 72-pin SIMMs, or one DIMM.
Package Pins Used in Description
SIMM 30 386-class desktops, Single inline memory module. A notch on one end
early Macintoshes ensures this module is inserted in the correct orientation.
SIMM 72 486 and early One notch in the middle and another notch at one end
Pentium desktops ensure this module is inserted in the correct orientation.
DIMM 100 Printers Dual inline memory module. Has 50 pins on the front
and 50 pins on the back. Two notches, one centered and
the other off-center, ensure correct installation.
DIMM 168 SDR SDRAM in Has 84 pins on the front and 84 pins on the back. Two
desktops notches, one centered and the other off-center, ensure
correct installation.
DIMM 184 DDR SDRAM in Has 92 pins in front and 92 pins in back. Single notch.
desktops
DIMM 240 DDR2 SDRAM in Supports 64-bit memory and processors. Has 120 front
desktops pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
DIMM 240 DDR3 SDRAM in Has 120 front pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
desktops
RIMM 184 Intel Pentium III Used with RDRAM chips and trademarked by Rambus.
Xeon and 16-bit RIMMs have 92 connectors on each side with 1
Pentium 4 systems mm pad spacing. 32-bit RIMMs have 232 pins.
RIMM is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for
"Rambus inline memory module.”
MICRODIMM 144 Subnotebook Micro dual inline memory module. Pins and notches may
computers vary.
SODIMM 144 Laptop and Small outline dual inline memory module. Has 72 front
notebook pins and 72 back pins. A single off-center notch ensures
computers correct installation.
Note: 32-bit SODIMMs have 72 or 144 pins. SODIMMs
with 144 or more pins are 64-bit devices.
SODIMM 200 DDR memory for Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single off-center
laptops/notebooks notch ensures correct installation.
SODIMM 200 DDR2 memory for Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single off-center
laptops/notebooks notch ensures correct installation. DDR and DDR2
SODIMMs are virtually indistinguishable in appearance.
SODIMM 204 DDR3 memory for Has 102 front pins and 102 back pins.
laptops/notebooks
Remember, as you saw earlier when examining memory speed ratings:

• PC100 and PC133 use SDRAM.
• PC1600, PC2100, PC2700, and PC3200 use DDR SDRAM.
• PC2-3200, PC2-4200, PC2-5300, PC2-6400, and PC28500 use DDR2 SDRAM.
• PC3-6400, PC3-8500, PC3-10600, PC3-12800, PC3-14900, and PC3-17000 use
DDR3 SDRAM.
Exhibit 3-2: A DDR or DDR2 SODIMM package from a laptop (note the notch
location) (left) and a 168-pin DIMM package from a desktop computer (right)
Memory error recovery

Memory errors occur, perhaps more frequently than any of us wants to know. However,
there are technologies that enable computer components to detect and even recover from
a memory error. These technologies are parity and error correcting code (ECC).
Parity
Parity is a method used to detect loss of integrity in bits of data stored in memory.
Consider a memory module that stores eight bits (a byte) of data in eight chips. If the
data in one or more chips goes bad, the entire byte becomes corrupt. To help detect
when an error occurs, a ninth bit, or parity bit, is added in a ninth chip.
In even parity, the parity bit is set to zero, if the sum of all the other bits is an even
number. In odd parity, the parity bit is set to one, if the sum of the bits is odd. To detect
whether the bit in one chip has gone bad, the computer recalculates parity after reading
the data and comparing the result to the value in the parity bit. When the parity bit is not
used and is always set to one, it’s called mark parity, and when the parity bit isn’t used
but is set to zero, it’s called space parity.
Exhibit 3-3: Two early SIMMs, one with parity support and one without
Unfortunately, with this simple scheme, your computer can’t tell which of the eight bits
in the byte was corrupted. It knows just that one of the bits has been changed.
Exhibit 3-3 shows two early SIMMs. One module, from a Macintosh, had just eight
DRAM chips and didn’t support parity. The other module, from a PC, had nine chips
and supported parity.
ECC
Error correcting code (ECC) permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred, but also to correct that error. As with parity, when the computer reads the data
from the module, it recalculates the ECC value and compares it to the value on the
module. If the values match, no errors have occurred. If they don’t, then by using other
calculations on the ECC value, the computer can determine what was changed and what
its original value was.
Use of parity and ECC in current computers

Early PCs used parity memory, while early Macintosh computers didn’t. PC aficionados
of the day claimed that as a reason for the PC’s superiority, but you could say that the
Macintosh was simply ahead of the curve. Modern computers of both platforms rarely
use parity or ECC memory.
In a move to save money, hardware designers have eliminated parity and ECC support
from most modern desktop and laptop computers. Designers hope that memory errors
won’t occur that frequently. To a lesser extent, memory errors can be detected with
software rather than hardware.
It’s cheaper to make a non-parity or non-ECC memory module than it is to make one
with those features. The difference is probably close to 11%, because designers can use
one fewer out of nine chips by not storing that parity bit or ECC code.
Server-class computers often do include ECC or parity. Take care when purchasing
memory modules for your computer. You must use modules that either support, or don’t
support, parity or ECC, as dictated by your system’s design.
Do it! A-2: Comparing RAM packaging

1 Identify the memory modules
supplied by your instructor. For
each one, note its type, the
number of its pins, and whether
it’s for a notebook or desktop
computer
2 You want to add more RAM to a

computer you own. What’s the
first step you should take?
3 With the instructor, your lab

partner, or another student in
class, debate the pros and cons of
using ECC memory in your
computer
Topic B: Storage devices and media

# Objective
1.5 Install and configure storage devices and use appropriate media.
• Optical drives
– CD-ROM
– DVD-ROM
– Blu-Ray
• Combo drives and burners
– CD-RW – BD-R
– DVD-RW – BD-RE
– Dual Layer DVD-RW
• Connection types
– External – Internal SATA, IDE and SCSI
ƕ USB ƕ IDE configuration and setup
(Master, Slave, Cable Select)
ƕ Firewire
ƕ SCSI IDs (0 – 15)
ƕ eSATA
– Hot swappable drives
ƕ Ethernet
• Hard drives
– Magnetic – 10,000 rpm
– 5400 rpm – 15,000 rpm
– 7200 rpm
• Solid state/flash drives
– Compact flash – Mini-SD
– SD – xD
– Micro-SD – SSD
• RAID types
– RAID 0 – RAID 5
– RAID 1 – RAID 10
• Floppy drive
• Tape drive
• Media capacity
– CD – Blu-Ray
– CD-RW – Tape
– DVD-RW – Floppy
– DVD – DL DVD
1.7 Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Physical connections
– SATA1 vs. SATA2 vs. SATA3, eSATA, IDE speeds
1.11 Identify connector types and associated cables.

• Device connectors and pin arrangements
– SATA – PATA
– eSATA ƕ IDE
– SCSI ƕ EIDE
– Floppy
• Device cable types
– SATA – SCSI
– eSATA ƕ 68pin vs. 50pin vs. 25pin
– IDE – Floppy
– EIDE
Storage device interfaces

Explanation Host bus adapter (HBA) is the formal name given to the expansion card or circuitry
integrated onto the motherboard that connects your PC to a storage device. In practice,
that term is usually reserved for use for more complex interfaces used by enterprise
systems, such as Fibre Channel storage networks. The term “adapter” is used when
referring to storage devices commonly found in PCs.
Common storage adapter interfaces include:
• The ATA/IDE family of:
– PATA
– SATA
– eSATA
• SCSI
Typically, internal storage devices will connect through one of these standards. External
storage devices may use one of these, or may use a more general purpose device
interface, such as USB or IEEE 1394.
ATA/IDE
The AT Attachment (ATA) interface, also commonly known as IDE, is an especially
popular drive interface thanks to good performance and low implementation costs for
manufacturers. ATA evolved from Western Digital’s Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
and was standardized in 1994 by ANSI as X3.221-1994.
ATA has undergone many revisions since its first release. It can be divided into two
categories: Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA). Currently, SATA has just
about replaced PATA in consumer PCs. PATA continues to be used in CompactFlash
storage applications. The following table describes various incarnations of the ATA
interface.
Standard Transfer Description Speed enhancements

rate
ATA 3.3–8.3 MBps The first ATA standard. Programmed Input Output
Supported only hard drives. (PIO) modes 0, 1, and 2;
single- and multi-word DMA.
Enhanced IDE, 13.3-16.6 MBps Proprietary extensions to the

Fast ATA, ATA specification developed
Fast ATA-2 by companies such as Western
Digital, Seagate, and Quantum.
SATA 1 Up to 1.5 Gbps Serial ATA—a serial bus Many enhancements, including
(SATA 150) (150 MBps) implementation of an ATA- a dual cable arrangement and
style interface. dedicated connections to each
device.
SATA 2 Up to 3 Gbps SATA Revision 2.0 Various design enhancements

(SATA 300) including improved support in
multitasking environments.
SATA 3 Up to 6 Gbps SATA Revision 3.0 Various design enhancements

(SATA 600) including improved support in
multitasking environments.
eSATA Up to 3 Gbps External SATA—a version of Competes against USB and

SATA designed for connecting FireWire interfaces. It’s faster
external SATA devices. than FireWire 400 and 800 but
not as fast as FireWire S3200.
eSATA has a shorter maximum
cable length: 2 meters.
PATA
Explanation Parallel ATA cables send data using 40-pin connectors. The following exhibits (Exhibit
3-4, Exhibit 3-5, Exhibit 3-6 ) show PATA motherboard connectors and PATA drive
cables and connectors. PATA is being replaced by the SATA standard.
Primary and secondary channels

Most motherboards made while PATA was the dominant standard included two built-in
channels, as shown in Exhibit 3-4. These are designated as the primary and secondary
channels. While not required, you would typically connect your primary hard drive as
the master device on the primary channel. For best performance, you would then
connect your optical drive to the secondary channel.
Exhibit 3-4: Primary and secondary PATA connectors on the motherboard

IDE cables
PATA (also referred to as IDE or EIDE) cables have a maximum allowable length of
only 18 inches according to the specification, though you might find 24-inch examples.
This short length is why you will normally see IDE cables only inside a computer case.
You won’t see these cables often at all in newer systems, though, because PATA has
been mostly replaced by SATA.
Each PATA cable supports two devices. These are typically called “master” and
“slave”, but despite the names both devices operate independently of one another. Each
PATA device has a set of jumpers or DIP switches enabling you to set its role as master,
slave, single drive, or automatically selected by its placement on the cable.
Later PATA standards used 80-wire drive cables, as shown in Exhibit 3-6. While these
used the same 40-pin connectors as earlier PATA cables, every alternating wire is
connected to ground, increasing signal quality and enabling higher speeds. You can use
an 80-wire cable with older devices, but high-speed PATA devices will suffer reduced
performance if used with a 40-wire cable.
Exhibit 3-5: Connectors on an IDE/EIDE cable
Exhibit 3-6: 40-wire (left) and high-speed 80-wire (right) PATA drive cables
SATA and eSATA

The SATA interface was designed to replace PATA, and includes a compatibility mode
so that to the operating system a SATA device appears and behaves much like a PATA
device without special drivers needed. Physically, however, they are entirely
incompatible, and cannot be interconnected without specialized adapters. Instead of
ribbon cables, SATA devices connect with thin cables that can extend to about 1 meter.
Additionally, a SATA cable supports only one device, with no jumper configuration
needed; correspondingly, SATA adapters typically have more connectors than PATA
adapters. A SATA cable with connectors is shown on the left in Exhibit 3-7.
Exhibit 3-7: SATA data cables (left) and eSATA connectors and cable (right)
eSATA cables and connectors are used to connect external SATA devices. The
connectors are similar to SATA connectors but different enough that you won’t confuse
them. eSATA cables run up to 2 meters. An example of an eSATA cable with
connectors is shown on the right in Exhibit 3-7.
SCSI
Explanation Internal SCSI connections use a ribbon cable with 68-pin connectors, like the one
shown in Exhibit 3-8. External SCSI devices use a cable with 50-pin connectors, shown
in Exhibit 3-9. Some older SCSI connections, particularly in Apple products, used 25-
pin connectors.
Exhibit 3-8: A SCSI ribbon cable with a 68-pin connector

Exhibit 3-9: External SCSI drive with SCSI ID selector and termination slide-switch
SCSI cables
SCSI typically uses a flat ribbon cable like IDE and floppy drives. Its length is not as
limited as those standards, but it’s still quite short. Earlier (Pre-1998, SCSI-1, 5 MB/s)
cables are limited to 6 meters for a single-ended host adapter and 25 meters for a
differential host adapter. Fast SCSI and Ultra SCSI cable lengths are limited to 3 meters
for single-ended host adapter and 25 meters for a differential host adapter. A low-
voltage differential interface can support cable lengths of 12 meters.
Do it! B-1: Distinguishing among storage interfaces

1 If necessary, shut down Windows
7 and power off your computer
2 Following all electrical safety and ESD precautions, open your PC’s case
3 Determine if your PC supports Locate the PATA connectors on the

PATA drives motherboard.
4 Determine if your PC supports Locate the SATA connectors on the

SATA drives motherboard.
5 Determine if your PC supports Look for the eSATA data connectors.

eSATA drives
6 Determine if your PC supports Look for the SCSI data and power connectors on
SCSI drives the motherboard.
7 Examine the selection of drives

and adapters provided by your
instructor. For each one,
determine its interface type.
Then rank them in increasing
order of performance.
CDs
Explanation CDs are 120 mm (12 cm) plastic discs that contain a layer of reflective metal-alloy foil
encased in transparent plastic. The CD contains a single spiral track. A standard 74-
minute CD can hold 650 MB of data; an 80-minute CD can hold 700 MB of data.
Exhibit 3-10 illustrates the components of a CD.
Exhibit 3-10: Components of a CD
Recordable CDs
Writable CDs are written using a process called burning. This is what you do when you
write to CDs with your PC. CD-R discs can be read many times but written to just once.
They’re composed of a gold metal alloy and an organic dye. The dye is heated with the
laser, and this process causes pits and bumps.
CD-RW discs have a silver alloy layer. The alloy can exist in two states—crystalline
and amorphous (non-crystalline)—each of which reflects the read laser’s light
differently. A two-powered laser system is used to transform the alloy between states. A
high-power laser melts the alloy, which cools to its amorphous state. A lower-powered
laser melts the alloy so that it crystallizes as it cools. CD-RW discs can be written to
multiple times, and you don’t have to write the entire disc in a single operation. CD-RW
discs have a capacity of 650 MB.
CD drives
Plain CD drives have largely been supplanted by multi-format combo drives that can
read and write CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Rays. If your computer has a plain CD drive, it is
typically one of two types:
• CD-ROM drive — Can only read from CDs.
• CD-RW drives — Can read from and write to CDs.
CD drives of either type contain three major parts, which are illustrated in Exhibit 3-11.
• The drive motor — Drives the spindle, which spins the disc.
• The laser lens and laser pickup — Focuses in on and reads the disc.
• The tracking drive and tracking motor — Moves the laser to follow the track
on the CD.
Exhibit 3-11: CD drive components
Drives might also contain buttons to control the operation of the CD. The buttons
include:
• Start
• Stop
• Next track
• Previous track
The drive might also contain:
• A headphone jack.
• A volume control dial.
• A release hole. Pushing a stiff wire, such as a straightened paper clip, into this
hole forces open the tray or ejects the disc. You use this hole if software cannot
be used to eject the disc, such as when the power is off. Be careful if you use this
mechanism, as it is possible to damage the disc or the drive itself, if the wire
misses the release lever inside the drive.
CD drive speeds
The speed of a CD drive is expressed as #X, where # is a number. A 1X CD transfers
data at approximately 150 KBps. The original tactic to improve performance was simply
to spin the disc faster. Thus a 2X drive spins the disc twice as fast to double the
throughput. This technique worked up to approximately 12X, at which point vibrations
and heat problems prevented any further speed increases.
In practice, the X rates higher than about 10X don’t represent an actual spin rate
difference. They do, however, represent an approximate throughput multiplier. (Actual
rates are often not quite as good as the advertised values.) Thus, a 52X drive spins about
10 times faster than the original 1X drive and achieves further throughput increases
through faster electronics, multiple read heads, and other techniques. The theoretical
throughput of a 52X drive is 7,800 KBps.
DVDs
Like CDs, DVDs are 120 mm (12 cm) diameter discs but are often thinner than CDs.
DVDs use a different encoding method than the one CDs use, and DVDs are higher-
density discs. The higher density requires a narrower laser beam than CDs require. A
DVD track is 0.74 microns wide, whereas a CD track is 1.6 microns wide.
DVD drives and DVD/CD combo drives have become standard devices on computers,
typically replacing plain CD drives. In fact, most computers include DVD-Rewritable
(DVD-RW) drives. A DVD drive running at 1X transfers data at 1.38 MB per second.
DVD drives are available in higher speeds, up to 24X.
DVD media
A standard DVD disc has a 4.7 GB capacity. This DVD is also known as a DVD-5; the
“5” refers to the DVD holding almost 5 GB. Discs can be single-sided and single-
layered, as the DVD-5 disc is. A 3" mini-disc is also available; it holds 1.5 GB of data.
Data DVDs use the UDF (universal disc format) file system. (Movie and other non-
computer data DVDs don’t use UDF.)
DVDs can also be double-sided, dual-layered, double-sided single-layered, or any
combination of single and double sides and layers. Dual layering is achieved by having
two layers of pits, one deeper than the other. The laser is refocused on the deeper layer
to read the second layer.
The following table summarizes the number of sides and layers and the capacities of
various types of DVDs.
DVD type Sides Layers Capacity
DVD-5 Single Single 4.7 GB
DVD-9 Single Double 8.5 GB
DVD-10 Double Single on both sides 9.4 GB
DVD-14 Double Double on one side, 13.3 GB

single on the other side
DVD-18 Double Double on both sides 17.1 GB
DVD standards, which were created by the DVD Forum, include DVD-R, DVD-
RW.(Like CD-RW, DVD-RW are rewritable discs.) Media created according to these
standards can display the DVD logo. Full details can be found on the DVD Forum Web
site, at http://dvdforum.org. Another source for further information about DVDs is
http://dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html.
Blu-ray discs
Blu-ray discs are optical discs created with a “blue” (actually, violet) 405 nm laser.
Because of the violet laser’s shorter wavelength, standard dual-layer Blu-ray 12cm discs
hold up to 50 GB of data, and single-layer Blu-ray discs hold up to 25 GB of data. This
capacity is significantly higher than a DVD’s capacity. It’s important to note that the
Blu-ray specifications don’t indicate a maximum upper storage limit. There are less
common higher capacity discs available such as:
• Quad-layer (100 GB) discs consisting of four layers containing 25 GB each
• Discs that can hold 200 GB of data on a single side, using six 33 GB data layers.
• 400 GB discs containing 16 data layers of 25 GB each
Blu-ray discs are also available in a mini size of 8cm designed for use in consumer
electronic equipment, such as HD camcorders. The mini-Blu-ray single-layer discs hold
up to 7.8 GB of data, and the double-layer discs hold up to 15.6 GB.
Blu-ray recordable
There are two types of recordable Blu-ray media:
• BD-R discs can be written once
• BD-RE can be erased and rerecorded multiple times
The maximum recording speed for Blu-ray discs is currently 14×. This isn’t as high as a
standard DVD’s because the higher speeds of rotation cause too much wobble for Blu-
ray discs to be read properly.
Optical drive installation

You need a 5.25" drive bay to install an internal optical drive. Older drives required you
to use a horizontal bay, because the disc trays and loading mechanisms did not work in a
vertical orientation. Modern drives, particularly slot-style drives, can be installed in a
vertical orientation.
Verify that the interface cable and power cable can both reach the back of the optical
drive. You can get extensions for the power cable if you need to, but not for the
interface cable. If required, make sure the audio cable reaches from the sound card to
the optical drive.
Before installing the drive, you need to set the jumpers on an IDE drive to master, slave,
or cable-select. It’s much easier to set them before you install the drive into the bay. On
SCSI drives, you need to set the device ID and perhaps termination. SCSI IDs range
from 0 to 7 on older bus systems and 0 to 15 on newer 32-bit bus systems.
For most systems, the drive is installed directly into the bay and screwed in place.
Along both sides of the drive are screw holes that you should be able to match up with
holes in the bay. In some systems, there’s a box you remove; you install the drive in the
box and re-install the box in the computer. Some systems, usually older ones, use drive
rails. The rails attach to both sides of the drive, and they slide into the bay to hold the
drive in place.
After you’ve fit the drive into the bay, you should check that the door to the optical
drive can open freely and that the tray can extend freely. If the drive is off-kilter and hits
against the frame, you won’t be able to open the drive and insert a disc in the tray.
Optical drive connections

Optical drives can be internal or external devices. Internal devices can be connected via
IDE, Serial ATA, or SCSI. External drives are most often IEEE 1394 or USB devices.
Some external drives might also be connected via SCSI, or even a parallel connection
for older drives, or eSATA and rarely Ethernet. External versions aren’t as popular as
they were in the past because computers now come with internal optical drives as
standard components. Optical drive connections are shown in Exhibit 3-12.
Exhibit 3-12: Optical drive connections: here, for a CD drive
Drivers
After you install an optical drive and restart your PC, Windows should detect the new
hardware. Windows will try to identify and install the appropriate driver for the drive. If
Windows can’t find it, you’ll be prompted to supply the driver from another source.
If your drive requires specific drivers, they should have been supplied on a disc with the
drive. The drivers are usually available from the Internet as well. Hardware
manufacturers maintain up-to-date drivers on their Web sites. Other third-party Web
sites also maintain drivers for many devices, but third-party sites might not have the
most current versions of drivers.
Exhibit 3-13: The AutoPlay options in Windows Vista for an audio CD

Using optical drives

When you load an optical disc in the drive, Windows 7 and earlier Windows operating
systems ask you what you want to do with the CD. (AutoPlay has since been removed to
help prevent malware from loading.) The options listed in the AutoPlay dialog box
depend on the type of disc you inserted. Exhibit 3-13 shows the options displayed when
an audio CD is loaded into the drive.
CD software
By default, you can read and write audio CDs by using Windows Media Player. If you
have other software installed that can read from or write to CDs, then when you insert a
CD, the “What do you want Windows to do?” options includes the actions provided by
the additional software.
Playing DVD and Blu-ray discs

Movies and video are encoded in a compressed format before being stored to optical
disc. To play back such videos, you need a matching decoder. Common encoding
formats include MPEG-2, MPEG-4, H.262, H.263, and H.264.
Windows Media Player and other video playback software won’t typically support
every encoding format. You might need to add missing decoders in order to play back
some video types. Visit the software vendor’s site to download or purchase add-on
decoders for your software.
Do it! B-2: Installing an optical drive

1 Turn off the computer If necessary.
Remove any external cables
2 Open the computer case Refer to the system documentation if necessary.
3 If you’re replacing an optical

drive, remove the cables from the
back of the drive
Remove the drive from the drive Unscrew any screws securing it to the bay.
bay
4 Locate pin 1 on the drive’s data So that you install the data interface cable
connector correctly in a later step. It’s easier to do this
before installing the drive, while you can hold it
up to the light, turn it over, and inspect it more
closely. Pin 1 is most often located on the side
nearest the power connection.
5 Set the drive for Master, Slave, or If it’s an IDE drive.

Cable Select
Set the drive ID If it’s a SCSI drive.
Terminate the drive If it’s the last drive in a SCSI chain.
6 Insert the drive in the drive bay
Mount the drive Use the mounting method required by your

computer.
Secure the drive in place Use screws or whatever mechanism your system
uses to secure the drive to the bay.
7 Verify the alignment with the case To make sure the drive door and disc tray can
open freely.
8 Connect the interface cable It should be connected to the secondary IDE

channel or to the SCSI chain, if it’s a SCSI
drive.
Connect the power cable Be sure that it’s properly oriented and firmly
plugged in.
Connect the audio cable If the sound card contains a wire to connect to
the optical drive.
9 Reconnect the power cord and You’ll listen to an audio CD.

external cables
Turn on the computer
10 Observe the New Hardware A message should be displayed, stating that new
bubble hardware was found.
11 Place an audio CD in the optical

drive
12 If prompted, select If this is the first time you’ve run Windows

Recommended settings Media Player, you’re prompted to configure
settings
Click Finish Windows Media Player opens and the first track
on the CD begins playing.
13 Click the Stop button, and remove

the disc from the optical drive
14 Close Windows Media Player

Hard disk drives

Explanation Most consumer PC hard drives store data by means of magnetism. Magnetic hard drives
are made up of the parts described in the following table.
Component Description
Platters The metal or plastic disks on which the magnetic material is coated. Data is recorded
in that magnetic material as a set of magnetically polarized regions.
Spindle The axis, or central hub, that the platters spin around. A motor rotates the spindle
very quickly. The faster the rotational speed, measured in revolutions per minute
(RPM), the faster the hard disk can access and save data. The slower speed of 5400
RPM means the time between the start of the rotation and data access (known as
latency) is greater than hard disks that are rated at 7200 RPM, 10,000 RPM, and
15,000 RPM, common speeds you’ll find on most modern hard disks.
Read/write heads The magnetic devices that both read and write data on the platters. The heads are
attached to the arms, which are moved by the actuator.
Voice coil The mechanism that moves the heads very precisely into position over the magnetic
actuator tracks written on the platters.
Exhibit 3-14 shows the components of a typical magnetic hard drive.
Exhibit 3-14: The internal components of a hard drive

Solid-state drives
Some hard disk drives are solid-state drives (SSDs), meaning that they use memory
chips (RAM or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of using a rotating disk.
SSDs have no moving parts. Therefore, they are less fragile than magnetic hard drives
and are silent. RAM-based disks require power to maintain their data and typically
include backup batteries.
SSDs are becoming increasingly available in laptops, netbooks, and smartphones. They
are more expensive than magnetic hard drives of comparable capacity, form factor, and
transfer speed.
Solid-state drives have the following advantages:
• Faster startup time, because the drives don’t need to “spin up” like magnetic
drives do
• Faster transfer speeds, because the drives don’t have to move a read/write head
• Lower power consumption
• Less heat generated
• Ability to operate in higher temperatures (magnetic drives typically operate
between 40°F and 130°F; solid-state drives can operate at up to 160°F)
• Less risk of failure, because SSDs don’t have the magnetic drive’s mechanical
parts
Magnetic drives have the following advantages:
• Lower cost
• Greater capacity than what is available with current solid-state drives
• Higher number of write/erase cycles than SSDs
• Faster write speeds
• Powering all the way down when the PC is turned off (RAM-based SSDs can
continue to draw power when the PC is off)
Hard disk installation

You can purchase internal or external hard disks. Internal hard disks can be connected
through a PATA, SCSI, or SATA interface. External hard disks might use eSATA,
USB, or IEEE 1394 (FireWire) connections. Some external hard disks will come with a
variety of ports so you can choose the one that best meets your performance needs and
fits the connections on your computer.
Physically installing an internal hard disk drive into a PC involves a few steps, which
you must perform in the following order:
1 Shut down the PC and open its case. (Observe electrical and safety precautions.)
2 Set jumpers or switches on the drive to provide drive identification.
3 If you’re installing a SCSI drive, you might need to configure bus termination by
setting switches or jumpers or by installing or removing terminator blocks. The
bus must be terminated on both ends and cannot have extra termination installed
in the middle of the chain.
4 Install the drive into the PC chassis.
5 Connect data and control cables from the adapter to the drive.
6 Connect the power cable from the PC’s power supply to the drive.
After you physically install the drive, additional preparation steps are required to make
it available to the operating system.
Chassis installation
You can typically use any available bay for a hard drive. However, one or more smaller,
drive-sized bays are typically available for this precise purpose. Make sure you install
the drive in a location that the data and power cables can reach.
Most modern drives work equally well mounted horizontally or vertically. Unlike with
older drives, there’s typically no harm in mounting a drive one way and then mounting
it in a different orientation later.
Data cable connections

Most drive cables are keyed—that is, their connectors are molded in such a way that you
can insert them only the correct way into the connector sockets. If you’re using an older
non-keyed cable, wire 1 in the cable is marked with a red (or other color) stripe. Pin 1
on the socket is labeled with either a number or a small triangle pointing at the pin. You
need to line up the cable so that pin 1 goes into socket 1.
If you’re using cable-select to set the master/slave selection for a drive, make sure you
connect the IDE drive to the intended connector. If you’re using SCSI, make sure the
bus is correctly terminated at both ends and that termination is not applied in the middle
of the chain.
Power cable connections

Most PATA and SCSI drives use the large peripheral power connector. This connector
has beveled corners so that you can insert it into the socket correctly. SATA drives use a
specialized power connector that looks very different from the peripheral power
connector. It’s also keyed so that you’re sure to connect it properly.
Do it! B-3: Installing a hard disk

1 If necessary, shut down your PC You’ll install an additional hard drive in your
and unplug it from the outlet system.
2 Open your PC’s case Follow all electrical and ESD precautions.
3 Set the jumpers or switches, as You’ll need to set master, slave, single drive, or
appropriate, to specify the drive cable-select for an IDE drive, or set the SCSI ID
identification for a SCSI drive.
4 Locate an available drive bay and Install the cable in the correct orientation, and
install the drive attach the drive to the correct connector on the
cable.
5 Install the data ribbon cable
6 Install the power cable
7 Close the PC’s case
8 Boot your PC and log on as

!pass1234
9 Click Start and right-click

Computer
Choose Manage To open the Computer Management console.
10 In the left pane, select To verify that the hard disk is recognized by the
Disk Management operating system. You should see two hard
disks.
11 Close all open windows

Fault tolerance
Explanation Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operating during a component or
environmental failure. For example, by using a backup power generator, your server can
continue running even during a blackout. A multi-processor computer might continue
running in the event one of its CPUs fails. Even though it would perform more slowly,
the server could continue running until you replaced the failed CPU.
Data backups are not an example of fault tolerance, even though they are critical to
prevent data loss. If a hard drive fails, data created since the last backup is lost.
Furthermore, your system can be offline until you provision a new server and restore
data from your backup.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent [or Inexpensive] Disks) is a fault-tolerant data
storage scheme in which multiple drives are used to store your data. In its simplest
form, two disks are used. Data is written to both disks simultaneously. If one drive fails,
data can still be accessed from the remaining drive. Many more advanced RAID
schemes exist and are covered in the next section.
RAID can be implemented through software, which manages writing and reading data
from the multiple disks and managing operations in the event of a disk failure. RAID
can also be implemented through hardware. For example, you might use a special disk
adapter to which you connect two hard drives. The adapter handles writing to the disks
during normal operations and accessing or rebuilding data when a drive fails.
The Windows Server products support software RAID configurations via built-in
features. Third-party utilities also enable you to create RAID configurations without
relying on operating system-specific features. Third-party hardware-based solutions are
also widely available. Most RAID solutions enable hot-swapping, which is the ability to
remove one drive and connect another without having to shut down or restart the
system.
RAID levels
RAID is a technique for adding redundancy, lengthening disk life, improving
performance, and enabling relatively uninterrupted access to data. There are various
basic levels of RAID, which have been extended by nesting the basic types.
The basic RAID levels are as follows:
• RAID level 0 — Striping with no redundancy features. Striping works by
spreading data equally over two or more drives, as shown in Exhibit 3-15. It is
used to extend disk life and to improve performance. Data access on striped
volumes is fast because of the way the data is divided into blocks that are
quickly accessed through simultaneous disk reads and multiple data paths. The
disadvantage is that if one disk fails, you can expect a loss of all data on the
volume.
Exhibit 3-15: RAID level 0, two disks in a striped volume
• RAID level 1 — Disk mirroring. Data is duplicated onto multiple drives (a

“mirror” set), typically two disks. In the event of a failure of one of the disks,
data can be read from the secondary disk (or disks). Disk mirroring is illustrated
on the left in Exhibit 3-16.
Disk duplexing, illustrated on the right in Exhibit 3-16, is similar to disk
mirroring, but each disk is managed by a separate adapter.
Exhibit 3-16: RAID level 1, disk mirroring (left) and duplexing (right)
• RAID level 5 — Block-level striping with distributed parity. As shown in

Exhibit 3-17, data is striped block-by-block across the disks in the array. Parity
(error detection information) is distributed across all of the disks rather than
being stored on a dedicated parity disk. Distributing the parity data removes the
single drive bottleneck that limits write performance in lower-numbered RAID
levels.
Exhibit 3-17: RAID 5 stripes data and parity across a set of drives
Nested RAID levels

In many cases, the drives in an array can themselves be arrays. Such a configuration
creates a nested array, in which one whole array takes the place of a single drive in a
larger array. This arrangement was originally called a hybrid array but is now generally
called nested.
The most common nested RAID levels are:
• RAID 0+1 (or RAID 01) — A mirrored set of striped disks. At minimum, this
arrangement requires four drives. For example, as shown in Exhibit 3-18, two
drives are striped and then mirrored with another pair of striped drives.
Exhibit 3-18: RAID 0+1 is a mirrored set of stripes

• RAID 1+0 (or RAID 10) — A striped set of mirrored disks. For example, as
shown in Exhibit 3-19, two mirrored drives are striped with another pair of
mirrored drives.
Exhibit 3-19: RAID 1+0 is a striped set of mirrors
Many other nested RAID combinations are possible. Each offers a mix of benefits, such
as greater redundancy or higher performance, and detractions, such as higher costs and
greater complexity.
Considerations for using RAID

When considering a RAID solution, keep the following factors in mind.
• RAID 0 (striping) doesn’t provide any redundancy. Its only benefit is speed.
• Windows Server 2000 and newer and Windows 7 and Vista natively support
RAID levels 0, 1, and 5 via dynamic disks. You must install, partition and
convert each to dynamic disks first. Then, you can use Disk Management to join
them into a single volume based on one of the three listed RAID levels.
• You can place the boot and system files onto a RAID 1 volume when using
Windows Server, but not with the client operating systems. You cannot place
these files on a RAID 5 volume.
• There is a minimum number of required physical disks for each of the RAID
levels. For example, RAID 1 requires at least two disks. RAID 5 requires at least
three disks, though typically more are used.
• Reading from disk is faster than writing with both RAID 1 (duplexing) and
RAID 5. This difference results from the system’s being able to read files or
blocks of data from multiple drives simultaneously, whereas it must write as a
singular operation.
Level-specific considerations
In addition to the general considerations given in the preceding section, there are factors
specific to each level that you should examine when choosing a solution.
RAID level Benefits Detractions
RAID 0 Reduces the wear on multiple disk No fault tolerance other than that gained
(striping) drives by equally spreading the load. through reduced wear.
Increases disk performance compared A loss of a single disk in the stripe set
to a single disk. destroys the data on the entire volume.
Enables you to create larger volumes
than a single physical drive might
permit.
RAID 1 Increases read performance over With mirroring, write performance can be
(mirroring or single-disk solution. degraded, because a single adapter
duplexing) manages write operations to both disks in
Can protect the boot and system the set.
volumes.
Depending on the software and hardware
You can “split the mirror” to back up implementation, read performance might
one drive while the other one services not be enhanced. For example, older IDE
ongoing disk requests. adapters could read from only one of the
drives in a set. Software might compare
data read from each drive to check for
errors, thus reducing performance to a
single-drive level.
RAID 5 Read and write performance can be When writing chunks of data smaller than
(striping with better than with a single drive as long a single stripe, the overhead for
distributed parity) as writes, on average, involve the calculating parity can reduce
same amount of or more data than performance below that of a single disk
will fit in a single stripe. (or mirror or stripe).
Lower cost-per-gigabyte compared to The performance of random write
RAID 1. operations, such as those associated with
databases, is slower than with a single
disk (or mirror or stripe).
Mean time between failures (MTBF) can
theoretically be worse than that of a
single disk.
Software RAID and hardware RAID

Two approaches to RAID can be implemented on a computer: software RAID and
hardware RAID. Software RAID implements fault tolerance through the computer’s
operating system (such as by using the Disk Management tool in Windows) or through
third-party software. Hardware RAID is implemented through hardware in the server or
a dedicated storage subsystem and is independent of the operating system. Most RAID
systems are hardware-based systems.
Do it! B-4: Exploring fault tolerance

1 How many hard disks are required to implement a RAID-5 volume at a minimum?
A Two
B Three
C Four
D Five
2 What term is used to describe disk mirroring when each drive is connected to its
own hard disk controller?
A Disk mirroring
B Disk duplexing
C Shadowing
D Controller mirror
3 Which of the following RAID levels provides no fault tolerance?

A RAID 0
B RAID 1
C RAID 4
D RAID 5
Media cards
Explanation Media cards are removable storage devices that you can use to store any type of data,
from pictures on a camera to personal data on a smartphone. There are several different
types of media cards. The following table describes the media cards you’re likely to
encounter. They all use solid-state circuitry with no moving parts. Exhibit 3-20 shows a
few of the media cards described in the table.
There are two methods for using media cards with PCs: You can connect a USB card
reader to a USB port on your computer, or you can insert the card into a built-in
onboard card reader. You install the USB reader like you would any USB device: run
any installation program provided by the manufacturer, and then connect the device to a
USB port. Many times, though, you’ll just be able to connect the reader and Windows
will install the drivers automatically. To use a built-in card reader, just insert the card
into the appropriate slot. Other devices that use these cards, such as smartphones and
cameras, will be able to access the cards when they’re inserted, without having to install
any drivers.
Type Description
Secure Digital Comes in SD, miniSD, and microSD formats.

Capacity: Up to 16 GB for SD High Capacity (SDHC) and 2 TB for SD Extended
Capacity (SDXC) cards. All SD cards have the same capacity; the only difference
is the size of the card (form factor).
xD-Picture Card Used mainly in digital cameras.

Capacity: Up to 2 GB.
SmartMedia No controller built into the memory card.

Capacity: Up to 128 MB.
Replaced by SD card technology.
CompactFlash Oldest media card technology. Comes in two versions: CF-I and CF-II.
Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC (high-capacity) cards.
Memory Stick Comes in two versions: MS and MS Duo. Duo is often sold with an adapter so that
it can be read by or used in devices that use MS.
Capacity: Up to 8 GB.
Exhibit 3-20: Memory Stick, SD, and CompactFlash flash media cards
Floppy disk storage

Explanation A floppy disk is a removable data storage medium composed of a thin, typically brown,
plastic disk contained within a stiff or rigid plastic case. Floppy disks are also called
floppies or diskettes. An example of a 3.5” floppy disk, opened to show its recording
medium, is illustrated in Exhibit 3-21.
Exhibit 3-21: A diskette opened to reveal its recording medium
A floppy disk drive (FDD) is the PC component that reads data from and writes data to
floppies. This drive can be internally connected, typically through a 34-pin data
connector on the motherboard. External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and
eSATA connections.
Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By today’s standards, they hold
a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers don’t
include a floppy drive.
Form factors
The original PC floppy disks measured 5.25" in diameter. These disks featured a soft,
flexible outer cover. They held relatively little data, even compared to other floppy disk
technologies. A 5.25" floppy is pictured in Exhibit 3-22.
Exhibit 3-22: A 5.25" floppy disk

Later floppy disks were 3.5" in diameter and were protected by a hard outer case with a
sliding metal door. Despite their hard outer case, these disks aren’t “hard disks”; that
term refers to the high-capacity disk drive typically installed inside your PC’s case.
Even though they’re physically smaller, the most popular 3.5" disks stored a lot more
data than their larger predecessors. A 3.5" floppy disk is shown in Exhibit 3-23.
Exhibit 3-23: A 3.5" floppy disk
Capacities
Capacities of floppy drives vary by size and recording techniques. Information is
recorded onto the floppy disk in a series of concentric circular tracks. Floppy disks use
either 40 or 80 tracks.
The density of a floppy disk refers to the number of sectors per track, as compared to
the original floppies used in pre-PC computers. PC floppy densities vary from double
density (9 sectors per track) to extended density (36 sectors per track).
The storage capacities of the popular PC floppy disks are listed in the following table.
Size Tracks Sectors per track Density Capacity
5.25" 40 9 Double density 360 KB
5.25" 80 15 High density 1.2 MB
3.5" 80 9 Double density 720 KB
3.5" 80 18 High density 1.44 MB
3.5" 80 36 Extended 2.88 MB

(or Extra-high) density
Identifying a disk’s storage capacity

Most modern diskettes are labeled with their maximum capacity. Some, however, lack
such labeling. You can distinguish between 3.5" double-density and high-density disks
by counting the holes in their corners. Double-density diskettes have a single hole (the
write-protection hole described in the next section). High-density diskettes have two
holes.
Write protection
You can prevent writing to floppies by engaging write protection. With 5.25" floppies,
you must cover a notch in the plastic case with tape or a label designed specifically for
that purpose. In the associated drives, a mechanical pin “feels” for the presence of this
notch, and if present, writing is enabled.
With 3.5" disks, you slide open a small “door” to enable write protection, as shown in
Exhibit 3-24. In the associated drives, if an LED light can shine through this door, then
writing is disabled.
Exhibit 3-24: Floppy disks: write-protected (left) and write-enabled (right)
Do it! B-5: Examining floppy disks

1 Examine the floppy disks supplied
by your instructor
2 Examine the 3.5" diskette that So that you can view its flexible inner disk.
your instructor has opened up
3 How much data can each disk

store?
4 Enable write protection on a

diskette
5 Disable write protection

Floppy drive installation

Explanation The typical cable used to connect a floppy drive is a 34-pin ribbon cable with either
three or five connectors. One connector is meant to be connected to the drive controller
(typically on the motherboard), and the others are for connecting up to two floppy drives
in the system. The cable should be 18” – 24”, though you might see some up to 32”.
The 5.25" drives use a larger, edge-type connector, whereas 3.5" drives use a smaller
pin-socket connector. A five-connector cable enables you to connect both edge- and
pin-type drives, keeping in mind that you can have at most two drives connected,
regardless of connector type.
Depending on where you connect the drive on the cable, the drive is assigned drive
letter A or B. Floppy cables have a twisted section, and the drive plugged into the
connector after the twist is accessed as drive letter A. A typical floppy cable is shown in
Exhibit 3-25.
Exhibit 3-25: A floppy cable with pin-style connectors for 3.5” drives
The typical floppy controller connector is a 34-pin male connector soldered to the
motherboard. Such a connector, technically called a header, is shown in Exhibit 3-26.
Exhibit 3-26: A floppy controller header on a motherboard
Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By today’s standards, they hold
a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers don’t
include a floppy drive.
External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and eSATA connections.
Tape drives
Tape drives are used to create backups of data from a hard drive. The tapes are typically
removed to an offsite location for storage. This way, if a disaster occurs in the building
the computer is in, the tape is safe in another location. There are companies you can
contract with for secure, fireproof storage of your tapes. You can also use a safety
deposit box at a bank or a fireproof safe, if you don’t require more stringent storage of
the tapes.
Magnetic tapes are used to record information in burst mode, in which data is written in
blocks. Burst mode results in faster data transfer. An interblock gap is a physical space
between blocks on the tape. These gaps help prevent blocks of data from being
overwritten. Tape capacities can reach up to 1 TB, depending on the type of data and
whether data compression has been enabled. Compression can sometimes double a
tape’s capacity.
Tape drives are sequential-access devices. Instead of being able to go directly to a
specific file when you need to restore it, you must wait while the drive advances the
tape past all of the files before that file on the tape.
Various types of compression are used to fit more data onto the tape at a faster rate.
Most data backup algorithms use lossless compression so that reconstructed data is the
same as the original. Most of these algorithms compress data at a 2:1 ratio or better.
Do it! B-6: Installing a floppy drive

1 Turn off the computer, remove all Follow all electrical and ESD safety precautions.
cables and power cords, and open
your PC’s case
2 Remove the insert or plate cover Many modern computers don’t include a floppy
that closes the floppy drive bay drive.
3 Install the drive into the bay Secure the drive with at least four screws. This
drive receives more pressure than other drives
because users push floppies in or eject them.
4 Connect the floppy cable to the Make sure you plug the correct connector into
motherboard the correct socket on the motherboard.
5 Connect the cable to the floppy

drive so that this drive is drive A
6 Connect an available power cable Modern floppies use the small peripheral power
to the floppy drive’s power socket connector; older drives use the large connector.
7 Close the case and boot your PC
Log on to Windows as The password is !pass1234.

ADMIN##
8 Open Computer To view the floppy drive in your system. You

can’t access it because there’s no diskette in it.
Unit summary: Memory and physical storage

Topic A In this topic, you learned that RAM is the hardware component that stores active data
and applications. You learned about the various units, such as MB and GB, which are
used to describe the quantity of RAM installed in your PC. You learned about the
various characteristics of memory, such as whether it’s volatile or nonvolatile and
synchronous or asynchronous, as well as the technology by which it’s accessed. Next,
you learned that chips are bundled into packages called modules. You learned about the
various memory module types, including SIMMs, DIMMs, and SODIMMs. You
learned that errors in memory can be detected and even corrected through parity or
ECC.
Topic B In this topic, you learned about storage devices and media. You learned about storage
interfaces, including PATA, SATA, and SCSI. You then learned about optical drives
and media, including DVDs and Blu-Ray discs and their capacities, as well as combo
drives and media, including DVD-RW and BD-RE. You also learned about hard
disks, media cards, floppy drives, and tape drives. Finally, you learned about fault
tolerance and RAID levels.
Review questions
1 The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called what?
A Bits B Cells C RAM D Word
2 Which memory unit’s size depends on the processor?
A Bit B Byte C Nibble D Word
3 Which term refers to the type of memory that loses its contents when power isn’t
present?
A Asynchronous D Static
B Dynamic E Synchronous
C Nonvolatile F Volatile
4 Which of the following memory types are nonvolatile? [Choose all that apply.]
A CMOS C EEPROM E PROM G ROM
B EPROM D Flash F RAM
5 What type of RAM loses its contents quickly, even when power is present?
A DRAM B Flash C SRAM
6 Which type of memory is tied to the system clock?
A Asynchronous D Static
B Dynamic E Synchronous
C Nonvolatile F Volatile
7 Which of the following is defined as "the amount of data that can be transferred to
or from memory per second”?
A Access time C Memory speed
B Bandwidth D Overall speed
8 Individual memory chips installed on the motherboard were replaced with memory
______________.
packages or modules
9 Which of the following memory packages are used in laptop or notebook
computers? [Choose all that apply.]
A 144-pin MICRODIMM C 200-pin SODIMM
B 184-pin RIMM D 240-pin DIMM
10 True or false? Parity permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred in memory, but also to correct that error.
False. ECC permits your computer to detect and correct errors. Parity enables just error
detection.
11 Lower power consumption and less heat generation are advantages of a
______________ hard disk.
solid-state
12 Lower cost and higher storage capacities are advantages of a _________ hard disk.
magnetic
13 You can configure a PATA drive to be _________, _________, or
________________ by using jumpers or switches on the drive.
master; slave; cable-select
14 The following graphic is illustrates which RAID level?
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
15 The following graphic illustrates two variations of which RAID level?
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
16 The following graphic is an example of which RAID level?
A Level 0 C Level 3
B Level 1 D Level 5
17 What is the capacity of a single-sided, dual-layer DVD?
A 4.7 GB C 9.4 GB
B 8.5 GB D 17.1 GB
18 What is the capacity of a double-sided, dual-layer (on both sides) DVD?
A 4.7 GB C 9.4 GB
B 8.5 GB D 17.1 GB
19 What are the two sizes of floppy disks?
A 3.0" D 5.0"
B 3.25" E 5.25"
C 3.5" F 5.5"
20 Which types of removable memory cards come in the largest capacity? [Choose all
that apply]
A CompactFlash D SmartMedia
B MemoryStick E xD-Picture Card
C Secure Digital
Memory
In this activity, you’ll practice identifying correct memory upgrade modules for a PC.
1 Open the Control Panel, and then open System and Security, and System.
2 How much RAM is installed on your computer?
Answers will vary.
3 Using your computer manufacturer’s support Web site or computer’s user manual,
determine the type of memory modules that your computer supports.
Answers will vary, but will include:
RAM type, such as DDR2 SDRAM
Package type, such as DIMM
Error correcting (ECC or non-ECC)
Memory speed, specified in MHz
Speed rating, specified as PC-#, PC2-#, or PC3-#
4 Using your Web browser, determine the cost to replace 2 GB of RAM for your
computer.
Answers will vary.
5 Close all open windows.
Storage devices and media

In this activity, you’ll practice installing and removing drives on a PC.
1 Install a floppy disk drive in your system. Install it as drive A.
2 Restart your computer from the hard drive.
3 If you installed a second hard disk, and that drive is still installed, physically
remove the additional hard disk from your computer.
4 Physically remove the floppy drive that you installed during this practice activity.
4–1
Unit 4
Connections and peripherals
A Contrast serial and parallel interfaces, and

identify COM and LPT ports.
B Identify and compare USB, FireWire, and

wireless peripheral connections.
C Connect PS/2 input devices, and use a

KVM switch.
Topic A: Serial vs. parallel interfaces

# Objective
– Other connector types
ƕ Serial
ƕ Parallel

– Parallel
– Serial
– Parallel
– Serial
Explanation A port is a connector into which you can plug cables from external devices, or
sometimes, plug in the devices themselves. An interface is the communications standard
that defines how data flows to and from a device through a specific port.
Some ports are general purpose, designed for connecting a wide variety of devices, such
as USB or FireWire. Others are designed for very specific connections, such as
networking, video, or proprietary devices. Electronically speaking, nearly any interface
can be categorized as either serial, or parallel.
Serial transmission
Serial transmission is a technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a time, across the
transmission medium. You can imagine the bits marching single-file down a single data
transmission wire (or across a single wireless transmission channel), as illustrated in
Exhibit 4-1. Special sequences of bits delineate data from associated control
information, such as marking the beginning and end of bytes or blocks of data.
Examples of serial interfaces on PCs include:
• COM • FireWire • SATA
• USB • Ethernet • PCI Express
Exhibit 4-1: Serial transmission

Connections and peripherals 4–3
Serial ports
While many types of devices and ports use serial transmission, when most people speak
of serial ports, they mean the ports in use since the earliest PCs to connect devices such
as modems and mice. These ports are called the communication or COM ports, and
function according to the RS-232 standard.
While COM ports have been largely superseded by newer technologies for many
peripheral devices, they are still commonly found in many industrial and specialty
applications. A new PC may not include any COM ports, but they can be added by
adapter cards or external devices.
The basic PC hardware supports four COM ports: COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4.
You can use only two of those at any one time. Windows supports software emulation
of additional COM ports, when extra ports are necessary. Therefore, you might find PCs
with higher-numbered COM ports.
To configure the resources used by these ports, you can use your system’s BIOS setup
utility or Windows Device Manager. Plug and Play should detect these settings and
configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm PnP settings by using Windows
Device Manager.
Serial standards
Standard serial cables come in the following types:
• EIA/TIA-232 • EIA/TIA-530 • X.21
• EIA/TIA-449 • V.35
The maximum distance for a serial cable depends on the data rate. In general, the slower
the data rate, the longer the maximum distance can be without signal degradation. The
following table lists the various data rates and corresponding recommended maximum
distances for the various types of serial cables.
Data rate EIA/TIA-232 EIA/TIA-449, -530, -530A,

V.35, and X.21
2400 bps 60 meters 1250 meters
1544000 (T1) bps Not supported 15 meters

Typical serial connectors

PCs serial connectors are typically either 9-pin or 25-pin connectors. Few modern
devices use the 25-pin connector, instead favoring the smaller 9-pin variety.
Connectors come in one of two types, called genders. The gender of a connector
determines whether it has pins or sockets (into which the pins go). Male connectors
have pins, and female connectors have sockets, as shown in Exhibit 4-2.
Exhibit 4-2: Male and female serial connectors (left to right)
Typically, the male connector is used on the computer, while devices usually have the
female connector. Thus, to connect a serial device, you usually need a cable with a male
connector on one end and a female connector on the other end.
By convention, the serial ports on modern PCs are teal or surrounded by a teal label.
This color helps you distinguish the serial port from the other connectors on your PC.
Sometimes they’re labeled with “COM” or with a series of ones and zeros to suggest the
one-by-one transmission of bits of data.
The pins (or sockets) in the connector at one end of a serial cable connect to certain
sockets (or pins) at the other end. To assist cabling technicians, the manufacturers assign
standard numbers to pins (and sockets). The standard numbers are shown in Exhibit 4-3.
Exhibit 4-3: A 9-pin serial connector

Typical serial cables

Even though serial data is sent one bit at a time over a single wire, serial cables use
multiple wires. At least three wires are required: one for sending, one for receiving, and
one for ground. The other pins provide power and control signal transmission.
Serial cables come in two forms:
• Straight-through — Use straight-through cables to connect your PC to a serial
device.
• Null modem — Use a null modem cable to connect two PCs as if each were
connected to a modem.
In a straight-through cable, the corresponding pins at each end of the cable are
connected. In other words, pin 1 is connected to pin 1, and so forth.
In a null modem cable, pins at one end of the cable are connected to specific pins at the
other end to simulate the presence of a modem between two devices. A pin at one end of
the cable might be connected to two or more pins at the other end.
Do it! A-1: Examining a serial connector

1 Locate the serial port on your PC,
if it has one, and describe how
you know that it’s the serial port
2 On the cable supplied by your

instructor, determine which end
connects to your PC, and which
end connects to an external serial
device
Parallel transmission
Parallel transmission is a technique by which data is transmitted simultaneously over
multiple conductors, with each bit traveling over its own path in the transmission
medium. Parallel transmission is illustrated in Exhibit 4-4. In a wired configuration,
each bit would travel over its own wire. Control and timing information is sent over
additional wires.
Exhibit 4-4: Parallel transmission
In theory, parallel transmission seems to be more efficient than serial transmission,

since you can send more data at one time, and for this reason it was widely used in early
PCs, especially for high speed internal connections. In practice, parallel transmission
requires more connection wires, more complex signaling circuitry, and increased chance
for error due to timing issues or electrical interference. As a result, the trend in modern
computers has been away from parallel interfaces and toward high speed serial
interfaces.
Common parallel interfaces found in PCs include:
• LPT
• PATA
• PCI
• PC Card
Parallel ports
Parallel ports are connectors into which you plug devices that use parallel transmission
to communicate with your PC. Most often, when people speak of parallel ports, they’re
referring to the ports used for printers. These ports are called the LPT ports, and are
defined by the IEEE 1284 standard. LPT stands for “line printer,” reflecting the use of
this sort of printer with early-model PCs.
The basic PC hardware supports two LPT ports: LPT1 and LPT2. Additional LPT ports
can be added through expansion adapters. Most modern printers don’t use the LPT port
at all, instead using the newer and more capable USB port. Likewise, modern PCs
commonly will have no LPT ports, so if you need to connect a parallel device you will
need to add an adapter.
Unidirectional and bidirectional LPT ports

Originally, the LPT port was a one-way communications port: the PC sent data to the
printer, but the printer never sent data to the PC. Such unidirectional ports were suitable
for interfacing with printers but not with other types of devices, such as external hard
drives.
Even though the port was unidirectional, the printer could, in effect, signal some
conditions to the PC. Before transmitting data, the PC would check five control lines to
determine if the printer was ready, out of paper, had experienced an error, and so forth.
Few modern printers support this old unidirectional parallel port mode.
A group called the Network Printing Alliance formed to improve the functionality of the
LPT port. The new standard allows half-duplex bidirectional communications, which
enables two-way communication across the parallel port. This development enabled
manufactures to create devices, such as external hard drives or data transfer cables that
operated over the parallel port. Modern PCs typically support each of these modes. You
might need to use the BIOS setup utility to enable or disable specific modes.
Typical parallel connectors

Explanation Typically, parallel ports are 25-pin ports. The PC normally uses a female D-connector,
matching that used by a 25-pin serial port (though opposite in gender). Such a port
connector is shown in Exhibit 4-5.
Exhibit 4-5: The female 25-pin parallel port on a PC
According to the PC99 specification, parallel ports should be burgundy or surrounded

by a burgundy label. (On most PCs, the color you see would be better described as
magenta or hot pink.) This color helps you differentiate the parallel port from the other
connectors on your PC. Sometimes parallel ports are labeled with a graphic of a printer.
Printers often feature a 36-pin Centronics connector, officially called the Centronics-36
connector. The female connector is mounted on the printer. Such a port connector is
Exhibit 4-6: A female Centronics connecter on a printer
Typical parallel cables

Typical parallel printer cables have a male DB-25 connector on the end that you connect
to the PC, and a male Centronics-36 connector on the printer end. Exhibit 4-7 shows the
connectors on a parallel printer cable.
Printer cables typically have 25 copper wires including ground, and might be shielded.
According to specifications, a parallel printer cable should be limited to 15 feet, but
there can be great variation in practical results, depending on the environment and the
cable quality. To be safe, use a cable of 10 feet or less. If you need to, you might get a
good quality, shielded cable to work fine at 20 or 25 feet.
Exhibit 4-7: Parallel printer cables have DB-25 (left) and Centronics connectors
Do it! A-2: Examining a parallel connector

1 Locate the parallel port on your
PC, if it has one, and describe
how you know that it’s the
parallel port
2 On the cable supplied by your

instructor, determine which end
connects to your PC and which to
the printer
Topic B: Modern peripheral connections

# Objective
– USB 1.1 vs. 2.0 vs. 3.0 speed and distance characteristics
ƕ Connector types: A, B, mini, micro
– Firewire 400 vs. Firewire 800 speed and distance characteristics
• Speeds, distances and frequencies of wireless device connections
– Bluetooth
– IR
– RF

– USB
– IEEE1394
– USB
– IEEE1394
1.12 Install and configure various peripheral devices.

• Input devices
– Mouse – Biometric devices
– Keyboard – Game pads
– Touch screen – Joysticks
– Scanner – Digitizer
– Barcode reader
Explanation A peripheral is any device that connects to a computer. In technical terms, any device
outside of the motherboard, CPU, memory, and power supply is a peripheral. In more
general use, peripherals are external devices connected to a computer, and while internal
devices may be peripherals they are less commonly called such.
A wide variety of peripheral connections are found on new PCs. Some of these are for
specific uses, such as connecting displays or input and output devices. Others are more
general purpose, allowing you to connect a wide variety of devices using a single
interface. The most common peripheral connections found on a modern PC include:
• USB
• IEEE 1394, or FireWire
• Wireless interfaces
Universal Serial Bus

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standardized peripheral specification that defines bus
architecture, similar in concept to the PCI or ISA buses, to which you can connect one
or more expansion devices.
USB offers these features:
• Hot-swapping and self-configuration — The bus and its devices are hot-
swappable and self-configuring. This means you can plug a device into or
unplug a device from the bus while the computer is running. Devices identify
themselves to the bus controller, which informs the operating system that a new
device is present. If the necessary drivers are on the system where Windows can
find them, Windows loads the drivers and enables the USB device for immediate
use.
• Multiple-device support — Typical PCs include two or more USB ports. You
can connect USB devices or hubs to those ports. Hubs provide additional ports
to which you can attach additional devices or hubs. You can connect a maximum
of 127 devices to the bus.
• High-speed data transfer — Depending on the version of USB supported by
your system and peripherals, the USB specification enables data transfer rates of
up to 480 Mbps (USB 2.0) or 5 Gbps (USB 3.0).
• Power — USB can deliver electrical power through the port.
USB ports and connectors are either Type A or Type B. Type A ports and connectors
are wide and flat and are used at the PC end of a USB-to-device connection. If the
device uses a removable cable rather than a permanently connected one, it uses the Type
B connector.
Small USB connectors are used for devices such as cell phones, tablets, and cameras.
The original mini-USB connectors are being phased out in favor of the newer micro-
USB connectors. The micro-USB connector provides both battery charging power as
well as connectivity to your PC or other devices.
USB classes
According to the specification, USB components are categorized into classes. There are
two basic classes, which are described in the following table.
Class Description
Host There’s just one host per bus. This class is responsible for managing the USB
bus. The host provides power to devices and manages the configuration process
that’s followed when devices are added or removed. A system might include
multiple hosts, each representing a separate USB bus. Windows Device Manager
identifies the host as a Hub or Controller.
Device This class is divided into two subclasses: Functions and Hubs. The Functions
subclass includes the peripherals that you connect to the USB bus. Equipment in
this class can send and receive data over the bus, and control the flow of data.
These are the devices themselves, such as keyboards, mice, external drives, and
so forth. The Hub subclass (not to be confused with the Windows labeling of the
Host as a hub) defines the expansion devices that provide no functionality other
than providing more USB ports.
USB versions
The USB specification is an active and growing standard. The following table compares
these USB versions.
Version Transfer rates Notes
USB 1.1 12 Mbps This specification is generally called “USB” and is still
sometimes used by devices that don’t need high-speed data
transfers or other functions provided by the newer
specifications, such as keyboards and mice.
Half-duplex, meaning that it can upload or download, but
cannot do both simultaneously.
USB 2.0 This specification defines Backward-compatible with USB 1.1, in that you can
three transfer rates: connect USB 1.1 devices to this bus. However, they will
operate at USB 1.1 speeds. Additionally, the entire bus will
Low-speed: 1.5 Mbps slow to USB 1.1 speeds. Most USB 2.0 devices also work
Full-speed: 12 Mbps on a USB 1.1 bus, though at USB 1.1 speeds (USB 2.0’s
Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps full-speed mode).
Like USB 1.1, USB 2.0 is half-duplex.
USB 3.0 Supports USB 1.1 and Uses slightly different plugs and sockets that are upwardly
2.0 rates compatible. The means you can plug a USB 1.1 or 2.0 cable
into a USB 3.0 socket. It will not fit in all the way, making
Adds SuperSpeed mode, contact with only the pins necessary to provide USB 1.1 or
with up to 5.0 Gbps 2.0 connectivity. However, a USB 3.0 cable will not fit into
an older style socket.
Full-duplex, meaning that it can upload and download
simultaneously (it’s bidirectional).
You can determine which USB version a device supports by examining the USB logo
on the device or its connector. USB connectors are typically identified by the symbol
shown on the left in Exhibit 4-8.
Exhibit 4-8: The USB port symbol (left) and the USB 2.0 label (right)
Devices that comply with the USB 2.0 specification often display the label shown on
the right in Exhibit 4-8, and USB 3.0 devices display one of the labels shown in Exhibit
4-9
Exhibit 4-9: USB 3.0 labels

USB power
The USB standard specifies that the host must provide power to the bus for use by
devices on the bus. Low-power devices, such as mice and keyboards, can be completely
powered by the USB bus and thus don’t require an external power supply. Other
peripherals, such as external drives, require more power than USB can provide. Such
devices require an external source of power. Some devices will use two USB ports to
get enough power without an external source.
USB ports
USB ports and connectors come in two shapes, generally called Type A and Type B.
Both types use four pins or conductors. Type A ports and connectors are wide and flat
and are used at the PC end of a USB-to-device connection. If the device uses a
removable cable rather than a permanently connected one, it uses the Type B connector.
These two port and connector types are shown in Exhibit 4-10 and Exhibit 4-11.
Exhibit 4-10: USB Type A (left) and B (right) ports
Exhibit 4-11: USB type A (left) and B (right) connectors
Various smaller versions of these connectors have been created. Digital cameras, cell
phones, MP3 players, and so forth use these smaller connectors. Most phone
manufacturers have standardized the micro-USB over the mini-USB connector to
provide both battery charging power as well as connectivity to your PC or other devices.
The USB specification permits you to daisy-chain up to five hubs, that is, connect one
hub to another hub. In practice, you’ll probably encounter problems with more than two
hubs in a line.
For USB 1.1 buses, cables can be up to 3 meters long. For USB 2.0 buses, cables can be
up to 5 meters long. In theory, at least, you could connect devices up to 25 meters away
by daisy-chaining hubs. The practical limit is closer to 15 meters. The USB 3.0 standard
doesn’t define maximum cable assembly lengths. However, it’s estimated that its top
speed is achievable with a maximum cable length of 3 meters.
Do it! B-1: Examining USB connectors

1 Determine whether your PC’s
USB ports are USB 1.1, USB 2.0
or USB 3.0 ports, and describe
how you were able to determine
this information
2 Examine the USB cable supplied

by your instructor to locate the
Type A and Type B connectors
3 Examine the USB device supplied

by your instructor, and determine
whether it uses a Type A or B
connector, and which USB
version it supports
USB devices
Explanation Typically, you must run an installation or setup program supplied with your USB device
before connecting it the first time to put the device drivers into your Windows system
folder, where Windows can locate them. Depending on the device and driver, you might
be prompted to restart your computer during these steps.
Other devices, such as USB thumb drives and even some smartphones, don’t require an
installation program. You can connect them, and Windows will install the drivers
automatically, if it has them. Otherwise you’ll just be prompted to provide a location
where it can find the drivers.
Devices that connect via the USB port include:
• Barcode readers
• Keyboards
• Mice
• Touch-screen monitors
• Multimedia devices, such as Web cameras, digital cameras, camcorders, and
MIDI controllers
• Digitizers and graphics tablets
• Scanners
• Printers
• Biometric devices, such as fingerprint readers
• KVM switches
• External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives
• Joysticks and game pads, although some of these are connected using FireWire
or wirelessly using Bluetooth
Once you learn how to install one USB device, you know how to install just about any
USB device. Of course, configuring different USB devices requires different steps, but
you can determine configuration options from the device’s documentation or web site.
Do it! B-2: Installing a USB device

1 Locate one or more USB ports on Systems often include ports on both the front
your PC and back of the unit.
2 Why do you think a PC might

include USB ports on both the
front and back of the case?
3 If necessary, boot your computer

and log on to Windows 7 as
!pass1234
4 If one is provided with your To place the device’s drivers in the Windows
device, run the installation System folder, where Windows can find them.
program
5 Connect the USB device to your Windows should recognize the device and make
computer it available for use.
6 Test the device to ensure it’s

operational
IEEE 1394
FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394, is a high-speed peripheral interconnection bus.
FireWire offers these features:
• Hot-swapping and self-configuration — The bus and its devices are hot-
swappable and self-configuring.
• Multiple-device support — You can connect up to 63 devices to the FireWire
bus and interconnect up to 1023 of these buses in a tree topology.
• High-speed data transfer — FireWire supports transfer rates of 800 Mbps and
beyond.
• Asynchronous and isochronous transfer modes — FireWire supports devices
that require time-critical transfers on the bus.
FireWire was originally developed by Apple Computer Corp., which trademarked the
name. Later, with support from Microsoft, Philips, National Semiconductor, and Texas
Instruments, this specification was standardized by the IEEE (the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers) as IEEE 1394. Rather than using either of those names, Sony
decided to use i.Link to identify its implementation of this technology. Other than their
names, all of these technologies are identical. FireWire is trademarked, so companies
must pay to use the name. You’ll find that many companies will use “IEEE 1394” on
their devices instead of “FireWire” to avoid paying the licensing fee.
Architecture
FireWire is a peer-to-peer bus, in which every device is an intelligent component. This
means that devices work together to negotiate access to the bus and handle data
transfers. The best device on the bus is put in charge of managing access and data
transfers.
In contrast, USB uses a master-slave model, in which the PC controls all aspects of the
bus. As a result, even though FireWire’s “raw” throughput rating might be comparable
to that of USB, FireWire 400 outperforms USB 2.0 in actual use.
FireWire versions
The IEEE 1394 specification has undergone some revisions since its original release.
Some people now refer to the original IEEE 1394 specification as FireWire 400 or
1394a. IEEE 1394b is a revision to the original standard and is usually called FireWire
800.
FireWire 400 supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5
meters. The specification also says that there can be a maximum of 17 physical devices
on the bus, interconnected by up to 16 cables. Any of these devices can support multiple
connections, each of which can be connected to a distinct bus. Such multiple
connections enable you to interconnect up to a theoretical maximum of 64,449 devices.
As a peer-to-peer system, the “central” PC is not necessarily involved in communication
and might not actually be centrally located on the overall FireWire network.
FireWire 800 supports transfers at up to 800 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5 meters.
Additionally, you can use optical repeaters with FireWire 800 to extend cable lengths to
1000 meters. FireWire 800 also supports multiple connection devices and the
interconnected buses specified by FireWire 400.
FireWire connections
FireWire 400 devices use either a 4-pin or 6-pin connector. The 4-pin connector is used
at the device end of the cable, while the 6-pin connector hooks up to the PC. The 4-pin
port and connector are shown in Exhibit 4-12. The 6-pin port and connector are shown
in Exhibit 4-13.
Exhibit 4-12: A 4-pin FireWire 400 port and connector
Exhibit 4-13: A 6-pin FireWire 400 port and connector
FireWire 800 devices use a 9-pin connector at both ends of the cable. With the
appropriate adapter cables, you can connect FireWire 400 devices into FireWire 800
ports and vice versa. FireWire 800 devices operate at full speed only when you connect
them to a FireWire 800 port.
FireWire power
The IEEE specification calls for up to 1.5 amps at 30V for a total of 45 watts of power
provided on the FireWire 800 bus. This is considerably higher than USB, so you should
have fewer power-related problems connecting FireWire devices to the bus. The 4-pin
FireWire connector doesn’t support power.
Do it! B-3: Examining IEEE 1394 connectors

7 Locate one or more IEEE 1394 Many PCs do not include these ports on the
ports on your PC motherboard. They’re added through expansion
cards instead.
8 Do the IEEE 1394 ports on your

PC support FireWire 400 or
FireWire 800, and how can you
tell?
9 Examine the IEEE 1394 cable

supplied by your instructor and
determine the IEEE 1394
specification it supports
Wireless communications
Wireless connections generally use one of the following:
• Infrared light
• Radio waves
• Bluetooth
Infrared
Infrared wireless technology uses pulses of invisible infrared light to transmit signals
between devices. It offers relatively low-speed, line-of-site connections between
devices. Infrared light can’t pass through obstructions or around corners. Connection
speeds can be up to 16 Mbps, with a typical range of one meter. To make connections,
devices must aim their transceivers almost directly at each other. Devices that are more
than 30 degrees off to the side of a receiver, shown in Exhibit 4-14, are generally unable
to connect.
Devices that use infrared include handheld computers, such as PDAs, and some wireless
keyboards, mice, and printers. Infrared connection technology standards are set forth by
the Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
Exhibit 4-14: An IrDA infrared port on a laptop

Radio waves
Radio-based wireless communications use signals sent over electromagnetic radio
waves to transmit data between devices. Radio transmissions can pass through most
nonmetallic obstructions and around corners. Thus, it isn’t a line-of-site technology.
Radio offers moderate- to high-speed local and wide area connections.
Various radio networking technologies have been developed. Currently, the most
common of these include 802.11g and 802.11n. The 802.11n standard offers a
theoretical maximum of 300 Mbps for business or home networking and Internet
connectivity over modest distances. Intel is seeing real-world speeds of 100–140 Mbps.
This range is in comparison with the 802.11g standard’s theoretical maximum speed of
54 Mbps, with real-world speeds of 22–24 Mbps.
Radio networking technologies are sometimes called "RF technologies,” where "RF”
stands for "radio frequency.” RF devices have antennae, which are sometimes hidden
inside the devices. For example, a laptop’s 802.11n wireless network adapter antenna is
typically hidden within the laptop’s case. A Linksys WRT160N 802.11n wireless router,
with additional wired Ethernet ports, is shown in Exhibit 4-15. The wireless antennas
are hidden inside the case.
Exhibit 4-15: An 802.11n wireless router
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-distance (up to 10 meters) radio communications technology.
Bluetooth is designed to enable devices—such as cellular telephones, PDAs, personal
audio players, PC peripherals, and PCs—to discover the presence of other Bluetooth
devices within range. Once detected, these devices self-configure and begin
communicating. With Bluetooth devices, you shouldn’t have to configure any
communications parameters, such as network addresses.
Bluetooth devices have antennae, which are usually hidden inside the devices. A cell
phone that supports Bluetooth probably has an external antenna for both cellular
telephone communications and Bluetooth connectivity.
Topic C: Keyboards and mice

# Objective

– PS/2

• Input devices
– Mouse – Barcode reader
– Keyboard – KVM
Explanation As the primary input devices for most PCs, keyboards and mice are the most common
peripherals, alongside displays. Today these devices commonly use USB or Bluetooth
connections, and can be installed like any devices of their type.
Additionally, the legacy PS/2 connector is still commonly found even on new PCs. PS/2
connections remain popular for reasons of compatibility with specific hardware, or for
organizations that prefer to disable all USB connectivity for security reasons.
PS/2 connections
There are two primary kinds of PS/2 ports on a PC: keyboard and mouse. Both are
identical in physical connection, but they are not generally interchangeable, so you will
need to rely on other markings, position, or even trial and error to connect the proper
device to the proper port.
One exception is found in laptops or modern motherboards with only one PS/2 port: in
these cases the port may function with either type of device, or sometimes even both at
once using a Y-connector.
Unlike USB, the PS/2 port is not designed to be hot-swappable. Attaching or switching
PS/2 devices while the PC is in operation will not usually damage the computer or
devices, but the device may not work properly until the system is restarted.
PS/2 keyboards
Explanation The typical PS/2 keyboard port is a round, six-pin mini-DIN port (mini-DIN 6), about a
quarter inch in diameter. Exhibit 4-16 shows this port. It’s typically called a “PS/2” port
because it was used for the first time with that model of IBM PC.
Exhibit 4-16: PS/2 mouse and keyboard ports

Keyboard ports are typically purple or surrounded by a purple label. There might be a
keyboard icon next to the port. The keyboard port is usually located right next to the
nearly identical mouse port, making it easy to mistakenly connect these devices to each
other’s ports.
The keyboard connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 4-17. Sometimes the connector has a label or keyboard
icon molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Sometimes you’ll have to
trace the wires back to the device to see if it connects to the keyboard or the mouse.
Exhibit 4-17: A PS/2 keyboard connector
As you can see from Exhibit 4-16 and Exhibit 4-17, the PS/2 keyboard connector is a
“keyed” connector. The large, rectangular pin, along with notches in the plastic of the
inner barrel, helps ensure that you insert the connector into the port in the correct
orientation. Don’t force the connector into the port; if it doesn’t fit easily, try turning it
until it does fit.
Some bar code readers connect to the keyboard port. A Y-adapter is used to connect
both the bar code reader and the keyboard to the port. An example of such a connection
is shown in Exhibit 4-18.Other barcode readers have a USB connection.
Exhibit 4-18: A bar code reader and a keyboard connected to the keyboard port
The typical PS/2 mouse port is identical in form to the PS/2 keyboard port, as shown in
Exhibit 4-16. It’s typically green or surrounded by a green label and might be
accompanied by a mouse icon.
The mouse connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 4-19. Sometimes the connector has a label or mouse icon
molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Mouse ports and connectors, like
their keyboard equivalents, are keyed so that you connect them in the right orientation.
Exhibit 4-19: A PS/2 mouse connector
Do it! C-1: Attaching a keyboard and mouse

1 Power down your computer If your computer has a USB keyboard and
mouse, you will need a PS/2 keyboard and
mouse for this activity.
2 Examine your PC to locate and

identify the PS/2 keyboard and
mouse ports. What clues did you
use to determine which was
which?
3 Disconnect your keyboard and

mouse from the PC ports
4 Re-insert the mouse and keyboard To practice installing this type of connector.
connectors into the correct ports
5 Boot your computer
6 Log onto Windows 7 as

!pass1234
7 Verify that both your keyboard

and mouse are functional
8 Speculate on some ways that the

similarity between these ports
could have been designed to be
less of a problem
KVM switches
Explanation KVM stands for “keyboard, video, mouse.” A KVM switch is a hardware device that
allows you to connect multiple computers to a single keyboard, video display, and
mouse. Each computer is connected to the box through a cable set provided with the
box. The keyboard, video display, and mouse are connected to the specified ports on the
box.
You use a manual switch on the front of the device or a keyboard shortcut to select
which computer you want to use with the keyboard, display, and mouse. Typically, a
light on the front of the switch box will light up, indicating which computer has control
of the keyboard, video, and mouse, as shown in Exhibit 4-20.
Exhibit 4-20: Front of PS/2 KVM switch
Exhibit 4-21 shows the back of the KVM shown in Exhibit 4-20. It is an older-style
KVM that provides PS/2 ports for the keyboard and mouse.
Exhibit 4-21: Back of a PS/2 KVM switch
Newer KVM switches have USB ports and also sometimes provide speaker and
microphone ports, as shown in Exhibit 4-22.
Exhibit 4-22: Back of a USB KVM switch
The KVM switch typically receives its power from the computer itself through the PS/2
mouse connection or USB connection. Thus, many KVM switches don’t require
connection to an external power source.
Do it! C-2: Using a KVM switch

1 Examine the KVM switch You will work with at least one other student to
provided by your instructor connect your computers up to the same monitor,
keyboard, and mouse through the KVM switch
Determine where the master

keyboard, video, and mouse plug in
2 Determine how the KVM switch

gets its power
3 Shut down your computer
4 Disconnect your monitor,

keyboard, and mouse
5 Verify that the ports on the KVM For example, a USB KVM switch can’t be used
switch match the corresponding to connect a PS/2 keyboard and mouse.
device ports on your computer
6 Connect one monitor, keyboard,

and mouse to the master ports on
the KVM switch
7 Both partners connect the

provided KVM cables to the
monitor, keyboard, and mouse
ports on their computers
8 Connect the other end of the cable

to one set of ports on the KVM
switch
9 Turn on your computer
!pass1234
10 Observe the indicator lights on the

front of the KVM switch
Which computer currently has

control of the video, keyboard,
and mouse?
11 Switch between computers and

verify that each one can use the
keyboard and mouse
12 Shut down your computer
13 Disconnect your computer from

the KVM switch
14 Reconnect your monitor,

keyboard, and mouse
15 Turn on your computer
!pass1234
Verify that the monitor, keyboard,

and mouse are functioning
correctly
Unit summary: Connections and peripherals

Topic A In this topic, you learned about the difference between serial and parallel interfaces.
You also learned to identify the connections and cables used for legacy COM and LPT
devices.
Topic B In this topic, you learned about modern peripheral interfaces. You learned to identify
USB and FireWire standards and connection types, and categories of wireless
connection. You also installed a USB device.
Topic C In this topic, you learned to install keyboards and mice using PS/2 connectors. You
then learned to control multiple computers from a single keyboard, monitor, and mouse
using a KVM switch.
Review questions
1 True or false? In parallel transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the
transmission medium.
False. In serial transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the transmission medium.
2 Which USB version has a top transfer speed of 480 Mbps?
A USB 1.0 C USB 2.0
B USB 1.1 D USB 3.0
3 Which FireWire version supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps?
A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
4 The following picture is a connector for what type of communication?
A Parallel
B Serial
5 What color is a PS/2 keyboard port?
A Black D Purple
B Green E Red
C Pink F Yellow
6 What color is a PS/2 mouse port?
A Black D Purple
B Green E Red
C Pink F Yellow
7 Which USB connector is wide and flat?

A Type A
B Type B
8 You can get cable lengths of up to of 25 meters with USB by ______________.
daisy-chaining
9 Which FireWire port is shown in the following graphic?
A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
10 How many pins does a FireWire 800 connector have?
A 4 C 8
B 6 D 9
Independent practice activity

In this activity, you’ll practice identifying different types of ports, connectors, and
cables. Your instructor will provide you with either a variety of device ports and
connectors, or photos of device ports and connectors. You need to successfully identify
each example.
1 Given devices or photographs, correctly identify the following connection types:
9-pin serial USB 2.0 Type A FireWire 800 9-pin
25-pin parallel USB 2.0 Type B FireWire 400 4-pin
Centronics 36 PS/2 FireWire 400 6-pin

5–1
Unit 5
Media devices
A Identify audio and video connectors.
B Evaluate display types and features.
C Install and configure audio and multimedia

devices.
Topic A: Media connectors

# Objective
ƕ VGA
ƕ HDMI
ƕ DVI
ƕ Audio
– Analog vs. digital transmission
– VGA vs. HDMI

• Display connector types
– DVI-D – RCA – HD15 (i.e. DE15 or DB15)
– DVI-I – BNC – RJ-45
– DVI-A – miniHDMI – miniDin-6
– DisplayPort
• Display cable types
– HDMI – Component – RGB

– DVI – Composite – Coaxial
– VGA – S-video – Ethernet
– Audio
Video interfaces
In the earliest years of the PC, IBM was the only significant source of personal
computers for business use. Thus, the video adapters and associated standards that IBM
created were adopted as the official standards to be implemented by third-party
manufacturers.
VGA was the last widely accepted standard created by IBM. Shortly after it was
introduced, VGA was superseded by the capabilities of third-party graphics adapters.
Although the offerings from many of these vendors came to be called “SuperVGA,”
there was no official standard beyond VGA. Until the digital interfaces of DVI and
HDMI were developed, all video interfaces were analog. Modern flat-panel monitors
are connected via either analog or digital lines.
Media devices 5–3
VGA
The typical VGA connector is a 15-pin connector officially called a DE-15 connector, as
shown on the left in Exhibit 5-1. The DE-15 connector is also known as a DB-15
connector or HD15 connector. A typical VGA socket is shown on the right.
Exhibit 5-1: A VGA (DE-15) connector and cable (left) and a VGA socket (right)
Red Green Blue (RGB) cables use the same analog signal as VGA cables, but RGB is
three separate cables instead of a single cable like the VGA cable. Each of the RGB
cables has its own connector. Only older analog display devices use RGB connectors
and cables.
DVI
Explanation If you want to use the DVI interface, you will need to determine what type of DVI
connection the card accepts. The different types of DVI connectors are shown in Exhibit
5-2.
Exhibit 5-2: DVI connectors
The DVI family includes:

• DVI-A provides an analog signal. It isn’t used very often because the VGA
connector, which also provides an analog signal, is less expensive.
• DVI-D delivers video signals in a digital format without analog conversion,
using the TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) protocol. A dual-
link DVI-D connection contains 24 pins in three rows of eight, plus a grounding
slot, as shown in on the left in Exhibit 5-3. A single-link DVI-D connector and
cable contain 18 pins.
• DVI-I supports both digital and analog signals—the “I” stands for integrated.
The DVI-I connector contains four more pins than the DVI-D connector. These
four pins, which carry analog signals, are located above and below the
grounding slot. Exhibit 5-3 shows a DVI-I connector on the right.
Exhibit 5-3: A dual-link DVI-D port (left) and a DVI-I port (right)
The DVI family of standards supports single- and dual-link configurations; for example,
a DVI-D single link (with 18 conductors/pins) and a DVI-D dual-link (with 24 pins).
The extra six conductors are used to transmit additional pixel data along the cable to
enable both higher resolutions and higher refresh rates. For example, a single link DVI
interface can handle a maximum of 60 Hz and 2.75 megapixels. That’s the equivalent of
1,915 × 1,436 pixels in a 4:3 aspect ratio arrangement. For higher resolutions, or higher
refresh rates, additional bandwidth is required. The additional “link” provides 6 extra
conductors to transmit the additional information. A dual-link DVI interface can handle
4 megapixels at 60 Hz.
HDMI
Like DVI-D, HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) delivers video signals in a
digital format without analog conversion. DVI-D and HDMI are similar to one another
in terms of image quality, but HDMI cables can deliver up to eight channels of digital
audio in addition to video. HDMI also supports higher resolutions than DVI-D does,
including some not generally available commercially. HDMI uses a different type of
connector than does DVI-D.
As of this writing, there are four types of HDMI connectors: types A, B, C, D, and E.
Types A, C, and D have 19 pins, though wiring arrangements vary between these types.
The type C connector, called Mini-HDMI, is smaller than type A, and type D is even
smaller. The smaller connectors are intended for portable devices. Type B connectors
have 29 pins and support the dual-link configuration. Dual-link configuration doubles
the maximum transfer rate and permits much higher resolutions. Type E connectors
aren’t very common in the world of an A+ technician, as it is defined as an automotive
connection system.
A Type A port is shown in Exhibit 5-4.
Exhibit 5-4: An HDMI Type A port
DisplayPort
Display projectors enable you to show what’s on your screen to a room full of people.
These projectors are useful for meetings and classes. The DisplayPort digital display
interface is a newer specification. It covers CRT, LCD, plasma, and projection displays.
It also covers connections to PCs, game systems, DVD players, and other image
sources. The cable can carry high-quality audio along with the video information. An
example of a DisplayPort connector and cable is shown in Exhibit 5-5.
Media devices 5–5
Exhibit 5-5: DisplayPort connector
The specification defines a common interface for internal and external display
connections. The high bandwidth in the specification supports higher-resolution
monitors, higher refresh rates, and more colors.
The DisplayPort connector is smaller than connectors meeting the current video
standards. The smaller cable accommodates thin notebook computers and other devices,
as well as desktop computers. Multiple ports fit on a single video card.
RCA
Explanation You might encounter computers with RCA connections for connecting video devices
and/or cable-TV cable. These are on a separate card from the sound card. They are often
used for connecting VCRs or video cameras that don’t have FireWire or USB ports to
transfer the analog images to the computer for conversion to DVDs or for use in digital
editing applications. Exhibit 5-6 shows RCA connectors on a PC.
Exhibit 5-6: RCA connectors on a PC
Exhibit 5-7 shows the RCA connectors on the cable. The yellow connector is for
composite video connection. The white connector connects to the left audio channel,
and the red connector connects to the right audio channel.
Exhibit 5-7: RCA connectors and cables

S-Video
Separate Video (S-Video) is an analog video connection using a single cable in which
analog signals for brightness and color are carried separately. In standard composite
video connections, both brightness and color are carried together, resulting in a lower-
quality image. An S-Video connection enables you to connect devices, such as
televisions and game systems, that otherwise could not be connected to the computer.
As shown in Exhibit 5-6, the S-Video connection is a 4-pin mini-DIN connection.
Component video
Component video uses five cables to carry audio and video, compared to composite
video’s three cables. Component video is paired with the white and red audio cables just
like with composite video. However with component video, the video signal is sent over
red, green and blue cables. Component video has twice the resolution of composite
video.
Coaxial
Some computers have a coax connector for a cable television connection, enabling the
computer to be turned into a digital video recorder. By using this TV tuner card and
adding software to the computer, you can tune in specific TV channels and record the
broadcast to your hard drive. A video capture card can be used to record video and
might include a TV tuner. A TV tuner/video capture device can be either an internal
expansion card or an external USB device. TV tuner cards and video capture cards are
available in both analog and digital versions.
A coax connector, on traditional coaxial cable, is similar to what you’d use to connect to
satellite or cable TV. It’s the rightmost connector in Exhibit 5-8.
Exhibit 5-8: Coax connector (rightmost connector) for connecting TV antenna
BNC
Copper thinnet (RG-58) cables connect to the computer with a BNC barrel connector.
The standard BNC is considered a 2-pin connector—pin 1 is the center conductor,
which carries the data signal, and pin 2 is the tinned copper braid, which provides the
ground.
The components of a BNC cable and connector are called out in Exhibit 5-9.
Exhibit 5-9: A BNC cable connector

Media devices 5–7
Ethernet cable and RJ-45

RJ-45 connectors on Ethernet cable are used to carry video signals long distances, much
longer than the typical cables used to connect display devices to computers. There are
third-party applications that support video signals over Ethernet, but they’re not widely
available and you won’t likely come in contact with them. But if you do, the cables are
typical Cat-5 or Cat-6 cables with the standard RJ-45 connector that you’d find on the
end of any Ethernet cable.
These cables are typically unshielded twisted pair, or UTP. UTP cable comes in various
categories. Each category has a specific use, number of twists per foot, and speed. The
most common types you’ll encounter in video transmission are categories 5 and 6.
Category 6 is capable of larger throughput, but the maximum length for both types of
cable is 100 meters. Given that the cable is unshielded, this maximum will be a lot less
in environments where there is a lot of interference or crosstalk.
Do it! A-1: Identifying video adapter types

and open its case
2 Examine the adapter cards in your

computer
Which cards can you use to attach

a monitor?
3 What type of bus is each card

connected to?
For each video card in your

computer, does it support analog,
digital, or both?
4 Examine each of the video adapter

cards provided by your instructor
Identify the type of each card
For each card, does it support

analog, digital, or both?
Audio connections
Explanation Sound cards typically feature connectors for speakers, microphones, line-input or line-
output devices. The function of each connector is typically labeled with a small icon.
Exhibit 5-10 shows some of these connectors and their functions. The connectors shown
use standard 1/8” audio connectors. Other audio connections can use HDMI for
connection for high-end audio output, especially in home-theater settings.
Exhibit 5-10: Standard sound card connectors
MIDI connectors
MIDI connectors are found on musical instruments that are connected using the musical
instrument digital interface (MIDI) protocol. MIDI defines the port connector, the
format of the data sent, and the format in which the sounds are stored. The port is a large
DIN connector. Devices can be daisy-chained together, with one device connecting
from its MIDI output port to another device’s MIDI input port. You can use double-
ended cables to extend the connection’s length. The devices can also be connected to a
mixing board, a synthesizer, or a computer. A hub or connection box enables you to
disconnect an individual instrument without rerouting the remaining instruments.
Some high-end sound cards include MIDI connections, but usually an adapter is used.
The MIDI cable has the DIN connection on the MIDI device end and has either a 15-pin
joystick connector or a USB connector on the other end. There are also MIDI controller
boxes that have MIDI ports built into them; the box then connects to the computer
through a USB cable.
Exhibit 5-11 shows a MIDI device and MIDI cables. The MIDI drum kit on the left side
of the picture has MIDI-in and MIDI-out cables connected. A close-up of the MIDI
ports is shown in the upper right. Below the instrument is a MIDI connection device.
The MIDI instruments connect to the MIDI ports on the box, and a USB cable connects
it to the computer. Notice that the MIDI cable ends in a large DIN connector, similar to
the old-style keyboard connector.
Exhibit 5-11: MIDI connectors

Media devices 5–9
S/PDIF
Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) is a standard developed by Sony and Philips for
digital audio transfer. This connection is found on CD and DVD drives. It connects to
an S/PDIF connector on a sound card or on the motherboard.
Because they are digital rather than analog, S/PDIF connections eliminate the need to
convert digital CD or DVD data to analog. And because the signal doesn’t have to be
converted, S/PDIF eliminates the noise that would be created during the signal
conversion and would lower the audio quality.
In addition to internal drives, you can have external S/PDIF connections. These are
typically added through a card dedicated to digital multimedia connections. External
devices using S/PDIF connections include home theater receivers and professional-
quality CD and DVD players. The external devices connect via either a square
connector or a coaxial connection. Examples of these are shown in Exhibit 5-12.
Exhibit 5-12: S/PDIF connections
The square connectors shown in Exhibit 5-12 have spring-loaded covers that close
automatically when you disconnect a cable. This arrangement prevents potentially eye-
damaging light (from the internal fiber) from exiting the connector when nothing is
connected to it. You can connect TOSLINK connectors to the square-style S/PDIF
sockets.
Do it! A-2: Identifying the components of a sound card

1 Identify the connectors included
on your sound card
2 Examine the sound cards provided

by your instructor
What connectors do each of them

include that your computer’s
sound card doesn’t?
Topic B: Display devices

# Objective
1.10 Given a scenario, evaluate types and features of display devices.

• Types
– CRT – LED – Projector
– LCD – Plasma – OLED
• Refresh rates
• Resolution
• Native resolution
• Brightness/lumens
• Analog vs. digital
• Privacy/antiglare filters
• Multiple displays

• Output devices
– Display devices
Safety
Caution: Never open a display device unless you’ve been specifically trained in
internal repair techniques, which aren’t covered in this course.
CRT display devices

Explanation Traditional television sets and computer display devices use the same technology to
create images. A phosphorescent screen coating is struck by electron beams, and the
coating then glows for a fraction of a second. The electron beam must strike the coating
many times to keep the coating glowing.
Exhibit 5-13: A CRT display device

Media devices 5–11
Color cathode ray terminals (CRTs), use three electron beams to produce images. Each
beam is for a separate color—red, green, or blue. (This is why CRTs are also referred to
as RGB devices.) The beams pass through horizontal and vertical deflection coils and
are focused by the magnetic yoke. Exhibit 5-13 shows a CRT display device.
The inside of a CRT is a vacuum with a few key components. The cathode is a heated
element at the rear of the display device. When the cathode is heated, negatively
charged rays are emitted. These are attracted by a positively charged anode, which
focuses the rays.
Red, green, and blue light phosphors are arranged in a triad of dots or in strips. The
three electron beams allow the dots to be illuminated simultaneously. The high-speed
electron beam passes through a device that positions the electronic beams and strikes
the phosphor-coated screen.
To control the electronic beam, CRTs use one of three technologies: shadow mask,
aperture grill, and slotted mask. A shadow mask is a sheet of metal with a hole for each
pixel triad. A pixel triad is a grouping of the three color dots. The mask or grill prevents
stray electrons from illuminating dots that shouldn’t be illuminated. An aperture grill is
composed of thin, vertical, metal strips to block stray electrons. The slotted mask
combines features of shadow mask and aperture grill technologies. Exhibit 5-14
illustrates how CRTs produce images.
Exhibit 5-14: How CRTs produce images
Coils move the beam horizontally and vertically. Changing the voltages in the coils
enables the electron beams to be aimed anywhere on the screen. A device called a
flyback transformer, which produces high-voltage signals from a low-voltage power
source, controls the horizontal motion of the beam. Because high voltages are present,
you must take caution if attempting to repair a CRT.
Some display devices have a degaussing button. Powerful magnets, such as those found
in speakers or industrial motors, can magnetize the mask or grill, causing the focusing
of dots to be misaligned. The degaussing button enables you to demagnetize the display
device. Most display devices automatically perform a degaussing process when you turn
them on. Repeated degaussing can damage a CRT.
Screen size
The screen size is the diagonal measurement, in inches, of the entire picture tube. This
measurement can be misleading because it includes areas of the picture tube that are
within the bezel (the plastic case that surrounds the viewable area of the screen). For
this reason, you might also find another measurement, called the viewable area, which
measures just the portion of the tube that’s visible.
Viewable areas for CRTs are typically between 15 and 21 inches diagonal. If you work
in an environment with much older equipment, you might occasionally find a 12" or 14"
display device, but with the advent of graphical user interfaces for operating systems
and applications, larger screens are far more useful. Engineers, graphics artists, and
other users with specialty applications typically have the larger displays.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of the screen is the relationship between width and the height of the
screen. It is expressed as x:y, where x is the width and y is the height. When an image is
measured in x units, y is always measured and displayed in the same units, usually
pixels in computer terms, producing a standard image size of x:y pixels.
Standard CRT display devices have a 4:3 ratio, the same as a standard-definition TV,
which produces an almost square image. Current flat panel displays support a 4:3, 5:4,
and 16:9 or 16:10 aspect ratios, the latter two producing the wide-screen image that’s
typical of high-definition content.
Resolution
Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device. The resolution is
expressed in rows and columns. A display device with a 1280×1024 resolution has 1280
columns of dots and 1024 rows of dots.
Resolution is affected by screen size. Both 15" and 21" display devices with a
1280×1024 resolution have the same number of pixels. They’re just closer together on
the smaller display. Having the pixels closer together creates a sharper image.
Some applications, especially games and graphics applications, require that the
resolution be set to a specific setting. Common Windows 7, Windows Vista, and
Windows XP settings are 800×600, 1024×768, 1152×864, 1280×800, 1280×1024, and
1600×1200. Exactly which ones are available on your system depends on the
resolutions your display device and video adapter support.
Refresh rate
For an image to stay on the screen, it needs to be refreshed multiple times per second.
The refresh rate is the number of times per second the screen is refreshed or redrawn.
This rate is measured in Hertz (Hz). At 60 Hz, the display is refreshed 60 times per
second. The image appears more stable, with less noticeable flickering, at higher refresh
rates. The human eye usually doesn’t notice the redraw at 72 Hz or higher. A refresh
rate of 85 Hz is recommended for a 1280×1024 resolution.
If your display device can’t support that combination, it drops back to the previous
setting so it can show the screen image and prevent damage to the hardware.
Color depth
Color depth specifies how many bits are used to describe the color of a single pixel.
VGA display devices use 16-bit color depth, known as High Color or HiColor, and can
show 65,536 colors. SVGA display devices are capable of 24-bit color depth, using 8
bits for red, 8 bits for blue, and 8 bits for green. An SVGA display device can show
16,777,216 colors; this setting is also known as True Color. The 32-bit color depth uses
the additional bits for showing additional information in the image. This setting is useful
for games and other graphics-intensive applications.
Flat-panel display devices

For many reasons, CRTs have been replaced by flat-panel display technologies. Flat-
panel displays used to be found only in laptops. Now, they’re the standard display
option for desktop systems as well. These flat-panel display devices are liquid crystal
display (LCD) display devices that use thin-film transistor (TFT) technology.
Exhibit 5-15 shows an LCD display device.
Exhibit 5-15: A flat-panel display device
Compared with CRT display devices, LCD display devices:

• Use less power
• Generate less heat
• Require less desk space for the same size viewable area
• Produce less glare
• Emit less radiation
Modern LCDs use an active-matrix TFT to control liquid crystals, chemicals whose
molecules can be aligned by the presence of an electrical field. When aligned, the
crystals let light pass through. An LCD display uses layers of liquid crystals, a
fluorescent or LED light source, and polarizing filters. (Displays that use LED lighting
are referred to as LED display, but really they’re still LCD displays, just with an LED
source instead of fluorescent.) A transistor controls each pixel’s transparency by setting
the electric field to adjust the liquid crystal’s alignment. Transparent pixels shine white,
compared to the black or gray of reflective pixels.
In a color LCD display, each pixel is made up of three subpixels. Each subpixel is
covered by a red, green, or blue filter. Because each subpixel can be turned on or off, a
pixel can be made to glow in the various colors that make up an image. Each subpixel is
controlled by its own transistor.
Older LCD technologies, such as passive matrix, used fewer transistors than active
matrix use. Such screens were less sharp or suffered from ghost images. Dual scan
technology offered an improvement over passive matrix, but eventually gave way to the
better images of TFT. Dual scan separated screens into two parts, refreshing both at the
same time, thus providing faster refresh rates than passive matrix provided.
LCD display characteristics

In addition to the specifications used for CRTs, LCD display devices use other
specifications to describe their performance. These are related to the way LCD display
devices produce images.
Screen size
LCD display devices are measured diagonally, just like CRT display devices. Such
measurements don’t include areas of the screen hidden by the bezel.
Viewing angle
The viewing angle can be an important factor to consider. When you’re viewing an
LCD display straight on, as you do most of the time, the display device should be fine.
However, if you want to show other people what’s on your display, and they’re viewing
it from an angle, the image might not be visible or might be distorted, or the colors
might look wavy or incorrect.
Angles are measured in degrees. The maximum angle at which the image isn’t distorted
is listed as the viewing angle. Because various manufacturers measure this differently,
you should check it yourself. Be sure to check from both sides of the screen, as well as
from top and bottom angles, if you think people might need to see from those angles as
well.
Response rate
The response rate measures how quickly the pixels can change colors. This number is
important if you have moving images, such as in Web sites, videos, or gaming. The
response rate is measured in milliseconds. A response rate should be a lower number for
better performance. New LCD displays have a response rate of down to 2 to 4 ms.
Contrast ratio
Contrast ratio is the ratio between the display device’s brightest white and darkest
black. The higher the contract ratio, the better the image, so 1000:1 is better than 600:1.
Native resolutions
The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen
matrix for that specific display device. Resolution can range from 1280x1024 to
1920x1200. LCD display devices produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used.
Although you can usually configure an LCD display device for a lower resolution than
the native resolution, the image will be somewhat blurry or distorted, because not all
pixels will be illuminated. On a few LCD display devices, you can set a higher
resolution than the native resolution, but again, the image might not be as clear as the
image at the native resolution.
Brightness
Brightness or luminescence is the amount of light produced by an LCD display,
measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2). A typical range is 250 to 500 cd/m2,
though a range of 250 to 300 cd/m2 is adequate for most tasks. Brighter displays are
better for movies and games. You might also see brightness measured in nits, with one
nit equal to 1 cd/m2.
Other features
Other features you might find in the LCD display device descriptions include:
• Orientation — Some display devices can be pivoted so that you can view the
image in portrait or landscape mode.
• Privacy/anti-glare filters — These filters are usually a thin sheet of plastic that
adhere to the front of your display device. They reduce the viewing angle to
prevent anyone from seeing the display contents unless they’re seated directly in
front of the display device. They also help reduce glare from the device and
reflections from light sources in the surrounding environment.
• Built-in speakers — Speakers are incorporated in the LCD display device.
• USB hub — You can connect other USB devices to the computer through the
display device.
• Wall mounting — This option allows multiple people to view the display, such
as in conference rooms and classrooms.
Other display types

While most displays you’ll encounter as LCD displays, there are a few other display
types you need to know about.
• Plasma — Plasma displays are another type of flat panel display. While these
can be used to display computer output, they are more likely to be used as a
television in a media center setup. Plasma technology uses a plasma gas and
electrically charged particles to produce an image. Plasma displays are brighter
and have a better contrast ratio than LCD displays, and they have a wider
viewing angle. However, plasma displays consume much more power and are
susceptible to burn-in, a permanent discoloration of the display by long-term
exposure to a static image. While newer plasma display technologies helps
reduce burn in, they doesn’t eliminate it entirely, especially when you use a
plasma display with a computer.
• OLED — Organic light-emitting diode displays use a layer of organic chemical
compounds to produce an image in response to an electrical current. OLED
displays don’t use a backlight, and can produce a better contrast ratio than LCD.
OLED displays are mostly used for smartphones and some televisions.
• Projectors — Display projectors enable you to show what’s on your screen to a
room full of people. These projectors are useful for meetings and classes. You
can use a cable splitter or software so that the image is displayed on your device
and is projected onto a whiteboard, wall, or movie screen. The brightness of a
projector is measures in lumens. The greater then number of lumens, the brighter
the projector’s output.
Do it! B-1: Choosing an LCD display device

1 Open your Web browser and go to You’ll examine a store Web site to find a device
a Web site that sells computer with the best characteristics you should examine
hardware when purchasing a display device.
2 Display the LCD display devices You’ll compare the lowest-price device, a mid-
that are for sale priced device, and the highest-price device.
3 Select a standard size to compare For example, compare 19" LCD devices.
4 Record the following information

for the lowest-price device:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Record the following information

for the mid-priced device:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Record the following information

for the highest-price device:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
5 Record any extra features included

in the lowest-price device
Record any extra features included

in the mid-priced device
Record any extra features included

in the highest-price device
6 Which device would you

recommend to a customer?
LCD device installation

Explanation The first step in connecting an LCD display device is determining which type of video
connector your computer has. If it has only a 15-pin VGA connector, you’ll have to use
an analog connector to the LCD device.
If you have a DVI connector, you need to determine which type of DVI cable you need.
Also, some LCD devices come with a DVI cable, but others come with only an analog
VGA cable. You can purchase a separate DVI cable if your device supports digital
video and if you have a DVI video card installed in your system.
If you want to take advantage of the digital connection and you don’t have a DVI
connector in your computer, you can install a graphics adapter with DVI connectors on
it. DVI-D is the most common connector type for PC-to-LCD-device connections. DVI-
I is more common for connecting to other equipment, such as HDTV television sets.
Multiple displays
If you’re using an operating system that supports multiple displays, such as Windows 7,
Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, or Windows 98, you can use two or
more devices simultaneously. This arrangement is useful when you’re working with
large spreadsheets, multiple related documents, and other large documents.
Using dual devices in Windows 7 gives you a larger space to display two windows than
the Aero Snap feature does. Aero Snap displays each window in half of a single device.
To use multiple devices, you need two devices, two video cables, and either two video
adapters or one video adapter with two ports.
You can connect CRTs, LCD devices, or a mix of each. The setup depends on which
adapters your computer has and what types of devices you have. The Microsoft
Knowledge Base article "Hardware requirements for multiple-display support in
Windows XP” (article 296538), Windows Vista article located at
http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/display/multimonVista.mspx,
or Windows 7 Help at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/976064. This
contains information that can help you figure out what equipment you need to set up
multiple devices. Exhibit 5-16 shows an example of a connecting two devices to a
computer.
Exhibit 5-16: Connecting two devices

To configure multiple display devices in Windows:

1 In Windows 7, right-click the desktop, choose Personalize, click Display and
click Change display settings. Open Display Settings in Windows Vista.
2 In Windows XP, select the Settings tab.
3 Select and drag the device boxes so they’re either side by side or one above the
other. Side-by-side extends your desktop to the left or right. Top-and-bottom
extends the desktop up and down.
4 Select each device box and set the appropriate screen resolution and color
settings.
5 If necessary, select the box for your main device. In Windows 7 and Vista,
check "This is my main monitor.” In Windows XP, check "Use this device as the
primary monitor.”
6 Select the device box for the secondary device. In Windows 7, under Multiple
displays, choose "Extend these displays.” In Windows Vista, check "Extend the
desktop onto this monitor.”
Configuring multiple devices in Windows 7 is shown in Exhibit 5-17.
7 Click OK.
Exhibit 5-17: Configuring dual devices in Windows 7
Do it! B-2: Using an LCD device

1 Shut down Windows 7 and turn You’ll disconnect your device, reconnect it, and
off your computer’s power examine the display properties.
2 Disconnect the power to the Devices have very high voltages and need to be
device handled carefully.
3 Disconnect the video cable from

the video adapter
4 Examine the connector and the The standard analog VGA female port has 15
port for the LCD device holes, and the male cable end has 15 pins. If
your system has a DVI port, it’s most likely the
DVI-D port, with three rows of pins and a
separate area of four more pins.
5 Connect the video cable from the Be careful not to bend pins as you make the
LCD device to the port connection.
Plug the device into the power Devices should be plugged into surge protector
outlet strips to help protect them.
6 Turn on the computer The display image should be clear and centered,
with no distortions.
Log on to Windows 7 as The password is Pa$$321.

ESSADMIN##
Adjust the display If necessary, to display a clear image.
7 Right-click the desktop
Choose Personalize
Click Display
Click
Change display settings
8 Raise the Screen resolution to the This depends on the capabilities of your display
highest available setting device.
9 Click Advanced settings
Activate the Monitor tab
Raise the Color quality to the This also depends on the capabilities of your
highest available setting video card and device.
Click Apply If you changed the settings.
Click Yes If you like the new settings.
Click No If you want to revert to the previous settings.
10 Close the Screen Resolution

window
Topic C: Audio and multimedia devices
# Objective
ƕ Audio
– Analog vs. digital transmission

• Input devices
– Microphone
• Multimedia devices
– Digital cameras – Camcorder
– Microphone – MIDI enabled devices
– Webcam
• Output devices
– Speakers
Audio devices
To produce a signal for your speakers, a sound card must convert digital data into
analog sound waves. To enable you to input, or capture, audio, the sound card must also
convert analog sound signals into digital signals. Older sound cards enabled you to
connect a game device, such as a joystick or game paddle, and many of those also
enabled you to connect MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) instruments.
Nowadays, such functions are most often enabled through USB, FireWire, or even
wireless links.
Exhibit 5-18 shows a sound card. To perform its functions, a typical sound card includes
these components:
• Digital signal processor (DSP) — Functions like a CPU for sound processing
functions.
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) — Converts analog signals (such as sound
waves) to digital signals.
• Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) — Converts digital signals to analog,
producing the signals needed by speakers or other analog audio devices.
• Various jacks — Used to connect speakers, microphones, line-input or line-
output devices, game adapters (joysticks), and sometimes MIDI devices.
Discrete sound cards like that pictured today are only in common use among audio
enthusiasts and professionals – most computers will instead use audio functions built
into the motherboard. The functionality of both devices is the same, except that a sound
card will usually feature higher quality components and more connectors.
Exhibit 5-18: A sound card
Speakers
Explanation You hear operating system and application sounds through the speakers. A system with
a CD or DVD player can play music or video, and the audio portion will be played
through the speakers. Exhibit 5-19 shows speakers connected to a computer.
Exhibit 5-19: Speakers connected to a computer
Speaker or line-out port

Speakers connect to a speaker (line-out) port. On some systems, there’s a separate port
for headphones, but sometimes you have to unplug the speakers and plug the
headphones into the same jack.
Some speakers have a headphone jack on the speaker. Plugging the headphones into that
jack overrides the sound coming out of the speakers so that it comes out only through
the headphones.
If your computer has color-coded ports, the speaker port is lime green. All of the ports
on the sound card are 1/8" round ports. The connector from the speakers fits into any of
the ports, but functions properly only when connected to the speaker or line-out port.
Even though speakers come in pairs, they still connect to a single 1/8" port. The
speakers connect to each other, and then one of the speakers has a connection that goes
to the port. Exhibit 5-20 shows how speakers connect to each other and to the computer.
Exhibit 5-20: Speakers connect to each other and then to the computer
Some sound cards (or motherboards) feature separate connectors for the various
speakers in a surround-sound system. Others have a single 1/8" port to which you
connect all of the speakers in the system. Consult your computer’s owner’s manual for
information about connecting your speaker system.
Microphones
Microphones can be used with a computer to record sounds. The microphone connects
to a microphone port on the sound card. To identify this port, look for a picture of a
microphone, the word “Mic,” or a pink port, if it’s color-coded. Exhibit 5-21 shows a
microphone and the port to which you connect it on a computer.
Exhibit 5-21: A microphone connection to a computer
Windows Sound Recorder

Sound Recorder, shown in Exhibit 5-22, is a simple Windows program that you can use
to record sound from a microphone attached to your sound card. Depending on the
version of Sound Recorder, you can save the recorded audio to various types of sound
files, including .wav, .wma, and .mp3. To listen to the sound file you recorded, you can
use Windows Media Player.
Exhibit 5-22: The Sound Recorder program in Windows 7

Do it! C-1: Using a sound card

1 Connect the speakers to each If necessary – Some pairs of speakers are
other permanently connected. Refer to the speakers’
documentation if needed.
2 Locate the speaker jack on the

computer
Connect the speakers to the

speaker jack
3 Plug in the power for the speakers
4 Turn on the speakers Usually a button or by turning the volume dial.
5 Locate the microphone jack on the You’ll connect a microphone to your computer.
computer
6 Plug in the microphone
7 Choose Start, All Programs,

Accessories, Sound
Recorder
8 Click Start Recording
9 Speak into the microphone For example, say your name and count to ten.
10 Click Stop Recording
11 In the File name box, type

My Sound Recording
12 Observe the location on the hard By default, it’s saved in your Documents folder.
disk where the file will be saved
Click Save
13 Close Sound Recorder
14 Open Documents
15 Double-click The file opens and begins to play in Windows

My Sound Recording Media Player. You might need to adjust the
volume of your speakers to hear properly.
16 Close Windows Media Player
17 If you are unhappy with the

quality of sound, repeat the steps
to record, and try again
Digital cameras
Explanation Digital cameras most often use USB connections. Digital video cameras use either a
USB connection or an IEEE 1394 connection. Some cameras require drivers, but others
just show up as another storage device on the computer when the connection is made.
Some cameras use a docking station to recharge the batteries and to transfer the images
from the camera to the computer. Some docking stations also include a photo printer.
Some docking stations can print the pictures without being connected to the computer;
others require a computer connection.
Do it! C-2: Connecting a digital camera

1 Insert the media card into the You’ll use a digital camera and then connect it
digital camera to the computer to transfer the picture to the
hard drive.
2 Take a picture with the digital

camera
3 Determine what type of It’s usually a USB connection, but it could be an

connection the camera uses to IEEE 1394 connection, through a docking
connect to the computer station, or via another port.
4 Connect the camera to your

computer
5 If prompted, install software or Some cameras require drivers to be installed.

drivers Others, using the USB specification, show up
automatically as storage devices in the
Computer folder.
6 Access the camera through The camera might show up as a removable drive
Computer or the camera’s or might be accessible only through the camera
software vendor’s software.
7 Copy the picture to Pictures
8 Display the picture Usually, you can double-click the image file to
display it in a preview window or other
application.
Web cameras
Explanation Web cameras (or webcams), shown in Exhibit 5-23, are specialized cameras designed to
record live video and transmit it across a network or the Internet. The video can be
transmitted live, or recorded and saved for transmission at a later time. Many webcams
include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail, video capture,
videoconferencing, and still-image capture. Webcams must be connected to a desktop
PC, usually via a USB connection. Many laptops have Web cameras built into the lid
above the display screen.
Exhibit 5-23: A webcam
Headsets, microphones, and speakers

Webcams typically feature integrated microphones. Users rely on their computer’s
speakers when using such cameras for video conferencing. Users seeking better call
quality can use a headset, which combines speakers and a microphone into a wearable
unit, as shown in Exhibit 5-24. Headsets help eliminate echo and feedback, in which the
microphone picks up the output from the speaker, sends it through the speaker, picks it
up again, and so forth. Headsets typically connect to the PC via wired USB connections
or a wireless system, such as Bluetooth.
Exhibit 5-24: A headset with integrated microphone
Connection software
In order to make a connection with a webcam, you need to connect to a service provider,
such as Skype or Vonage, which enable people across the globe to communicate with
one another, often at no charge. The exact steps to install, configure, and connect vary
by provider, so it’s best to use the instructions on your chosen provider’s Web site to get
your webcam transmitting across the Web.
Do it! C-3: Making a video call with Skype

1 Install the webcam supplied by Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to install
your instructor the camera and its software.
If necessary, connect speakers and

a microphone to your sound card
2 Visit www.skype.com and If you’re using a different operating system,

download the Skype installer for download Skype for that platform instead.
Windows
3 Launch the Skype installer
Follow the program’s prompts to Do not install any add-ons or bundled software.
install Skype
4 In the Skype sign-in window, The “Create an account” page opens in your
click Create an account Web browser. Enter your full name and email
address, a Skype name (or choose one of the
suggested names), and a password.
Be sure to remember (or write down) your new
Skype name and password.
Complete any other required fields At the time this activity was written, the page
on the page required a “Captcha” challenge to be completed
before an account could be created.
Click I agree - Continue The “Create an account” page is replaced by the

“My account” page.
Close your Web browser
5 In the Skype sign-in window,

enter your Skype name and
password
Click Sign In
Complete any additional steps to At the time this activity was written, the
finish Skype setup remaining steps would allow you to verify that
your speakers, microphone, and webcam are
working properly with Skype, and to take or
select a picture for your Skype profile.
6 Exchange Skype names with

another student in the class
7 Click (Or choose Contacts, Add Contact, Search

Skype Directory…)
To begin adding contacts to your contacts list.
Enter the other student’s Skype Search results should appear below the search
name in the search box box.
Locate the other student’s Skype The other student’s Skype name should be at the
name in the search results top of the results, since it is an exact match.
Right-click the other student’s

name and choose
Add to Contacts
8 Coordinate with your lab partner One of you will place the call; the other will
to decide who will place the call answer it.
If you’re placing the call, select Placing a call by clicking Video call starts the
your contact and click call with your camera “live”. To start a call
without video, click the Call button. (You can
enable video after the call has connected.)
If you’re receiving the call, To answer the call with your camera “live”. To
click answer a call without video, click the Answer
button. (You can enable video during the call.)
9 Have a brief videoconference with

your lab partner
10 When you’re done, click To end the call.
11 Close Skype
Unit summary: Media devices

Topic A In this topic you learned about media connectors. You learned about common PC
video interfaces, includingVGA, DVI, HDMI, and DisplayPort. You also learned
about connections used to connect to analog TVs and video devices, such as RCA
composite, S-Video, component, and coaxial. Then you learned about audio
connectors.
Topic B In this topic, you learned about CRT and flat panel display devices, such as LCD,
LED, and plasma. You learned how display devices produce images, and you learned
about the terminology used to describe the devices. You also learned about multiple
devices and display projectors.
Topic C In this topic you learned how to install and configure media devices. You learned about
the components of a sound card. Next, you installed speakers and a microphone. You
also installed USB devices and multi-media devices, including a digital camera and a
web cam.
Review questions
1 Which DVI connection types support both digital and analog signals?
[Choose all that apply.]
A DVI-D single link C DVI-I single link
B DVI-D dual-link D DVI-I dual-link
2 Which type of video port is shown in the following graphic?
A DVI-A C HDMI
B DVI-I D VGA
3 What size are the connectors on a sound card?
A 1/16" C 1/4"
B 1/8" D 1/2"
4 The multimedia ports shown in the following graphic are which type?
A Coax D RCA
B Coax S/PDIF E S-Video
C MIDI
5 Which type of multimedia port is shown in the following graphic?
A Coax D RCA
B Square S/PDIF E S-Video
C MIDI
6 What’s another name for a CRT device?
A DVI device C LCD device
B Flat-panel device D RGB device
7 How is a CRT device’s size measured?
A Diagonal measurement, edge to edge
B Diagonal measurement, picture tube edges only
C Total area, length × width
D Width
8 True or false? The device that has a better image is one with a dot pitch of 0.15
compared to 0.30.
True. The smaller the dot pitch number, the better the image.
9 True or false? "Resolution” refers to the relationship between the horizontal and
vertical sizes of the screen.
False. Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device.
10 True or false? "Contrast ratio” refers to the difference between the shades of each
color on an LCD device.
False. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the device’s brightest white and darkest black.
11 True or false? A response rate of 20 ms is better than a response rate of 8 ms.
False. A response rate should be a lower number for better performance.
12 True or false? LCD devices use thin film transistor technology.
True
13 What does the response rate on an LCD device refer to?
A How quickly, in milliseconds, the pixels change colors
B The ratio between the device’s brightest white and darkest black
C The measurement, in candelas per square meter (cd/m²), of the light produced
D The number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix
14 Why is an LCD device display somewhat blurry when configured below its native
resolution?
Because not all pixels are illuminated at the lower resolution.
15True or false? Windows 7 supports the use of multiple displays simultaneously.
True
16 Which of the following colors indicates a microphone port?
A Pink C White
B Green D Blue
17True or false? All webcams include built-in microphones and software for video e-
mail, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.
False. Some webcams include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail,
video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.
Media connectors
In this activity, you’ll practice identifying different types of media connectors, and
cables. Your instructor will provide you with either a variety of cables and connectors,
or photos of cables and connectors. You need to successfully identify each example.
1 Given devices or photographs, correctly identify the following connection types:
VGA HDMI RCA MIDI
DVI-D DisplayPort Coax S/PDIF
DVI-I S-Video 1/8”
Display devices
In this activity, you’ll install and configure dual monitors on your PC.
2 If your system supports two monitors, connect a second monitor to it.
3 Extend your Windows desktop onto the second monitor.
4 Open Notepad and drag it to the second monitor.
5 Open Windows Explorer and leave its window on the primary monitor.
6 Close all open windows.
7 Return your desktop to a single monitor.
8 Disconnect the second monitor.
6–1
Unit 6
Printers
A Explain the various imaging processes that

printers use.
B Install and configure a printer.
C Perform printer maintenance.

Topic A: Imaging processes

# Objective
4.1 Explain the differences between the various printer types and summarize the associated
imaging process.
• Laser
– Imaging drum, fuser assembly, transfer belt, transfer roller, pickup rollers, separate
pads, duplexing assembly
– Imaging process: processing, charging, exposing, developing, transferring, fusing and
cleaning
• Inkjet
– Ink cartridge, print head, roller, feeder, duplexing assembly, carriage and belt
– Calibration
• Thermal
– Feed assembly, heating element
– Special thermal paper
• Impact
– Print head, ribbon, tractor feed
– Impact paper
Inkjet printers
Explanation Inkjet printers, also known as ink dispersion printing technology, produce images by
forcing ink through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Each nozzle is approximately 50 to
60 microns in diameter. The ink is forced through the nozzles through either of two
basic methods: thermal bubble or piezoelectric bubble. Exhibit 6-1 shows an inkjet
printer.
Exhibit 6-1: An inkjet printer

Printers 6–3
Thermal bubble technology

Thermal bubble technology heats the ink, which vaporizes it, creating a bubble. The
bubble protrudes out through the nozzle and sprays onto the paper. When the bubble
bursts, it creates a vacuum, which draws more ink from the cartridge into the print head,
preparing it to create another dot.
Piezoelectric technology
Piezoelectric technology creates a bubble with a piezo crystal behind each nozzle. An
electrical current sent to the crystal causes it to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it
releases ink onto the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from the cartridge.
Ink cartridges
Ink cartridges are the reservoirs that hold ink for inkjet printers. The number of
cartridges used varies, but most printers have a black cartridge plus a color cartridge
with compartments for yellow, cyan, and magenta. The entire color combination is often
referred to as CYMK (cyan, yellow, magenta, and black). Some printers have separately
replaceable cartridges for each of the colors. Some have more colors than these three
basic ones. Some inexpensive printers don’t have a separate black cartridge. Instead,
when black is required, they mix all three colors together to produce a dark color.
Exhibit 6-2 shows two inkjet cartridges: one black, and one containing cyan, yellow,
and magenta inks.
Exhibit 6-2: Inkjet cartridges
Print heads
The print head for an inkjet printer is usually part of the ink cartridge. Because this is the
printer part that wears out the soonest, having it replaced each time you replace the ink
means that you always have a good print head. It also makes the cartridges more
expensive. If the print head is part of the printer rather than the cartridge, the cartridges
are usually less expensive, but after a couple of years, you might notice that the print
quality has degraded. Exhibit 6-3 shows the print head on an inkjet cartridge.
The print head moves across the page on a small carriage pulled by a belt, printing
columns of pixels. To increase the resolution, a second pass is made across the page to
overwrite between the existing dots. On some printers, printing occurs on both passes
across the page—left to right and right to left. On others, it prints in only one direction,
and as the stepper motor advances the page, the print head moves back across the page
to begin printing the next line.
Exhibit 6-3: Print head on an inkjet cartridge
Print quality
Inkjet printers provide a major improvement over the quality offered by impact printers.
The ink dots can be grouped much closer together than the pins in the dot-matrix printer.
Originally, laser printer output was the standard that the print quality of inkjet printers
was measured against. This is still true for text output. Now, however, with advances in
inkjet technology, the print quality of graphics and photos is compared to the standard
provided by traditional, analog, chemically produced darkroom photographs.
In addition to printer resolution, your choice of paper affects the quality of the output.
Regular copier paper doesn’t produce as clear an image as specially coated inkjet paper
does. The ink bleeds out on regular paper, creating fuzzy edges to characters and
images. Coated inkjet paper has a waxy layer that the ink sits on, thus preventing bleed-
out of the ink. You will probably find that the bleeding issue is more important for
photographs than for text documents.
Attempting to print on a shiny surface, such as a transparency, can also prove difficult if
the wrong type of transparency plastic is used. The ink might not dry properly and could
smudge on the kind of transparency plastic that’s used to write on with markers.
Transparency sheets with a special textured coating allow the ink to adhere and dry
properly.
The ink in most inkjet cartridges is water-soluble. This can be a problem if your
printouts get wet. Being caught in the rain with a poster containing images printed from
an inkjet printer can result in the ink running down the page. You can purchase
waterproof inks for some inkjet printers.
Calibration
Sometimes you might have to clean the print nozzles and calibrate the printer.
Calibrating the printer involves printing a test page and making adjustments to the
printer based on what you see printed on the page. Often you notice one color isn’t quite
printing as it should, and you can adjust the printer settings to ensure it prints properly.
You can do this by following the manufacturer’s instructions, which typically have you
use the printer’s control panel or a software utility. Then print a test page to verify that
the adjustments have cleared up the problem.
Dithering
Shades of each of the basic colors are often produced through dithering, which is also
known as halftones. By varying the pattern of dots, as well as the density of the dots,
you can make a color appear to be more saturated or darker. Newspapers use this
method to print photos.
Printers 6–5
Paper path
Some inkjet printers have a paper tray behind the printer and pull the paper through the
printer on a straight-through path using feeder rollers. This setup leads to fewer paper
jams and is good for heavy paper stock. Exhibit 6-4 shows a straight-through paper path
in an inkjet printer.
Exhibit 6-4: Straight-through paper path
Other printers store the paper in a tray below and to the front of the printer and pull the
paper up through rollers and under the print head. Printers using this technology pull the
paper up through an S-curve or a U-curve. Exhibit 6-5 shows a curved paper path in an
inkjet printer.
Some printers provide duplexing capabilities, meaning they can print on both sides.
Others require a special assembly that you attach to the printer that moves the paper
through the paper path a second time to print on the reverse side of the page.
Exhibit 6-5: Curved paper path
Inkjet photo printers

Most inkjet printers are designed to be everyday printers for a variety of document
types, from text to graphics. Some printers are designed just for printing photos. These
are often small printers that can print 4×6-inch or smaller photos on specialty paper.
Good quality regular-size photo printers can print full page borderless photos. Printing
photos on an inkjet printer can produce some very nice prints, but they don’t hold up as
long as a traditional, chemically produced darkroom photos do. Special photo paper is
required for printing high-quality images from a camera or photos that were scanned in.
Printing them on regular paper or even coated inkjet paper results in lower-quality
photos. Some printers also enable you to print on non-paper items, such as CDs. Exhibit
6-6 shows a photo printer printing on a CD.
Exhibit 6-6: Printing directly onto a CD
Do it! A-1: Examining how inkjet printers work

Questions Answers
1 What are the two basic methods of
ink dispersion in inkjet printers?
2 List the colors found in a four-

color inkjet printer.
3 True or false? The print head

moves across the page and prints
columns of pixels.
4 True or false? You can print

photos on any paper, but some
kinds of paper produce better
images than others.
5 Describe the paper path for inkjet

printers.
Printers 6–7
Laser printers
Explanation Laser printers provide the standard level of quality by which other printers are
measured. They can produce high-quality printouts in a high-volume printing
environment. Many laser printers are black-and-white output devices, but color laser
printers are more common than they were just a few years ago. Exhibit 6-7 shows a
laser printer.
Exhibit 6-7: A laser printer
Laser printers produce images by using an electrophotographic (EP) process. By

combining electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light, the printer produces high-quality
images or documents, one page at a time. The components in a laser printer include:
• Laser scanning assembly
• Toner cartridge
• Power supplies
• Paper control and transport assembly
• Transfer corona assembly
• Fusing assembly
• Electronic control package
Laser scanning assembly

The laser scanning assembly contains these components:
• Laser — Shines on the drum and creates an electrostatic image of what’s to be
printed. Weakens the strong negative charge on the drum.
• Mirror — Reflects the laser beam.
• Lens — Focuses the laser beam. Multiple lenses might be used to focus the laser
beam on the various areas of the drum: the areas closer to or farther away from
the mirror and laser beam.
Toner cartridge
A toner cartridge is shown in Exhibit 6-8. A toner cartridge contains:
• A hopper filled with toner. Toner is a fine powder composed of plastic, iron, and
carbon particles.
• An EP drum covered with a photosensitive coating that holds a static charge
until exposed to light.
• A blade for removing used toner from the drum.
• A corona charging assembly, which applies a static charge to the drum after an
image has been printed.
Exhibit 6-8: Toner cartridge, photographed from top and bottom
Output capacity varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Check the specifications for
the printer you’re considering to determine the lifespan of a toner cartridge for that
printer.
Power supplies
A high-voltage power supply (HVPS) converts standard 120 volt AC current into high-
voltage electricity used by the electrophotographic process. A DC power supply (DCPS)
is used to power components, such as the laser and fuser, that don’t require high
voltages. The DC power supply provides +5V and -5V for the printer’s logic circuitry
and +24V for the paper transport motors.
Paper control and transport assembly

Paper is moved through the printer by a series of rollers. Some of the rollers simply
guide the paper from one location to another, such as the pickup rollers that pull the
paper into the printer, and some rollers apply pressure to the printed page in order to
fuse the toner. Some printers use separator pads to ensure only one piece of paper is fed
into the printer at one time.
Some laser printers print on both sides using the printer’s existing hardware; other
printers require a duplexing assembly to move the paper through the print path a second
time to print on the reverse side.
Printers 6–9
Transfer corona assembly

The HVPS applies a high-voltage charge to the charging roller or, in older laser printers,
to the corona wire. The primary charger roller, or corona wire, then charges the paper so
that the toner from the drum can be transferred onto the paper as it passes under the
drum. After the paper passes the drum, the static charge eliminator strip drains the
charges from the paper, so that it doesn’t adhere to the toner cartridge and create a paper
jam.
The charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone. Ozone is a triatomic molecule
that, in the lower atmosphere, is an air pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness in
humans. To keep the concentrations of ozone below the currently regulated standard,
many newer laser printers employ ozone filters. The ozone filter is a replaceable
activated charcoal filter. You change the ozone filter after a specified number of pages
have printed. The maintenance instructions for your printer specify how often you
should replace the ozone filter.
Some color printers use a transfer belt instead of a drum. The belt is charged and passes
in front of all the colored toners, so the colors are applied in precise layers at the same
time. The belt then transfers the toner to the paper.
Fusing assembly
The fusing assembly is composed of rollers and a heating lamp. It applies heat and
pressure to adhere the toner permanently to the page.
Electronic control package

The electronic control package is also known as the printer control circuitry or the main
logic assembly. This component is responsible for communicating with the internal
printer memory, the control panel, and the computer that sent the print job.
The laser printing process

All laser printers use basically the same process to produce images. Through the use of
negative and positive electrostatic charges, a laser writes the image to be printed into the
charges, and then negatively charged toner is attracted to the positively charged paper.
Exhibit 6-9: The printing process for a laser printer

The following table describes the steps in the laser printing process shown in
Exhibit 6-9.
Stage Description
Cleaning and A rubber blade clears the excess toner from the drum. Another roller or
erasing corona wire removes the charges from the drum.
Charging or The primary charge roller (in newer laser printers) or primary corona wire (in
conditioning older laser printers) applies a negative charge of approximately -600 volts to
the EP drum.
Writing or The laser beam reduces the negative charge to about -100 volts on the EP
exposing drum in the areas that become the image to be printed.
Developing Areas of the drum that were written to by the laser attract toner.
Transferring A positive charge of about + 600 volts is applied to the paper by the transfer
charging roller or corona wire. The ink is transferred to the paper due to the
charge.
Fusing Pressure and heat set the toner to the paper. A 350°F fusing roller melts the
toner, and by squeezing the paper through a set of rollers, presses the toner
into the paper.
Note: Some sources place the cleaning and erasing stage at the beginning of the
process. Others place it at the end of the process. In either case, it prepares the drum for
receiving and printing the next image.
Do it! A-2: Examining how laser printers work

Question Answer
1 What process do laser printers use
to produce images?
2 List the components of a toner

cartridge.
3 List the components of the laser

scanning assembly.
4 True or false? The HVPS converts

120-volt current into high-voltage
electricity used by the EP process.
5 List the steps in the laser printing

process.
Printers 6–11
Impact printers
Impact printers strike the paper with an inked ribbon to produce images. Impact printers
include dot-matrix printers and daisy wheel printers.
Dot-matrix printers
Dot-matrix printers have been around for as long as personal computers have been
available. They are rather rare today, but they still have their place in some companies,
because multipart forms can be printed on them. These printers are noisy and slow
compared to other printer types. The noise comes from the impact nature of the print
method. Print quality on dot-matrix printers is comparable to that produced by a
typewriter. One of the main uses of typewriters was typing letters. Thus, the top print
quality of a dot-matrix printer is referred to as near letter quality (NLQ).
A dot-matrix printer uses a print head that usually contains 9 or 24 pins. The pins are
pushed forward in patterns to form letters, numbers, and other characters. The pins
strike an inked ribbon, and the ribbon strikes the paper.
Nine-pin printers produce low-quality images. Some printers print over the same area
after moving the paper slightly to overprint the first set of dots, thus improving the print
quality. Twenty-four-pin printers have smaller pins closer together, so they produce a
finer image than 9-pin printers do.
The paper is pulled through the printer by a tractor feed or friction. A tractor feed uses a
sprocket to mesh with holes in the side of continuous-form paper. The sprockets turn,
pulling the paper through the printer. Friction feed uses single sheets of paper. The
roller is held tight against the print head, and the paper moves through. Typewriters use
friction feed. Most printers have a lever for switching between tractor feed and friction
feed.
The continuous-form paper usually has perforations at 11-inch or 14-inch intervals so
the paper can be separated into standard-sized pages. The paper is also perforated along
the side, so that the area with the tractor holes can be removed after printing. When
you’re setting up the paper in the printer, align the top of the page with the print head so
that pages don’t print across the perforations.
Banners are often printed on dot-matrix printers using continuous-feed paper. Banners
can be printed on perforated paper, usually without worrying about whether the paper is
at the top of the first page. You might also print banners on paper that has no
perforations between sheets.
Multipart forms are the main use of dot-matrix printers now that other printer types have
become more affordable and easier to use. The forms can be preprinted or blank.
Preprinted forms require careful alignment so that the print falls inside the boxes or on
the lines of the forms.
Friction feed was primarily used for envelopes and single sheets of paper. Some dot-
matrix printers include a paper tray from which single sheets are fed, but more often,
you must insert the single sheet, set the lever for friction feed, and print each page, one
at a time.
Dot-matrix printers usually have either a serial or parallel interface connection. These
printers were the usual choice for users when personal computers were first introduced
(before interfaces such as USB, infrared, and IEEE 1394 were introduced). It’s also rare
to find a dot-matrix printer with a built-in network interface. Some printers have both
serial and parallel interfaces so that users can choose.
Dot-matrix printers don’t usually have a lot of optional features. However, some
printers have slots for adding font cards, memory, or additional paper feeders for easy
switching between single sheets and continuous-form paper.
Exhibit 6-10: A daisy-wheel
Daisy wheel printers

Daisy wheel printers produce letters only in the font that is on the wheel (shown in
Exhibit 6-10) installed the printer. To change the font, you have to remove the wheel
and install another wheel with the desired font.
Band printers
Band printers have the letters, numbers, and symbols repeated multiple times around on
a band. The band moves at a high speed and strikes the ribbon when struck by hammers.
There are hammers for each column of print on the page. Some band printers combine
dot-matrix pins with the hammers for each print column.
Do it! A-3: Examining the dot-matrix printing process

Questions Answers
1 Why do companies use dot-matrix
printers?
2 How many pins are in most dot-

matrix print heads?
3 Which paper feed mechanisms are

typically used in dot-matrix
printers?
4 In addition to dot-matrix printers,

what other impact printers might
you encounter?
Printers 6–13
Thermal printers
Thermal printers produce output with heat. The image can be created through one of
two methods:
• Direct thermal printers use coated paper. A row of heating elements is used to
burn dots directly onto the paper. These are monochrome printers and require a
special paper that will accept the image from the heating elements. For example,
thermal paper was used and is still used in some fax machines.
• Thermal wax transfer printers use ink in a wax base. The ink is melted from the
transfer ribbon by a heating element in the print head. Separate cyan, yellow,
magenta, and black transfer ribbons are used to create the image. The cooled
wax becomes a permanent image on the paper. These printers don’t require
special paper.
The thermal print process is similar to the processes for inkjet and laser printers. Paper
is pulled into the printer through a feed assembly either in single sheets or from a roll of
paper. The paper is then exposed to one of the processes described above, and the image
is fused to the paper.
Other printers
Explanation Most corporate and home users use either an inkjet or laser printer. A few people still
use dot-matrix printers for special requirements or because they never upgraded as
newer technologies became available and at lower prices.
There are several other types of printers that you might encounter in your support
career. Most of these are too expensive for the casual user, but as prices continue to
drop on printer technologies, even these more expensive printer types might become
more commonplace.
Most of the printers mentioned in this topic are designed for high-quality production of
graphics. They produce a higher-resolution image even if the DPI statistics listed are as
the same as those of inkjet or laser printers. Printer resolution refers to addressable dots
per inch. Each of these dots can be composed of over 25 dots, thereby enabling a 300
DPI image to look the same as a 4800 dpi inkjet printout.
Solid-ink printers
Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. There
are usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black sticks. These are heated to a melting point.
After being combined to form the various colors in the image, the ink is then sprayed
onto the drum. The paper passes over the drum and under a roller, and the image is
transferred onto the paper.
Solid-ink printers are environmentally friendly, because they don’t produce ozone as
laser printers do, and the ink is nontoxic. The process doesn’t use excessive heat, as
laser printers do.
The output from solid-ink printers is very high quality. The ink sticks last for
approximately 3000 pages, compared to an average of 1500 pages for laser printers or
500 to 1000 pages for inkjet printers.
Dye sublimation printers

Another high-quality printer is the dye sublimation printer, often referred to as a "dye
sub” printer. The dye is a solid, contained on either a ribbon or a roll. The roll consists
of consecutive pages of cyan, magenta, yellow, and sometimes black.
The term "dye sublimation” can be a bit of a misnomer. The dye is a solid dye, so that
part of the name fits fine. However, the scientific process of sublimation refers to a solid
being converted to a gas without its becoming a liquid in between. Although this does
happen in a few very high-end printers, most dye sub printers actually use a diffusion
process.
The dye diffusion thermal process is known as D2T. To transfer the dye from the ribbon
or roll, the print head is pushed against the paper by weights or springs. The depth of
color is regulated by varying the heat applied. This method enables printing without the
use of either halftones or dithering, which are required for other printing methods. The
transparent dyes are combined to create a wide variety of colors, with 256 possible
shades of each color.
Dye sub printers require special paper, which has a special layer to receive the dye. To
protect the output from water, UV light, and fingerprints, a layer of lamination material
is applied after the image has been created.
Dye sub printers print square dots, with higher densities of color in the center of each
dot and lower density at the edges. The density varies by the amount of power applied
to the print head, thus changing the shade of the color.
Plotters
Plotters are pen-based output devices that produce line images. (Printers produce raster
images.) Plotters are typically used for precise engineering documents from CAD
applications. A pen in the printer moves side to side on an X-axis as the paper moves up
and down on the Y-axis.
A multicolor plotter uses multiple pens to create an image. Usually, the plotter is a
carousel containing 4 to 12 pens, but in some plotters, you need to change the pen to
each color as you need it.
Plotters create lines with the pens. Other printers can create lines only by spacing the
dots very close together. Curved lines produced with a pen are smoother than those
produced with dots.
Most plotters are used to create engineering documents. Some other industrial uses have
replaced the pens with cutting devices. For example, in the garment industry, rather than
printing from the application, you cut fabric. The sign industry also uses plotters with
cutting devices to cut out signs; an application outputs the sign shape to the material to
be cut.
Printers 6–15
Do it! A-4: Identifying other printer technologies

Questions Answers
1 What’s the base in which solid-ink
colors are held?
2 What features make solid-ink

printers environmentally friendly?
3 What base is the ink for a dye sub

printer held in?
4 What’s another name for the dye

diffusion thermal process?
5 True or false? Dye sub printers

require the use of halftones and
dithering to create shades of
colors.
6 List two types of thermal printers.
7 Why can a plotter make a

smoother line than other types of
printers?
Topic B: Printer installation

# Objective
4.2 Given a scenario, install, and configure printers.

• Use appropriate printer drivers for a given operating system
• Print device sharing
– Wired
ƕ USB ƕ Serial
ƕ Parallel ƕ Ethernet
– Wireless
ƕ Bluetooth ƕ Infrared (IR)
ƕ 802.11x
– Printer hardware print server
• Printer sharing
– Sharing local/networked printer via Operating System settings

• Output devices
– Printers
Inkjet printer installation

Explanation Most local printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows
automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. Your printer likely
comes with a CD-ROM, containing drivers and additional software to enhance the print
quality. Exhibit 6-11 shows the bubble alerting you that new hardware has been found on
your computer. If Windows has the appropriate printer driver, it begins installing the
driver. If Windows doesn’t have or can’t find the right driver, you need to install the
appropriate driver software for your printer. Windows will guide you through the process,
as shown in Exhibit 6-12.
Exhibit 6-11: Identified new hardware notification in Windows 7
Exhibit 6-12: Notification that Windows 7 can’t automatically install the appropriate
driver
Printers 6–17
Some printers come with a utility for monitoring the ink levels in the cartridges, so you
know when ink supplies are getting low and need to be replaced. Exhibit 6-13 shows
such a screen from such a utility. Notice that it includes information about the current
print job and about the ink levels in the printer.
Exhibit 6-13: A utility for monitoring ink levels
Although you can purchase kits for refilling cartridges, using one usually voids the
printer warranty. If you do refill a cartridge, make sure that you get the ink that’s right
for your printer. Thermal inkjet printers need ink that can withstand high heat. Getting a
water-soluble ink for a solvent-based ink printer or vice versa can result in improper
application of the ink to the page and create a major mess. Because the print head is
contained in most print cartridges, a cartridge should be refilled only two or three times.
Printer interfaces
Today, most inkjet printers are connected locally by USB interfaces, while others support
wired or wireless Ethernet network connections, so that they can be connected directly to
your home or business network. Exhibit 6-14 shows the communications interfaces—an
older parallel port and a newer USB port—on an inkjet printer.
Exhibit 6-14: Communications interfaces on an inkjet printer
In Windows, be sure to configure the printer so it uses the right connection type:
• If it’s using parallel, be sure that you’ve specified the correct LPT port. The
default of LPT1 is usually fine.
• If it’s using serial, verify that you’ve specified the correct COM port. COM2 is
preferred for printers. COM1 is generally reserved for modems.
Exhibit 6-15 shows Device Manager information for a printer connected to a computer.
Exhibit 6-15: Port identified for the printer
Installing an inkjet printer

To install an inkjet printer:
1 Connect the printer to a computer, using the correct interface.
2 Plug the printer in.
3 Power it up.
4 If you’re connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably
recognize that you’ve connected a new device and will install drivers for it.
5 If drivers aren’t installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the
materials that shipped with the printer. You can also obtain the latest drivers
from the manufacturer’s web site.
If your printer is configured with an incorrect printer driver, Windows won’t be able to
send documents to the printer. If you send a document to the printer and it doesn’t show
up in the queue, check Device Manager to see if it’s reporting any driver problems. If it
is, you should reinstall or upgrade the driver.
Upgrading the device driver

To upgrade a device driver, open Device Manager, right-click the printer, and choose
Update Driver Software (in Windows 7 and Vista) or Update Driver (in Windows XP).
Then complete the wizard to install the new driver. You can also use any installation
program that comes from the printer’s manufacturer.
After the printer is connected and working, you can configure the options for best
performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly and
that it’s compatible with any programs or operating systems deployed. Also, take a few
minutes to educate users about basic printing functionality.
Printers 6–19
Laser printer installation

When a printer is shipped to a store or to you, the toner cartridge is packaged separately
or otherwise secured to prevent toner from dispersing inside the printer during shipping.
Therefore, the first step in installing a laser printer is to unpack the printer and the toner
cartridge from their respective packaging. Laser printers usually come with chunks of
Styrofoam in place of the toner cartridge. Other components might be taped down so
that they don’t move during shipment. Be sure to remove all of the packing materials
and tape before trying to use the printer. Follow the directions to remove any packing
materials and tape that might be inside the printer. Check the documentation for the
toner cartridge for installation procedures. Usually, you start by gently rocking the
cartridge from side to side to distribute the toner, as it’s to have likely settled during
shipment. According to the manufacturer’s directions, remove the tape insert from the
toner cartridge and install the cartridge in the printer.
On some printers, the drum and some other components are outside the cartridge. If this
is the case, refer to your documentation for how and where to install them.
Interfaces
Laser printers are used in a wide variety of situations. These printers have the most
widely varied connection types of any printers. Most laser printers have two or more
connection interfaces. These could include:
• USB • IEEE 1394/FireWire
• Parallel • SCSI (older models)
• Serial • Wired or wireless Ethernet network connections
Examples of the communications interfaces on a laser printer are shown in Exhibit 6-16.
Exhibit 6-16: Communications interfaces on a laser printer
Some interfaces also include network connections, infrared ports, and wireless
connections.
• An RJ-45 network connection enables the printer to be connected directly to the
network. The printer hardware itself provides print server functionality and can
be managed using the printer’s onboard controls or through management
software or a browser-based utility.
• Infrared and other wireless technologies, such as Bluetooth and IEEE 801.11x,
enable users to send jobs to the printer without physically connecting the printer
and computer with a cable. Again, the printer acts as a print server and can be
managed locally or remotely.
Installing a laser printer

To install a laser printer:
1 Connect the printer to the network or a computer, using the correct interface.
2 Plug the printer in.
3 Power it up.
4 If you’re connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably
recognize that you’ve connected a new device and will install drivers for it.
5 If drivers aren’t installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the
materials that shipped with the printer.
To upgrade a device driver:
1 In Device Manager, right-click the printer and choose Update Driver Software.
2 Complete the wizard to install the new driver.
Alternately, you can use any installation program that comes from the printer
manufacturer.
After the printer is connected and working, you can configure options for best
performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly.
Sharing a printer on the network in Windows 7

1 Open Devices and Printers.
2 Right-click the printer you want to share, and click Properties.
3 Select the Sharing tab.
4 Check Share this printer, and add a unique name for the printer.
5 Click OK.
Installing a network printer in Windows 7

1 Open Devices and Printers.
2 Click Add a printer.
3 Click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer.
Windows searches for available printers on the network.
4 Select the desired printer and click Next, or click The printer that I want isn’t
listed.
If the printer isn’t listed, you can use the wizard to browse for it, then enter its
share name, TCP/IP address, or host name.
5 If the print drivers are available on the network, Windows prompts you to install
them. Click Install driver.
6 Enter a name for the printer and click Next.
7 If desired, set as the default printer and print a test page. The default printer will
have a checkmark displayed on its icon.
8 Click Finish.
Printers 6–21
Do it! B-1: Installing a local inkjet printer

1 If necessary, log on to Windows 7 The password is !pass1234.
as ADMIN##
2 Connect the power cord to the

printer
3 Connect the interface cable to the The interface cable varies based on the printer’s
printer connection type. Most current printers are USB
printers, but some also have parallel or serial
ports, and some older printers have SCSI ports.
4 Plug the power cord into an If possible, this should be on a surge protector
electrical outlet strip.
5 Connect the interface cable to the The port varies based on the printer’s connection
computer type.
6 Insert paper in the printer If none is loaded.
Install print cartridges If they aren’t already installed. Refer to the

printer’s documentation for the procedure to
install the cartridges.
Turn on the printer Windows 7 recognizes that you’ve connected a

device and attempts to install device drivers for
it.
7 If Windows 7 reports that the To open the Computer Management console,

device driver software wasn’t where you can access Device Manager.
successfully installed, click
Start, right-click Computer,
and choose Manage
8 In the console tree, select To display the computer’s devices.

Device Manager
Find your printer in the list
It’s listed under “Other Devices.”

Some printers require that you install software
from the CD or from a download, rather than
installing the driver through Device Manager. If
this is the case with your particular printer, skip
the next step.
9 If your instructor has the printer You can have Windows search for a new driver
driver available, right-click the or you can manually select it from a location on
printer and choose Update your computer or the network.
Driver Software…
Click Browse my computer

for driver software
Follow the prompts to finish

installing the driver
10 If your printer requires you to

install the drivers from an
executable file, close Computer
Management
Locate and run the printer

installation executable file
Follow the prompts to install the

printer
Don’t print a test page
11 Click Start and choose Devices

and Printers
To open the Devices and Printers window. Your

newly installed printer should be listed.
Printers 6–23
12 Right-click the printer and choose

Printer Properties
Click Print Test Page
Close any notification page from To close the printer’s Properties dialog box.
the printer and click OK Observe that the test page prints successfully. If
it doesn’t, click Troubleshoot and follow the
steps to resolve the problem until you can
successfully print a test page. If necessary,
adjust the print-head alignment.
13 Close the Devices and Printers

window
14 Open Notepad, enter some text, Notepad is on the Start, All Programs,
and print the page Accessories menu.
15 Click Start, right-click To open the Computer Management console,

Computer, and choose where you can access Device Manager.
Manage
16 In the console tree, select To display the computer’s devices.

Device Manager
Find your printer in the list
17 Right-click the printer and choose You use this wizard to upgrade the device
Update Driver Software… driver. You can have Windows search for a new
driver or you can manually select it from a
location on your computer or the network.
Click Cancel To close the wizard.
18 Close Computer Management and

any open windows
Topic C: Printer maintenance

# Objective
4.3 Given a scenario, perform printer maintenance.

• Laser
– Replacing toner, applying maintenance kit, calibration, cleaning
• Thermal
– Replace paper, clean heating element, remove debris
• Impact
– Replace ribbon, replace print head, replace paper
Maintenance
Explanation Sometimes, simple maintenance is all that’s needed to keep a printer running smoothly.
Check the manufacturer’s documentation for each device you’re supporting. The
documentation lists any requirements for scheduled maintenance tasks, especially on
laser printers. Also check the device’s log and service history to see which maintenance
tasks or repairs other technicians have performed.
Common maintenance tools to have with you when performing routine maintenance
include:
• Cleaning solutions and sprays, including isopropyl alcohol and denatured
alcohol
• Cleaning equipment, including soft cloths, such as those shown in Exhibit 6-17,
and cotton swabs
• Lubricants
• Compressed air
• Toner vacuums and toner rags, or extension magnet brushes
• Screwdrivers (to open compartments)
Exhibit 6-17: Cleaning cloths

Printers 6–25
Safety
When working with any type of printer, remember to take certain safety precautions.
These include following ESD safe practices, keeping dangling jewelry, neckties, and
long hair away from the printer, and handling components so as not to damage them.
Also, if you’re clearing a paper jam, be careful about not damaging the printer, the
cartridges, or yourself. And remember, the main rule for printer maintenance: Always
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. When maintenance is complete, document
the steps you took in the device’s service log.
Consumables
You should always keep a sufficient supply of consumables—paper, ink cartridges, and
toner cartridges—on hand. If you must order these supplies from another person who’s
in charge of ordering supplies for the company, ensure that your requests are submitted
in a timely fashion and that you follow up on their status.
All consumables should be kept in their original packaging; in a cool, dry location, out
of direct sunlight, and in a room with low humidity. If paper is too moist because of
high humidity, the toner might not adhere properly. Conversely, dry paper can create
static electricity, which can cause the paper to stick together, resulting in paper jams.
Toner cartridges stored out of their packaging in a humid environment can result in
clumped toner.
Inkjet printer maintenance

The main thing you need to do to keep an inkjet printer working properly is to replace
consumables, such as paper and ink cartridges, whenever necessary. Keeping an eye on
the paper tray ensures that there’s always a ready supply of paper. When an ink
cartridge gets low, you usually have a visual warning—from lights on the printer, a
software utility, or just poor output. Always use recommended cartridges when
replacing ink supplies.
Keeping the inkjet printer’s environment properly ventilated helps the printer last
longer. Adequate ventilation prevents the printer from overheating. Another
environmental concern is keeping dust out of the printer. Most inkjet printers have a
very open design, which allows dust to gather inside. The accumulation of dust can
result in the following:
• Stray marks on the paper, if the dust gets caught on the print cartridge
• Overheating of elements, if dust blocks airflow around them
• Other such problems
You can use a dry cloth to remove dust or paper dander, or if it’s recommended by the
manufacturer, use a vacuum cleaner designed for electronics. Clean the outside of the
unit with a damp cloth or with any recommended cleaning solution.
Laser printers
Laser printers require more maintenance than inkjet printers, and the maintenance is
more involved. However, regular maintenance can prevent service calls for poor print
output and paper jams. Generally, there are two times when you should perform
preventive maintenance on laser printers:
• Scheduled maintenance — Clean, lubricate, and perform adjustments based on
the manufacturer’s recommended schedules.
• Unscheduled service calls — During service calls, check the counters, such as
the one shown in Exhibit 6-18. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations for
maintenance, and clean, lubricate, and adjust components, or replace
components as needed.
Exhibit 6-18: The counter on a laser printer
Laser printer maintenance routines might include the following tasks:

• Replacing toner cartridges.
• Cleaning internal components. (Be sure to follow safety procedures, as well as
the manufacturer’s guidelines for cleaning components.) For example, clean
rollers are less likely to slip and cause paper jams.
• Replacing components—such as the ozone filter, fuser assembly, or transfer
roller—as recommended by the manufacturer. Often the components come in a
special maintenance kit that you can get from the manufacturer. To keep a
printer operating smoothly, some manufacturers recommend installing
maintenance kits after a specified duration of use or a specified number of
printed pages, tracked by counters. (Other printers have their counters displayed
on a control panel or on an onboard monitor.) After installing the maintenance
kit, you might have to reset the page count. Check the documentation.
• Check the printer’s firmware version and the manufacturer’s Web site to see if
there’s a newer version available. Newer firmware can improve print quality and
provide better interoperability with newer operating systems. Check the printer’s
documentation to find out how to access the firmware utility (usually through
the printer’s administrative software or by connecting to the printer through a
Web browser).
• Recalibrate the printer to ensure that the print is crisp and clean, especially with
color laser printers that may apply colors at different steps during the print
process. Follow the documentation to perform any calibration procedures.
Printers 6–27
Depending on your company’s financial and service contracts with the manufacturer,
you might receive toner and maintenance kits automatically. Some large laser printers
can contact the manufacturer directly to report page counts, which can trigger the
automatic shipment of maintenance kits and replacement parts. Ask about this type of
arrangement before you order any supplies.
When replacing components, take some time to clean out any accumulated toner and
paper dust inside the printer. Doing so prevents the debris from hindering printer
operations, and it keeps a clean printing environment. Manufacturers’ maintenance kits
often include cleaning materials. When removing toner, don’t use a regular vacuum
cleaner or even an antistatic vacuum cleaner. Use only a special toner-certified vacuum,
which has a filter designed to catch superfine toner particles.
Be sure the printer is well ventilated and situated securely on a flat surface, and keep the
printer trays full. Use only recommended supplies. Remember to follow appropriate
safety precautions when working with the laser printer.
After you’ve completed maintenance, print a few test pages to verify functionality. You
don’t want to leave a printer inoperable after you’ve completed your service routine.
Safety issues
There are some environmental and safety issues you should be aware of with laser
printers. The toner can be toxic if inhaled at high levels. Spilled toner is very messy and
easily stains skin, clothing, and various plastic or other materials. You should use latex
or rubber gloves, and perhaps wear a mask over your mouth and nose, when working
with toner. Don’t use compressed air to clear out toner. Doing so can spread the
particles into the air and onto other surfaces. If you get toner on your hands or clothes,
use cold water and soap to remove it. Hot water can set the toner.
Printers contain high-voltage power supplies, so you need to take special care when
working around them. The fusing assembly also becomes very hot, so if you’re working
inside the printer, you need to let it cool down a bit, so that you don’t burn yourself.
Thermal printers
As with inkjet and laser printers, there are some basic steps to keeping a thermal printer
running smoothly.
• Clean the heating element. Make sure the printer is unplugged and the element is
cooled, and then use denatured alcohol and a lint-free cloth to remove any
debris.
• Remove any debris from inside the printer using compressed air or a lint-free
cloth. Be sure to clean the rollers to ensure proper paper feed during regular use.
• Replace paper as directed by the manufacturer’s documentation. Be sure the
paper is fed through the heating element. Test the feed to ensure that the paper
path is free of debris or obstructions.
Impact printers
As with the other printers covered in this unit, keeping an impact printer clean helps it
last a long time. Paper bits, dust, and other debris can easily get into a printer and cause
problems. You can spray compressed air into the printer to help remove such
contaminants. You can use mild household cleaners on the exterior case to keep it clean.
Be sure to replace the paper as necessary, feeding the paper into tractor-feed path and
ensuring that the paper is evenly aligned. Replace the ink ribbon when the printed
output begins to fade, and replace the print head as recommended by the manufacturer
to keep the printed images sharp and to ensure that the print is clear in multipart forms.
Do it! C-1: Performing laser printer maintenance tasks

(instructor demonstration)
1 Obtain a laser printer and its
documentation
Follow electrical and ESD safety

procedures to prepare to open the
printer
2 Follow the manufacturer’s (Check the counters.) This step can include
cleaning and maintenance removing accumulated toner and dust and
instructions cleaning internal components. This step might
also include replacing the ozone filter, which is
important to prevent damage to printer
components and to prevent the release of ozone
into the environment around the printer.
3 Close the printer and plug it in
If necessary, connect it to your

computer
4 Ensure that the printer has enough

paper
5 Print a test page To verify that the printer is working properly.

Printers 6–29
Unit summary: Printers

Topic A In this topic, you learned about inkjet printers and how they force ink through nozzles
by using thermal bubble or piezoelectric technology. Next, you learned that laser
printers use the electrophotographic process to produce images. You identified the
components of a laser printer, and you listed the stages involved in the laser printing
process. You also learned about impact printers, such as dot-matrix printers, which
are slow and noisy but still good for printing multipart forms. Finally, you learned about
other types of printers, including solid-ink, thermal, and dye sublimation printers, and
plotters.
Topic B In this topic, you learned the basics of printer installation and printer sharing. Then
you installed an inkjet printer, and later you connected to a shared network printer.
Topic C In this topic, you learned how to maintain printers. You learned the steps you should
take during routine maintenance of inkjet and laser printers, including replacing
consumables, removing accumulated dust and toner, replacing parts based on parts-life
counters, and ensuring a well-ventilated environment.
Review questions
1 What’s the print quality of dot-matrix printers compared to?
A Darkroom photographs C Thermal printer output
B Laser printer output D Typewriter output
2 How many pins does the print head of a dot matrix printer typically contain?
[Choose all that apply.]
A 6 D 24
B 9 E 36
C 18
3 A __________-wheel printer is an impact printer that could produce letters using
only the font that was on the wheel installed in the printer.
daisy
4 Which printing technology uses an electrical current sent to a crystal, which causes
it to vibrate and release ink onto the paper?
A Inkjet C Piezoelectric bubble
B Laser D Thermal bubble
5 True or false? The print head for inkjet printers is usually part of the ink cartridge.
True
6 What’s inkjet output quality compared to? [Choose all that apply.]
A Darkroom photographs C Thermal printer output
B Laser printer output D Typewriter output
7 What is the laser printing step in which "areas of the drum that were written to by
the laser attract toner”?
A Exposing C Developing
B Fusing D Transferring
8 Which laser printer component is made up of rollers and a heating lamp?
A Electronic control package C Transfer corona assembly
B Fusing assembly D Toner cartridge
9 Which laser printer component is used to focus the laser beam?
A Corona wire C Mirror
B HVPS D Lens
10 True or false? In order to install a printer, you need the manufacturer’s disc that
came with the printer.
False. Most printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows
automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. However, your printer likely
comes with a CD-ROM containing drivers and additional software that enhance the print quality or
provide additional features.
11 In Windows 7, which utility do you use to install a printer?
Devices and Printers
12 How can you tell which printer is set as default on your computer?
It displays with a checkmark on its icon in Devices and Printers.
13 Which connections can you use to connect to a wired local printer?
USB, Parallel, and Serial.
14 What are the most important steps to keep an inkjet printer running smoothly?
Replace paper and ink cartridges.
15 What is typically the deciding factor in when to perform laser printer maintenance?
Page count
16 True or false? You can use most commercial vacuums to clean up toner in a laser
printer.
False
17 What are “consumables?”
Anything the printer consumes during regular usage, including paper, ink, and toner.
Printers 6–31

In this activity, you’ll research printers and connect to a network printer.
1 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7–compatible color laser printer
available for sale. Determine:
• The connections provided
• The speed for printing black and white
• The speed for printing color
• Other included options, such as memory or additional paper trays
• User reviews
• The purchase price
2 Log on to your computer and connect to a network printer.
a Open Devices and Printers, and start the process to add a printer.
b Look for the network printer specified by your instructor.
c Install drivers if necessary.
d Name the printer, set it as default, and print a test page. Verify that the test
page printed correctly.

CompTIA A+ Certification, Exam 220-801 SM - Modulos 1-6

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Safety procedures and power supplies 1-1

Motherboards and CPUs 2-1

Memory and physical storage 3-1

Connections and peripherals 4-1

Media devices 5-1

Networking basics 8-1

The physical network 9-1

Networking protocols 10-1

Wireless networking 11-1

Professional conduct 12-1

Custom configurations A-1

CompTIA A+ acronyms B-1

Certification exam objectives map C-1

Course summary S-1

After reading this introduction, you will know

A Use ILT Series manuals in general.

B Use prerequisites, a target student

C Re-key this course after class.

Topic A: About the manual

Italic text In conceptual text, indicates a new term or feature.

Bold text In unit summaries, indicates a key term or concept. In

Code font Indicates code or syntax.

Keycaps like e Indicate a key on the keyboard you must press.

Do it! A-1: Creating a commission formula

2 Observe the contents of cell F4

Topic B: Setting your expectations

How to become CompTIA certified

Safely opening a computer case

Identifying office and computer-related hazards

Selecting proper methods for computer disposal

Examining characteristics of electricity

Considering electrical safety

Installing a new power supply

Examining motherboard components

Identifying bus types

Identifying front panel connectors

Identifying CPU sockets and package type

Examining BIOS settings

Researching BIOS updates

Installing a video adapter card

Installing a sound card

Installing an expansion card

Examining the cooling system

Identifying and comparing RAM packages

Installing an optical drive

Installing a hard disk

Installing a floppy drive

Distinguishing among connection interfaces

Identifying cables and connectors

Installing a display device

Attaching a keyboard and mouse

Installing a peripheral device

Describing various printing processes

Identifying notebook components

Identifying laptop features

Identifying network cables and connectors

Using networking tools

Describing TCP/IP properties and ports