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Teaching Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in an introductory

physics course
Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi

Citation: Am. J. Phys. 74, 337 (2006); doi: 10.1119/1.2180283


View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.2180283
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Teaching Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in an introductory
physics course
Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi
Science Teaching Department, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
共Received 10 June 2005; accepted 3 February 2006兲
Teaching Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in introductory physics courses is challenging.
We discuss some inaccuracies in describing a moving conductor in the context of electromagnetic
induction. Among them is the use of the ambiguous term “area change” and the unclear relation
between Faraday’s law and Maxwell’s equation for the electric field circulation. We advocate the use
of an expression for Faraday’s law that shows explicitly the contribution of the time variation of the
magnetic field and the action of the Lorentz force, which are usually taught separately. This
expression may help students’ understanding of Faraday’s law and lead to improved problem
solving skills. © 2006 American Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.2180283兴

I. INTRODUCTION metrically linear5 circuits.6 Equation 共1兲 is then presented.


Motional emf is considered subsequently, and it is shown
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is given by that Eq. 共1兲 also accounts for it. Alternatively, we can con-
d⌽ sider a change of magnetic flux through a conducting loop
E=− , 共1a兲 共see Fig. 1兲 in the inertial frame of reference where the cir-
dt
cuit is moving. The complete derivative of the magnetic flux
where E represents the electromotive force 共emf兲 induced in through the surface A is
a circuit and ⌽ is the magnetic flux through the circuit of
area A,
d⌽
=
⳵⌽
⳵t
冉 冊 冉 冊 +
⳵⌽
⳵t
. 共2兲

冕冕
dt v=0 B=const
⌽= B · dA. 共1b兲 In standard notation 共see Appendix兲:
A

Although Eq. 共1兲 describes simple laboratory settings, it pre-


sents a conceptual challenge for students and teachers of in-
d⌽
dt
= 冕冕 ⳵B
A ⳵t
· dA − 冖
L
关v ⫻ B兴 · dL. 共3兲
troductory physics. We emphasize that the integral form of
Faraday’s law in Eq. 共1兲 includes all cases, including trans- By using the form of Faraday’s law in Eq. 共1兲, we obtain7

冕冕 冖
former emf 共Ref. 1兲 and motional emf. In the latter case,
⳵B
Faraday’s law includes not only closed circuits but also open E=− · dA + 关v ⫻ B兴 · dL. 共4兲
circuits and those with moving segments 共segments in mo- A ⳵t L
tion relative to the other parts of the circuit兲, such as the
Faraday disc and unipolar generator. The form of the emf in Eq. 共4兲 relates two phenomena. The
In this paper we comment on some remarks given in the first term,
Feynman Lectures2 and show that the integral form of Fara-
day’s law explains the cases of motional emf that were pre-
sented as problematic. Faraday’s disc was mentioned as an
Etransformer = − 冕冕 ⳵B
A ⳵t
· dA, 共5兲

example of the failure of the “flux rule,” in which the emf of


induction is created despite an “unchanged circuit.” Two ro- accounts for the motionless case of transformer emf, termed
tating plates, touching at a point and creating a closed circuit by Faraday “volta-electric induction”8 共note the partial de-
located in a magnetic field, was given as an example of the rivative兲 and corresponds 共after stating the validity for any
creation of an insignificant emf following a big change of the path of integration兲 to Maxwell’s equation for the curl of the
linked magnetic flux. electric field,
Faraday’s law provides a good opportunity to illustrate ⳵B
Einstein’s relativistic perspective on electromagnetic ⵜ⫻E=− . 共6兲
induction.3 In connection with motional emf, the idea of area ⳵t
change and change of orientation used in many textbooks,4 The second term,
should be refined to reduce confusion. We illustrate our dis-
cussion with several examples that might be useful in teach-
ing electromagnetic induction. Emotional = 冖 L
关v ⫻ B兴 · dL, 共7兲

II. FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC represents motional emf, termed by Faraday as “magneto-
INDUCTION electric induction,”9 and arises from the definition of the
complete derivative and the Maxwell equation, B 兼 dA = 0. It
Most introductory university-level texts present electro- is immediately recognized that the integrand of Eq. 共7兲 gives
magnetic induction starting with transformer emf in geo- the Lorentz force

337 Am. J. Phys. 74 共4兲, April 2006 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2006 American Association of Physics Teachers 337

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Fig. 1. A closed loop in a magnetic field B. Lt and Lt+⌬t represent two Fig. 2. A rectangular conducting loop ABCD 共sides b and d兲 moves along
positions of the loop with areas At and At+⌬t, respectively. the x axis in a plane through a magnetic field with a linearly increasing
intensity B 共0 , 0 , B0x兲.

III. A RELATIVISTIC PERSPECTIVE IN THE


Fm = q关v ⫻ B兴, 共8兲 INTRODUCTORY COURSE
Electromagnetism is not consistent with classical Newton-
acting on a charge q that moves with the speed of the circuit. ian mechanics, but we can present relativistic concepts in a
Thus, the Lorentz force naturally follows from the definition qualitatively correct way even in an introductory course.14,15
of the rate of flux change d⌽ / dt as a complete derivative. In this context it is important to demonstrate by a simple
example that the distinction between the two types of emf’s
There are cases where Faraday’s law of induction is ap-
is not absolute. The motional emf’s detected by an inertial
plied not to circuits, but to extended bodies, such as a Fara-
observer may appear as a transformer emf to another ob-
day disc. In this case, according to the derivation in the Ap-
server. It is sufficient to use approximations valid for v / c
pendix, the path of integration in the Lorentz term should Ⰶ 1 in which the theory of relativity allows the magnetic
reflect the motion of the material of the conductor that closes field to be observer independent.16
the circuit, which might be in motion relative to other parts Consider the rectangular conducting loop ABCD 共sides b
of the circuit.10 This understanding is important for calcula- and d兲 共see Fig. 2兲 moving in the x direction with a constant
tions of 共⳵⌽ / ⳵t兲B=const as shown in the following examples. velocity v through the magnetic field B, as observed in the
In Ref. 2 it is suggested that the integral form of Faraday’s laboratory reference frame SL. The magnetic field increases
law, Eq. 共1兲, can fail to account for electromagnetic induc- linearly in the z direction with magnitude BL = 共0 , 0 , B0x兲
tion. Two examples of such failures are given, and it is stated where B0 is a constant. The location of the front and rear
that these exceptions demonstrate the superiority of the dif- sides of the loop at time t is x1 = vt and x2 = b + vt, respec-
ferential laws, Eq. 共6兲 and Eq. 共8兲, over the integral form. tively. The magnitude of the magnetic field at these locations
This point is not mentioned by other introductory physics is BL,1 = 共0 , 0 , B0vt兲 and BL,2 = 共0 , 0 , B0b + B0vt兲. The ob-
texts.11 However, Faraday’s law in its integral form is indis- server SF moving with the loop measures the magnetic field
pensable in introductory physics courses in situations such as through the loop which changes with time.
the electric generator for which Eq. 共6兲 is obviously not prac- The two observers explain the phenomenon of electromag-
tical. Also, partial derivative equations such as in Eq. 共6兲 are netic induction as follows. Observer SL observes the moving
beyond the scope of the introductory course and the equiva- conducting frame and accounts for the resulting motional
lence of Faraday’s law with Maxwell’s equation regarding emf using Eq. 共7兲 and finds


the circulation of the electric field requires knowledge of
field transformations.12 Emotional = 关v ⫻ B兴 · ds = − vB0A, 共9兲
In addition, the composite nature of Faraday’s law should ABCD
attract the attention of the student:
where A = bd, the area of the loop ABCD. Observer SF sees
no motion, records the different magnetic field Bz = B0共xF
“We know of no other place in physics where such + vt兲, and accounts for the transformer emf using Eq. 共5兲:

冕冕
a simple and accurate general principle requires for
its real understanding an analysis in terms of two ⳵ BE
Etransformer = − · dA = − vB0A, 共10兲
different phenomena. Usually such a beautiful gen- A ⳵t
eralization is found to stem from a single deep un-
because ⳵BF / ⳵t = 共0 , 0 , B0v兲. The equality of Eqs. 共9兲 and
derlying principle. Nevertheless, in this case there
共10兲 demonstrates the relativity of the emf as either trans-
does not appear any such profound implication. We former 共the interpretation of SF 兲 or motional 共the interpreta-
have to understand the rule as the combined effects tion of SL兲.
of two quite separate phenomena.”13 共Italics in the This example unifies the two types of electromagnetic in-
original.兲 duction similar to the unification of the electric and magnetic
fields when considering the force exerted on an electric
By considering the two different contributions to the elec- charge as interpreted by different inertial observers. Just as
tromagnetic induction, a teacher can discuss why this inter- the identification of the force as magnetic or electric changes
pretation was challenged by Einstein in his seminal paper of with a change in reference frame, the identification of the
1905.3 type of electromagnetic induction can change while preserv-

338 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 338

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ing the total emf as an invariant. For the observer for whom
the frame is motionless, the only contribution is

Etransformer = 冖 L
EF · dL = − 冉 冊
⳵⌽
⳵t v=0
. 共11兲

Because of the weak approximation 共v / c Ⰶ 1兲 the electric


fields, as observed by the two observers are related by17
EF = EL + v ⫻ B, 共12兲
and the emf in Eq. 共11兲 can be expressed by using the fields
in the laboratory frame:

Etransformer = 冖 L
共EL + v ⫻ B兲 · dL, 共13兲 Fig. 3. The external part of the Faraday disc generator is connected to the
terminals o and c. 共a兲 The induced emf in the rotating disc is related to the
rate of change of the area ocd 共swept out by the moving radius兲 giving the
which leads to Eq. 共4兲. Here the students will arrive at the change of the circuit, including the external part which does not change. 共b兲
The same emf can be calculated using the velocities of the charges along the
understanding of the “single deep underlying principle” radius r 共drift velocities are neglected兲.
which unifies the “two different phenomena,” the relativistic
nature of the electromagnetic field.

IV. AREA AND PATH CHOICE


Emotional = 冖 L
关v ⫻ B兴 · dL = 冕 OC
1
␻rBdr = ␻R2B,
2
共17兲

where ␻ is the angular velocity and R is the radius of the


The use of relativity is optional. Whether or not the treat- disk. Alternatively, we can obtain the same result from the
ment is relativistic, there are other conceptual problems with area change of the disc sector ocd 关see Fig. 3共a兲兴.20 The result
the application of Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 共1兲. The obtained in this way is consistent with the definition of Am
form in Eq. 共4兲 has pedagogical advantages that reinforce the 关see Fig. 3共b兲兴 suggesting the appropriate area to be ad-
discussion in introductory texts. It is common to consider a dressed. Indeed, the flux change is not obvious, whereas the
uniform field B and derive the following:18 explanation of the emf by the Lorentz force is straightfor-
d⌽ d共B · A兲 dB dA ward.
Einduction = − =− =−A· −B· , 共14兲 In this regard it is interesting and educational to discuss
dt dt dt dt
with students the reasoning used in The Feynman Lectures:
where A represents the area enclosed by a circuit, and the
second term represents the change of area and the change of “As disc rotates, the “circuit,” in the sense of the
orientation. To clarify the meaning of these terms, we relate place in space where the currents are, is always the
Eqs. 共4兲 and 共14兲. For a uniform magnetic field the second same ¼ Although the flux trough the “circuit” is
term of Eq. 共4兲 becomes constant, there is still an emf ¼ Clearly, here is a


case where v ⫻ B force in the moving disc gives
dAm
Emotional = 关v ⫻ B兴 · dL = − B , 共15兲 rise to an emf which cannot be equated to a change
L dt of flux.”21
with
The last sentence of the quote contradicts the expression
dAm
dt
⬅ 冖 L
v⬜dL. 共16兲
for the change of flux given in Eq. 共3兲.
The same approach resolves the puzzle of the rotating
plates discussed in The Feynman Lectures. Two metal plates
The definition of Am is not unique and only the change of with slightly curved edges 共see Fig. 4兲 are placed in a uni-
area dAm is physically meaningful 共v⬜ represents the veloc-
ity component perpendicular to the element of the moving
conductor and the subscript m in Am emphasizes the relation
to the charges in motion兲. The integration in Eq. 共15兲 accu-
mulates the effect of the Lorentz force and Eq. 共16兲 reflects
the area swept out by the movement of the points on the
conductor.19 In successful uses of area change in the deter-
mination of the emf, the area is given by Eq. 共16兲; in con-
trast, if the area is not given by Eq. 共16兲, Faraday’s law
appears to fail as we will show in the following examples.
To explain Faraday’s disc generator 共a conducting disc ro-
tating between the poles of a permanent magnet with the disc
at right angles to the magnetic field兲, we can apply Eq. 共7兲 Fig. 4. Feynman’s rotating conducting plates in a magnetic field B. The
and sum the action of the magnetic force on the charges circuit ABPCD is closed through the point of contact P which is moving
moving with the disc and located in the segment oc 共see Fig. from P⬘ to P⬙. The area change of the circuit is shown by the dotted lines
3兲 closing the circuit: 共sectors S1 and S2兲.

339 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 339

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Fig. 5. The conducting frame U slides over the conducting plate P in a
magnetic field B. An induction emf causes current in the circuit. The area
change Am, shown by the dashed line, is relevant for the emf of induction,
even though the area of the circuit does not change. Fig. 6. A two-loop circuit in a magnetic field B. The switch S can change the
area of the closed circuit from A1 to A1 + A2 and back at any frequency, but
almost no emf is induced in the circuit.

form magnetic field perpendicular to their surfaces. The

冖 冕冕
plates make contact at a single point P comprising a com-
⳵B
plete circuit ABPCD. When the plates are rocked, the point E · dL = − · dA, 共18兲
of contact moves from P⬘ to P⬙. We can imagine the circuit L A ⳵t
completed through the plates on the dashed lines connecting
points B, P, and C, and might consider the area change of the with the first term in Eq. 共4兲. As mentioned, a complete un-
circuit as caused by the movement of these lines: the area derstanding of the relation between Eq. 共1兲 and Eq. 共18兲 can
S1 + S2 共between the dashed lines to the positions P⬘ and P⬙兲. be obtained only by considering special relativity, which in-
It is stated that there is “a somewhat unusual situation in troduces field transformations that show, using Eqs. 共11兲 and
which the flux through a circuit 共again in the sense of the 共12兲, how Maxwell’s equation for a stationary observer, Eq.
place where the current is兲 changes but where there is no 共18兲, produces Faraday’s law, Eq. 共4兲, which includes the
emf.”21 However, although the area S1 + S2 does represent the motion of a conducting loop.
change of the circuit area, it does not reflect the velocities of
the material points of the plates, as required by Eq. 共3兲 for V. EXAMPLES
the flux change. This mismatch occurs because the point P is
not a physical object. In fact, the material points of the plates In the following we give some simple but conceptually
move in the magnetic field with smaller velocities 共and in the rich examples that can be usefully analyzed by students.
opposite direction兲 than does point P.22 This difference ex- 共1兲 Consider the circuit of Fig. 6. Switch S establishes a
plains the fact stated by the authors of Ref. 2 that the Lorentz closed circuit either of area A1 or A1 + A2, without the signifi-
force causing the emf causes it to be small. Strictly speaking, cant movement of a conductor during the change of the po-
as in Faraday’s disc, the induced currents in the rotating sition of the switch. Although the rate of change of the cir-
plates 共as in any extended conductor兲 cannot be reduced to a cuit area threaded by a magnetic field can be arbitrarily large,
line of current and any treatment introducing a straight path practically no emf is induced because such a change is not
of integration remains approximate. However, the qualitative accompanied by a corresponding movement of a conductor.
argument explaining the low magnitude of the emf suffices Equation 共4兲 gives a null result, whereas finding the area
for an introductory course. change might lead to confusion.
The treatment of open and composite circuits using Eq. 共1兲 共2兲 An electromagnetic generator is often explained by the
might challenge students who look for an area change. To change in the circuit orientation of the magnetic field, as
find the latter they should create an imaginary area that re- implied by Eq. 共14兲. Figure 7 shows two arrangements in-
flects the movement. The valid choice is provided only by Am volving identical changes of circuit orientation which lead to
as defined by Eq. 共16兲. This area may have nothing to do the creation of different emfs. This asymmetry is caused by
with the area of the circuit in which the electrical current is the difference in the movement of the charge carriers 共differ-
induced 共see Fig. 5兲.
We note another important point about the path of integra-
tion. Unlike many texts, in the Berkeley series we find the
following definition of Faraday’s law:
“If C is some closed curve, stationary in coordi-
nates x , y , z, if S is a surface spanning C, and if
B共x , y , z , t兲 is the magnetic field measured in x , y , z
at any time t, then ¼ ”23 关Eq. 共1兲 follows兴.

The terms curve and stationary are seldom used by other


authors and were added to justify the statement made later in
the text that the integral form of Faraday’s law is equivalent
to the differential form of Maxwell’s equation 共6兲. For such Fig. 7. 共a兲 A solid conducting frame placed in a horizontal magnetic field B
an equivalence to be valid, the path of integration is arbitrary changing its orientation from horizontal, P1 to vertical P2. As a result, emf
of induction is created in the circuit. 共b兲 Two rectangular glass tubes are
and stationary. placed at right angles in a horizontal magnetic field B. The flow of conduct-
Obviously, it is preferable to explain the relation of Max- ing fluid from the horizontal tube to the vertical tube causes the change of
well’s equation to the curl of the electric field in its integral the circuit orientation as in 共a兲, but there is no emf of induction 共neglecting
form: Hall voltage across the liquid兲.

340 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 340

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Fig. 9. 共a兲 Clips allow a conducting loop L to escape the magnet. During the
escape, the body of the magnet 共a conductor兲 becomes a segment of the
closed circuit. Although the flux of the magnetic field through the circuit L
decreases, no induction emf is created. 共b兲 The conducting loop L escapes
the magnet between the magnet’s poles. Induction emf is created in the loop.

Fig. 8. 共a兲 A closed conducting loop ABCD moves with velocity v toward carrier moves through the magnetic field. The segment of the
and through the area with a uniform magnetic field B. In the left position,
motional emf is created along the front side CD, causing electrical current in
magnet closing the circuit, which changes at each instant, is
the loop. In the second position motional emf is created in the front and rear at rest relative to the magnet.25 Note that if the loop were
sides. There is a potential difference in the loop between the top and bottom pulled out of the magnet between the magnetic poles 关Fig.
sides, but no current 共neglecting the transients兲 because the net emf around 9共b兲兴, a motional emf would be created in the loop.
the loop is zero. 共b兲 Electrical circuit equivalent to the frame ABCD in its 共5兲 Consider an isolated conducting wire in the form of the
second position, entirely within the magnetic field. twisted loop placed in a homogeneous magnetic field B at
right angles to the plane of the circuit 共see Fig. 10兲. Any
temporal change of the intensity of the magnetic field will
ent Am兲 in the two cases. Equation 共4兲 yields the correct not cause the creation of an induction emf in the circuit in
result in both cases, whereas considering the change in the contrast to reasoning solely on Faraday’s law in the form of
circuit orientation might lead to confusion. Eq. 共1兲. An application of Eq. 共4兲, especially when consider-
共3兲 A conducting frame is pulled at a constant velocity ing the area integral, can lead students to learn that the circuit
through a magnetic field localized in a rectangular area 关see is, equivalent to a simple circuit of the kind shown in Fig.
Fig. 8共a兲兴. The usual explanation states that a current is in- 8共b兲, providing a null result due to the conflict in the polari-
duced and thus there is an induced emf in the loop following ties of the sources incorporated in each half-loop. This rea-
the flux change through the frame as long as the frame enters soning is well known to practitioners needing to produce
into the magnetic field 共or leaves it兲. When the entire frame noninductive coils.
is in the area, the area change argument implies that there is
no current. Although 养LE · dL = 0, an induced emf is created
in the frame 共the Hall effect兲. The failure to recognize the VI. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
nonzero effect of the induced voltage in the frame, thus miss-
ing the important physical phenomenon, can be prevented if We recommend that Eq. 共4兲 be used in introductory
we use Eq. 共4兲 instead and integrate around the circuit. Such courses to clarify the meaning of Faraday’s law of electro-
a treatment can reveal the equal emfs created in the front magnetic induction, which is usually initially expressed in
共CD兲 and in the rear 共AB兲 sides of the frame. This situation the form of Eq. 共1兲. Clarifying to the students the expression
of the magnetic flux derivative, Eq. 共3兲, introduces two types
is equivalent to a circuit with two identical batteries con-
of emfs, explicit in Eq. 共4兲: transformer emf 共corresponding
nected with opposite polarity. Although no current is pro-
to Maxwell’s equation of electric field circulation兲 and mo-
duced, there are voltage differences in parts of the circuit
tional emf 共caused by the Lorentz force兲. It is desirable to
关see Fig. 8共b兲兴.
discuss by a simple example that the distinction between the
共4兲 An especially interesting case of a commutating mag-
net was presented by Cohn24 and might be considered to be
violating Faraday’s law. The circuit consists of a pair of
spring clips and moves across the body of a magnet 关see Fig.
9共a兲兴. When the loop escapes the magnet, the clips rub over
the magnet and the body of the magnet becomes a part of the
circuit. The use of Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 共1兲 is
misleading and predicts a nonzero emf, because the magnetic
flux through the loop decreases. However, no emf is created.
Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 共4兲 is again more useful. Fig. 10. A twisted conducting circuit L is placed in a magnetic field B.
The magnetic field B does not change in time and no charge Wires cross without electrical contact.

341 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 341

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of Eqs. 共6兲 and 共18兲, and Faraday’s law, Eq. 共1兲, can all be
useful for students’ understanding of electromagnetic induc-
tion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank Professor V. Zevin for an illuminating
discussion about the paper which helped with making revi-
sions to the original version.

APPENDIX: DERIVATION OF THE EXPRESSION


FOR THE FLUX CHANGE
Here we reproduce the derivation of Eq. 共2兲 for the com-
plete time derivative of the flux through a conducting
circuit.31 We consider a cylindrical surface created by a loop
as moves from its position Lt to a Lt+⌬t in the space contain-
ing the magnetic field B 共see Fig. 1兲. To first order, the rate
Fig. 11. 共a兲 A conducting rod L swings around the axis O in a magnetic field of flux change results in

冕冕 冕冕
B. 共b兲 A conducting rod CD slides with velocity v over the stationary
U-shaped conductor in a magnetic field B. B共t + ⌬t兲dA − B共t兲dA
⌬⌽ A共t+⌬t兲 A共t兲
=
⌬t ⌬t
two contributions is not absolute and varies for different in-
ertial observers. This approach may reveal to the students the
deep meaning of Feynman’s words:
冕冕 A共t+⌬t兲
B共t兲dA − 冕冕 A共t兲
B共t兲dA
=
⌬t

冕冕
“The flux rule ¼ applies whether the flux changes
because the field changes or because the circuit ⳵ B共t兲
⌬t · dA
moves 共or both兲. The two possibilities—‘circuit
move’ or ‘field changes’—are not distinguished in
the statement of the rule. Yet in our explanation of
+
A共t兲 ⳵ t

⌬t
= 冉 冊 冉 冊
⌬⌽
⌬t 1
+
⌬⌽
⌬t 2
.

the rule we have used two completely distinct laws 共A1兲


for the two cases.”26 In the absence of sources for magnetic field we obtain
Introducing the area Am in Eq. 共16兲 can guide the appro-
priate choice of the path of integration and correctly incor-
冗 B · dA = 冕冕 A共t+⌬t兲
B · dA − 冕冕 A共t兲
B · dA
porates the relevant motion of the material segments of the A
loop. Such an approach can be useful, especially when con-
sidering open circuits and looking for the area for the mag-
netic flux “passing through” a circuit 关see Fig. 11共a兲兴. The
+冕冕 Side
B · dA = 0. 共A2兲

same approach helps to address compound circuits incorpo- The first term of Eq. 共A1兲 is

冉 冊 冉冕 冕 冊
rating elements in relative motion and circuits with a more
complex topology.
If the teacher has a choice of reasoning either by area
⌬⌽
⌬t 1
=
1
⌬t A共t+⌬t兲
B · dA − 冕冕 A共t兲
B · dA
共orientation兲 change or by the Lorentz force, it is important
to note that the latter is more fundamental. For example, the
example of a rod CD sliding on a U-shape conductor in a
magnetic field 关see Fig. 11共b兲兴 is often explained by using an
=−
1
⌬t
冕冕 Side
B · dA. 共A3兲

area change argument.27 The explanation using the Lorentz We can further develop the expression for the flux through
force might be mentioned as secondary, or even as an alter- the side surface using the vectors shown in Fig. 1 and ⌬r
native to Faraday’s law.28 Students’ intuition regarding the = v⌬t:

冕冕 冖 冖
creation of motional emf could benefit from understanding
the Faraday-Maxwell metaphor of cutting lines of magnetic B · dA = B · 关dL ⫻ ⌬r兴 = B · 关dL ⫻ v兴⌬t
force as the cause for electromagnetic induction.29 Maxwell Side L L


used it to address a carriage sliding along the rails through
the magnetic field of the Earth, with its wheels and axle
= ⌬t 关v ⫻ B兴 · dL, 共A4兲
comprising a closed circuit.30 L
Emphasizing subtleties such as the distinction between
complete and partial derivatives in the presentation of the and thus obtain
law of induction, explaining the choice of terms for the path
of integration 共loop, contour, circuit, path兲, careful elabora-
tion of the relation between Maxwell’s equation, in the form
冉 冊 冖
⌬⌽
⌬t 1
=−
L
关v ⫻ B兴 · dL → 冉 冊 ⳵⌽
⳵t B=const
. 共A5兲

342 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 342

Downloaded 02 Oct 2012 to 157.92.4.72. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission
For the second term of Eq. 共A1兲, we obtain within the 共Pergamon, Oxford, 1960兲, Sec. 63.
13
same approximation, See Ref. 2, p. 17-2.
14
R. Chabay and R. Sherwood, Electric & Magnetic Interactions 共Wiley,

冕冕 ⳵ B共t兲
⌬t · dA
New York, 1995兲.

冉 冊 冕冕
15
I. Galili and D. Kaplan, “Changing approach in teaching electromagne-
⌬⌽ A共t兲 ⳵ 共t兲 ⳵B tism in a conceptually oriented introductory physics course,” Am. J.
= = · dA
A共t兲 ⳵ t
⌬t ⌬t Phys. 65共7兲, 657–668 共1997兲.
2

冉 冊
16
The weak relativistic approximation can be developed if force invariance
⳵⌽ is allowed. See for example, Ref. 15.
→ . 共A6兲 17
The index F denotes the frame of reference of the moving rectangular
⳵t v=0 frame.
18
Thus, Eqs. 共A5兲 and 共A6兲 yield the complete derivative of See, for example, H. Benson, University Physics 共Wiley, New York,
1996兲.
the magnetic flux in the form of Eq. 共3兲. 19
This definition justifies neglecting the drift velocities of the charges free
This derivation uses only elementary calculus. Although to move.
this derivation employs a rigid loop, it demonstrates the ori- 20
See, for example, Ref. 9.
gin of the resultant expression of Faraday’s law and enables 21
Reference 2, p. 17-3.
us to consider whether the result holds in more sophisticated 22
This argument is qualitative. Similar to the velocities of the wheel of a
cases of open, compound and twisted circuits. moving car near the point of touching the road, which is not the velocity
of the car relative to the road, the velocities of the material of the rocking
plates are not equal to the velocity of the touching point P. See also F.
1
Transformer emf is a less common term denoting the induction emf Munlay, “Challenges to Faraday’s flux rule,” Am. J. Phys. 72共12兲, 1478–
caused by changes of intensity of the magnetic field. The motional emf is 1483 共2004兲.
caused by the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field. 23
E. M. Purcell, Electricity and Magnetism 共McGraw-Hill, New York,
2
R. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, and M. Sands, Lectures on Physics 1985兲, p. 272.
共Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1964兲, Vol. 2, pp. 17-1–17-1-3. 24
G. I. Cohn, “Electromagnetic induction,” Electr. Eng. 68共5兲, 441–447
3
A. Einstein, “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies,” Ann. Phys. 17, 共1949兲 共thanks to Bruce Sherwood兲. P. J. Scanlon, R. N. Henriksen, and J.
891–921 共1905兲. English translation in A. Einstein, The Principle of Rela- R. Allen, “Approaches to electromagnetic induction,” Am. J. Phys.
tivity 共Dover, New York, 1952兲, pp. 37–65. 37共7兲, 698–708 共1969兲 ascribed an equivalent case to F. A. Kaempffer,
4
We surveyed about thirty textbooks on university-level introductory
Elements of Physics 共Blaisdell, Waltham, MA, 1967兲, p. 164.
physics course, all published in English during the last 10 years. 25
5 This statement is valid only for translational movement. For rotation
By “geometrically linear” circuits we mean simple electrical circuits
共unipolar generator兲 the argument about the absence of relative motion
treated in introductory courses including elements such as simple resis-
for the absence of emf does not hold 共see Ref. 9兲.
tors and coils, connected in series or parallel or otherwise. 26
6 See Ref. 2, p. 17-1.
See, for example, H. D. Young and R. A. Freedman, University Physics 27
共Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, 2004兲, pp. 1106 and 1120. See, for example, D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Fundamentals of Physics,
7
In an algebra-based course, we can express Faraday’s law using finite 3rd ed. 共Wiley, New York, 1988兲, p. 745.
28
time steps: Einduction = −共⌬B / ⌬t兲A − vBI sin共v , B兲. See, for example, J. For example, ”We can obtain the same relation 关emf of induction兴 in
Touger, Introductory Physics 共Wiley, New York, 2006兲. another way without the use of Faraday’s law,” D. C. Giancoli, Physics
8
M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity 共Britannica Great for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd ed. 共Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
Books, Chicago, 1832/1978兲, First Series, pp. 265–285. NJ, 1988兲, p. 677.
9 29
See Ref. 7, Second Series, pp. 286–302. This account is equivalent to using the Lorentz force, but needs additional
10
I. E. Tamm, Fundamentals of the Theory of Electricity 共Mir, Moscow, and somewhat artificial assumptions for the case of magnet rotation 共as in
1979兲, Sec. 112. unipolar induction兲.
30
11
The scope of introductory physics courses varies among universities and J. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism 共Dover, New
usually does not include Maxwell’s equations in differential form. Our York, 1954兲, Vol. 2, Chap. III, pp. 179–189.
31
treatment remains applicable because it addresses shortcomings in the For example, a similar derivation can be found in W. K. H. Panofsky and
application of the integral form of the law of induction. M. Phillips, Classical Electricity and Magnetism 共Addison-Wesley, Read-
12
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media ing, MA, 1962兲, pp. 160–163.

343 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Igal Galili, Dov Kaplan, and Yaron Lehavi 343

Downloaded 02 Oct 2012 to 157.92.4.72. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission

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