Lecture 19

R.
W. Erickson
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering
University of Colorado, Boulder
Part II"
Converter Dynamics and Control!
7. !AC equivalent circuit modeling!

8. !Converter transfer functions!
9.  Controller design!
10.  Input filter design!
11. !AC and DC equivalent circuit modeling of the
discontinuous conduction mode!
12. !Current programmed control!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 1! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Chapter 7. AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling!
7.1 !Introduction!
7.2 !The basic AC modeling approach!
7.3 !State-space averaging!
7.4 !Circuit averaging and averaged switch modeling!
7.5 !The canonical circuit model!
7.6 !Modeling the pulse-width modulator!
7.7 !Summary of key points!

7.1. !Introduction!
Objective: maintain v(t) A simple dc-dc regulator system, employing a

equal to an accurate, buck converter!
constant value V.! Power Switching converter Load
input
There are disturbances:! +
•  in vg(t)! vg(t) + v(t)

– R
•  in R! Feedback
– connection
There are uncertainties:!
Transistor
gate driver
•  in element Compensator
c(t) Pulse-width vc v
values! modulator Gc(s) –+
•  in Vg! c(t) vc(t) Voltage

reference vref
•  in R!
dTs Ts t t
Controller

Applications of control in power electronics!
DC-DC converters!
Regulate dc output voltage.!
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that v(t) accurately follows a reference
signal vref.!
DC-AC inverters!
Regulate an ac output voltage. !
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that v(t) accurately follows a reference
signal vref (t).!
AC-DC rectifiers!
Regulate the dc output voltage.!
Regulate the ac input current waveform.!
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that ig (t) accurately follows a reference
signal iref (t), and v(t) accurately follows a reference signal vref.!
Converter Modeling!
Applications!
Aerospace worst-case analysis!
Commercial high-volume production: design for reliability and yield!
High quality design!
Ensure that the converter works well under worst-case conditions!
–  Steady state (losses, efficiency, voltage regulation)!
–  Small-signal ac (controller stability and transient response)!
Engineering methodology!
Simulate model during preliminary design (design verification)!
Construct laboratory prototype converter system and make it work under
nominal conditions!
Develop a converter model. Refine model until it predicts behavior of
nominal laboratory prototype!
Use model to predict behavior under worst-case conditions!
Improve design until worst-case behavior meets specifications (or until
reliability and production yield are acceptable)!
!
Objective of Part II!
Develop tools for modeling, analysis, and design of converter control
systems!
Need dynamic models of converters:!
How do ac variations in vg(t), R, or d(t) affect the output voltage v(t)?!
What are the small-signal transfer functions of the converter?!
•  Extend the steady-state converter models of Chapters 2 and 3, to
include CCM converter dynamics (Chapter 7)!
•  Construct converter small-signal transfer functions (Chapter 8)!
•  Design converter control systems (Chapter 9)!
•  Design input EMI filters that do not disrupt control system operation
(Chapter 10)!
•  Model converters operating in DCM (Chapter 11)!
•  Current-programmed control of converters (Chapter 12)!
Modeling!
•  Representation of physical behavior by mathematical means!

•  Model dominant behavior of system, ignore other insignificant
phenomena!
•  Simplified model yields physical insight, allowing engineer to
design system to operate in specified manner!
•  Approximations neglect small but complicating phenomena!
•  After basic insight has been gained, model can be refined (if
it is judged worthwhile to expend the engineering effort to do
so), to account for some of the previously neglected
phenomena!

g process involves use of approximations to neglect small but complicating phenomena, in
attempt to understand what is most important. Once this basic insight is gained, it may be
rable to carefully refine the model, by accounting for some of the previously ignored phe-
mena. It is a fact of life that real, physical systems are complex, and their detailed analysis
easily lead to an intractable and useless mathematical mess. Approximate models are an
ortant tool for gaining understanding and Finding the response to ac variations"
physical insight.
Neglecting
As discussed in Chapter 2, the switching ripple is small the switching
in a well-designed ripple! operat-
converter
in continuous conduction mode (CCM). Hence, we should ignore the switching ripple, and
del only the underlying ac variations in the converter waveforms. For example, suppose that
Gate drive!
me ac variation is introduced intoSuppose
the control signal vc (t),
the control (a)!
such that
1
signal varies sinusoidally:! vc (t)

0.5
vc (t) = Vc + Vcm cos !m t (7.1)
0 t
20 Ts
ere Vc and Vcm are constants, |VThis
cm | ⌧ causes
V c , and thethe
duty modulation frequency
0
! 5
m is much
10
smaller 15
cycle to be modulated (b)! iL (t)
n the converter switching frequency ! S
sinusoidally:!
= 2⇡ f s . This control signal
6
is fed into
hiL (t)ia
T
pulse-width
s
dulator (PWM) that generates a gate drive signal having switching 4
frequency f s = 1/T s
whose duty cycle during each switching
d(t) = D + periodDm cos depends
mt on the2 control signal vc (t) applied
ng that period. The resulting transistor gate
Assume D and Dm are drive signal is illustrated
0 in Fig. 7.2(a), and a t
0 5 10 15 20 Ts
cal converter inductor current and output!D
constants, voltage
m! < D,
waveforms iL (t) and v(t) are illustrated in
−13
7.2(b). The spectrum of v(t) is illustrated in Fig. 7.3. This spectrum
and the modulation (c)!
−14
contains
v(t) components at
switching frequency as well asfrequency
its harmonics ωm is and
much sidebands; these
−15
components
hv(t)iT s are small in
gnitude if the switching ripple smaller
is small.than the converter
In addition, the spectrum−16 contains a low-frequency
switching frequency ωs = t
mponent at the modulation frequency
2πfs.! ! m . The magnitude and phase
−17 of this component de-
0 5 10 15 20 Ts
d not only on the control signal and duty cycle variation, but also on the frequency response
8!
he converter. If we neglect Fundamentals
the switchingof Power Electronics!
ripple, then this low-frequency component Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
remains
Output voltage spectrum"
with sinusoidal modulation of duty cycle!
Spectrum Modulation Switching Switching

frequency and its frequency and harmonics
of v(t) harmonics sidebands
{
{
{
m s
Contains frequency components at:! With small switching ripple, high-

•  Modulation frequency and its frequency components (switching
harmonics! harmonics and sidebands) are small.!
•  Switching frequency and its If ripple is neglected, then only low-
harmonics! frequency components (modulation
•  Sidebands of switching frequency! frequency and harmonics) remain.!
Objective of ac converter modeling!
•  Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce

low-frequency variations in the converter voltages and
currents!
•  Ignore the switching ripple!
•  Ignore complicated switching harmonics and sidebands!
Approach:!
•  Remove switching harmonics by averaging all waveforms
over one switching period!

Averaging to remove switching ripple!
Average over one switching Note that, in steady-state,!

period to remove switching
230 7 AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling
ripple:!
vL(t) Ts
=0
ddhi (t)iTTss
i LL(t)
LL == hv L (t)iT s
vL(t) iC(t) =0
ddt
t Ts Ts
d dhv C (t)iT s
vC(t)
C C T s = hiC (t)iT
= i C(t) T s (7.2)
dt dt s
by inductor volt-second
balance and capacitor charge
where hx(t)iT s denotes the average of x(t) over an interval of length T s :
where! balance.!
Z t+T s /2
1
hx(t)iT s = x(⌧)d⌧ (7.3)
Ts t T s /2
So we will employ the basic approximation of removing the high-frequency switching ripple
by averaging over one switching period. Yet the average value is allowed to vary from one
switching period to the next, such that low-frequency variations are modeled. In e↵ect, the
11!
“moving average” of Eq. (7.3) constitutes
Fundamentals low-pass filtering of the
of Power Electronics! waveform.Chapter
A few of equivalent
7: AC the circuit modeling!
numerous references on averaged modeling of switching converters are listed at the end of this
chapter [69–88].
Note that the principles of inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance predict
Nonlinear averaged equations!
The averaged voltages and currents are, in general, nonlinear

functions of the converter duty cycle, voltages, and currents. Hence,
the averaged equations!
d i L(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts
d vC(t) Ts
C = i C(t)
dt Ts
constitute a system of nonlinear differential equations.!

Hence, must linearize by constructing a small-signal converter model.!

Small-signal modeling of the diode!
Nonlinear +
Linearization of the diode i-v
diode, driven i = I+i characteristic about a quiescent
by current operating point!
v = V+v
source having
a DC and small Actual
– nonlinear
AC component! 5A
characteristic
i
4A Linearized
Quiescent function
3A operating
point i(t)
Small-signal i + 2A I
AC model!
v 1A
rD
0
– 0 0.5 V 1V
v
v(t)
V
Buck-boost converter:"
nonlinear static control-to-output characteristic!
0 0.5 1 D
0
V = Vg D/(1 – D)!
Quiescent
operating
point
–Vg Example: linearization

Linearized
function at the quiescent
operating point!
!D = 0.5"
Actual
nonlinear
V characteristic

Result of averaged small-signal ac modeling!
Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model!
Vg – V d (t)
L
1:D D :1
+
–
+
vg(t) +
– I d (t) I d (t) C v(t) R
buck-boost example!

7.2. The basic ac modeling approach
Buck-boost converter example
1 2 +
+ i(t)
vg(t) C R v(t)
–
L
–
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Switch in position 1
+
Inductor voltage and capacitor i(t)
current are:
vg(t) + L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = vg(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
iC(t) = C =–
dt R
Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ vg(t)
dt Ts
dv(t) v(t) Ts
iC(t) = C ≈–
dt R

Switch in position 2
Inductor voltage and capacitor +

i(t)
current are: +
vg(t) L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = v(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
i C(t) = C = – i(t) –
dt R
Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ v(t)
dt Ts
dv(t) v(t) Ts
i C(t) = C ≈ – i(t) –
dt Ts R

(b) i(t)
i(t)
+
+
+ i(t) L
vvg(t)
g(t) –– L CC RR v(t)
v(t)
vg(t) + L C R v(t)
–
––
–
7.2.1 Averaging the inductor waveforms!
Fig.
Fig.7.8.
7.8.Buck–boost
Buck–boostconverter
converter circuit:
circuit: (a) when
when the
the switch
switch isisininposition
position1,1,(b)
(b)when
whenthetheswitch
switch is in
is in
Fig. 7.8.position
Buck–boost
position2.2. converter circuit: (a) when the switch is in position 1, (b) when the switch is in
position 2. Inductor voltage waveform!
For the instantaneous inductor waveforms, we have:!
di(t)
di(t)
di(t) L == vvLL(t)(t) (7.9)
(7.9)
L = vL (t)dtdt (7.9)
dt
Is there a similar relationship between
Is there a similar relationship between the the averages
averages of ofthe theinductor
inductorvoltage
voltageand andcurrent?
current? LetLetus us
Is there acompute
similar relationship
thederivative between
derivative Can
ofthe the
thewe averages
write
average ainductor of the
similar inductorforvoltage
equation
current: and current?
the averaged Let us Let us
components?
compute the of average inductor current:
compute the derivative of the average inductor
investigate thecurrent:
derivative of the average inductor current:!
"" ZZ t+T s /2 ##
dhi(t)i
dhi(t)i " TT s Z t+T dd s /211 t+T
# s /2
dhi(t)iT s d 1 = s
= i(⌧)d⌧
i(⌧)d⌧ (7.10)
(7.10)
= dt dt dt T i(⌧)d⌧ (7.10)
dt T s t dt T s t T /2
dt T s /2 s t T s /2
s
On
On thethe right
right side of this
sideequation,
Onequation,
the right
of this equation, we
we can
hand
can interchange
side, we arethe
interchange order
allowed
the ordertheof
to di↵erentiation
interchange the
of inductor
di↵erentiation and integration
order
and
of
integration
On the right side of this we can interchange
integration and the order of
differentiation di↵erentiation
because and integration
current is
becausethe
because theinductor
inductorcurrent
currentisis continuous,
continuous, and and because
because its
itsderivative
derivative vLv(t)/L
(t)/Lhashasa finite
a number
finite number
because the inductor current is continuous,
continuous andand because
its its derivative
derivative v/L has vL (t)/L
a hasnumber
finite a Lfinite of
number
discontinuities
of discontinuities over the period of integration. Hence, the above equation becomes
of discontinuities
of discontinuities over the over
periodthe period
inofthe of integration.
integration.
period of Hence,
integration. theHence,
above
Hence: the! above
equation equation becomes
becomes
dhi(t)i ZT st+T s /21 Z t+T s /2
1 T s = 1d i(⌧)t+T s /2 ddi(⌧)
dhi(t)iT s dhi(t)i
Z
d⌧
i(⌧)d⌧ (7.11) (7.11)
dt
= dt
Tdt = T s t T /2 d⌧ d⌧ (7.11)
s t T s /2 T s d⌧t Ts /2 d⌧
s
Finally,
Finally,Finally,
we can use we can use Eq. (7.9)
Fundamentals to replace
of Power Electronics! di(⌧)/d⌧ with v (⌧):
18! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
we Eq.can (7.9) to replace
(7.9) todi(⌧)/d⌧
replacewith vL (⌧):with v (⌧): L
use Eq. di(⌧)/d⌧ L
dhi(t)i Z t+T s /21 Z t+T s /2 v (⌧)
dhi(t)iT s 1 T s = vLZ (⌧)t+T s /2 L
=dhi(t)i Ts 1 d⌧ vL (⌧)d⌧ (7.12) (7.12)
dt Tdts t T=
T
/2 s Lt T s /2
s
L d⌧ (7.12)
dtdhi(t)iT sdt Tds 1t T s /2
= i(⌧)d⌧ (7.10)
t – T /2 t dt t dt
+ T T s t T s /2
/2
On the right side of this equation, we can interchange the order of di↵erentiation and integration
s s
becauseOnthe
theinductor
right sidecurrent
of this is continuous,
equation, andinterchange
v(t) T we can because itsthe
derivative vL (t)/L has a finite
order of di↵erentiation number
and integration
s
of discontinuities over thecurrent
because the inductor period isofcontinuous,
integration.and
Hence, theitsabove
because equation
derivative becomes
vL (t)/L has a finite number
of discontinuities over the period of integration.
Z Hence, the above equation becomes
t+T s /2
(b) dhi(t)i
Averaging T 1
the inductor
Z d i(⌧) waveforms, p. (7.11)
2!
i( )
s
= t+T s /2 d⌧
dtdhi(t)i
Averaging T sT s 1
interval
= t T s /2 d⌧d i(⌧)
d⌧ (7.11)
dt Ts t T s /2 d⌧
Finally, we can use Eq. (7.9) to replace
vg di(⌧)/d⌧ with vL (⌧):
Finally, we canNow
usev replace
Eq. (7.9)the
to derivative
replace v T
T s di(⌧)/d⌧ with vL (⌧):
of sthe inductor
Z t+TTotal current with v/L:!
Ts dTs TL
dhi(t)i 1 L s /2 time
v/2
Z L (⌧)
L s
dhi(t)i
=T s t+T
1 d Ts s vL (⌧) d⌧ (7.12)
dt T=
s t T s /2 L d⌧ (7.12)
t – Ts/2 t dt t T+sTs/2t T s /2 L
This can be rearranged to obtain
Finally, rearrange to obtain:!
This can be rearranged to obtain
Fig. 7.9. Mechanics of evaluating the average dhi(t)i
L Linductor =Twaveforms at some arbitrary time t: (a) averaging
Ts
dhi(t)i shv L (t)iT s (7.13)
dt current i(t).
the inductor voltage vL (t), (b) averaging the inductor = hv L (t)i Ts (7.13)
dt
This result shows that average
So
This result showsequation, components
the averaged
that average of
inductor
components the inductor
current
of the voltage
and voltage
inductor and
follow
voltage current
the same
and follow
current the
defining
follow same
the same
We
defining can employ
equation a similar
(7.9),(7.9), analysis
with
with with no
no change to find the
additional
in L in
and relationship
terms and between
with
no additional the same
terms. the average
value of components
L. A similar
defining equation no change L and no additional terms.
of a capacitor voltage and current, with the following result:
derivation for the capacitor leads to:!
dhv(t)iT s
C = hiC (t)iT s (7.14)
dt
We next need to evaluate the right sides of the above two equations, by averaging the inductor
voltage and capacitor current waveforms. 19!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
7.2.2 The Average Inductor Voltage and the Small-Ripple Approximation

The inductor voltage and current waveforms for the buck–boost converter example are illus-
236 7 AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling
7.2.2 The average inductor voltage " 7.2 The Basic AC Modeling Approach
The
andusefulness
smallofripple
the small-ripple approximation !here is that we ignore the changes in these
approximation
7 AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling quantites during one switching period or during the averaging interval (t T s /2, t + T s /2). As in
the steady-state (a) case, the small ripple approximation considerably simplifies the mathematics.
Averaging interval
The actual This approximation
here is that iswevalid provided that theinnatural frequencies of the circuit are sufficienctly
inductor voltage
The usefulness of the small-ripple approximation ignore
v ( )
the changes these Total time
waveform, slower
sketched thanat some
the switching frequency,
L v so
g (t) that theAs ripples in the dactual inductor current and capac-
ntites during one switching period or during
arbitrary time the averaging
t.voltage
Let’s compute interval (t T
the are indeed small. s /2, t + TTs
s /2). in Ts
steady-state case, the small ripple itor
approximation waveforms
considerably simplifies the mathematics.
average over the averaging dTcan
s approximation is valid provided that (tthe With the small-ripple approximation, we s express the inductor voltage for the subinterval
interval – Tnatural
/2, t + frequencies
T /2)! of the circuit are sufficienctly
of slength dT s
[Eq. (7.5)] as
wer than the switching frequency, so that the ripples ins the actual inductor t – current
Ts/2 anddi(t)
tcapac- t + Ts/2
voltage waveforms are indeed small. vL (t) = L ⇡ hvg (t)iT s (7.15)
While the transistor conducts, v(t)dtT s
With the small-ripple approximation, we can
the inductor express
voltage is! the inductor voltage for the subinterval 0
In a similar manner, for the While remaining subintervals of total length d T s [Eq. (7.7)], we can
ength dT s [Eq. (7.5)] as the diode conducts, the inductor
express the inductor voltage asvoltage is!
di(t)
vL (t) = L ⇡ hvg (t)i
(b) T s (7.15)
dt i( ) Averaging di(t)interval
0 vL (t) = L ⇡ hv(t)iT s (7.16)
similar manner, for the remaining subintervals
Small ripple approximation: of total length d T s [Eq. (7.7)], we dt can
ess the inductor voltage as assume that Thevgaverage
has small ripple,voltage isSmall
inductor therefore vg T
ripple approximation: v T assume
s s
and does not change significantly thatv Tv has small ripple, L and does not
over the di(t)
averaging interval.! Z s
t+T s /2
dT s
L Total time
vL (t) = L ⇡ hv(t)iT s 1 L change (7.16)
significantly over the d Ts 0
dt hvL (t)iT s = averagingvinterval.! L (⌧) d⌧ ⇡ d(t)hv g (t)i T s + d (t)hv(t)iT s (7.17)
T s t T s /2
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 20! t – Ts/2 Chaptert 7: AC equivalent
t + Tcircuit
s/2 modeling!
average inductor voltage is therefore
Insertion of this expression into Eq. (7.13) leads to
Z t+T s /2
1 0 dhi(t)i
hvL (t)iT s = vL (⌧) d⌧ ⇡ d(t)hv Fig.g (t)i
7.9.TMechanics
+ d of
(t)hv(t)i evaluating
T Ts the average
(7.17) inductor
0 waveforms at some arbitrary time t: (a) averag
T s t T /2 the inductor voltageLv (t), (b) averaging = d(t)hvthe g (t)i T s + d current
(t)hv(t)i (7.18)
s s
inductor Ts
i(t).
The usefulness of the small-ripple approximation here is that we ignore the changes in these
The usefulness of the small-ripple
quantites during one switchingapproximation here is the
period or during that averaging
we ignore the changes
interval (t inTthese
s /2, t + T s /2). As in
quantites during one switching period or during the averaging interval (t T s /2, t + T s /2). As in
the steady-state case, the small ripple approximation considerably simplifies the mathematics.
the steady-state case, the small ripple approximation considerably simplifies the mathematics.
This approximation is valid provided that the natural frequencies of the circuit are sufficienctly
This approximation is valid provided that the natural frequencies of the circuit are sufficienctly
slower
slower than than the switching
the switching frequency, frequency, so thatinthe
so that the ripples theripples in the actual
actual inductor currentinductor current and capac-
and capac-
itorwaveforms
itor voltage voltage waveforms
are indeedare Average
indeed small. inductor voltage,
small. 7.2p.
The2Basic
! AC Modeling Approach 235
With the With the small-ripple
small-ripple approximation,
approximation, we the
we can express caninductor
expressvoltage
the inductor
for thevoltage for the subinterval
subinterval
of lengthofdTlength dT s [Eq.
s [Eq. (7.5)] as (7.5)] as
(a) di(t)Averaging interval
di(t)
vL (t) = L vL (t)⇡= hvgL(t)iT s ⇡ hvg (t)iT s (7.15) (7.15)
dt v ( ) dtvg(t) Total time
L
In a similar manner, for the remaining subintervals of total
Ts
length d 0
T [Eq. d0Tswe can
(7.7)],
In a similar manner, for the remaining subintervals of total s length d T s [Eq. (7.7)], we can
express the inductor
express the voltage
inductor as voltage as dTs
di(t) t – Tdi(t) t
vL (t) = L ⇡ hv(t)is/2
Ts
t + Ts/2 (7.16)
vL (t) = L
dt ⇡ hv(t)iT s (7.16)
dt v(t) Ts
The average inductor voltage is therefore
The average inductor voltage is therefore
The averageZ t+T sinductor
/2
voltage is therefore:!
1 Z d⌧ /2d(t)hvg (t)iT + d 0 (t)hv(t)iT
hvL (t)iT s = (b) v
1 L (⌧) t+T s⇡ (7.17)
hvTLs(t)itT T s=/2
s s
i( ) 0
vL (⌧) d⌧Averaging
⇡ d(t)hvginterval
(t)iT + d (t)hv(t)iT (7.17)
s
Ts t T s /2
s s
Insertion of this expression into Eq. (7.13) leads to

Hence:!
Insertion of this expression into Eq. (7.13) leads to vg Ts v
dhi(t)iT s v
Ts
L = d(t)hvg (t)iT s + d0T(t)hv(t)i
s dT
Ts s
L L Total(7.18)
time
dt dhi(t)iT s L d Ts
L = d(t)hvg (t)iT s + d0 (t)hv(t)iT s (7.18)
This equation describes how the low-frequency dt components of the inductor current vary with
Fundamentals of Power Electronics!
t – Ts/2 21! t t + T /2
Chapter s7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
time, andThis
is theequation
desired result.
describes how the low-frequency components of the inductor current vary with
time, and is the desired result.
Fig. Approximation
7.2.3 Discussion of the Averaging 7.9. Mechanics of evaluating the average inductor waveforms at some arbitrary time t: (a) averaging
the inductor voltage vL (t), (b) averaging the inductor current i(t).
Ts
L = d(t)hvg (t)iT s + d0 (t)hv(t)iT s (7
dt
This equation describes how the low-frequency components of the inductor current vary w
time, and is the desired result.
7.2.3 Discussion
7.2.3 Discussion of of theaveraging
the Averaging Approximation
approximation!
The averaging operator, Eq. (7.3), is repeated below:
Z t+T s /2
•  Averaging facilitates derivation of tractable 1
equations describing the dynamics of the hx(t)iT s = x(⌧)d⌧ (7
T s t T s /2
converter!
•  AveragingAveraging
removes the is waveform
an artifice that facilitates
The the derivation
averaging of tractable equations describing the
operator!
components at the switching frequency and
frequency
its harmonics, dynamicsthe
while preserving of the switching converter. It removes the waveform components at
magnitudeswitching
and phasefrequency and itslow-
of the waveform harmonics, while preserving the magnitude and phase of the wa
frequency form low-frequency components. In this chapter, we replace the converter waveforms by t
components!
•  Averagingaverages, to find
can be viewed asmodels
a form ofthat describe the dynamic properties of switching converters opera
low-
pass filtering!
in the continuous conduction mode. In later chapters of this text, this averaging operator is
ployed in other situations such as the discontinuous conduction mode or current-programm
control.
Figure ?? illustrates the inductor current and voltage waveforms of a buck–boost conve
in which the duty cycle is varied sinusoidally. The waveform averages as computed by Eq. (7
are superimposed. It can be seen that the hi(t)iT s waveform indeed passes through the cente
the actual i(t) waveform. Additionally, an increase in hvL (t)iT s causes an increase in the slop
hi(t)i T s , as predicted by Eq. (7.13). Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 22!
Simulation of converter waveforms "
and their averages!
Gate drive!
Computer-generated plots of(a)! 1
inductor current and voltage, vc (t)

0.5
and comparison with their
averages, for sinusoidal 0 t
modulation of duty cycle! 0 5 10 15 20 Ts
(b)!
6 iL (t)
hiL (t)iTs
4
2
t
0
0 5 10 15 20 Ts
(c)! −13
v(t)
−14
hv(t)iTs
−15
−16
t
−17
0 5 10 15 20 Ts

Ts f /f s
%' L = d(t)hvg (t)iT s + d0 (t)hv(t)iT s (7.18)
$dt
&!
!"# !"$ !"% !"& !"' !"( # % &
f /f s
This equation&!!"# describes how Fig.
!"$ the !"%
7.10. Frequency
low-frequency
!"& !"' !"(
response of of
components
#
thethe
averaging operator: k Gvary
$inductor
% current
& av ( j!) k given by Eq. (7.22).
with
time,
Fig. 7.10. Frequency andof is
response the the desired
averaging operator:result.
k Gav ( j!) k given by Eq. (7.22). f /f
s
The averaging operator of Eq. (7.19) is a transformation that e↵ectively performs a lo

function to remove the switchingFig. The averaging operator as a low-pass filter!
The averaging operator of Eq. (7.19) is a transformation that e↵ectively performs a low-pass
7.2.3 Discussion
7.10.Indeed,
ripple. Frequency weofcan thetake Averaging
function
response
the Laplaceoftothe Approximation
remove
averaging
transformation the switchingk Gripple.
of operator:
Eq. av ( j!) Indeed,
k given by weEq.can take the Laplace transformation
(7.22).
(7.19) to obtain:
(7.19) to obtain:
The averagingT s operator,
hx(s)i = G av (s)x(s) Eq. (7.3), is repeated (7.20) below:
hx(s)iT s = Gav (s)x(s)
It can be shown that GavThe
(s) is averaging
given by operator of Eq. (7.19) is a transformation Z t+T s /2 that e↵ectively performs a low-pass
It can be shown that 1Gav (s) is given by
functionThe to remove
Gaveraging
av (s) =
e the
sT s /2
switching
e sT s /2
operator:! ripple. Indeed,
hx(t)iT s = (7.21) we can take the Laplace transformation of (7.19)
x(⌧)d⌧ Eq.
(7.19) to obtain: sT s T s t T s /2
sT s /2 sT s /2
e e
We can compute the e↵ect of Take
Averaging
the averaging
Laplace
is an
operator
artifice
on a sinusoid of angular
transform:! that hx(s)ifrequency
facilitates the Gav (s)x(s)of tractable
! by
T s =derivation Gav7.2(s)The= Basic AC Modeling
equations describing (7.20)
the low
Approach 237
letting s = j! in the above equation. The transfer function Gav then becomes:
5617/1,893:1;<=,;13=>3?@16*+-,+3A<16*.=6 s sT
frequency
It can be shown dynamics of the switching converter. It removes the waveform components at the
e j!T sthat
/2
eG avs /2(s) sin(!T
j!T is given s /2) by !
= We
!T s /2 compute
can the (7.22)
e↵ect of thethe averaging operator on aof sinusoid of angular frequenc
switching
Gav ( j!) = frequency and
j!T s
its harmonics, while preserving magnitude and phase the wave-
'
form low-frequency components. letting s =Inj!this in chapter,
the
e sT sabove
/2 we
e sTreplace
equation.
s /2 the converter
The waveforms
transfer function Gav by
then their
becomes:
Figure 7.10 contains a plot of the magnitude (expressed in decibels) G of Eq. 7.22
(s)the vs. frequency
= dynamic properties of switching converters operating (7.21)
(for more information on averages, to find plots,
frequency response models that describe
see Section
av#!
8.1). The averaging sT s
operator
•  Notches at the switching e j!Tthis
s /2
e j!T s /2 operator
sin(!Tis
in thefrequency
continuous conduction mode. #'In later chapters of this text, averaging s /2)
em-
)*+,-./012304
exhibits a low frequency gain of 1 (or 0 dB), and a gain of zero (or 1 dB) at the switch-
and its
ing frequency f s and its harmonics. Equation 7.22 is purely real, and exhibits zero phase shift av G ( j!) = =
We ployed
for frequencies less than
can computein other
the switching
harmonics! thesituations
frequency.
e↵ect of averaging
Thus, the such
the averaging
as operator
the operator onconduction
$! discontinuous
preserves the
a sinusoid mode of j!Tangular
or frequency
s current-programmed!T ! s /2by
magnitude and phaseletting s=
ofcontrol. j! phase
the• low-frequency
Zero in the aboveofequation.
components
shift! the waveform,The whiletransfer
removing com- function Gav then becomes:
ponents at the switching frequency and its harmonics.
Figure ?? illustrates Figure
the 7.10 contains
inductor
$'
current a plot
and of thewaveforms
voltage magnitudeof(expresseda buck–boost in decibels)
converter of Eq. 7.22 vs. fre
•  than
For frequencies f greater Magnitude
approximately offs–/3,3Fig. dB7.10 and exhibits substantial attenuation.
in which the duty (for more e information
j!T s /2
e j!Tons /2frequency response plots, see Section 8.1). The averaging o
sin(!T s /2)
accurately predict transient responses at higherwaveform
cycle is varied sinusoidally. The averages as computed by Eq. (7.19)
half of the %!
This suggests that averaged models may notswitching
G exhibits
( j!) = a low = of 1 (or 0 dB), and a gain of (7.22)
are superimposed.
frequencies. The high-frequency dynamics of the discontinuous
frequency! It canav be conduction
seen that thefrequency
mode
%' j!T s T s
is an
hi(t)iexample gain
waveform !Tindeed
s /2 passes through the zero (or
center of 1 dB) at the s
of this behavior, and is discussed further in Section 16.5. ing frequency f and its harmonics. Equation 7.22 is purely real, and exhibits zero phas
the analyses
Unlike the steady-state actualofi(t) waveform.
Chapters 2 and 3, Fig. Additionally, &! an
7.9 is sketched
s increase in hvL (t)iT causes an increase in the slope of
at an arbitrary s
Figure
time t, with an averaginghi(t)i7.10
T s ,that
interval ascontains
predicted
does a plot
not necessarily by Eq. for
of the
begin frequencies
magnitude
(7.13).
when !"# less
the transistor than
!"$ the
is(expressed
switched !"% switching
in !"' !"( frequency.
!"&decibels) of
# Eq. 7.22 Thus,
$ vs.%the &averaging operator preser
frequency
(for more information on frequency magnituderesponseand phase of the
plots, seelow-frequency
Section 8.1).components
The averaging of the waveform, while removin
operator
f /f s
exhibits a low frequency gain ponents
of 1 at(orthe0 switching
dB), and frequency
a gain and its
of zero (orharmonics.
1 dB) at the switch-
Fig. 7.10. Frequency response of the averaging operator: k Gav ( j!) k given by Eq. (7.22).
ing frequency f s and its harmonics. For frequencies
Equation 7.22 f greater than real,
is purely approximately
and exhibits f s /3, Fig.phase
zero 7.10 exhibits
shift substantial atten
for frequencies less than theThis The
suggestsfrequency.
switching that averaged
averaging operator of Eq. Thus,
models
(7.19) isthe
may notoperator
averaging
a transformation
accurately predict the
that e↵ectivelypreserves
transient responses at
performs a low-pass
magnitude and phase of thefunction frequencies.
to removeThe
low-frequency high-frequency
thecomponents
switching ripple.of thedynamics
Indeed, waveform, of the
we can take the
while discontinuous
Laplace removing conduction
com-
transformation of Eq. mode is an ex
tion of continuous-time models of the continuous conduction mode, the same result is obtained
regardless of whether the averaging interval begins at (t T s /2) or at the instant when the transis-
7.2 The Basic AC Modeling Approach 239
tor is switched on. For the remainder of this textbook, we will continue to employ the simpler
7.2 The Basic AC Modeling Approach 239
arguments begun in Chapter 2,i in which the averaging interval begins when the transistor is
g(t) i(t) T 7.2 The Basic AC Modeling Approach 239
switched on. In later chapters, the morei (t)
rigorouss treatment
i(t)
will be employed when necessary,
g
such as when modeling the high-frequency dynamicsTof s current-programmed control.
ig(t) i(t) Ts i g(t)
Ts
7.2.4 Averaging
Averaging the Capacitor Waveforms
238 7i (t)
the
i (t)
capacitor waveforms
AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling
! g Ts
g
0 Ts
0
A similar procedure leads to the capacitor dynamic
0 0 dTs equation. The T0s capacitor
t
voltage and current
waveforms are sketched in Fig. 7.11. When0the switch is dTin position 1,Tthe
s 0 (a) s
capacitor
t current is
0
Switch position 1:! v(t) T
given by 0 dTs Ts t iC(t) – s
Fig. 7.12. Buck–boostdv(t) converter v(t) waveforms: hv(t)i
input
T s source current ig (t). R
Fig. i7.12.
C (t) = C
Buck–boost = converter⇡ waveforms: input source current ig(7.23)
(t).
dt R R i C(t) T
Fig. 7.12. Buck–boost converter waveforms: input source current ig (t).
With the switch in position 2, the capacitor
dv(t) current is
v(t) hv(t)i 0
s
Ts
iC (t) = C
Switch =dv(t)
positioni(t) 2:! ⇡ v(t) hi(t)iT s hv(t)iT s (7.24)dTs Ts t
iC (t)dt= Cdv(t) = R i(t) v(t) ⇡ hi(t)iTRs hv(t)i (7.24)
iC (t) = C dt = i(t) R⇡ hi(t)iT s
TRs
(7.24)
The average capacitor current can be found dt by averaging R Eqs. (7.23) andR(7.24); the result is v(t) T
The average capacitor current can be found by averaging Eqs. (7.23) and (7.24); the result – is s – i(t) T
The average capacitorAverage:!
current can be found ! by averaging Eqs. (7.23) and ! (7.24); the result is R s
hv(t)iT s ! hv(t)iT s !
hiC (t)iThi d(t) = d(t)
=(t)i hv(t)i 0T
+ d!(t) hi(t)i
0 T s hi(t)i
hv(t)i!Ts (7.25) (7.25)
s
C Ts R hv(t)iR Ts
s
+ d (t) T Rs hv(t)iTRs
hiC (t)iT s = d(t) + d0 (t)(b) hi(t)iT s (7.25)
R R v(t)
Upon inserting this equation into
Hence:! Eq. (7.2) and collecting
Upon inserting this equation into Eq. (7.2) and collecting terms,For terms, one obtains
onethe obtains
0
t
inductor voltage, dTs the procedureTs
Upon inserting this equation into Eq. (7.2) and collecting terms, one obtains
dhv(t)iTdhv(t)i 0s hv(t)iT s hv(t)iTwas explained in most correct in general
C C
s
= d (t)= hi(t)i
T
d 0
(t)
T s hi(t)iT s (7.26) v(dT
(7.26)
s)
dtdhv(t)i T
dt 0 R
s hv(t)i T
R
way for arbitrary t. But result is v(t)
theTsame
C s
= d (t) hi(t)iT s s
(7.26)
s
dt R when v(0) t coincides with beginning of v(Ts)

This is This
the basic
is theaveraged equation
basic averaged which describes
equation which describes dc and dc low-frequency
and low-frequency ac variations
switching ac
v(t) Tin the v(t) T
period,variations in the
s as illustrated
i(t) T
– – s
– here.! s
This
capacitor is the voltage.
voltage.
capacitor basic averaged equation which describes dc and low-frequency ac variations in the RC RC C
capacitor voltage.Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 25! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
7.2.5 The Average
7.2.5 Input Current
The Average Input Current
7.2.5 The Average Input Current Fig. 7.11. Buck–boost converter waveforms: (a) capacitor current, (b) capacitor voltage.
In Chapter 3, it was
In Chapter 3, found
it was to be necessary
found to writetoanwrite
to be necessary additional equation
an additional that models
equation the dc the dc
that models
Incomponent
component Chapter
of the3, converter
it was
of found to current.
input
the converter be necessary
input This to writeallowed
allowed
current. This an
theadditional
input equation
theport of port
input thatthe
models
the converter
of to the
be dc
converter to be
7.2.4 The average input current
We found in Chapter 3 that it was ig(t) i(t) Ts

sometimes necessary to write an
equation for the average converter input i g(t)
Ts
current, to derive a complete dc
equivalent circuit model. It is likewise
0
necessary to do this for the ac model. 0
0 dTs Ts t
Buck-boost input current waveform is
Converter input current
i(t) Ts
during subinterval 1 waveform
i g(t) =
0 during subinterval 2
Average value:
i g(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

7.2.5. Perturbation and linearization
Converter averaged equations:
d i(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
dt Ts Ts
d v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
C = – d'(t) i(t) T –
dt s R
ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts
—nonlinear because of multiplication of the time-varying quantity d(t)

with other time-varying quantities such as i(t) and v(t).

Construct small-signal model:
Linearize about quiescent operating point
If the converter is driven with some steady-state, or quiescent, inputs

d(t) = D
vg(t) T = Vg
s
then, from the analysis of Chapter 2, after transients have subsided

the inductor current, capacitor voltage, and input current
i(t) ,
Ts
v(t) ,
Ts
ig(t) Ts
reach the quiescent values I, V, and Ig, given by the steady-state

analysis as
V = – D Vg
D'
I=– V
D' R
Ig = D I

Perturbation
So let us assume that the input voltage and duty cycle are equal to
some given (dc) quiescent values, plus superimposed small ac
variations:
vg(t) Ts
= Vg + vg(t)
d(t) = D + d(t)
In response, and after any transients have subsided, the converter

dependent voltages and currents will be equal to the corresponding
quiescent values, plus small ac variations:
i(t) Ts
= I + i(t)
v(t) Ts
= V + v(t)
ig(t) Ts
= I g + i g(t)

The small-signal assumption
If the ac variations are much smaller in magnitude than the respective

quiescent values,
vg(t) << Vg
d(t) << D
i(t) << I
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g
then the nonlinear converter equations can be linearized.

Perturbation of inductor equation
Insert the perturbed expressions into the inductor differential equation:
d I + i(t)
L = D + d(t) Vg + vg(t) + D' – d(t) V + v(t)
dt
note that d’(t) is given by
d'(t) = 1 – d(t) = 1 – D + d(t) = D' – d(t) with D’ = 1 – D
Multiply out and collect terms:
0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt
Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)

The perturbed inductor equation
0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
dt dt

Since I is a constant (dc) term, its derivative is zero
The right-hand side contains three types of terms:
• Dc terms, containing only dc quantities
• First-order ac terms, containing a single ac quantity, usually
multiplied by a constant coefficient such as a dc term. These are
linear functions of the ac variations
• Second-order ac terms, containing products of ac quantities. These
are nonlinear, because they involve multiplication of ac quantities

Neglect of second-order terms
0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
dt dt

Provided vg(t) << Vg then the second-order ac terms are much

d(t) << D smaller than the first-order terms. For
example,
i(t) << I
d(t) vg(t) << D vg(t) when d(t) << D
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g So neglect second-order terms.
Also, dc terms on each side of equation
are equal.

Linearized inductor equation
Upon discarding second-order terms, and removing dc terms (which

add to zero), we are left with
d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt
This is the desired result: a linearized equation which describes small-

signal ac variations.
Note that the quiescent values D, D’, V, Vg, are treated as given
constants in the equation.

Capacitor equation
Perturbation leads to
d V + v(t) V + v(t)
C = – D' – d(t) I + i(t) –
dt R
Collect terms:
0
dv(t)
C ⁄
dV + = – D'I – V + – D'i(t) –
v(t)
+ Id(t) + d(t)i(t)
dt dt R R
Dc terms1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following terms remain:
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R
This is the desired small-signal linearized capacitor equation.

Average input current
Perturbation leads to
I g + i g(t) = D + d(t) I + i(t)
Collect terms:
Ig + i g(t) = DI + Di(t) + Id(t) + d(t)i(t)
Dc term 1 st order ac term Dc term 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following first-order terms remain:
i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)
This is the linearized small-signal equation which described the
converter input port.

7.2.6. Construction of small-signal
equivalent circuit model
The linearized small-signal converter equations:
d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R
Reconstruct equivalent circuit corresponding to these equations, in

manner similar to the process used in Chapter 3.

Inductor loop equation
d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt
Vg – V d(t)
L
+
–
+ d i(t) –
L
dt –
D vg(t) + + D' v(t)
–
i(t)

Capacitor node equation
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R
dv(t) + v(t)
C
dt R
D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t) R

Input port node equation
i g(t)
vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t)

–

Complete equivalent circuit
Collect the three circuits: Vg – V d(t)

i(t) L
+
–
+
–
vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t) + D vg(t) D' v(t) + D' i(t) I d(t) v(t)
– C R
–
Replace dependent sources with ideal dc transformers:

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1
+
–
+
vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R
Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model of the buck-boost converter

7.2.7. Results for several basic converters
Vg d(t) L
buck 1:D
+
–
i(t) +
vg(t) + I d(t) v(t)

– C R
boost L
V d(t)
D' : 1
+
– +
i(t)
vg(t) + I d(t) C R v(t)

–

Results for several basic converters
buck-boost
Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1
+
–
i(t) +
vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

7.3. Example: a nonideal flyback converter
Flyback converter example

D1
1:n
ig(t) + • MOSFET has on-
resistance Ron
L
C R v(t) • Flyback transformer
vg(t) + has magnetizing
– – inductance L, referred
to primary
Q1

Circuits during subintervals 1 and 2
Flyback converter, with Subinterval 1

transformer equivalent transformer model
circuit ig i iC
+
+ 1:n
ig(t) D1
+ L vL C R v
+ vg
–
i(t) + 1:n iC(t) –
–
L vL(t) C R v(t)
vg(t) + – ideal
Ron
– –
Subinterval 2
Q1
transformer model i/n
ig +
i 1:n iC
=0 +
–
+ vL v/n C R v
vg
– +
–
–

Subinterval 1
Circuit equations: transformer model
vL(t) = vg(t) – i(t) Ron ig +

i + 1:n iC
v(t)
iC(t) = – vL
R vg + L C R v
ig(t) = i(t) –
–
–
Small ripple approximation:

Ron
vL(t) = vg(t) Ts
– i(t) Ts
Ron
v(t) Ts
MOSFET conducts, diode is
iC(t) = – reverse-biased
R
ig(t) = i(t) T
s

Subinterval 2
Circuit equations:
transformer model i/n
v(t)
vL(t) = – n ig +
i 1:n iC
i(t) v(t) =0 +
iC(t) = – n – –
R + vL v/n C R v
ig(t) = 0 vg
– +
–
–
Small ripple approximation:
v(t) T
vL(t) = – n s
MOSFET is off, diode
i(t) T v(t)
iC(t) = – n – s Ts
conducts
R
ig(t) = 0

Inductor waveforms
i(t) vg(t) – Ron i(t) Ts

vL(t) Ts
vg – iRon L
i(t) Ts
vL(t) Ts
0 – v(t) Ts
dTs Ts t nL
– v/n
0 dTs Ts t
Average inductor voltage:
– v(t) Ts
vL(t) Ts
= d(t) vg(t) Ts
– i(t) Ts
Ron + d'(t) n
Hence, we can write:

d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) T – d(t) i(t) T Ron – d'(t) n
dt s s

Capacitor waveforms
iC(t) v(t) i(t) v(t)

i v Ts
–
Ts
n–R nC RC
i C(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
0 v(t)
dTs Ts t Ts
–
RC
– v/R
0 dTs Ts t
Average capacitor current:
– v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
iC(t) = d(t) + d'(t) n –
Ts R R
Hence, we can write:
d v(t) T i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
s
C = d'(t) n –
dt R

Input current waveform
ig(t) i(t) Ts
i g(t)
Ts
0
0
0 dTs Ts t
Average input current:
ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

The averaged converter equations
d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
dt s s
d v(t) Ts
i(t) T v(t) T
s s
C = d'(t) n –
dt R
ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts
— a system of nonlinear differential equations

Next step: perturbation and linearization. Let
vg(t) Ts
= Vg + vg(t) i(t) Ts
= I + i(t)
d(t) = D + d(t) v(t) Ts
= V + v(t)
ig(t) Ts
= I g + i g(t)

Perturbation of the averaged inductor equation
d i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
dt s s
d I + i(t) V + v(t)
L = D + d(t) Vg + vg(t) – D' – d(t) n – D + d(t) I + i(t) Ron
dt
0
L ⁄
dI
+
d i(t)
= DVg– D' V – DR I + Dv (t) – D'
v(t)
+ V + V – IR d(t) – DR i(t)
dt dt n on g n g n on on
Dc terms 1 st order ac terms (linear)

v(t)
+ d(t)vg(t) + d(t) n – d(t)i(t)Ron
2 nd order ac terms (nonlinear)

Linearization of averaged inductor equation
Dc terms:
0 = DVg– D' V
n – DRonI
Second-order terms are small when the small-signal assumption is
satisfied. The remaining first-order terms are:
d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
n – IRon d(t) – DRon i(t)
dt
This is the desired linearized inductor equation.

Perturbation of averaged capacitor equation
Original averaged equation:

d v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
C = d'(t) n –
dt R
Perturb about quiescent operating point:
d V + v(t) I + i(t) V + v(t)

C = D' – d(t) n –
dt R
Collect terms:
0
dv(t)
C ⁄
dV + = D'I
n – V + D'i(t) – v(t) – Id(t) –
n n
d(t)i(t)
n
dt dt R R
Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term


Linearization of averaged capacitor equation
Dc terms:
0 = D'I – V
n R
dv(t) D'i(t) v(t) Id(t)
C = n – – n
dt R
This is the desired linearized capacitor equation.

Perturbation of averaged input current equation
Original averaged equation:
ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts
Perturb about quiescent operating point:
I g + i g(t) = D + d(t) I + i(t)
Collect terms:
Ig + i g(t) = DI + Di(t) + Id(t) + d(t)i(t)
Dc term 1 st order ac term Dc term 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term


Linearization of averaged input current equation
Dc terms:
I g = DI

This is the desired linearized input current equation.

Summary: dc and small-signal ac
converter equations
Dc equations:
0 = DVg– D' V
n – DRonI
0 = D'I – V
n R
I g = DI
Small-signal ac equations:
d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
dt
C = n – – n
dt R
Next step: construct equivalent circuit models.

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit:
inductor loop
d i(t) v(t)
L = Dvg(t) – D' n + Vg + V
dt
DRon d(t) Vg – IRon + V

n
L
+
–
+ d i(t) –
L
dt
D vg(t) + + D' v(t)
– – n
i(t)

capacitor node

C = n – – n
dt R
dv(t) + v(t)
C
dt R
D' i(t) I d(t)
n n C v(t) R

converter input node
i g(t)
vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t)

–

Small-signal ac model,
nonideal flyback converter example
Combine circuits:
d(t) Vg – IRon + V
n
i g(t) L DRon
+
–
i(t) +
vg(t) + + D vg(t) D' v(t) + D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t)

– I d(t) D i(t) n R
– – n n
Replace dependent sources with ideal transformers:
d(t) Vg – IRon + V
n
i g(t) L
1:D D' : n
+
–
i(t) DRon +
vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) C v(t)

– n R

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R.

7. !AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 1! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 2! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Objective: maintain v(t) A simple dc-dc regulator system, employing a

• in vg(t)! vg(t) + v(t)

• in Vg! c(t) vc(t) Voltage

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 3! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

• Representation of physical behavior by mathematical means!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 7! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

signal varies sinusoidally:! vc (t)

Spectrum Modulation Switching Switching

Contains frequency components at:! With small switching ripple, high-

• Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 10! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Average over one switching Note that, in steady-state,!

The averaged voltages and currents are, in general, nonlinear

constitute a system of nonlinear differential equations.!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 12! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

–Vg Example: linearization

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 14! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 15! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

Buck-boost converter example

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Inductor voltage and capacitor +

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

7.2.2 The Average Inductor Voltage and the Small-Ripple Approximation

Insertion of this expression into Eq. (7.13) leads to

inductor current and voltage, vc (t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 23! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

The averaging operator of Eq. (7.19) is a transformation that e↵ectively performs a lo

dt R when v(0) t coincides with beginning of v(Ts)

We found in Chapter 3 that it was ig(t) i(t) Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Converter averaged equations:

—nonlinear because of multiplication of the time-varying quantity d(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

If the converter is driven with some steady-state, or quiescent, inputs

then, from the analysis of Chapter 2, after transients have subsided

reach the quiescent values I, V, and Ig, given by the steady-state

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 28 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

In response, and after any transients have subsided, the converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 29 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

If the ac variations are much smaller in magnitude than the respective

then the nonlinear converter equations can be linearized.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 30 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Insert the perturbed expressions into the inductor differential equation:

d'(t) = 1 – d(t) = 1 – D + d(t) = D' – d(t) with D’ = 1 – D

Multiply out and collect terms:

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 31 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 32 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

Provided vg(t) << Vg then the second-order ac terms are much

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 33 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Upon discarding second-order terms, and removing dc terms (which

This is the desired result: a linearized equation which describes small-

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 34 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

Dc terms1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

•  in vg(t)! vg(t) + v(t)

•  in Vg! c(t) vc(t) Voltage

•  Representation of physical behavior by mathematical means!

•  Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce