Ancient Greece

 The Archaic Age of Greece refers to three centuries, specifically between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C.
 This term was a relatively sophisticated period in world history
 Greece, during their Archaic Age, saw advances in art, poetry, and technology, but most of all it
was the age in which the polis, or city-state was invented.
o Polis became one of the defining features of Greek political life for hundreds of years.

Introduction to City-States

 Before the Archaic Age, people lived scattered throughout Greece in small farming villages. As
they grew larger, villages built walls, an agora and community meeting place.
o Agora - marketplace
 Government developments, citizen organizations through constitution, rise of armies, tax
collections.
 Each of these city-states (known as polis) was said to be protected by a particular god or
goddess.

ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION

The Gods

 Polytheistic Greek Religion – encompassed a myriad of gods, each representing a facet of the
human , and even abstract ideas such as justice and wisdom could have their own
personification.
 The most important gods, though, were the Olympian gods led Zeus. There were other gods
were Athena, Apollo, Poseidon, Hermes, Hera, Aphrodite, Demeter, Ares, Artemis, Hades,
Hephaestus and Dionysus
 These gods were believed to reside on Mt. Olympus and would have been recognized across
Greece, albeit, with some local variations and perhaps particular attributes and associations.
 Cities had these so-called patrons and the gods became those patrons for those cities whenever
they were called upon.

Other Beliefs

 Philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that sees to posit a
transcendent single deity
 Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguish
them and specified their local nature.

Temples, Rituals, & Priests

 Temple - a place where, on special occasions, religion took on a more formal tone and is built to
honor a particular god.
o (naos – dwelling place in reference to the belief the god dwelt in that place)
 o For lesser or lower gods, a sacred area called “temenos” was separated from the rest of
the community by a symbolic gate called “propylon” and was believed to belong to a
particular deity in question.
o Larger sanctuaries were guarded by their permanent caretakers, called “neokoroi” who
were responsible for the upkeep of the site.
 Rituals – religious ceremonies
o Rituals were carried out at a designated altar outside the temple.
o Common religious practices were animal sacrifice, and the pouring of libations, all of the
accompaniment of prayers in honor of the gods.
o The actual killing of the animal was carried out by a butcher or cook (megeiras) whilst a
young girl sprinkled seeds onto the animals head, perhaps symbolic of life and
regeneration at the moment of the animal’s death.
 Priests - orchestrated the religious ceremonies and delivered prayers.
o Priests served a specific god but they were not necessarily religious experts.
o For theological questions, a citizen could consult an exegetes, a state official, who was
knowledgeable in religious affairs.
o Worshippers, on the other hand, could be both sexes and those rituals with restrictions
could exclude either men or women.

Mysteries & Oracles

 Mysteries – rites that were open to and known only by the initiated who performed them
o Mysteries of Eleusis - one of the most significant myths and and is about a vision of
eternal life and triumph over death.
 Oracles - places to acquire divine connection other than temples.

Festival & Games

 Athletic Games and competitions in music (especially playing kithara and lyre) and theater(both
tragedy and comedy) were held during festivals.
 Panhellenic games – held at the most important sacred sites of Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and
Ishtmia to honor specific gods.
 Warfare – prohibited during these events and pilgrims were guaranteed free-passage across
Greece, as illustration for their sacred status.

Personal Religion

 The Greek Religion was practiced anywhere, at any time, by private individuals in a personal
way, and not just through formal religious occasions and ceremonies.
 People would seek for signs from gods, from the skies, oceans, anywhere or anyone in their
surroundings, or even from themselves, as indicators of future events.

EDUCATION
 In Greece’s very early history, only wealthy people were educated. Young boys usually had their
own tutors who taught them math, writing, and military training

The things children were taught depended on where they lived in Greece

If a boy grew up in Sparta, his entire education was spent preparing him for the military

In Athens, which was less focused on the military, students learned several subjects

ATHENS

In Athens, boys were taught at home until they were about 6 years old

Then boys went to school, where they learned to:

◦ read and write

◦ play a musical instrument (flute or lyre)

◦ poetry of Homer

◦ how to debate and give a persuasive speech

◦ science and math

After high school, they attended military school, where they learned to be good warriors

Boys did not graduate from all the schooling they were required to take until they were about
20 years old

Girls did not go to school. They were taught at home by their mothers

But, if their mother could read and write, they taught their girls how to do the same, as well as
teaching them how to cook and sew and run a household

SPARTA

Education in Sparta was completely different. The purpose of education in Sparta was to
produce and maintain a powerful army

Sparta boys entered military school when they were about 6 years old. They learned how to
read and write, but those skills were not considered very important except for messages

Military school was tough, on purpose. The boys were often:

hungry

beaten
 slept away from home (barracks)

taught how to steal and lie and get away with it

Nearly everything in the Spartan educational system was about war and battle

Spartan girls also learned to be warriors. Their school was not as brutal, but all girls in ancient
Sparta could wrestle and fist fight and handle a weapon. They were taught how to kill

The Spartans believed that strong women produced strong babies. No great works of art came
out of Sparta. But most of the other Greek city-states wanted Sparta on their side. The Spartans
were great friends to have in times of war

GOVERNMENT

The Ancient Greeks are most famous for their ideas and philosophies on government and
politics

It was in Greece, and particularly Athens, that democracy was first conceived and used as a
primary form of government

Ancient Greece was made up of city-states. A city-state was a major city and the surrounding
areas

Each city-state had its own rule and government. Athens and Sparta were the two largest city-
states and they had many wars and battles

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

There were 5 main forms of government used in ancient Greece by various city-states:

1. Monarchy

2. Aristocracy

3. Democracy

4. Oligarchy

5. Tyranny

MONARCHY

Ruled by the one the King

Common throughout ancient Greek during BC. 2000 ~ 800.

A king holds all the powers in kingdom and has group of aristocrats to help him making decisions.

Inherits power
Aristocracy

Ruled by the few

Came from a Greek word ‘Aristokratia’ meaning ‘rule of best’.

Rich are deemed worthy of ruling the government and ruled the city.

They needed to be blue blood or from a elite family.

Citizens are not allowed to take part in government

OLIGARCHY

Ruled by the few

Common throughout ancient Greece

A minority of men from rich families controlled the state. Most citizens couldn't take part in government

Sparta championed oligarchies

Athens had an oligarchy during and after the Peloponnesian War

Existed in Corinth and Thebes

TYRANNY

Ruled by one powerful dictator, a tyrant

tyrant – a ruler who has seized power without legal right

Many states, particularly in the 6th century BC, were ruled by a tyrant

Took power by force

Usually of noble birth but often had support of the poor

Unlike a monarchy, power is not inherited

Unlike modern meaning of tyranny, was not always a brutal and oppressive rule

First appeared in Argos or Corinth, then Sicyon, Megara, Mytilene and Miletus

Sparta avoided tyranny, probably because of the need for unity amongst citizens against helots

In Athens, Pisistratus became tyrant 3 times, starting circa 560 BC

 In Corinth under the Kypselidai tyranny, the city became dominant in pottery production and
export, art and trade

DEMOCRACY

Ruled by the people

Developed in Athens by Kleisthenes and others

Based on the principle that all citizens of the city-state of Athens had right to attend and speak
at assembly

Most government officials chosen by lottery, did job for 1 year

From 390 BC, citizens paid for attending assembly

Most important political posts were the 10 generals: elected by the assembly each year

Voting was by a show of hands

Ostracism (banishment from Athens) involved writing a person's name on ostraca. Person with
most votes over 6000 votes had to leave Athens for 10 years, which destroyed their career.

Homer

A. Homer and the Greek Literature

 Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad
and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature.

 Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being
that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day
Turkey. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical
value.

 From antiquity until the present day, the influence of the Homeric epics on Western
civilization has been incalculably vast, inspiring many of its most famous works of
literature, music, and visual art. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient
Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who "has taught Greece“.
B. Lives of Homer

 The "lives of Homer" refer to a set of longer fragments on the topic of the life and works
of Homer written by authors who for the most part remain anonymous. Some were
attributed to more famous authors. In the 20th century CE, all the vitae were gathered into
a standard reference work by Thomas W. Allen and made a part of Homeri Opera, "the
Works of Homer", first published in 1912 by Oxford University Press. This edition has
been informally known as "the Oxford Homer" and the Vitae Homeri section as "the lives
of Homer" or just "the lives". The relevant part of Volume V in scholarship on the vitae is
often called just "Allen" with page numbers denoting the vita.

 Various traditions have survived purporting to give details of Homer's birthplace and
background. The satirist Lucian, in his True History, describes him as a Babylonian called
Tigranes, who assumed the name Homer when taken "hostage" (homeros) by the Greeks.
When the Emperor Hadrian asked the Oracle at Delphi about Homer, the Pythia proclaimed
that he was Ithacan, the son of Epikaste and Telemachus, from the Odyssey. These stories
were incorporated into the various "lives of Homer“ compiled from the Alexandrian period
onwards".

C. Etymological theories

 Homer is a name of unknown origin, ostensibly Greek. However, many Greek words, and
especially names in the east, where the Greeks were in contact with eastern language
speakers, were loans, approximations, or paraphrases of foreign words.

 The characterization of Homer as a blind bard begins in extant literature with the last verse
in the Delian Hymn to Apollo, the third of the Homeric Hymns, later cited to support this
notion by Thucydides. The author of the hymn claims to be a blind bard from Chios.

 Despite the insistence of the surviving sources that Homer was blind, there are many
serious objections to the "blind" theory. A few of the vitae imply that he was not blind. If
he could not write, then he was illiterate and incapable of composition. A large poem would
have been beyond the capacity of human memory without the assistance of written cues.
Moreover, the images in the poem are very graphic, but a blind man would never have
experienced the scenes of the images. Answers exist to all the objections.
 D. Homeric studies, dialect, and style

 The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity. The
aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia.
In the last few centuries, they have revolved around the process by which the Homeric
poems came into existence and were transmitted over time to us, first orally and later in
writing.

 The language used by Homer is an archaic version of Ionic Greek, with admixtures from
certain other dialects, such as Aeolic Greek. It later served as the basis of Epic Greek, the
language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic hexameter.
 Aristotle remarks in his Poetics that Homer was unique among the poets of his time,
focusing on a single unified theme or action in the epic cycle

THE ILIAD
Overview of the Iliad
An ancient Greek poem traditionally attributed to Homer. Set amid the Trojan War, the
ten-year attack of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it recounts the fights and
occasions amid the weeks of a fighting between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. It is
one of the greatest epics of ancient Greece, the Iliad tells of events during the final year of the
Trojan War. Iliad means "poem of Ilios," one of the names of the city of Troy in Asia Minor.
A. THE JUDGMENT OF PARIS
About Paris
Paris grew up as a shepherd, ignorant of his royal blood and background. His parents are
royalties. His mother Hekuba was married to the Ruler of Troy, King Priam.
A prophecy confirmed that his son would destroy the noble city of Troy. After hearing
about this, Hekuba, for the sake of the city, abandoned her newborn child, left to die by exposure
on Mount Ida, not knowing that he will actually be saved and survive.
Paris’ Judgment: The Beginning of Iliad
Zeus threw a feast for the newlyweds Peleus and Thetis. Eris, the Goddess of Discord, was
not invited and knew about it. So she went to cause a strife, by throwing down a golden
apple, inscribed with the word ‘Kallistēi’ (meaning for the fairest) on it.
All Goddesses claimed that the golden apple was really for them, but only three Goddesses:
Hera, Athena and Aphrodite were the few left to claim the prize. They all turned to Zeus, and asked
him to choose from the three of them. Zeus refrain to decide on the dispute, so he asked Paris to
do it for him, because he knew that Paris was a noble man and would not be able to resist his
request.
The three Goddesses all offer bribes to Paris. Hera offers him rule over all of Asia. Athena
offers victory in battle and supreme wisdom. But Aphrodite, knowing her man, offers the most
beautiful woman in the world, Helen, wife of Menelaos, the ruler of Sparta. Paris proclaims
Aphrodite the fairest of all and anticipates his prize.
B. THE WAR BETWEEN THE TROJANS AND GREEKS
The Trojan War
Paris sets off to kidnap Helen, who becomes the legendary "Helen of Troy" and "the woman
with the face that launched a thousand ships." Word of Helen's abduction reaches Menelaos in
Crete. He immediately goes to his brother, Agamemnon, the great ruler of Mycenae. To secure the
return of Helen, they determined to gather the aid of many other rulers of small Greek kingdoms.
The Greeks, without the help of Achilles, who is known as the greatest warrior in the world,
does not stand a chance to capture Troy. Achilles’ mother dipped him in the River Styx and made
him practically invulnerable as a fighter, making him immortal everywhere except in the heel,
where she held him.
The two armies prepare for battle, and Paris (the warrior who kidnapped Menelaos' wife,
Helen) leaps out and challenges any of the Achaians to a duel. Menelaos challenges him and beats
him, but before Paris is killed, the goddess Aphrodite whisks him away to the safety of his bedroom
in Troy. A short truce is called, but it is broken when an over-zealous soldier wounds Menelaos.
During this break in the fighting, the dead of both armies are buried and given appropriate
funeral rites, and the Achaians fortify their defenses with a strong wall and a moat-like ditch. The
fighting resumes, and so many Achaians are slaughtered that Agamemnon suggests that his troops
sail for home, but finally he is convinced that he must return to the fighting. Messengers are sent
to Achilles, asking him to return to battle, but Achilles is still sulking beside his ships and refuses
to fight.
Hektor leads a massive Trojan surge against the Achaian wall that stands between the
Trojans and the Achaian fleet of ships, and the wall is successfully smashed. Achilles sends
Patroklos into the fighting, disguised as Achilles himself. The Achaian army rejoices at what they
think is the return of Achilles to the fighting, and the Trojans are so terrified that they are quickly
swept back to the walls of Troy.

Patroklos' valor seems superhuman. He has killed nine Trojans in a single charge when
Apollo strikes him with such fury that Hektor is able to catch him off-guard and thrust a spear
through his body. Achilles is filled with overwhelming grief and rage when he learns that his
warrior-companion, Patroklos, has been slaughtered. Achilles chooses: He will defy certain death
and the Trojans in an attempt to punish them for what they (and he) did to Patroklos. Thus, he
returns to battle in his new armor and is so successful that he and the Achaians rout the Trojans.
He savagely kills Hektor, the Trojans' mightiest warrior.
The Fall of Troy

Odysseus conceives a plan whereby the Greeks can get inside the walls of Troy: A great
horse of wood is constructed with a hollow belly that can hold many warriors. In the darkness of
night, the horse is brought to the Trojan plain. Odysseus and some of his men are hidden inside
the horse. The rest of the Achaians burn their camps and sail off behind a nearby island.

The next morning, the Trojans find the Greeks gone and the huge, mysterious horse sitting
before Troy. They also discover a Greek named Sinon, whom they take captive. Sinon tells Priam
and the others that Athena deserted the Greeks because of the theft of her image from her temple.
Without her help, they were lost and so they departed. But to get home safely, they had to have a
human sacrifice. Sinon was chosen, but he escaped and hid. The horse was left to placate the angry
goddess, and the Greeks hoped the Trojans would desecrate it, earning Athena's hatred. These lies
convince Priam and many other Trojans, so they pull the gigantic horse inside the gates to honor
Athena.

That night, the soldiers creep out of the horse, kill the sentries, and open the gates to let the
Achaian army in. The Achaians set fires throughout the city, massacre the inhabitants, and loot the
city. The Trojan resistance is ineffectual. King Priam is killed, and by morning all but a few Trojans
are dead.

C. DEATH OF ACHILLES
Achilles’ father was Peleus, the mortal king of the Myrmidons–a people who, according to
legend, were extraordinarily fearless and skilled soldiers. His mother was Thetis, an immortal
Nymph (female spirits of sea water).
According to myths and stories composed long after the Iliad, Thetis was extraordinarily
concerned about her baby son’s mortality. She did everything she could to make him immortal:
She burned him over a fire every night, then dressed his wounds with ambrosial ointment; and she
dunked him into the River Styx, whose waters were said to confer the invulnerability of the gods.
However, she gripped him tightly by the foot as she dipped him into the river–so tightly that the
water never touched his heel. As a result, Achilles was invulnerable everywhere but there.
Achilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero Hector
outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources
concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with
an arrow. Legends state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel.
Terms:
Ambrosia - considered the food or drink of the Olympian gods, and it was thought to bring long
life and immortality to anyone who consumed it.
River Styx - a river that forms the boundary between Earth and the Underworld
THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE ILIAD
A. THE WRATH OF ACHILLES
It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonored by Agamemnon, the
commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave.
Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses,
and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. Agamemnon was told that he should return back
Chryseis to her father and consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis be
brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonor of having his plunder and glory taken
away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops
alongside the other Greek forces.
Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armor, though Achilles
remains at his camp. Patroclus was killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city
of Troy.
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus, Achilles grieves over his beloved
companion's death. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes
the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector.
Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before
Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop
running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is
inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword,
but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with
respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that
"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies
you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot.
After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of
funeral games in his honor.
B. THEMES AND SYMBOLS ON THE ILIAD

THEMES ON THE ILIAD

The Iliad Theme of Fate and Free Will
From the very beginning of the Iliad, when the poet asks the Muse to reveal how “the will
of Zeus was accomplished,” we know that the events we are witnessing have Fate’s fingerprints
all over them.
Time and again, we are reminded how it is impossible to escape one’s fate; to some
characters, this thought is comforting. Just because everything is fated doesn’t mean there isn’t
any freedom. Achilles, for example, has a double fate: if he goes home, he will long without glory.
If he stays at Troy, he will have lots of glory, but a short life.
The Iliad Theme of Pride
 In the warrior society of the Iliad, pride is what makes the world go round. Nearly all the
book’s male characters are motivated in some way by considerations of their social standing.
Pride is depicted as a destructive force, as when it leads to the conflict between Achilles
and Agamemnon, or when it causes Hector to disregard the advice of Poulydamas and keep the
Trojans camped on the plain.
Pride is shown as having some benefits
In a battle, warriors are often reminded of their reputations to make them fight harder,
thereby saving their own lives and those of their comrades.
The Iliad Theme of Morality
The Iliad doesn’t pull any punches in its portrayal of mortality. Not only death in battle
depicted as extremely painful and gruesome, there isn’t any rosy afterlife to look forward to.
Death is described simply as a cloud of darkness that comes down over one’s eyes. Because
nobody looks forward to anything after death, they all try to get on with their lives.
The Iliad Theme of Competition
If reputation and pride is what every warrior is after, then competition is the way to get the
goods. People in the Iliad compete just about everything. Like for example excelling on the
battlefield.
But people also compete over things like speaking ability, prizes, and of course political
authority.
Example: Hector prays that his son will grow up to be a better warrior than him. On the one hand,
this brings out Hector’s identity as a family man; on the other hand, it means that he wants to be
able to boast about having a better son than anyone else.
The Iliad Theme of Friendship
Friendship is an important motivation for many characters in the Iliad.
For example, when the Trojans Glaucus and the Achaean Diomedes discover that their
ancestors were bound by ties of “guest-friendship” or xenia, they decide that they can’t kill each
other. Instead, thy exchange armor.
Similarly, Achilles’ extremely powerful friendship for Patroclus makes him forget his rage
at Agamemnon and join the battle on Achaean side.
The Iliad Theme of Love
Part of what gives the Iliad its deep humanity its sensitive portrayal of love in a variety of
forms. Like for example, Hector and his wife Andromache, which reveal not only the love of the
spouses for one another, but also their parental love for their child.
The Iliad Theme of Hate
 In the world of the Iliad, hate is viewed as such a powerful force that it even gets personified
as a divinity. The goddess Hate makes her appearance when Zeus sends her down to the battle. As
soon as she appears she makes the Achaeans more eager for the battle than to go home to their
families.
The Iliad Theme of Warfare
The Iliad leaves little doubt that the capture of Troy will result in widespread murder, theft
and the enslavement of its women and children. At the same time, however, it portrays war as an
almost inevitable part of human life.
The Iliad’s portrayal of war is similar to its portrayal of morality. There is no way around
it.
The Iliad Theme of Religion
In the world of the Iliad, gods and goddesses are a daily presence in people’s lives. The
form of worship that this gives rise to is usually less about following a code or morality than about
maintaining contracts: the mortals honor gods with sacrifices, but they expect favors in return.
THE SYMBOLS IN ILIAD
Achaean Ships
For the Achaean army, their ships represent home and survival. They are their home base,
holding supplies and treasures, and their means of flight if the war should completely turn against
them. The Achaeans are very protective of them. Each group camps around its own ships, and they
build a protective wall around them once the Trojans start to gain ground outside the city.
Shield of Achilles
The shield that the god Hephaestus makes for Achilles, represents the world outside of the
Trojan War and his status as the dominant warrior in the conflict. The images on the shield depict
scenes of war and peace.
Achilles's shield is also invulnerable to attack. Spears go through many other shields, but
not his. His superior armor (particularly the shield) represents his special status in the conflict that
glorifies him and distances him from his comrades. However, even his divine armor will not
prevent his eventual death.
Armor
Armor symbolizes glory and honor. The finer the armor is the more prestigious its wearer.
To take an enemy's armor is to strip him of honor and take it for oneself. This causes fighters to
expose themselves to harm on the battlefield to take this prize.Armor also has great value as a
symbol of trust and goodwill. When Glaucus and Diomedes meet in battle, they realize that they
are guest-friends and exchange armor to display their old ties.
Eagle of Zeus
 Zeus, king of the gods, often sends mortals signs in the form of an eagle, his personal bird
emblem. Eagles were valued for the distances they fly and the sharpness of their sight. Eagle signs
indicate the direction of Zeus's changing favor. An eagle serves as a good omen, reassuring Priam
of Zeus's promise of a safe entry into the Achaean camp to recover his son's body.
C. FOUR GREEK PERSONALITIES
Four temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four
fundamental personality types, sanguine (enthusiastic, active, and social), choleric (short-
tempered, fast, or irritable), melancholic (analytical, wise, and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and
peaceful).
The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC), the “father of medicine” — he was
born during the Classical Greece era, incorporated the four temperaments into his medical theories
as part of the ancient medical concept of humorism, that four bodily fluids affect human
personality traits and behaviors. Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that
diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. He separated the discipline
of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by
the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. Later discoveries
in biochemistry have led modern medicine science to reject the theory of the four temperaments,
although some personality type systems of varying scientific acceptance continue to use four or
more categories of a similar nature.
Humorism was a system of medicine detailing the makeup and workings of the human
body, assuming that an excess or deficiency of any of four distinct bodily fluids in a person—
known as humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.—directly influences their moods,
emotions and behaviors.
Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation
De temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans.
Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current
theory of humorism, as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories
dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. He classified them
as hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the four elements. There could also be "balance" between the
qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin
"temperare" which means "to mix".
In his Canon of Medicine (a standard medical text at many medieval universities), Persian
polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments to encompass
"emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."
The Four Temperaments:
Sanguine (blood): Extroverted, emotional, and people-oriented.
Key Strengths: Charming, cheerful, loves people, energetic, talkative, passionate and
compassionate, positive, sometimes unpredictable, expressive influencer, an excellent comedian,
salesman or clown, quirky or eccentric and just plain fun.
Key Weaknesses: Undisciplined, too talkative, emotionally unstable, hyperactive, scatterbrained,
gullible, disorganized, late for work, and sometimes frivolous.
Corresponding element, season, and division of a day: (hot and moist) air, spring, and morning.
Organ: Liver.
Choleric (yellow bile): Extroverted, unemotional, and task-oriented.
Key Strengths: Takes the lead, hard worker, strong-willed, practical, passionate, a good
repossession worker, an excellent strongman/woman of the team (drill sergeant at the most
extreme), determined, goal-oriented and thrives under criticism.
Key Weaknesses: Hot-tempered, rude, rebellious, can be cruel, stubborn, harsh, bossy, expects
complete devotion, insensitive, often condescending, can become psychotic in overbearing
situations, workaholic, without compassion or conscience, can be a warmonger, vindictive, a
shallow cynic of people's character, most likely a bad winner/loser, and may nastily misinterpret
jokes.
Corresponding element, season, and division of a day: (hot and dry) fire, summer, and afternoon.
Organ: Spleen.
Melancholic (black bile): Introverted, emotional, and task-oriented.
Key Strengths: Detailed, conservative, analytical, organized, perfectionistic, faithful to a fault,
discreet will of stone, elegant (in the more dignified ways), selfless, an excellent medic or lawyer.
Key Weaknesses: Rigid, too straight-laced, critical, bashful, pessimistic, moody, depressed,
impractical (yes, both practical and impractical), has unrealistically high expectations, very
paranoid
Corresponding element, season, and division of a day: (cool and dry) earth, autumn, and evening.
Organ: Gall Bladder.
Phlegmatic (phlegm): Introverted, unemotional, and people-oriented.
Key Strengths: Calm, humble, an excellent assistant, spy or librarian, discreet, flexible will of steel
(flexible steel), elegant (in the simpler ways), thoughtful, patient, modest, a real sweetheart,
accommodating, steady-paced, sympathetic, perceptive, faith in morality (and leading by
example), very compassionate, assuming innocent until proven guilty, a good listener, open-
minded, considerate, and empathetic to all.
Key Weaknesses: Indifferent, submissive, lazy, slow, shy and passive, slacker, indecisive and too
yielding.
Corresponding element, season, and division of a day: (cool and moist) water, winter, and deep
night.
Organ: Lungs/Brain.
REFERENCES
https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Iliad/themes/
http://www.shmoop.com/iliad/themes.html
https://lonerwolf.com/the-four-humors/
http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FourTemperamentEnsemble
Linn, Bob. CliffsNotes on The Iliad. 04 May 2017
</literature/i/the-iliad/poem-summary>.

THE ODYSSEY

A. CHARACTERS

MAJOR CHARACTERS

o Odysseus: “King of Ithaca”. displays traits of an epic here: strength, nobility,

confidence, courage, and the love of glory. Known for his intellect and
cunningness.
o Penelope: Odysseus' faithful wife. Besieged by suitors, hoping to win her hand in
marriage and rule Ithaca.

o Telemachus: The Prince of Ithaca despises the suitors as they despise him. He
aides Odysseus in the infamous suitor slaughter.

o Athena: The goddess of wisdom and war favors and adores Odysseus.
Transforms Odysseus into a beggar so as not to be recognized initially.

MINOR CHARACTERS

o Poseidon: God of the sea. He despises Odysseus for blinding his son,
Polyphemus, and constantly hampers his journey home.

o Zeus: King of gods and men. He sometimes helps Odysseus or permits Athena to
do the same.

o Circe: Transforms Odysseus’s crew into swine when he lands on her island.
Becomes Odysseus’s lover, living in luxury at her side for a year.

o Polyphemus: Cyclops, whose island Odysseus comes to soon after leaving Troy.
Gets blinded when he tries to eat Odysseus’s men.

o Calypso: The beautiful nymph who falls in love with Odysseus when he lands on
Ogygia. Holds Odysseus prisoner for seven years until Hermes, the messenger
god, persuades her to let him go.

o Antinous: The most arrogant of Penelope’s suitors. He leads the campaign to

have Telemachus killed. First to die when Odysseus returns.

o Alcinous: King of the Phaeacians. Offers hospitality to Odysseus in his island

kingdom of Scheria. Provides Odysseus safe passage back to Ithaca.

o Eurymachus: A manipulative and deceitful suitor. His charisma and duplicity

allowed him to exert some influence over the other suitors.

o Eumaeus: The loyal shepherd who, along with the cowherd Philoetius, helps
Odysseus reclaim his throne. Gives food and shelter to Odysseus when he visits

o Tiresias: A dead prophet who inhabits the underworld. He shows Odysseus how
to get back to Ithaca and allows Odysseus to talk with the other souls in Hades.
o Laertes: Odysseus’s aging father, who resides in a farm in Ithaca. Kills
Antinous’s father

o Eurycleia: The old loyal servant who took care of Odysseus and Telemachus.
Keeps Telemachus’ journey a secret and hid Odysseus’s identity after she
recognized a scar on his leg.

o Arete: Queen of the Phaecians, wife of Alcinous, and mother of Nausicaa.

Intelligent and influential

o Nausicaa: The beautiful daughter of King Alcinous and Queen Arete of

Phaecians. She discovers Odysseus on the beach.

o Melanthius: The brother of Melantho. Goat herd who supports the suitors.
Treacherous and opportunistic.

o Nestor: King of Pylos and a former warrior in the Trojan War. A clever speaker.

o Menelaus: King of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon, and husband of Helen, he

helped lead the Greeks in the Trojan War. He helps Telemachus to find Odysseus

o Helen: Wife of Menelaus and queen of Sparta. Offers assistance to Telemachus to

find his father
o Agamemnon: Former king of Mycenae, brother of Menelaus, and commander of
the Achaean forces at Troy. Murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her lover,
Aegisthus

o Argos: Odysseus’ faithful dog. Known for his speed and strength and his superior
tracking skills.

o Scylla: Six-headed sea monster who eats six of Odysseus’s men

o Charybdis: A giant whirlpool that is impossible to get past alive

o Anticlea: Odysseus' mother. Kills herself brought upon by the grief of her son’s
long absence

o Sirens: Lures men in with their songs and knowledge.

o Pisistratus: The youngest son of Nestor. Friend of Telemachus and travelled with
him in search of his father
 o Proteus: An early sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic. Shapeshifter. Answers
only to those who can capture him. Reveals information to Menelaus about the
whereabouts of Odysseus.

o Eidothea: The one who previously advised that Menelaus capture Proteus to get
off the island

o Ino: Advices Odysseus to abandon the raft and swim. Gives him her veil to
protect himself from the harsh waters.

B. PLOT SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

 Ten years have passed since the fall of Troy, but Odysseus still has not returned to his
kingdom in Ithaca.

 There is a large mob of suitors who have overrun the palace and pillaged his land and
continued to court Penelope, Odysseus’s wife, but she has remined faithful

 Athena, Odysseus’s strongest supporter, manages to convince Telemachus (while in

disguise) to make an assembly to ask the suitors to leave, to which they denied.

 Athena also prepares Telemachus to a great journey to Pylos and Sparta where the kings
Nestor and Menelaus inform him that Odysseus is alive, but trapped in Calypso’s island.

 While Telemachus was away, Antinous, the ‘leader’ of the suitors plan to assassinate
Telemachus in order to remove the one who will inherit the title of ‘King’.

 With a little persuasion from Zeus and Hermes, Calypso sends Odysseus on his way, but
due to Poseidon’s anger from his son being blinded by Odysseus, he sends out a storm to
destroy Odysseus’s ship.

 As soon as he washes up the shore of the island of the Phaecians where Nausicaa finds
him and brings him to Alcinous, the king of the island where he tells his adventures.
THE ADVENTURES

o The Land of the Cicones: Odysseus and his men plunders the island and killed
many people. The Cicones attacked the sleeping Greeks men which kills six
warriors from each ship died on the beach.
o The Lotus-Eaters: Odysseus sends his men out to search for food, and had to
recover them when they eat the Lotus Flower. The lotus flower, upon being eaten
causes the men to lose grip of reality.

o The Island of the Cyclopes: Odysseus and his men find Polyphemus’s cave,
lured by his cheese and wine. Polyphemus traps and eats some of Odysseus’s
men. Gets blinded with a stick. Odysseus and his men tie themselves to the
bottom of the sheep to escape.

o The Island of Aeolus: Aeolus, the god of the winds, gives Odysseus; the bag of
winds which must not be opened no matter what. Sack gets opened by
Odysseus’s men while Odysseus was asleep and gets blown away off course.

o Land of the Laestrygonians: The Laestrygonians are giant cannibals who ate
Odysseus’ men. Threw boulders and destroys all ships except Odysseus’s
because it was parked out of the shore.

o Circe’s Island: On the land of Aeaea, Circe turns some of Odysseus' men into
animals. Odysseus receives help from Hermes and manages to turn his men back.
Odysseus becomes Circe’s lover and spends a year on the island. Circe tell
Odysseus that he must first meet Teiresias in order to get home.

o Land of the Dead: Odysseus finds Teiresisas, the dead prophet, who warns
Odysseus about the dangers of his return home.

o The Island of the Sirens: Being warned by Teiresias, Odysseus commands his
men to tie him on a pole (to listen if there are more clues to go back home) and to
put some wax on their ears to avoid being lured.

o Scylla and Charybdis: Odysseus choose to sail for Scylla, a six-headed monster,
rather than Charybdis, a giant whirlpool. Six men loses their lives.

o Island of the Sun God/Cattle of the Sun: Warned by Teiresias, Odysseus warns
his men not to eat the cattle in the island. But Odysseus' men eats the Cattle of
the Sun while he is away. Zeus destroys the ships and sends them to Charybdis as
punishment. Odysseus survives and floats to the Island of Ogygia, home of
Calypso.

o Ogygia (Calypso’s Island): Odysseus finds this island after drifting in sea. An
Island of women, with a nymph named Calypso, whom he had a seven-year affair
with. Hermes convinces Calypso to let go of Odysseus, but his ship gets
destroyed when he tries to leave. Goddess Ino gives him her veil to be protected
from harsh waters.
 o The Island of the Phaeacians: Odysseus swims for two days and washes up to
the land of Phaeacians, where Princess Nausicaa, finds him in the beach naked
and filthy. Odysseus tells his adventures. Phaeacians made a ship for him to sail
back to Ithaca and Athena helps him to disguise as a beggar.

BACK IN ITHACA

 Odysseus returns home disguised as a beggar, who then visits Eumaeus who offered
him food and shelter.

 The next day, Penelope presents suitors with challenge: whoever can string Odysseus’
bow and shoot an arrow through twelve rings of axes would be able to marry her. But
all of them fail and laugh when the beggar asks to try it.

 Odysseus in disguise strings the bow, shoots the arrow, reveals himself, and
slaughters the suitors.

C. THE ROLE OF WOMEN

o Women were portrayed as powerful and wise, contrary to the roles of women
in other stories in which they were portrayed as submissive and weak.

D. THEMES OF THE ODYSSEY

1. The power of cunning over strength: Odysseus, although exhibiting strength,

uses his mind to solve his problems.

2. The pitfall of temptation: The submission to temptation or recklessness either

angers the gods or distracts Odysseus and the members of his crew from their
journey. They yield to hunger and slaughter the cattle of the sun, and they eat the
fruit of the lotus and forget about what they needed to do.

3. Loyalty: evidenced by Penelope, who waits for Odysseus for 20 years. Also,
evidenced by Eumaeus, the swineherd, and Philoetius, the cowherd.

4. Perseverance: Odysseus did not surrender or lose hope. He still managed to

overcome every challenge that were thrown to him.

5. Disloyalty: Evidenced by Melnathius and Melantho who disrepects Penelope and

supported the suitors, they end up being killed by Odysseus.
 GREEK DRAMA
A. INTRODUCTION TO GREEK DRAMA

Origin Of Greek Drama

 Classical Drama began in ancient Greece in sixth century B.C. (599-500)
 Drama was developed by the ancient Greeks during celebrations honoring Dionysus.
 Dionysus is the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility,
theatre and religious ecstasy in ancient Greek religion and myth. Wine was associated with
resurrection and suffering.
 A chorus of masked dancers performed on a circular stage singing hymns to Dionysus.

The Chorus
 The chorus was led by a conductor and consisted of singers and dancers who moved and
sang together, acting as one character.
 A Choral Ode was chanted or sung in unison.
 Originally, they Chorus started out with 50 people, but Sophocles fixed the number at 15.

The Actors
 In 535 BC, Thespis of Icaria introduced the first actor on stage. (The word thespian, which
comes from his name, means actor)
 The actor impersonated various characters by wearing different masks and costumes and
took part in a dialogue with the leader of the chorus.
 The Greek name for an actor was “hypocrite.”
 As there were only 3 actors, they wore masks to play multiple parts.
 All actors were men, because it was considered undignified for women to appear on stage
 Actors wore padded costumes, wigs, and high-heeled boots to make them taller and give
them added dignity and power.
 Actors had to be able to speak in poetic language and sing using a loud and clear voice.

The Stories
 Originally, the stories were hymns and prayers honoring the gods, especially Dionysus.
 Over time, the content of the stories changed to legends of Greek leaders and heroes.

The Greek Theatre

 The Greek Theatre was similar to an outdoor stadium that could hold between 15,000 –
20,000 people.
 1. Theatron = area of seats for the audience hollowed out from the hillside
2. Orchestra = large area in front of the stage where the chorus sang and danced
3. Thymele = the altar centered in the orchestra used for sacrifices to Dionysus
4. Parados = walled walkway used by the chorus to enter and exit the stage
5. Pro-scenium = a long, low stage behind the orchestra
6. Skene = building that contained the actors’ dressing rooms

B. LITERARY DEVICES
 Dithyramb – means 'choric hymn.'
- A chant or hymn was introduced into Greece early accompanied by mimic
gestures and probably even music.

Three Genres of Drama

1. Comedy - Greeks also casted the molds for:
o Roman
o Elizabethan
o modern comedies
- Aristotle notes in The Poetics that before his own time comedy was considered
trivial and common—though when it was finally recognized as an art form, the
orphan suddenly had many fathers.
- Greek comedy had two periods:
o Old Comedy, represented by Cratinus and Aristophanes; and
o New Comedy, whose main exponent was Menander.

A. Old Comedy - Aristophanes and Cratinus used three actors:

o a chorus that sung
o a chorus that danced
o a chorus that participated in the dialogue.
- In speeches, Aristophanes ridicules:
o Gods
o Athenian institutions
o popular and powerful individuals
- The powerful individuals Aristophanes ridicules in his speeches includes:
o Aeschylus
o Sophocles
o Euripides
- Aristophanes' other targets included Aeschylus and Euripides, whom
Aristophanes portrayed variously as a windbag and corrupter of youth with his
heretical ideas.
- Aristophanes’ style of comedy consists of:
o use of overt satire
o topicality
o pointed lampooning of celebrated characters
- Example of Old Comedy:
 o Lysistrata
o The Clouds

B. New Comedy - more aimed at the common people and less concerned with its religious
origins.
- Aristophanes' style were replaced in New Comedy by:
o mistaken identities
o ironic situations
o ordinary characters
o wit
- Two main practitioners:
o Menander
o Phlyates
- Menander is the more significant of the two.
- Lost most of his plays but parts found their way into plays by the Roman
playwrights Plautus and Terence (whom Julius Caesar called "a half-
Menander").
- The style of comedy that Menander created:
o mistaken identity
o romance
o situational humor

2. Satyr plays - It is a genre of ancient Greek drama that preserves the structure and characters
of tragedy while adopting a happy atmosphere and a rural background.
- Can be considered the reversal of Attic tragedy, a kind of “joking tragedy.”
- Satyrs are nature spirits who combine male human traits (beards, hairy bodies,
flat noses, and an erect phallus) with the ears and tails of horses.
- The satyrs are contrasted with the main characters by their:
o dancing
o love of wine
o diverting banter
- Satyr plays were short, about half the length of a standard tragedy.
- Generally composed in a trochaic meter best suiting the dancing performed by
the chorus.
- Typical themes found in satyric drama include:
o ostensibly happy ending
o disaster averted by the intervention of a wandering hero
o humorous elements involving gluttony and drunkenness
- The essence of a satyr drama might be said to be a tragedy at play.

3. Tragedy - derived from the Greek words tragos (goat) and ode (song), told a story that was
intended to teach religious lessons.
- Were designed to show the right and wrong paths in life.
 - Tragedy was viewed as a form of ritual purification, Aristotle's catharsis, which
gives rise to pathos, another Greek word, meaning 'instructive suffering'.
- They depicted the life voyages of people who steered themselves or who were
steered by fate on collision courses with society, life's rules, or simply fate.
- The tragic protagonist is one who refuses out of either weakness or strength to
acquiesce to fate.
- The protagonist's main fault is hubris, a Greek, and English word meaning false
or overweening arrogance.
- The protagonist's has ultimate collision with:
o fate
o reality
o society
- A popular and influential form of drama performed in theatres across ancient
Greece from the late 6th century BCE.
- Most famous playwrights of the genre were:
o Aeschylus
o Sophocles
o Euripides
- The subject matter of the Greek tragedies was derived chiefly from Homer’s
“Iliad” and “Odyssey” which included misfortunes of heroes of history and
religious mythology.\

Structure of a Greek Tragedy

1. Prologue – the actors present the opening situation on stage
2. Parados – the entering song and dance of the chorus
3. Episodes – periods of more action by the actors
4. Stasima/Stasimon – choral ode or song commenting on the action
5. Exodus – the last action of the play

C. BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF SOPHOCLES

Life and Career
• Born at Colonus, a village outside the walls of Athens.
• On 480 B.C.E., when he was 16, he was chosen the paean celebrating the decisive Greek
sea victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis because of his:
• Beauty of physique
• Athletic prowess
• Skill in music
• Paean – a choral chant to a god
 • Sophocles was:
• Wealthy from birth
• Highly educated
• Noted for his grace and charm
• On easy terms with the leading families
• A personal friend of prominent statesmen
• Dionysian dramatic festival – where Sophocles won his first victory in 468, defeating
Aeschylus in the process.
• In total, Sophocles wrote 123 dramas for the festivals and perhaps won as many as 24
victories and he may have never received lower than second place in the competitions he
entered.
Dramatic and Literary Achievements
• Introduction of a third actor – Sophocles’ major innovation
• The addition of a third actor onstage enabled the dramatist both to increase the number of
his characters and widen the variety of their interactions.
• A typical Sophoclean drama presents a few characters that are:
• Impressive in their determination and power
• Possessing a few strongly drawn qualities
• Faults that combine with a particular set of circumstances
• Led into their tragic fate
The Plays
• Only seven of Sophocles’ tragedies survive in their entirety, along with 400 lines of a satyr
play, numerous fragments of plays now lost, and 90 titles. The following are all seven of
the complete plays are works of Sophocles’ maturity:
1. Ajax
2. Antigone
3. Trachinian Women
4. Oedipus the King
5. Electra
6. Philoctetes
7. Oedipus at Colonus
Ajax
• Greek : Aias mastigophoros
 • Ajax - the mighty hero of the Trojan War
• His pride drives him to treachery and finally to his own ruin and suicide some two-thirds
of the way through the play.
Antigone
• Antigone – daughter of Oedipus, the former king of Thebes
• She is willing to face the capital punishment that has been decreed by her uncle Creon, the
new king, as the penalty for anyone burying her brother Polyneices.
• She killed herself in her prison cell.
Trachinian Women
• Greek: Trachiniai
• Centers on the efforts of Deianeira to win back the wandering affections of her husband,
Heracles, who is away on one of his heroic missions and who has sent back his latest
concubine, Iole, to live with his wife at their home in Trachis. The love charm Deianeira
uses on Heracles turns out to be poisonous, and she kills herself upon learning of the agony
she has caused her husband. Thus, in Trachinian Women, Heracles’ insensitivity (in
sending his mistress to share his wife’s home) and Deianeira’s ignorance result in domestic
tragedy.
Oedipus the King
• Greek: Oidipous Tyrannos
• Latin: Oedipus Rex
• A structural marvel that marks the summit of classical Greek drama’s formal
achievements.
• The play’s main character, Oedipus, was:
• Wise
• Cheerful
• A beloved ruler of Thebes.
Electra
• The main focus is on Electra and her anguished participation in her brother’s plans. To gain
admittance to the palace and thus be able to execute his revenge, Orestes, her brother,
spreads false news of his own death.
• Believing this report, the despairing Electra unsuccessfully tries to enlist her sister
Chrysothemis in an attempt to murder their mother.
Philoctetes
• Philoctetes – a man who has a loathsome and incurable ulcer on his foot
• The Greeks, on their way to Troy have cast away the play’s main character, Philoctetes,
have discovered that they cannot win victory over Troy without him and his wonderful
bow.
Oedipus at Colonus
• In Oedipus at Colonus, the old, blind Oedipus has spent many years wandering in exile
after being rejected by his sons and the city of Thebes.
Death
• Sophocles’ last recorded act was to lead a chorus in public mourning for his deceased rival,
Euripides, before the festival of 406. He died that same year.

D. OEDIPUS REX
Introduction
 Oedipus Rex is a tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, first performed in
about 429 BCE.
 It was the second of Sophocles' three Theban plays to be produced, but it comes first in the
internal chronology (followed by “Oedipus at Colonus” and then “Antigone”).
 It follows the story of King Oedipus of Thebes as he discovers that he has unwittingly
killed his own father, Laius, and married his own mother, Jocasta.
 Over the centuries, it has come to be regarded by many as the Greek tragedy par excellence
and certainly as the summit of Sophocles’ achievements.

Character List
 OEDIPUS: king of Thebes
 CREON: Oedipus’ brother-in-law, brother of Jocasta, second-in-command in Thebes
 TIRESIAS: an old blind prophet
 JOCASTA: wife and mother of Oedipus, sister of Creon, former wife of Laius
 ANTIGONE: daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta
 ISMENE: second daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta

Plot Summary
 As the play opens, the citizens of Thebes beg their king, Oedipus, to lift the plague that
threatens to destroy the city. Oedipus has already sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the oracle to
learn what to do.
On his return, Creon announces that the oracle instructs them to find the murderer of Laius,
the king who ruled Thebes before Oedipus. The discovery and punishment of the murderer will
end the plague. At once, Oedipus sets about to solve the murder.
Summoned by the king, the blind prophet Tiresias at first refuses to speak, but finally
accuses Oedipus himself of killing Laius. Oedipus mocks and rejects the prophet angrily, ordering
him to leave, but not before Tiresias hints darkly of an incestuous marriage and a future of
blindness, infamy, and wandering.
Oedipus attempts to gain advice from Jocasta, the queen; she encourages him to ignore
prophecies, explaining that a prophet once told her that Laius, her husband, would die at the hands
of their son. According to Jocasta, the prophecy did not come true because the baby died,
abandoned, and Laius himself was killed by a band of robbers at a crossroads.
Oedipus becomes distressed by Jocasta's remarks because just before he came to Thebes
he killed a man who resembled Laius at a crossroads. To learn the truth, Oedipus sends for the
only living witness to the murder, a shepherd.
Another worry haunts Oedipus. As a young man, he learned from an oracle that he was
fated to kill his father and marry his mother. Fear of the prophecy drove him from his home in
Corinth and brought him ultimately to Thebes. Again, Jocasta advises him not to worry about
prophecies.
Oedipus finds out from a messenger that Polybus, king of Corinth, Oedipus' father, has
died of old age. Jocasta rejoices — surely this is proof that the prophecy Oedipus heard is
worthless. Still, Oedipus worries about fulfilling the prophecy with his mother, Merope, a concern
Jocasta dismisses.
Overhearing, the messenger offers what he believes will be cheering news. Polybus and
Merope are not Oedipus' real parents. In fact, the messenger himself gave Oedipus to the royal
couple when a shepherd offered him an abandoned baby from the house of Laius.
Oedipus becomes determined to track down the shepherd and learn the truth of his birth.
Suddenly terrified, Jocasta begs him to stop, and then runs off to the palace, wild with grief.
Confident that the worst he can hear is a tale of his lowly birth, Oedipus eagerly awaits the
shepherd. At first the shepherd refuses to speak, but under threat of death he tells what he knows
— Oedipus is actually the son of Laius and Jocasta.
And so, despite his precautions, the prophecy that Oedipus dreaded has actually come true.
Realizing that he has killed his father and married his mother, Oedipus is agonized by his fate.
Rushing into the palace, Oedipus finds that the queen has killed herself. Tortured, frenzied,
Oedipus takes the pins from her gown and rakes out his eyes, so that he can no longer look upon
the misery he has caused. Now blinded and disgraced, Oedipus begs Creon to kill him, but as the
play concludes, he quietly submits to Creon's leadership, and humbly awaits the oracle that will
determine whether he will stay in Thebes or be cast out forever.

Excerpt From The Play

Section 7. Lines 1471-1472:
“What good were eyes to me? Nothing I could see could bring me joy”
- Oedipus
Oedipus speaks these lines in response to a senator’s questioning as to why he gouged out
his own eyes. He believes it is better to no longer see the things and people around him. This is a
testament to Oedipus’s character that he is willing to accept a harsh, self-administered punishment,
and accept it with all the grace he can muster. At this point in the play, Oedipus sees no alternative
to blind exile and speaks calmly in lyric form.

Thematic Analysis
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
 Fate and free will
In the play, it is described that what Oedipus faces in his life is about either fate or free
will. This raises a question at the heart of the play: does Oedipus have any choice in the matter?
He ends up killing his father and marrying his mother without knowing it—in fact, when he is
trying to avoid doing these very things. Does he have free will—the ability to choose his own
path—or is everything in life predetermined? Jocasta argues that the oracles are a sham because
she thinks the prediction that her son would kill her husband never came to pass. When she
finds out otherwise, she kills herself. In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus has fulfilled his terrible
prophecy long ago, but without knowing it. He has already fallen into his fate. One could argue
that he does have free will, however, in his decision to pursue the facts about his past, despite
many suggestions that he let it go. In this argument, Oedipus's destruction comes not from his
deeds themselves but from his persistent efforts to learn the truth, through which he reveals the
true nature of those terrible deeds. Oedipus himself makes a different argument at the end of
the play, when he says that his terrible deeds were fated, but that it was he alone who chose to
blind himself. Here, Oedipus is arguing that while it is impossible to avoid one's fate, how you
respond to your fate is a matter of free will.

Symbols and Images

Symbols are objects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.
  Triple crossroad
Oedipus killed King Laius at a place "where three roads meet," or a triple crossroad.
Typically, crossroads symbolize a choice to be made. Yet because the murder of Laius occurred
in the distant past. Oedipus's choice has already been made, and so the triple crossroads
becomes a symbol not of choice but of fate.
 Swollen ankles
As an adult, Oedipus still limps from a childhood injury to his ankles. This limp, and
his very name—which means "swollen ankle," and which was given to him because of a
childhood ankle injury—are clues to his own identity that Oedipus fails to notice. As such,
Oedipus's ankles become symbols of his fate. His ankles, literally, are the marks of that fate.

Group 5
Important terms
Romulus and Remus – founders of rome

Quirinus - the deified Romulus who watched over the people of Rome

Jupiter – the supreme God

Juno – Wife and sister of Jupiter

Minerva – Jupiter’s Daughter

Neptune – God of the Sea

Pluto – God of the underworld

Nemesis – God of Revenge

Cupid – God of love

Pax – God of peace

Furies – Goddesses of vengeance

Titus – son of Emperor Vespasian

Pax deorum – translates to peace of the Gods

Ashes of the monarchy – called by historians when the roman republic emerged

Imperium – translates to real authority

Patricians – old landowning families who had power in their hands

Plebeians – have few rights in doing things

Comitia Centuriata – an assembly group that elect members such as in the Consuls

Intercession – ability to veto the other’s decision by the consul

Consuls – wore a woollen toga with a purple border and serve for 1 year, non-consecutive

Sella curulis – a special chair for the consuls to be seated

Lector – assistant of the consuls

Roman senate - serve as an advisory body to consuls and to the emperors

Auctoritas – “indirect executive power” which is more than advice and less than command

Patres et conscripti – roman senate who serve at the age of kings they were at a 100 members

Lex ovinia – roman law that gave censors the right to revise the list of senate

Senatus consultum – unlimited freedom of speech to give their opinion

Comitia curiata – legislative body dating back to the days of the kings

Lex curita de imperio – to confirm the naming of magistrates by the Comitia Curiata

Campus Marcus/field of mars – where the Comitia Centuriata meet to enact laws, electing magistrates
and declaring peace and war

Concilium Plebis – represents the Plebeians, they held trials for non-capital offenses

Pomerium – an oath to be taken by the plebeains to support the decisions of the tribune
Tribal assemblies - established by the Valerio-Horatian Laws of 449 BCE which consisted both patricians
and plebeians.

Conflict of Order - which the plebeians started to demand an equal voice in the government which
lasted from 494 to 287 BCE.

Provocatio populum - the right to appeal the decision of the magistrate.

Lex Hotensia - tated that laws passed by the Concilium Plebis were binding to all people even to the
patricians

Cursus honorum - was a path to a consulship which the republic needed to lessen the magistrates to
oversee various administrative functions.

Praetors - they oversee the judicial duties of the republic.

Quaestors – holding power over the treasury

quaestros aerarii or control of the treasury

Aedile - initially appointed to administer the temples.

Appius Claudius – sanctioned the aqueduct and also commissioned the appain way

Aqueduct – artificial channel for conveying water

Appian way – a famous ancient road that leads from rome to capua

Cato the Elder – believed that rome was declining morally and expelled several roman senators for their
bad behaviour

Magister Populi – a rare “public” official which would be appointed in times of emergency and has
complete authority

Pyrrhus – was a Greek general, and king of Hellenistic Epirus

Patres – translates to father

Twelve tables - (450 BCE ) were enacted in order to appease a number of plebeian concerns

Roman law – used as a legal system. Affected the development of law in most western and eastern
parts of civilization

Hannibal - (247 -183 BCE) was a general of Carthaginian army who swept across southern Europe
defeating the roman army, but never the city

Tiberius Gracchus - suggested to give land to the unemployed but the senate rejected it, eventually it
became a law but could not be enforced.

Gaius Gracchus – he suggested to give all roman allies a citizenship

Barracks-room Emperor - Name given to Emperors rising to power on the strength of their armies after
the fall of the Severi. These emperors often spent most of their time at war, fighting against Barbarians,
Parthians, and Sassanids, though they themselves often were not pure Roman born.

Pax-Romana - The idea of the political, economic unity of the Mediterranean world in which security,
peace—pax—was guaranteed by Roman law and military force. A reality from 90 to 200 CE.

Praetorian Guard - Elite force of palace guards established in the beginning of Empire period, to guard
the person and family of the Emperor. From time to time, they would emerge as a political force, killing
and proclaiming rulers. Eliminated at end of third century.

Parthians - Historic opponents of Roman rule in Mesopotamia, they became warlike again in 160s.
Defeated by Marcus Aurelius, they caused intermittent problems into the 200s, then were replaced by
the Sassanids, who were more aggressively expansionist and thus more of a threat.

Marcomanni - German Barbarian tribe on the north-central Rhine, they began invasions of Roman
lands in the 160s, requiring Marcus Aurelius' sustained attention. Belong to the western German tribal
groups.

Quadi - Barbarian tribe situated opposite the Roman borders in Pannonia (Balkans), they raided
westward from the reign of Aurelius.

Sarmatians - Lower Balkan Germanic Tribes, they raided along with the Quadi during Marcus Aurelius'
time. Were defeated by him.

Sassanid - Persian dynasty that overthrew the Parthians in 220s. More aggressive expansionist than
their predecessors, they claimed lands ruled by ancient Persian states going as far West as Palestine.
Posed a large military threat to Roman lands until the 630s. Made life difficult for military emperors of
third century.

Alamanni - A Germanic super-tribe emerging around 200 on the upper Rhine just opposite Gaul. Began
raiding from the late 200s, and especially after the Hunnic arrival in the 300s.

Franks - German super-tribe from the 250s, on the northern Rhine between Alamanni and Saxons.
They worked as Roman foederati, and began to cross the Rhine only in the 400s. Eventually converted to
Catholic Christianity, ensuring greater acceptance in West.

Visigoths - The western Goths, they settled north of Thrace and east of the Adriatic Balkans. Coming
into Roman lands initially with imperial agreement in 375, they soon rebelled against the Roman's
negligent treatment and defeated Valens in 378, then moved westward from 395. When no Roman
authority would consent to their integration into Roman forces in exchange for food, their leader Alaric
led an invasion of Italy resulting in the plundering of Rome. After failing to get to North Africa, the
Visigoths, under Athaulf and Wallia, moved north from Italy into Gaul, where they fought for Rome
against claimants. In late 418, they were made foederati, settled in western Gaul, and allowed
hospitalitas. They moved from their assigned lands to Iberia after the 430s, yet assisted Aetius to defeat
Huns in 451. Kingdom in Spain lasted to c.a. 700.
Ostrogoths - The eastern Goths, they were forced west from the Crimea and Black Sea area to north of
Thrace and Visigoth realms in the 370s. Assisted in Visigothic defeat of Valens in 378. Became trouble
for East Rome when they pressured emperors, notably Zeno in 470-80s. Zeno responded to the problem
by encouraging Theodoric the Ostrogoth to lead his people west and unseat Odovacar in 488-93, thus
freeing the east from the Ostrogoth menace. Theodoric overthrew Odovacar and established the
Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy, Southern Gaul. Christians of the Arian persuasion.

Burgundians - Eastern Germanic tribe, a late entrant into Roman territories, came with Rhadagaesius
and his Vandals and plundered from 410s onward, eventually settling as foederati in the Worms region.
After the Roman fall, they moved south to Gaul just beyond the Italian Alps to found a Burgundian
Kingdom.

Huns - Non-Germanic, Slavic-Turkic tribe from far Central Asia, arrived in Roman theatre in 350-70s,
driving all tribes west to pile up on Roman borders. Those that did not flee were subjugated and
incorporated as slaves into Hun armies. Set off Germanic migrations into Roman lands. Raided East
Roman areas from 430s, under unitary rulers—Rugilla and Attila. Went west under Attila, pillaged 451-3.
Were defeated by Aetius, Roman and German troops in 451, Battle of Catalaunian Plains. Were
scattered by Germanic Uprising in 455.

Vandals - East German tribe located beyond Burgundians before 400. Beginning in 406, entered Gaul
across Rhine at Mainz. They traveled and pillaged all through Gaul and Iberia, crossing to North Africa in
429. After taking Carthage, they took up piracy in the Mediterranean and cut off food supplies to Rome
from North Africa. In 455, Vandal ships sailed up the Tiber and sacked Rome.

Limes - Latin term for the fortified border areas along the Rhine and Danube rivers.

Nicomedia - Ancient city in Western Asia Minor. Diocletian ruled from there, beginning the tradition of
imperial rule from East.

Tetrarchate - Method of rule innovated by Diocletian in order to assure smooth imperial succession.
Under this design, two Augusti, one in the East and one in the West, would rule togetherBelow each
ruled a junior colleague, or Caesar, who was a trusted general. When an Augustus position became
vacant, the corresponding Caesar would occupy it, and this new Augustus would raise up a new, trusted
Caesar. The system did not ultimately work, giving way to civil war in 306.

Decurions - Urban officials with municipal responsibility. Also called curiales, beginning with Diocletian
their roles expanded to include tax collection. The class was made hereditary to prevent people from
escaping the difficult task of tax-collection.

Foederati - An arrangement with Barbarian tribes across Roman borders under which the Barbarians
would fight in support of Roman interests in return for goods or funds. From 370s, such agreements
were applied also to Barbarians within Roman borders.

Arian - A version of Christianity based on the teachings of Arius, a priest who believed that Christ was
less divine than God, being his son and corporeal. Though long accepted through much of the East and
instrumental in converting many Goths to Christianity, Arianism was never accepted in the West and
soon became known as the Arian Heresy. The resulting religious divide between Goths and Roman
Christians forestalled attempts at assimilation.

Byzantium - Ancient fishing village in the Bosphorous Straits where Europe meets Asia. Constantine
selected it as the site for his new imperial city, which he christened Constantinople. After the 470s, more
than a century after the demise of the Western Empire, Byzantium would become the popular name of
the Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire.

Byzantine Empire - Another name for the Eastern Roman Empire, originating from the fact that
Constantinople was constructed on the ruins of the ancient city Byzantium.

Constantinople - The capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople was founded on the remains of
the ancient city of Byzantium, with construction beginning in 325. One of the richest cities on earth from
400-1300, because it was founded by the Christian Constantine, it also was one of the first important
cities to encompass a totally Christian milieu.

Volkerwanderung - German for 'Peoples'; Wanderings', it refers to the great Barbarian migrations
lasting from 150 CE until the 550s.

Wergeld - Germanic justice system, focusing on avoidance of blood-feuds by assigning cash payments
to different kinds of physical offenses; it was based upon severity of offense, and the victim's social
status.

Hospitalitas - Roman legal device, originally entailing the quartering of Roman troops in rural
agricultural areas during the winter to provide them with provisions. Modified after the 420s, it was
used to legalize Germanic residence in Gaul, Iberia, and to provide them with access to a portion of
agricultural production.

latifundia - Estates set up by rural elites (senators, officials, etc.) beginning in the 100s; beginning with
the 300s, peasants who could not afford the recent tax bills, took up residence as employees of the
estates. The peasants, tied to these lands, began the road to enserfment, especially once Germanic
notables began to possess latifundia after the 440s.

Marcus Aurelius - Marcus Aurelius was Emperor from 161-180. A Stoic philosopher by temperament,
he spent most of his time fighting Barbarian invasions in the West and Parthian incursions in the east. A
great plague occurred during his rule.

Avidius Cassius - Roman general under Marcus Aurelius, he was sent to the East to counter the
Parthian threat from 162-165. He defeated the Parthians, and was made by Aurelius the head of all
military east of Egypt. He eventually led a revolt against Rome but was defeated.

Vespasian - Roman Emperor 69-70 CE. Great general, strong leader. With him began a progression of
successful emperors and the resulting peaceful Roman world that lasted up to the 140s CE.

Commodius - Successor as Emperor to Marcus Aurelius, 180-192. A failure as leader, interested only in
enjoyment. Eventually murdered by Palace guards.
Laetus - Head, or Prefect, of the Praetorian Guard, he was responsible for the murder of Commodius in
392. He then set up Pertinax as Emperor, whom he also killed when the latter began reforms
threatening the Praetorians' prerogatives (193).

Helvius Pertinax - Close adviser to Marcus Aurelius, he was tapped as Emperor by the Praetorian Guard
upon Commodius' murder. In his three months as Emperor before he also was murdered, Pertinax tried
to reform state finances, administration, and terms of military service.

Septimius Severus - First of the Severi emperors, he came to power after the 193-194 civil war. Hailing
himself as Pertinax's avenger, he took Rome, ousted the Praetorian Guard, undertook successful
campaigns against the Parthians, and further eroded the power of the Senate.

Caracalla - Septimius Severus' son, he ruled 211-17, disregarding senatorial prerogatives and equalizing
citizenship status of all free men in Roman lands. Continued Parthian campaigns. Curried favor with
troops, beginning the process imbuing armies with king-making powers. He was murdered.

Severi - Dynasty of Roman Emperors descending from Septimius Severus, beginning in 193 and lasting
to 235. Increasingly ineffective with the passing of years, they relied on the army for support, making it
the decisive force in emperor- creation.

Gallienus - Military emperor facing terrible territorial challenges. During his reign, Alamanni invaded on
the Rhine frontier and pushed as far as Italy, Franks moved into Gaul, and the new Sassanids pushed
westwards through Armenia into Roman lands. At the same time, Gallienus had to deal with several
breakaway provinces in the West under rival claimants to the Roman throne.

Claudius II Gothicus - Barracks-room emperor, he faced major Gothic incursions into the Balkans and
even Asia Minor in 269-70. He defeated them decisively, however, removing any Gothic threat to Rome
for the next one-hundred years.

Probus - A late military-camp emperor, Probus (r. 275-282) took on and defeated Alamanni and Franks
in Gaul, restoring the Rhine and Upper Danube frontier. Also defeated Vandals, and came to a treaty
with the Sassanids. Was assassinated when his army, whom he had been driving hard, heard of another
claimant.

Diocletian - Last of the military-camp emperors, this Balkan general ruled from 285-306. Reformed the
empire administratively, splitting it into East and West, militarily, fiscally, and in terms of court
procedure. Under his hand, a far more absolutist state emerged. He undertook the last Roman
persecution of Christians before Constantine took power and embraced Christianity.

Maximian - Diocletian's colleague, or co-emperor in the West. They both retired in 306.

Maxentius - One of Maximian's junior colleagues, or Caesars, he became an imperial claimant after
their retirement. Constantine defeated him at the Battle of Milvian Bridge.

Constantine the Great - Ruled 312-37. Continued Diocletian's reforms, founded Constantinople, and
began the Christianizing of the Empire. Tried to solve doctrinal disputes in the Empire. Truly the first
medieval ruler.
Licinius - Constantine's western co-emperor until Constantine defeated him in battle and temporarily
reunited the Empire.

Arius - A priest in Alexandria in the 320s, he believed that Christ was less divine than God, being his son
and corporeal. Not accepted as orthodox creed, his ideas became the Arian Heresy, a form of
Christianity to which the Goths were converted.

Ulfillias - The son of Cappadocian slaves captured by Goths, he became an Arian priest, and converted
Goths to Arian Christianity in the 350s, when Arianism was embraced as the official creed of the East.
Makes Goths heretical to westerners.

julian the Apostate - Roman Emperor, 361-65. Opposed to Christianity, he tried to cleanse Empire of it
in favor of a pantheistic, pagan creed. Ideas did not outlast him.

Valentin - In the 370s, Alamanni raided Gaul, but were stopped by the western Emperor Valentin. In
375, Valentin died while pushing the Sarmatians back over the Danube. He was succeeded by Gratian in
the West and Valens in the East

Gratian - Emperor in the West at time of the Battle of Adrianopole, where his Eastern colleague Valens
was killed while fighting Visigoths. He tried to bring reinforcements, but Valens did not await his arrival.

Valens - Emperor in the East from 364-378. Allowed Visigoths to cross the Danube and settle in Roman
territory. Roman authorities did not supply them well with food and let them starve; revolting, they met
Valens in battle near Adrianopole in 378. Not waiting for reinforcements led by Gratian, the Emperor of
the West, Valens attacked, and was routed when Ostrogothic cavalry intervened. Valens died at the
scene.

Fritigern - Elected Visigothic king in 370s because he agreed not to stay and fight the Huns.

Theodosius - Eastern Emperor who ruled from Valens' death in 378 to 395. He patriated the Visigoths
as foederati within Roman lands, attempting to guarantee them food supplies. He also made Christianity
the state religion.

Alaric - Visigothic King from 395. Led Visigoths on multiple forays into Gaul, then into Italy, where,
failing in negotiations with the Emperor and Senate, he sacked Rome slightly. Then, he took his people
south to try to obtain passage to North Africa across the Mediterranean. After ships were destroyed, he
died in 412.

Rhadagaesius - Vandal king, he led his tribe and others in plundering Gaul, 395-406.

Stilicho - Roman-Barbarian Master of Soldiers in West, 406-12. Fought holding actions against Vandals,
Burgundians, and Visigoths. Would not consent to Visigothic incorporation into Roman forces as
foederati. Was strangled by Honorius after Visigothic departure form Italy.

Honorius - Roman Emperor in West, 395-423. Would not negotiate with Visigoths, instead choosing to
barricade himself in Ravenna. Held the throne during first sack of Rome in 410.
Athaulf - Visigothic king, 412-16, succeeding Alaric. Took Visigoths out of Gaul after failed attempt to
cross to North Africa. Fought for Honorius against other claimants, but was unable to secure food for his
people. Died while negotiating for food and normalized status within the Empire.

Theodosius II - Eastern Emperor, 408-450. Sent army west after death of Honorius in 423, was able to
install the child Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Rome.

Valentinian III - Child-emperor established in West by Theodosius II in 425. Operated under the
influence of his mother as well as his Master of Soldiers, Aetius.

Aetius - Roman-Barbarian Master of Soldiers, 430s-451. Had lived as a Hunnic hostage, knew them
well, and was able to recruit them in armies to fight Germanics. Had to do reverse when Huns invaded
450s. After their defeat, he was murdered by the West Roman Emperor, Valentinian.

Theodoric the Visigoth - Visigothic King from 440 to 451. His forces were instrumental in Aetius' defeat
of Attila the Hun. Theodoric died in the battle.

Gaiseric - Vandal ruler able to transport his tribe to North Africa in 429. His forces took Carthage in 435,
began pirate raiding of Mediterranean cities, and were able to sack Rome in 455 by sailing up the Tiber.

Augustine - Bishop of Hyppo in North Africa, died witnessing Vandal siege of city. Emphasized a more
Christian, otherworldly approach to life. Wrote the famous philosophical text, City of God. His main idea
was that Christianity did not ensure Rome's fall, but rather, that there was something better out there.

Rouia (Rugilla) - King of recently unified Huns in 440s. He raided the Balkans extensively and was able
to extort increasing tribute from the Byzantine Empire.

Attila - Hun leader, 450-454. After extorting increasing tribute from Constantinople, he went West,
ravaging Roman lands, ambiguously invited by Honoria. He was defeated by a joint Roman-Germanic
army at Battle of Catalaunian Plains, 451.

Marcian - Eastern Roman Emperor in 450, he refused to pay the higher tribute that Attila was
demanding.

Honoria - Valentinian III's daughter, Honoria rejected her father's candidate for her husband, and in
450 wrote to Attila asking for his protection. He took this as a marriage proposal and came west, asking
for half of the Empire as a dowry.

Pope Leo I - The Christian Pope in 451, when Attila's forces penetrated into Italy. According to reports,
he and a party of Senators convinced the Huns to spare Rome a sacking.

Ricimer - Barbarian general acting for Rome, he defeated Vandals in a sea battle in 456. Set up
Marjorian as a puppet Emperor, but could not carry offensive to North Africa. Tiring of Marjorian and
wanting some arrangement with the Vandals, he disposed of the Roman and installed a distant relative
of the Vandal king as Emperor. Both Ricimer and his Emperor were dead by 472.

Marjorian - Western emperor set up in 460 by Ricimer. He could not carry the anti- Vandal offensive
further, as the Roman fleet was destroyed in storm. Ricimer soon replaced him with a different puppet.
Orestes - Barbarian Master of Soldiers in the West, he made his son Romulus Augustulus Emperor in
475. He was killed shortly thereafter.

Romulus Augustulus - Made emperor by his Barbarian father Orestes in 475, he lasted less than a year,
being deposed by Odovacar, another Barbarian general. Romulus became a bishop.

Odovacar - Barbarian warlord who in 476 deposed Romulus Augustulus, the final western Emperor.
Sending notification to Zeno that there was no need to appoint a further western Emperor, Odovacar
claimed that he would rule in the west in Zeno's name. Zeno seemed to acquiesce, then sent Theodoric
the Ostrogoth west in 488, both to eliminate Odovacar, and to get the Gothic menace out of Byzantine
lands.

Zeno - Eastern Roman Emperor from 474-91. Wanting both to remove the Ostrogoth threat from the
East and to unseat Odovacar, who had deposed Romulus Augustulus, Zeno sent Theodoric the
Ostrogoth into Western Rome with the mission of defeating Odovacar. Theodoric succeeded, and Zeno
thus had some responsibility in the founding of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.

Theodoric the Ostrogoth - In 488, he was sent west by Eastern Emperor Zeno to subdue Odovacar. He
succeeded by 493, and set up his own Ostrogothic Kingdom. Respectful of Roman custom, Gothic
Arianism prevented him from bridging the cultural chasm.

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312) - Battle between Maxentius and Constantine in Italy over control of the
empire. After experiencing Christian visions, Constantine went on to defeat his rival and become
emperor.

325 Council of Nicaea - Held in Western Asia Minor under Constantine's supervision, a Church council
called to sort out the Arian dispute regarding the relationship between Christ and God in terms of
degrees of divinity. Though the Orthodox creed was established proclaiming the co-equality of divinity,
many were not convinced, Arianism continued, and even became the East's official creed for a time.

Battle of Adrianopole - Battle between Eastern Roman forces led by Valens and Visigothic/Ostrogothic
forces in 378. At the battle, Valens refused to wait for reinforcement led by the Western Roman
Emperor Gratian, and attacked. The Romans were routed, Valens was killed, and the Eastern army was
decimated. The aftermath was large-scale settlement of Goths within Roman lands.

Battle of Catalaunian Plains - A 451 battle in central Gaul, in which Barbarian troops, with a small
Roman contingent, defeated the forces of Attila the Hun. Overall command was held jointly by Aetius
and Theodoric the Visigoth, who died here.

Battle of Regallus - (496 BCE) where Rome was victorious over the latins.

Pyrrhic wars - (280-275 BCE) another of Rome's victories where they fought against Pyrrhus of Epirus

Punic Wars - (264 – 146 BCE) which waged war against the Carthage was the first step in Rome growing
beyond the confines of the peninsula.
Arches and columns – were used for support and decoration to their structures

Domes – Architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling.

Sculptures – A piece of art or image made from the assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone,
or other materials.

Frescoes – A technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster.

Mosaics – The use of sculptural techniques by an architect and/or sculptor in the design of a building,
bridge, mausoleum or other such project.

Mortar - used to hold building materials such as brick or stone together. It is composed of a thick
mixture of water, sand, and cement.

Roadways – were the livelihood of ancient Rome

Roman alphabet – most widely used alphabet and writing system in the world today.

The Julian calendar – named after Gaius Julius “Caesar” which is almost identical to the modern western
calendar

Cena – main meal of the day in ancient Roman Culture

Enumeration items
5 styles of columns/pillars

1. Tuscan 3. Ionic 5. Composite

2. Doric 4. Corinthian

The three courses of cena

1. gustatio

2. primae mensaie

3. secundae mensae

Republic empire’s three basic elements

1. Non-hereditary Magistrates

2. Senate

3. Assemblies
 Metamorphoses – Ovid
A. Brief Biography of Ovid
 Full name: Publius Ovidius Naso
 Birth date: March 20, 43 BCE
 Birth place: Sulmo, Roman Empire [now Sulmona, Italy
 Death date: 17 CE
 Death place: Tomis, Moesia [now Constanṭa, Romania]
 Notable works: Ars amatoria and Metamorphoses
 Influence of his works: imaginative interpretations of classical myth and as an example of
supreme technical accomplishment
 His father had hopes of him entering politics and becoming a great orator. However, Ovid
neglected his studies to follow his passion for poetry.
 Married three times and divorced twice before the age of 30, he had one daughter.
 Ovid was exiled from Rome around 8 A.D. by Emperor Augustus. In his poem Epistulae
ex Ponto, he states the reason was "a poem and a mistake." Historians speculate that the
poem might have been Amores, and that Ovid was banished for making fun of
respectable love and revealing lurid portrayals of contemporary Roman society. Others
believe that Ovid was indirectly involved in a conspiracy against Augustus.
 During his exile in Tomis, he wrote the poems Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which
reflected his sadness and desire to return to Rome, though he never did.
 His works are known to have influenced Chaucer, Shakespeare, Goethe and Ezra Pound.
B. The Metamorphoses
 Latin: Metamorphōseōn librī: "Books of Transformations"
 A Latin narrative poem by the Roman poet Ovid, considered his magnum opus.
Comprising fifteen books and over 250 myths, the poem chronicles the history of the
world from its creation to the deification of Julius Caesar within a loose mythico-
historical framework.
 The poem defies simple genre classification by its use of varying themes and tones. Ovid
took inspiration from the genre of metamorphosis poetry, and some of the
 Metamorphoses derives from earlier treatment of the same myths; however, he diverged
significantly from all of his models.
 The Metamorphoses has inspired such authors as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio,
Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare.
 Today, the Metamorphoses continues to inspire and be retold through various media. The
work has been the subject of numerous translations into English, the first by William
Caxton in 1480.
C. Deucalion and Pyrrha
 The story of Deucalion and Pyrrha resembles a lot to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark.
This is the version of the ancient Greeks in their attempt to purify the old world from its
sins and give birth to a new race of human. The amazing thing is the similarities between
the two stories, as both of them use a disastrous flood as a means to make the humankind
extinct. The few people that are saved from the flood have managed to do so in a boat
and many days after the rain had stopped did they manage to step on land.
 The Purest People on Earth
o While the Titan Prometheus was bound and chained atop Mount Caucasus for
stealing fire from Zeus, the world below and its peoples were in bad moral
situation. Greed, anger, jealousy and hate would exist among people ever since
Pandora had opened that forbidden box, from where all evils went out. The Gods
were angry at the humans because, apart from their unacceptable behavior, they
would also forget to pray to their names and honour them with sacrifices. That is
why Zeus decided to destroy all humankind. Only two people would seem right:
Deucalion, who was the son of Prometheus, known for his rightful character and
good advice, and his wife, Pyrrha, a very fair lady. The Gods had perceived them
to be the most righteous amongst the men and women on Earth and had chosen
them to be the only survivors of that catastrophe that was about to befall on every
man and animal. One day, while visiting his father Prometheus, Deucalion was
told by his father that a great flood was about to devastate and wash away
everything on earth for people had forgotten the purpose of their creation.
Alarmed at this dire warning, Deucalion hastened back to Pyrrha and telling her
of the impending doom, they constructed a boat together and were making
themselves ready for the disaster.
 The Great Flood
o A strange uncomfortable silence descended upon the surroundings. There was not
a breath of wind to be felt. Without warning, the storm unleashed its fury upon the
poor people lashing them severely. Deucalion and Pyrrha got quickly into the boat
and soon the flood carried them away. The rain was raging for days and nights
and all fell to the wrath of the Gods, only Deucalion and Pyrrha aboard the boat
were kept safe. The fury of the storm stopped only when all around was only
water, not a tree or mountain could be seen. The boat was drifting for days while
the water slowly drained away and finally the day came when it rested on dry
land, atop Mount Parnassos, close to the area of Delphi. Dismay struck the hearts
of Deucalion and Pyrrha as their eyes fell upon the destruction and devastation
caused by the flood. Such was their grief that tears were rolling from their eyes
 with no stop. Then Hermes, the messenger of the gods, unable to bear their
sadness appeared before them and told them to wipe the tears from their eyes and
without looking back, "to throw the bones of their mother over their shoulders".
At first the two were puzzled at this cryptic message but Deucalion found the
solution: the "mother" was the Earth and the "bones" were the stones. Deucalion
and Pyrrha gathered all the stones together and while they were walking, they
threw the stones behind them without looking. As from a miracle, the stones hit
the earth and were turned into humans: those thrown by Deucalion became
handsome men and those thrown by Pyrrha became fair women. It was thus that
the two survivors of the great flood re-populated the earth and once again they
emerged a human race. Deucalion reigned over them as a wise king and Pyrrha
was their queen.
D. Pygmalion and Galatea
 The myth of Pygmalion and Galatea is also one of the most influential and inspiring
ancient Greek myths, and became the main theme for theatrical plays, movies and artistic
paintings.
 Pygmalion was a talented Greek sculptor from Cyprus. After becoming disgusted by
some local prostitutes, he lost all interest in women and avoided their company
completely. Pygmalion saw women as flawed creatures and vowed never to waste any
moment of his life with them. He dedicated himself to his work and soon created Galatea,
a beautiful stature of a woman out of ivory. Ironically, the masterpiece of his life was this
statue of a woman. Perhaps he sought to correct in marble the flaws he saw in women of
flesh and blood.
 Story of Pygmalion and Galatea
Pygmalion’s mind oscillated between doubt and joy. Fearing he may be
mistaken, again and again with a lover’s ardor he touches the object of his hopes.
It was indeed alive! The veins when pressed yielded to the finger and again
resumed their roundness.
Slowly it dawned on Pygmalion that the animation of his sculpture was the
result of his prayer to Goddess Aphrodite who knew his desire. At last, the votary
of Aphrodite found words to thank the goddess. Pygmalion humbled himself at
the Goddess’ feet.
Soon Pygmalion and Galatea were wed, and Pygmalion never forgot to
thank Aphrodite for the gift she had given him.
Aphrodite blessed the nuptials she had formed, and this union between
Pygmalion and Galatea produced a son named Paphos, from whom the city of
Paphos in Cyprus (this city was sacred to Aphrodite), received its name.
Pygmalion and Galatea brought gifts to her temple throughout their life
and Aphrodite blessed them with happiness and love in return.
The unusual love that blossomed between Pygmalion and Galatea
enthralls all. Falling in love with one’s creation and then getting the desired object
as wife- perhaps this was destined for Pygmalion.
 Even to this day, countless people and young lovers are mesmerized by
this exceptional love that existed between two persons at a time when civilization
was in its infancy.
E. Daedalus and Icarus
While in Crete Daedalus created the plan for the Minoan Palace of Knossos, one
of the most important archaeological sites in Crete and Greece today. It was a
magnificent architectural design and building, of 1,300 rooms, decorated with stunning
frescoes and artifacts, saved until today. The sculpture of Ariadne in Knossos and many
others in Elounda and Karia are also his.
King Minos and Daedalus had great understanding at first, but their relationships
started deteriorating at some point; there are several versions explaining this sudden
change, although the most common one is that Daedalus was the one who advised
Princess Ariadne to give Theseus the thread that helped him come out from the infamous
Labyrinth, after killing the Minotaur.
The Labyrinth was a maze built by Daedalus; King Minos wanted a building
suitable to imprison the mythical monster Minotaur, and according to the myth, he used
to imprison his enemies in the labyrinth, making sure that they would be killed by the
monster.
Minos was infuriated when found out about the betrayal and imprisoned Daedalus
and his son Icarus in the Labyrinth.
 The Flight of Daedalus and Icarus
Icarus was the young son of Daedalus and Nafsicrate, one of King Minos’
servants. Daedalus was way too smart and inventive, thus, he started thinking how he and
Icarus would escape the Labyrinth. Knowing that his architectural creation was too
complicated, he figured out that they could not come out on foot. He also knew that the
shores of Crete were perfectly guarded, thus, they would not be able to escape by sea
either. The only way left was the air.
Daedalus managed to create gigantic wings, using branches of osier and
connected them with wax. He taught Icarus how to fly, but told him to keep away from
the sun because the heat would make the wax melt, destroying the wings.
Daedalus and Icarus managed to escape the Labyrinth and flew to the sky, free. The flight
of Daedalus and Icarus was the first time that man managed to fight the laws of nature
and beat gravity.
 Icarus’ Death
Although he was warned, Icarus was too young and too enthusiastic about flying.
He got excited by the thrill of flying and carried away by the amazing feeling of freedom
and started flying high to salute the sun, diving low to the sea, and then up high again.
His father Daedalus was trying in vain to make young Icarus to understand that
his behavior was dangerous, and Icarus soon saw his wings melting.
Icarus fell into the sea and drowned. The Icarian Sea, where he fell, was named
after him and there is also a nearby small island called Icaria.
F. Thematic Analysis of the Selected Stories
 Deucalion and Pyrrha
 o Justice and Judgement - Humanity gets a pretty harsh judgment from Zeus in
this myth. The king of the gods decides that human beings are a species beyond
redemption, so he sentences everybody to death. Humanity's main offenses are
constant warring and brutish behavior, but the straw that breaks the camel's back
is when Lycaon stoops to human sacrifice. Some say that part of the purpose of
this myth is to show people just how evil such brutal and primitive practices are,
and to warn people of the dire consequences of such bad behavior.
o Man and Natural World - It's kind of hard to miss this theme in a story where
almost all of humanity is totally wiped out by a giant flood. Zeus enlists the
natural world against the human beings who he thinks are past redemption.
Interestingly, though, humankind is also regenerated from an element of the
natural world. When Deucalion and Pyrrha ask Themis how they can regenerate
humankind, they're told to throw the bones of their mother over their shoulders.
When they interpret this to mean the bones of Mother Earth, they toss rocks over
their shoulders and new humans spring from them. We think it's interesting that in
the same story humanity is nearly destroyed by one natural force (water), yet in
the end they are created by another (earth).
 Pygmalion and Galatea
o Man’s Power over Woman - Pygmalion doesn't like the real women in his town,
so what does he do? He chooses to custom-make one according to his own
preferences. Naturally. Predictably, he sculpts a woman who is young, and
smooth. She is also completely silent, so he can project all his fantasies onto her.
Without a voice (or a consciousness, for that matter), the statue is whoever
Pygmalion wants her to be. The message here is that the best women are silent,
obedient, and physically perfect.
o Art Imitating Life - Artists love to mix their real life and their art. And
sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between what's real and what's not. In
the Pygmalion myth, the boundary between art and life gets very blurry.
Pygmalion makes a statue so life-like-that he starts treating it like an actual
person. When the statue finally does come to life, the division between art and life
completely falls away—now she's actually a real person.
o Physical Beauty - For the amount of emphasis this myth places on physical
beauty. This myth just takes pleasure in describing a woman's body parts.
Basically, that women should be valued for their appearance above everything
else, which isn't true. But physical appearance was one of the main things that
ancient society valued about ladies, so Ovid had no shame in waxing eloquent
about the statue's physical attributes. His descriptions send the message that in
order to be beautiful, you must be young, skinny, and have smooth, ivory skin—
even though we know that beauty can come in all shapes, sizes, and colors.
o Obsession and Self-Denial - By denying ourselves something, we often become
obsessed with it. Pygmalion slavishly devotes himself to a female statue,
worshipping her, bringing her expensive gifts, and fantasizing in some pretty
intense ways. In Greek mythology, things don't typically turn out well for people
who deny relationships and repress their sexual selves. The myth of Echo and
 Narcissus comes to mind. After Narcissus refuses his suitors, he becomes
obsessed with his reflection in the river, and he stares at it until he dies. But
because Pygmalion pays tribute to Aphrodite, she doesn't punish him for refusing
real-life relationships. Instead, she brings his statue to life Pygmalion and his
now-living statue get married and live happily ever after.
 Daedalus and Icarus
o Pride and Punishment - Back in the day, the gods did not like it when humans
tried to act like them by overcoming their mortal limits. In ancient Greek culture,
acting like a god was called "hubris", and it was often severely punished. Flying
through the air definitely constituted hubris, since flight was supposed to be a
strictly gods-only activity. Watching from the ground, shepherds and plowmen
even mistake Daedalus and Icarus for gods, since mortals had never before
achieved flight. Of course, Daedalus and Icarus pay a price for overstepping their
humanly bounds. Icarus dies and Daedalus loses a child—lose-lose. It's an
important lesson in humility, and the wisdom of living within your limits. The
myth seems to be saying that instead of wanting something extraordinary (such as
flying, or in Icarus' case, flying really high), we should learn to be happy with
what we already have. Daedalus takes this lesson in humility to heart. It's not an
accident that when he lands in Sicily, he builds a temple to Apollo, the god of the
sun. After watching his son be destroyed by the sun, Daedalus has accepted that
he's just not as powerful as the gods or nature. By building the temple, he's
essentially saying, "Sorry, Apollo. I totally respect you now. And just to prove it,
I built you this house of worship."
o Technology - Daedalus loves to invent things. What he doesn't love is thinking
about the consequences of his inventions. For example, when Pasiphae (King
Minos's wife), asks Daedalus to build her a cow suit so that she can seduce a bull,
Daedalus does it without pausing to consider the possible outcomes. Pasiphae's
union with the bull results in the Minotaur, a horrible half-man, half-bull who
feasts off human flesh. How's that for unforeseen consequences. True, when
Daedalus invents the wings made of wax, he briefly considers what might happen
if Icarus should fly too close to the sea (damp wings) or the sun (melty wings).
But these thoughts sure don't stop him from creating or using his feathered
inventions. Ultimately, when Icarus falls from the heavens, Daedalus has no one
to blame but himself, since he was the guy who created the devices that allowed
the boy to fly so high in the first place. Through this myth, we get a glimpse into
the dark side of technology—a topic that's still very relevant today. From genetic
modification to nuclear weapons, powerful technologies have powerful and
potentially dangerous consequences. Humankind's curiosity and thirst for
invention can lead to awful, scary things.
o Obeying Elders - Is it just us, or does wax wings + hundred mile journey + hot
sun seem like a recipe for disaster? Still, maybe this myth would've had a happy
ending if Icarus had just listened to his dad. Because really, how hard is it to just
fly at a middle height? Birds do it all the time! But does Icarus listen? Nope. Once
he realizes how fun and easy flying is, he forgets his father's advice and ascends
 to new stratospheric heights. For a few fleeting moments, Icarus has the time of
this life… but then his wings melt and he falls to his watery death. The message
about obeying your parents (and using some self-control) is pretty clear here.
G. References
Kenny, E. J. (2015) Ovid. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ovid-Roman-poet
Unknown. (2014) Ovid Biography.com. The Biography.com website. Retrieved from
http://www.biography.com/people/ovid-9430940
Unknown. (2017) Metamorphoses. Wikipedia. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses
Unknown. (unknown). Deucalion and Pyrrha. Greeka.com . Retrieved from
http://www.greeka.com/sterea/delphi/delphi-myths/deucalion-pyrrha.htm
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008). Pygmalion Summary. Shmoop. Retrieved from
http://www.shmoop.com/pygmalion-myth/summary.html
Unknown. (unknown). Pygmalion and Galatea. Retrieved from http://pygmalion-and
galatea.weebly.com/
Unknown. (2015). The Myth of Daedalus and Icarus. Greek Myths and Greek Mythology.
Retrieved from https://www.greekmyths-greekmythology.com/myth-of-daedalus-and-
icarus/
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008). Themes in The Great Deluge. Shmoop .Retrieved from
http://www.shmoop.com/the-great-deluge/themes.html
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008). Themes in Pygmalion. Shmoop Retrieved from
http://www.shmoop.com/pygmalion-myth/themes.html
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008, November 11). Themes in Daedalus and Icarus. Shmoop .
Retrieved from http://www.shmoop.com/daedalus-icarus/themes.html
 HUM11 – AT1

GROUP 7
TORIAGA, Jamie
VENTURA, Zyra
VIVO, Mikhaela Andrea
ZUNIGA, Grant Mayrielle
 AN OVERVIEW OF THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
A. CHRISTIANITY
- - Church and State
 Catholic - The term Catholic comes from the English term catholik, the old French
term catholique and the Latin term catholicus, all of which mean universal.
 The Great Schism – a great split of Christianity between Eastern and Western
Church, which resulted from divided opinion about crusades.
 Pope Gregory VII – presses to end simony (or the sale of church offices), enforce
clerical celibacy, and establish papal supremacy.
 Pope Urban II of Italy –calls for a crusade to aid Eastern Christians threatened by
Muslims. He asked Christians across Europe to wage a war against aggressive Turks.
 Council of Clermont – the place where, in November 27, 1095, Pope Urban II of
Italy encouraged the Christians to conduct a holy war against their foes.
 C.1150 – year when University of Paris and Bologna were founded. They took the
lead in scholastic theology and canon law.
 Innocent III – greatest lawyer pope
 2 division of the Church
o Western Catholics
o Eastern Orthodoxy
 Pope Urban IV of Italy – was elected as the new pope and then established the Papal
Rome Court.
 Council of Constance – mended the division between the Western branch.
 Christian Catholicism – Roman Catholic Religion
 Pentarchy - a model of Church organization historically championed in the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
 5 dioceses who held special eminence or the Early centers of Christinianity
 Rome
 Constantinople
 Jerusalem
 Antioch
 Alexandria
 Ulfilas – one of the earliest missionaries to spread the Christian gospel.
o He spent 30 years ministering the Visigoth Tribes of the Middle Ages and
helped translate the bible into Gothic.
 Holy Land – most popular destination for pilgrimage
 Pope Leo III – lead the coronation of Charlemagne as “Emperor of the Romans” in
Rome on Christmas Day, 800.
 Emperor Justinian I – attempted to reassert imperial dominion in Italy from the
East, against the Gothic aristocracy.
 Exarchate – an imperial that was established for Italy, but imperial influence was
limited.
 Pelgianism - the belief that original sin did not taint human nature and that mortal
will is still capable of choosing good or evil without special divine aid.
- his theological theory is named after the British monk Pelagius (354–420 or 440),
although he denied, at least at some point in his life, many of the doctrines associated
with his name.
 Saint Jerome – the person who identified Pelagius as an Irishman.
 Pope Saint Gregory I - commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was pope of
the Catholic Church from 3 September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is famous
for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome to convert a pagan
people to Christianity
 Celtic Christianity – also known as Insular Christianity, refers broadly to certain
features of Christianity that were common, or held to be common, across the Celtic-
speaking world during the Early Middle Ages.
 Peter the Hermit – led the “people’s pilgrimage’ to disaster
 Anselm of Canterbury - a Benedictine monk, abbot, philosopher and theologian of
the Catholic Church, who held the office of archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to
1109. After his death, he was canonized as a saint; his feast day is 21 April. wrote
Why did Godbecame men?
 Peter Abelard - a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and
preeminent logician.
 Bogomilism - a Christian neo-Gnostic or dualist religiopolitical sect founded in the
First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the
10th century.
 Catharism - a Christian dualist or Gnostic revival movement that thrived in some
areas of Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and southern France, between
the 12th and 14th centuries.
 Crusades - a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval
period, especially the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean aimed at recovering
the Holy Land from Islamic rule.
 Waldensians - a Christian movement founded by Peter Waldo circa 1173.
 Inquisition - a group of institutions within the government system of the Catholic
Church whose aim was to combat heresy.
 Saint Dominic - also known as Dominic of Osma and Dominic of Caleruega, often
called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo Félix de Guzmán (August 8, 1170 – August
6, 1221), was a Castilian priest and founder of the Dominican Order. Dominic is the
patron saint of astronomers.
  Saint Francis of Assisi - born Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, informally named
as Francesco (1181/1182 – 3 October 1226), was an Italian Roman Catholic friar,
deacon and preacher.
 Saint Bonaventure - born Giovanni di Fidanza, was an Italian medieval Franciscan,
scholastic theologian and philosopher. The seventh Minister General of the Order of
Friars Minor, he was also Cardinal Bishop of Albano.
 Saint Thomas Aquinas - was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor
of the Church.
 John Wycliffe - an English scholastic philosopher, theologian, Biblical translator,
reformer, and seminary professor at Oxford. He was an influential dissident within
the Roman Catholic priesthood during the 14th century.
 Avignon Papacy - the period from 1309 to 1377 during which seven successive
popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman
Empire, now in France) rather than in Rome.
 Papal Schism – also known as Western Schism, was a split within the Catholic
Church which lasted from 1378 to 1417. Three men simultaneously claimed to be the
true pope. Driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism
was ended by the Council of Constance (1414–1418).
 Jan Hus - was a Czech priest, philosopher, Master at Charles University in Prague,
church reformer, founder of Hussitism, a seminal figure in the Bohemian
Reformation and a key predecessor to Protestantism.

B. FEUDALISM
What is Feudalism?
 Feudalism was based on the exchange of land for military service.
 King William the Conqueror used the concept of feudalism to reward his Norman
supporters for their help in the conquest of England.
 Fief a portion of land called a would be granted by the King. This reward would be granted
to him by his lord in exchange for his services.
 Vassals – the recipient of the fief would be one of his.
 Commendation Ceremony – followed by the granting of the fief or land and was designed
to create a lasting bond between a vassal and his lord.
 Fealty and homage were a key element of feudalism.
The Feudalism Pyramid in England - How it worked
Feudalism in England can be easily described through a pyramid:
 King - the top of the Feudalism Pyramid was, claimed ownership of the land.
 Nobles – the king grant the land to these nobles then pledged their loyalty by
swearing to serve and protect the king
  Barons leased land from the King that was known as a manor. They were known
as the Lord of the Manor and were in complete control of this land.
 Knights - The king also granted land to the less powerful military men who were
called vassals they would also agreed to fight for the king in exchange for their land
 Peasants or serfs - The land was worked by the peasants or serfs. They belonged
to the land and could not leave without permission - the bottom of the Feudalism
pyramid.

 The Feudalism Pyramid - The Social Pyramid of Power

The good thing about the Feudalism Pyramid of Power was that is was possible for
everyone to move higher up the ranks of the pyramid and this is what everyone aspired to
do.
 Medieval Squires and Pages of the Middle Ages wanted to become knights.
 A Knight who proved valiant in battle or was successful at jousting in tournaments could
become wealthy. His wealth could pay for a castle. His importance in the land would
increase and he could then join the nobility.

The Decline of Feudalism

 Reasons for the Decline of Feudalism
The reasons for the decline of Feudalism during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages
included:
 The Crusades and travel during the Middle Ages opened new trade options to
England
 England started to move from land based economy to a money based economy
 The Black Death - this reduced the population of England by one third. Labour
became a valuable commodity
 The Peasants Revolt - Peasants realised their worth and demanded changes.
Charters were granted but ignored by nobles
 More trade saw the growth of more towns
 Peasants moved away from the country into towns they were eventually allowed to
buy their freedom
 Land was rented and the rights of lords over labour decreased
 The Feudal Levy was unpopular and as time went by Nobles preferred to pay the
King rather than to fight and raise troops
 Armed men were paid a wage and Medieval warfare was financed by taxes and
loans
 Nobles became weaker - the Kings took back their lands and power
 A centralised government was established
 Decline of Feudalism - the end of Feudalism in England
Under feudalism the King was answerable to the Pope.
 At the end of the Middle Ages King Henry VIII clashed with the Pope and England
subsequently broke with the Catholic church of Rome and the power of the Pope. This led
to the establishment of the Church of England and the Dissolution of the Monasteries. It
was the final 'nail in the coffin' of the Medieval Feudal System, feudalism, in England.

C. LITERATURE
I. Medieval Literature - The Dark Ages and the Bards
English Medieval literature
 no existence until Christian times of the Dark Ages when Latin was the language
of English literature
 was not written
 passed by word of mouth from one generation to another by English, Welsh and
Irish bards

II. Medieval Literature - The Romantic Arthurian Legend

Tales told by the Bards were transferred into book form and the romantic stories of the
Arthurian legend and the ideals of courtly love became part of Medieval literature. The main
source of information about King Arthur and the Arthurian Legend was written by a Welsh
cleric and author called Geoffrey of Monmouth who wrote a fictional book called Historia
Regum Britanniae - the History of the King's of Britain in 1136.

III. Medieval Literature - The Language

The French language came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the
whole of the 12th century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary language
of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of
King Henry IV that English became the native tongue of the kings of England.

IV. English Medieval Literature - The Epic poems - Narrative Literature

The French epic poem came over to England at an early date. Troubadours, Trouveres
and Minstrels were the poets and musicians who influenced Medieval Literature. The
troubadours and minstrels sang songs of courtly love and romance and were expected to learn
and recite epic poems by heart. The aristocratic troubadours were poets who originated in
the south of France and the elite troubadours of the north of France wrote in French and were
called called trouveres. Medieval poetry of the troubadours was invariably linked with
music.
V. Medieval Literature - The Poets and Authors
• Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400) Famous Medieval author of the Canterbury Tales
The Canterbury Tales- a collection of stories in a frame story, between 1387 and 1400.
It is the story of a group of thirty people who travel as pilgrims to Canterbury (England).

• Margery Kempe (1373 - c1438) Famous as the author of the first autobiography in English
The Book of Margery Kempe- For over half a millennium, this book was lost; the
manuscript was only rediscovered in 1934. It’s a fascinating account of a woman’s life in
medieval England. It’s even been called the first autobiography written in the language –
though its status as true autobiography has been questioned

• Francesco Petrarch (1304 - 1374) was famous as an Italian poet, and humanist and for
his poems, perfected sonnet and ‘Canzoniere’, which were addressed to Laura

• Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321) famous as a Medieval Poet and Politician.

The Divine Comedy- is a trilogy of poems charting the poet’s journey from hell
(Inferno) through Purgatory (Purgatorio) to heaven (Paradiso), guided by his fellow poet,
Virgil. It’s even been called the ‘fifth Gospel’, so clearly and effectively does Dante detail
the medieval view of Christianity.

• Christine de Pizan (1364 -1430) famous as a Medieval author and feminist

The Book of the City Ladies – discussed women’s heroism and virtue
The Book of Three Virtues – talks about the classification of women’s roles in the
medieval period

• William Langland (c1332 - c1386) who was famous as an English Poet who wrote the
Vision of Piers Plowman.
Piers Plowman- an allegorical work with a complex variety of religious themes. One
of the major achievements of Piers Plowman is that it translates the language and conceptions
of the cloister into symbols and images that could be understood by the layman.

• Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 - 1375) an Italian writer famous for writing the Decameron.
The Decameron- The Decameron (c.1351) is an entertaining series of one hundred
stories written in the wake of the Black Death. The stories are told in a country villa outside
the city of Florence by ten young noble men and women who are seeking to escape the
ravages of the plague.
 • Caedmon (657–680) was the first English poet of whom we have any knowledge and
credited with the authorship of "The Dream of the Holy Rood"
The Dream of the Rood is one of the earliest Christian poems in the corpus of Old
English literature and an example of the genre of dream poetry. It is written in alliterative
verse. Rood is from the Old English word rod 'pole', or more specifically 'crucifix'.

• Venerable Bede (673-735) who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of England and the
scientific treatise, De Natura Rerum

• Raphael Holinshed (c1529 - 1580) Famous as the Medieval Author of Holinshed's

Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland

VI. Medieval Literature - The Clerics - - Famous Theologians and Religious Authors
The writers of the late Dark Ages and early Medieval period were the clerics and
theologians so much of the early Medieval literature was of a religious nature.

Many of the Theologians and Religious Authors who contributed Medieval literature are as
follows:
• John Wycliffe ( 1324 - 1384) who was famous as a Medieval religious reformer and the
first person to translate the Bible into English

• William of Ockham (1288 – 1348) was famous as a philosopher and the author of many
books

• Martin Luther (1483 - 1546) wrote a scholastic objection protesting against the church
practice of indulgencies known as the 95 Theses

• Thomas Aquinas (c1227-1274) Though Aquinas died at an early age, he left behind him
no less than eighteen folio volumes. His Summa Theologiae ("Compendium of Theology"),
as the name indicates, gathered up all that the Middle Ages believed of the relations between
God and man.

• Peter Abelard (1079 - 1142) - The story of his life and love of Heloise was chronicled in
Abelard's autobiographical writing and the lovers letters

VII. Troubadours
Troubadour is the generic term for poets and minstrels who flourished in southern
France and in Northern Italy from the 11th through the 13th centuries.
VIII. Early Works
The most popular medieval works were the fabliaux, or fables. These humorous short
stories, penned by authors from varying classes, enjoyed an immense audience. Recurring
characters were visible in everyday life-merchants, students, lecherous husbands, and lusty,
unfaithful wives.

IX. Medieval Masterpieces

• La Chanson de Roland (the Song of Roland) remains one of the most studied medieval
epic poems. This is the story of Roland, nephew to Charlemagne, King of France.

• La Divina Commedia (the Divine Comedy) in 1321 by Dante Alighieri- One of the
Group 8 works in all of literature was penned in Italy during the Middle Ages.
greatest

INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF DANTE

A. Background of Durante (Dante) Alighieri (1265-1321)
 The author of La Commedia (The Divine Comedy)
 A late Medieval or early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence,
Italy, whose most famous work is the Divine Comedy.
 Has been called "The Father of the Italian language" and one of the greatest poets
of world literature
 Was betrothed to Gemma di Manetto Donati at 12 years old. However, Dante was
in love with another girl named Beatrice Portinari.
 During his teens, Dante demonstrated a keen interest in literature and undertook an
apprenticeship with Brunetto Latini, a celebrated poet and prose writer of vernacular
Italian, who expanded Dante's knowledge of literature and rhetoric.
 Associating with a circle of respected Florentine poets, Dante befriended Guido
Cavalcanti, who helped Dante refine his literary skills.
 In 1287 Dante enrolled in the University of Bologna, but by 1289 he enlisted in the
Florentine army and took part in the Battle of Campaldino.
 Dante also became increasingly active in perilous Florentine politics, aligning himself
with the White Guelfs. The Black Guelfs, supported by papal forces, staged a coup in
1301 and established themselves as absolute rulers. Prominent White Guelfss,
including Dante, were stripped of their possessions and banished from the city. Dante
never returned, spending his remaining years in exile in Verona and later in
Ravenna, where he died in 1321.

B. Other Works of Dante Alighieri

 Vita Nuova (The New Life)
 Written in commemoration of Beatrice's death, Vita Nuova reflects Dante's first effort
to depict her as an abstract model of love and beauty
 In this collection of early canzoni, Dante uses a refreshing and innovative approach,
or dulce stil nuovo (sweet new style), in love poetry that equates the love experience
with a divine and mystical spiritual revelation.

Convivo (The Banquet)

 Is another collection of canzoni, accompanied by extensive prose commentary, which
further develops the poet's use of the stil nuovo

De Vulgari Eloquentia (Eloquence in the Vernacular Tongue)

 An unfinished Latin tract, De Vulgari Eloquentia is a theoretical discussion of the
origin of Italian dialects and literary language and examines how they relate to the
composition of vernacular poetry.

De Monorchia (On Monarchy)

 A Latin treatise, presents the poet's Christian political philosophy.

C. Divine Comedy
 The Divine Comedy was written when Dante was exiled from his beloved city of
Florence (to which he never returned).
 Exile and redemption are themes which run throughout this work. In addition, many
of Dante’s political friends and enemies appear in the different sections of the
afterlife.
 The character of Beatrice in the poem is believed to be the real woman, Beatrice
Portinari.
 The term comedy refers to the fact that this work has a happy ending and is written in
the vernacular, unlike tragedy.
 The Divine Comedy is an allegory of human life presented as a visionary trip through
the Christian afterlife, written as a warning to a corrupt society to steer itself to the
path of righteousness: "to remove those living in this life from the state of misery, and
lead them to the state of felicity."
 The poem is written in the first person (from the poet’s perspective) and follows
Dante's journey through the three Christian realms of the dead: hell, purgatory, and
finally heaven.
 The Roman poet Virgil guides Dante through hell (Inferno) and purgatory
(Purgatorio), while Beatrice guides him through heaven (Paradiso). The journey
lasts from the night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of
1300 (placing it before Dante’s factual exile from Florence, which looms throughout
the Inferno and serves as an undercurrent to the poet’s journey).
 The poem is composed of 100 cantos, written in the measure known as terza
rima (thus the divine number 3 appears in each part of the poem), which Dante
modified from its popular form so that it might be regarded as his own invention. The
tripartite stanza likely symbolizes the Holy Trinity, and early enthusiasts of terza
rima, including Italian poets Boccaccio and Petrarch, were particularly interested in
the unifying effects of the form.
 The work is divided into 3 books, each book is divided into chapters, or Cantos. The
books are: 1. Inferno (Hell) containing 33 cantos plus one introductory Canto. 2.
Purgatorio (Purgatory) containing 33 Cantos. 3. Paradiso (Paradise) containing 33
Cantos.
 Also unlike the epic works that came before, The Divine Comedy was written in the
vernacular Italian, instead of the more acceptable Latin or Greek. This allowed the
work to be published to a much broader audience, contributing substantially to world
literacy.

INFERNO (“HELL”)
 the first part of Dante’s Divine Comedy
 inspired the latest Dan Brown’s bestseller of the same title which describes the
poet’s vision of Hell
 The story begins with the narrator (who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark
wood where he is attacked by three beasts which he cannot escape. He is rescued
by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by Beatrice (Dante’s ideal woman).
Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the 9 Circles of Hell.

Nine Circles of Hell

1. First Circle (Limbo)
 Dante’s First Circle of Hell is resided by virtuous non-Christians and unbaptized
pagans who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of Heaven.
 They live in a castle with seven gates which symbolize the seven virtues
(prudence, chastity, temperance, charity, patience, kindness, and humility)
 Here, Dante sees many prominent people from classical antiquity such as Homer,
Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Hippocrates, and Julius Caesar.

2. Second Circle (Lust)

 In the Second Circle of Hell, Dante and his companion Virgil find people who
were overcome by lust.
  They are punished by being blown violently back and forth by strong winds,
preventing them to find peace and rest.
 Strong winds symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for
fleshly pleasures.
 Here, Dante sees many notable people from history and mythology including
Cleopatra, Tristan, Helen of Troy and others who were adulterous during their
lifetime.

3. Third Circle (Gluttony)

 When reaching the Third Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil find souls of gluttons
who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus.
 Sinners in this circle of Hell are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that
is produced by never ending icy rain.
 The vile slush symbolizes personal degradation of one who overindulges in food,
drink and other worldly pleasures, while inability to see others lying nearby
represents the gluttons’ selfishness and coldness.
 Here, Dante speaks to a character called Ciacco who also tells him that the
Guelphs (a fraction supporting the Pope ) will defeat and expel the Ghibellines (a
fraction supporting the Emperor to which Dante adhered) from Florence which
happened in 1302, before the poem was written (after 1308).

4. Fourth Circle (Greed)

 In the Fourth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are
punished for greed.
 They are divided into two groups jousting:
 Those who hoarded their possessions
 Those who lavishly spent it
 They use great weights as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which
symbolizes their selfish drive for fortune during lifetime.
 The two groups that are guarded by a character called Pluto (probably the ancient
Greek ruler of the underworld) are so occupied with their activity that the two
poets don’t try to speak to them.

5. Fifth Circle (Anger)

 The Fifth Circle of Hell is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their
sins.
 Transported on a boat by Phylegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful fighting
each other on the surface of the river Styx and the sullen gurgling beneath the
surface of the water.
 The punishment reflects the type of the sin committed during lifetime.
  While passing through, the poets are approached by Filippo Argenti, a prominent
Florentine politician who confiscated Dante’s property after his expulsion from
Florence.

6. Sixth Circle (Heresy)

 When reaching the Sixth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see heretics who are
condemned to eternity in flaming tombs.
 Here, Dante talks with a couple of Florentines (Farinata degli Uberti and
Cavalcant de’ Cavalcanti).
 Dante also sees other notable historical figures including the ancient Greek
philosopher Epicurus, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, and Pope Anastasius
II. The latter, however, is according to some modern scholars condemned by
Dante as heretic by a mistake. Instead, as some scholars argue, the poet meant the
Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I.

7. Seventh Circle (Violence)

 The Seventh Circle of Hell is divided into three rings:
 Outer Ring: It houses murderers and others who were violent to other people
and property. Here, Dante sees Alexander the Great (disputed), Dionysius I of
Syracuse, Guy de Montfort and many other notable historical and
mythological figures such as the Centaurus, sank into a river of boiling blood
and fire.
 Middle Ring: In here, the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees
and bushes which are fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates,
chased and torn to pieces by dogs.
 Inner Ring: It houses blasphemers and sodomites, residing in a desert of
burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.

8. Eight Circle (Fraud)

 The Eight Circle of Hell is resided by the fraudulent.
 Dante and Virgil reach it on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different
natures, just like the fraudulent.
 This circle of Hell is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with bridges
between them.
 In Bolgia 1, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In Bolgia 2 he finds flatterers.
After crossing the bridge to Bolgia 3, he and Virgil see those who are guilty of
simony. After crossing another bridge between the ditches to Bolgia 4, they find
sorcerers and false prophets. In Bolgia 5 are housed corrupt politicians, in Bolgia
6 are hypocrites and in the remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds hypocrites and
thieves (Bolgia 7), evil counselors and advisers (Bolgia 8), divisive individuals
 (Bolgia 9) and various falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers and counterfeits
(Bolgia 10).

9. Ninth Circle (Treachery)

 The last Ninth Circle of Hell is divided into 4 Rounds according to the seriousness
of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy lake. Those who committed
more severe sin are deeper within the ice.
 Each of the 4 Rounds is named after an individual who personifies the sin which
are:
 Round 1: Caina - named after Cain who killed his brother Abel
 Round 2: Antenora - named after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam’s
counselor during the Trojan War
 Round 3: Ptolomaea - named after Ptolemy (son of Abubus)
 Round 4: Judecca - named after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed
Jesus with a kiss

PURGATORIO (“PURGATORY”)
 an epic poem written by the great Italian poet, Dante
 the second section of the Divine Comedy
 It follows after Inferno and tells the story of his climb up Mount Purgatory
accompanied by another Italian poet by the name of Virgil, who serves as his
guide. The climb is supposed to teach him lessons about Christian life and God's
love and purify him of his sins before continuing on his journey to God.

Nine Levels of Purgatory

1. First Stage (Stubbornness)
 This stage is at the very base of the mountain and is part of what is known as
Ante-Purgatory.
 In this stage, the two poets encounter the souls of those who delayed their
Christian life because of their stubbornness to obey God’s laws. They are to
remain in here for a time period that is thirty times longer than the period which
they exhibited stubbornness.
 In here, they run into Manfred of Sicily who tells them that a soul’s time in
Purgatory can be reduced with prayers from Christians who are in good standing
with God in the world of the living.

2. Second Stage (Repentant)

  This is the last part of Ante-Purgatory.
 In his terrace, they encounter deceased kings who were negligible during their
rule, people who never repented while alive, and people who suffered violent
deaths but managed to repent at the last minute.
 That following evening, Dante falls asleep and wakes up at the gates of Purgatory
Proper, after having a dream that an eagle carried him during the night. The gates
are guarded by an angel, and he carves Dante’s forehead with the letter “P” seven
times.
 The angel informs Dante that he is about to go through the seven terraces of
Purgatory (each representing a sin among the seven deadly ones) and one of the
P’s will be erased as he progresses through each terrace as he climbs Mount
Purgatory. He then opens the gates.

3. Third Stage (Pride)

 This terrace that the poets enter first is full of those that were prideful during their
earthly lives.
 The walls of the terrace have sculptures with examples of humility, which is the
opposite of pride. The prideful never get a chance to see these sculptures, since
their backs are arched due to the huge weights they must carry using their backs
as their sins get purged.
 Dante bends over to converse with the souls and learns lessons from them. When
Dante reaches the exit of the terrace, an angel removes the first “P” from his
forehead, and the poets move on to the 2nd terrace.

4. Fourth Stage (Envy)

 This terrace is filled with the souls of envious penitents. Their earthly lives were
spent desiring what made other people happy to the point they would even harm
them in order to deprive them of this.
 Soon as they enter the terrace, they hear voices that speak examples of generosity,
which is the opposite of envy, and later on, they also hear the voices speak
examples of envy.
 The penitents wear gray cloaks and cannot see where they are going because their
eyes have been closed and sewn with iron wire. As they leave the terrace, the
second “P” is removed.

5. Fifth Stage (Wrath)

 In the third terrace, which is filled with souls of wrathful penitents. Dante begins
to have visions of gentleness, which is an example of the opposite virtue of wrath.
 The wrathful forever wonder in a cloud of black smoke, which is a manifestation
of the anger that clouded their mind and blinded them when they were alive.
  The souls in this part of the poem do not shout out any examples, but Dante does
have a conversation with Marco Lombardo about free will. Dante also has visions
about punished wrath. When they meet an angel, another “P” is removed and
Dante and Virgil exit the terrace.

6. Sixth Stage (Sloth)

 The next terrace contains the souls of those who were slothful in their earthly
lives. Virgil explains Purgatory’s structure to Dante and how it is determined by
love.
 The wrathful are forever preoccupied with running around the terrace without
rest, since they never had zeal (the opposite of sloth) in their earthly lives,
especially when it came to acting out of love.
 All example given in this terrace from the voices is the air are of zeal. Later that
evening, when Dante falls asleep, he is haunted by nightmares of a siren, a
manifestation of gluttony, lust, and greed. On the next day, the fourth “P” is
removed and the poets leave the terrace.

7. Seventh Stage (Avarise)

 Dante and Vergil enter the terrace of the Avaricious and Prodigal. Their
punishment is to lie on the floor, face down, with their hands and feet bound
together.
 The souls are being punished and purged for desiring material goods with
extravagance, greed, or ambition.
 As the poets travel through the terrace, it is shaken by a mysterious tremor, but
Dante does not ask Virgil about it, even though he is curious.
 They run into the Roman, Statius, and he explains the mysterious tremor to Dante:
it happens when a soul is ready to move on from purgatory, and he, Statius, was
the soul that caused the tremor.
 He joins them on their journey. It also turns out that Statius is an admirer of
Virgil’s work. The next angel they run into removes the fifth “P” from Dante’s
forehead.

8. Eight Stage (Gluttony)

 The next terrace contains the souls of the gluttonous, and the poets witness their
painful punishment: they experience excruciating hunger and thirst while there are
plenty of trees with fruit around them.
 The souls experience this because they can never reach the trees. The voices in
the trees give examples of temperance, which is the opposite of gluttony.
 Dante runs into his friend Forese Donati and his predecessor Bonagiunta
Orbicciani (who turns out to be poetic and has nothing but kind words for one of
 Dante’s poems, “La Vita Nuova”). As the three poets exit the sixth terrace, an
Angel removes the sixth “P”.

9. Ninth Stage (Lust)

 As they continue to climb Mount Purgatory, Dante contemplates how the
penitents in the terrace of the Gluttonous can be so thin but yet be souls.
 Statius takes this opportunity, and Virgil gives him the go-ahead, to explain how
the body and soul are related. In the terrace of the lustful, the penitent souls must
run through a great wall of flames.
 As they run through it, they call out examples of chastity, which is the opposite of
lust. Everyone must run through the wall before they leave, including Dante.
Dante is hesitant because he is afraid. Virgil tells him that Beatrice, the love of his
life, is waiting for him in the Earthly Paradise.
 This is enough to convince Dante, who goes through the flames. They all fall
asleep shortly after that and in the morning, they all proceed to the Earthly
Paradise and the final “P” on Dante’s forehead is removed.

PARADISO (“PARADISE”)
 The third and the last section of Dante Alighieri’s epic poem of Divine Comedy.
 In it, the Italian poet describes his journey through Heaven, the things he sees and
people he encounters on the way to Empyrean.

Nine Spheres of Heaven

1. First Sphere (The Moon: The Inconstant)
 When visiting the Moon, they see the souls of those who failed to keep their vows
including Piccarda Donati, sister of Dante’s friend Forese Donati and Queen
Constance of Sicily, both of whom were forced from their convents.
 Beatrice explains to Dante why their souls were “punished” by being allocated to
the lowest Heaven for something that wasn’t their fault.

2. Second Sphere (Mercury: The Ambitious)

 The planet Mercury represents those who did just and righteous during their
earthly lives but were primarily driven by ambition.
 Dante speaks to the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, who tells him the history of the
Roman empire, mentioning, among others, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Augustus,
Jesus’ crucifixion and the destruction of Jerusalem.
3. Third Sphere (Venus: The Lovers)
 The Third Sphere of Heaven or Venus is home to the souls of lovers who “earned”
their place in heaven with their love for God and humanity.
 Dante meets the young prince Charles Martel of Anjou, who speaks about the
influence of factors other than heredity on an individual’s character and qualities.
 He also met the soul of Cunizza da Romano, whose brother he encountered in the
Seventh Circle of Hell, and troubadour Folquet de Marselha, who later became
the Bishop of Toulouse.

4. Fourth Sphere (The Sun: The Wise)

 When reaching the Fourth Sphere of Heaven or the Sun, Dante and Beatrice are
surrounded by the greatest examples of prudence: the souls of the wise, who help
to illuminate the world intellectually like the Sun, which is the Earth’s source of
illumination.
 A circle of twelve bright lights dance around them, which are the souls of:
 Thomas Aquinas
 Albertus Magnus
 Gratian
 Peter Lombard
 King Solomon
 Dionysus
 Orosius
 Boethius
 Isidore of Seville
 Bede
 Richard of Saint
Victor
 Siger of Brabant
  A second crown of twelve wise men then appears, with St. Bonaventure as their
main spokesman who presented the story of St. Dominic similarly as St. Thomas
told the story of life and work of St. Francis.

5. Fifth Sphere (Mars: The Warriors of the Faith)

 The planet Mars is traditionally associated with the God of War, which makes this
planet the home of warriors of the Faith, who gave their lives for God, forming
the shape of a cross.
 Dante is approached by the soul of his great-grandfather Cacciaguida who was
killed during the Second Crusade, who speaks about Florence’s glorious past and
criticizes its later decline.
 Holy warriors who appear in this sphere also include:
 Joshua
 Roland
 Charlemagne
 Judas Maccabeus
 Robert Guiscard

6. Sixth Sphere (Jupiter: The Just Rulers)

 Jupiter is traditionally associated with the king of the gods, which makes this
planet the home of the rulers who displayed justice.
 They spell out the Latin phrase diligite iustitiam qui iudicatis terram (“cherish
justice, you who judge the earth”) and then form a giant eagle that speaks to
Dante about divine justice and inscrutability.
 Rulers who are identified to form the eagle include the Biblical kings David and
Hezekiah, Constantine, Trajan, William II of Sicily and Ripheus, a Trojan hero
and pagan who was saved by God for his righteousness.

7. Seventh Sphere (Saturn: The Contemplatives)

 In the Seventh Sphere of Heaven or Saturn, Dante encounters the spirits of people
who dedicated their lives to prayer, climbing up and down a golden ladder.
 He speaks to St. Damian who points out to the corruption of the Church but he
also meets St. Benedict who is infuriated with the Church’s moral decline as well.
 St. Benedictine also tells Dante that the golden ladder is reaching up to the very
Empyrean and explains the latter’s nature.

8. Eighth Sphere (The Fixed Stars: Faith, Hope, and Love)

 Dante and Beatrice enter the Eighth Sphere of Heaven or Fixed Stars in the
constellation of Gemini.
 Here, they see the Virgin Mary and other Biblical saints including the apostles of
Peter, John and James who test Dante on faith, love and hope.
  He then sees Adam, who tells him how old he is, how long he lived in Eden, why
God got angry at him and what was his original language.
 They also witnessed Peter’s anger with the papacy and in particular, Pope
Boniface VIII.

9. Ninth Sphere (The Primum Mobile: The Angels)

 The Primum Mobile is the last stop before the Empyrean and the last of the
physical Heavens as the Empyrean is beyond space and time.
 It is moved directly by God, and its motion causes all the spheres it encloses to
move.
 Dante sees an intensely bright light surrounded by nine circles which, as he soon
learns, are the nine orders of angels surrounding God in the center.
 As they are slowly ascending to the Empyrean, Beatrice tells Dante the story of
creation and history of the angels.

The Empyrean
 The true home of God, saints, angels and the souls of the faithful.
 Beatrice, representing theology is here transformed to be more beautiful than ever
before, and Dante becomes enveloped in light, rendering him fit to see God.
 God appears as three equally large circles occupying the same space, representing the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in which Dante can discern the human form of
Christ within these circles.
Group 8

INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF DANTE

D. Background of Durante (Dante) Alighieri (1265-1321)
 The author of La Commedia (The Divine Comedy)
 A late Medieval or early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence,
Italy, whose most famous work is the Divine Comedy.
 Has been called "The Father of the Italian language" and one of the greatest poets
of world literature
 Was betrothed to Gemma di Manetto Donati at 12 years old. However, Dante was
in love with another girl named Beatrice Portinari.
 During his teens, Dante demonstrated a keen interest in literature and undertook an
apprenticeship with Brunetto Latini, a celebrated poet and prose writer of vernacular
Italian, who expanded Dante's knowledge of literature and rhetoric.
 Associating with a circle of respected Florentine poets, Dante befriended Guido
Cavalcanti, who helped Dante refine his literary skills.
 In 1287 Dante enrolled in the University of Bologna, but by 1289 he enlisted in the
Florentine army and took part in the Battle of Campaldino.
 Dante also became increasingly active in perilous Florentine politics, aligning himself
with the White Guelfs. The Black Guelfs, supported by papal forces, staged a coup in
1301 and established themselves as absolute rulers. Prominent White Guelfss,
including Dante, were stripped of their possessions and banished from the city. Dante
never returned, spending his remaining years in exile in Verona and later in
Ravenna, where he died in 1321.

E. Other Works of Dante Alighieri

Vita Nuova (The New Life)
 Written in commemoration of Beatrice's death, Vita Nuova reflects Dante's first effort
to depict her as an abstract model of love and beauty
 In this collection of early canzoni, Dante uses a refreshing and innovative approach,
or dulce stil nuovo (sweet new style), in love poetry that equates the love experience
with a divine and mystical spiritual revelation.

Convivo (The Banquet)

 Is another collection of canzoni, accompanied by extensive prose commentary, which
further develops the poet's use of the stil nuovo

De Vulgari Eloquentia (Eloquence in the Vernacular Tongue)

  An unfinished Latin tract, De Vulgari Eloquentia is a theoretical discussion of the
origin of Italian dialects and literary language and examines how they relate to the
composition of vernacular poetry.

De Monorchia (On Monarchy)

 A Latin treatise, presents the poet's Christian political philosophy.

F. Divine Comedy
 The Divine Comedy was written when Dante was exiled from his beloved city of
Florence (to which he never returned).
 Exile and redemption are themes which run throughout this work. In addition, many
of Dante’s political friends and enemies appear in the different sections of the
afterlife.
 The character of Beatrice in the poem is believed to be the real woman, Beatrice
Portinari.
 The term comedy refers to the fact that this work has a happy ending and is written in
the vernacular, unlike tragedy.
 The Divine Comedy is an allegory of human life presented as a visionary trip through
the Christian afterlife, written as a warning to a corrupt society to steer itself to the
path of righteousness: "to remove those living in this life from the state of misery, and
lead them to the state of felicity."
 The poem is written in the first person (from the poet’s perspective) and follows
Dante's journey through the three Christian realms of the dead: hell, purgatory, and
finally heaven.
 The Roman poet Virgil guides Dante through hell (Inferno) and purgatory
(Purgatorio), while Beatrice guides him through heaven (Paradiso). The journey
lasts from the night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of
1300 (placing it before Dante’s factual exile from Florence, which looms throughout
the Inferno and serves as an undercurrent to the poet’s journey).
 The poem is composed of 100 cantos, written in the measure known as terza
rima (thus the divine number 3 appears in each part of the poem), which Dante
modified from its popular form so that it might be regarded as his own invention. The
tripartite stanza likely symbolizes the Holy Trinity, and early enthusiasts of terza
rima, including Italian poets Boccaccio and Petrarch, were particularly interested in
the unifying effects of the form.
 The work is divided into 3 books, each book is divided into chapters, or Cantos. The
books are: 1. Inferno (Hell) containing 33 cantos plus one introductory Canto. 2.
Purgatorio (Purgatory) containing 33 Cantos. 3. Paradiso (Paradise) containing 33
Cantos.
 Also unlike the epic works that came before, The Divine Comedy was written in the
vernacular Italian, instead of the more acceptable Latin or Greek. This allowed the
work to be published to a much broader audience, contributing substantially to world
literacy.
 INFERNO (“HELL”)
 the first part of Dante’s Divine Comedy
 inspired the latest Dan Brown’s bestseller of the same title which describes the
poet’s vision of Hell
 The story begins with the narrator (who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark
wood where he is attacked by three beasts which he cannot escape. He is rescued
by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by Beatrice (Dante’s ideal woman).
Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the 9 Circles of Hell.

Nine Circles of Hell

10. First Circle (Limbo)
 Dante’s First Circle of Hell is resided by virtuous non-Christians and unbaptized
pagans who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of Heaven.
 They live in a castle with seven gates which symbolize the seven virtues
(prudence, chastity, temperance, charity, patience, kindness, and humility)
 Here, Dante sees many prominent people from classical antiquity such as Homer,
Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Hippocrates, and Julius Caesar.

11. Second Circle (Lust)

 In the Second Circle of Hell, Dante and his companion Virgil find people who
were overcome by lust.
 They are punished by being blown violently back and forth by strong winds,
preventing them to find peace and rest.
 Strong winds symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for
fleshly pleasures.
 Here, Dante sees many notable people from history and mythology including
Cleopatra, Tristan, Helen of Troy and others who were adulterous during their
lifetime.

12. Third Circle (Gluttony)

 When reaching the Third Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil find souls of gluttons
who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus.
 Sinners in this circle of Hell are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that
is produced by never ending icy rain.
  The vile slush symbolizes personal degradation of one who overindulges in food,
drink and other worldly pleasures, while inability to see others lying nearby
represents the gluttons’ selfishness and coldness.
 Here, Dante speaks to a character called Ciacco who also tells him that the
Guelphs (a fraction supporting the Pope ) will defeat and expel the Ghibellines (a
fraction supporting the Emperor to which Dante adhered) from Florence which
happened in 1302, before the poem was written (after 1308).

13. Fourth Circle (Greed)

 In the Fourth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are
punished for greed.
 They are divided into two groups jousting:
 Those who hoarded their possessions
 Those who lavishly spent it
 They use great weights as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which
symbolizes their selfish drive for fortune during lifetime.
 The two groups that are guarded by a character called Pluto (probably the ancient
Greek ruler of the underworld) are so occupied with their activity that the two
poets don’t try to speak to them.

14. Fifth Circle (Anger)

 The Fifth Circle of Hell is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their
sins.
 Transported on a boat by Phylegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful fighting
each other on the surface of the river Styx and the sullen gurgling beneath the
surface of the water.
 The punishment reflects the type of the sin committed during lifetime.
 While passing through, the poets are approached by Filippo Argenti, a prominent
Florentine politician who confiscated Dante’s property after his expulsion from
Florence.

15. Sixth Circle (Heresy)

 When reaching the Sixth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see heretics who are
condemned to eternity in flaming tombs.
 Here, Dante talks with a couple of Florentines (Farinata degli Uberti and
Cavalcant de’ Cavalcanti).
 Dante also sees other notable historical figures including the ancient Greek
philosopher Epicurus, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, and Pope Anastasius
II. The latter, however, is according to some modern scholars condemned by
Dante as heretic by a mistake. Instead, as some scholars argue, the poet meant the
Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I.
16. Seventh Circle (Violence)
 The Seventh Circle of Hell is divided into three rings:
 Outer Ring: It houses murderers and others who were violent to other people
and property. Here, Dante sees Alexander the Great (disputed), Dionysius I of
Syracuse, Guy de Montfort and many other notable historical and
mythological figures such as the Centaurus, sank into a river of boiling blood
and fire.
 Middle Ring: In here, the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees
and bushes which are fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates,
chased and torn to pieces by dogs.
 Inner Ring: It houses blasphemers and sodomites, residing in a desert of
burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.

17. Eight Circle (Fraud)

 The Eight Circle of Hell is resided by the fraudulent.
 Dante and Virgil reach it on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different
natures, just like the fraudulent.
 This circle of Hell is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with bridges
between them.
 In Bolgia 1, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In Bolgia 2 he finds flatterers.
After crossing the bridge to Bolgia 3, he and Virgil see those who are guilty of
simony. After crossing another bridge between the ditches to Bolgia 4, they find
sorcerers and false prophets. In Bolgia 5 are housed corrupt politicians, in Bolgia
6 are hypocrites and in the remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds hypocrites and
thieves (Bolgia 7), evil counselors and advisers (Bolgia 8), divisive individuals
(Bolgia 9) and various falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers and counterfeits
(Bolgia 10).

18. Ninth Circle (Treachery)

 The last Ninth Circle of Hell is divided into 4 Rounds according to the seriousness
of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy lake. Those who committed
more severe sin are deeper within the ice.
 Each of the 4 Rounds is named after an individual who personifies the sin which
are:
 Round 1: Caina - named after Cain who killed his brother Abel
 Round 2: Antenora - named after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam’s
counselor during the Trojan War
 Round 3: Ptolomaea - named after Ptolemy (son of Abubus)
 Round 4: Judecca - named after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed
Jesus with a kiss
 PURGATORIO (“PURGATORY”)
 an epic poem written by the great Italian poet, Dante
 the second section of the Divine Comedy
 It follows after Inferno and tells the story of his climb up Mount Purgatory
accompanied by another Italian poet by the name of Virgil, who serves as his
guide. The climb is supposed to teach him lessons about Christian life and God's
love and purify him of his sins before continuing on his journey to God.

Nine Levels of Purgatory

10. First Stage (Stubbornness)
 This stage is at the very base of the mountain and is part of what is known as
Ante-Purgatory.
 In this stage, the two poets encounter the souls of those who delayed their
Christian life because of their stubbornness to obey God’s laws. They are to
remain in here for a time period that is thirty times longer than the period which
they exhibited stubbornness.
 In here, they run into Manfred of Sicily who tells them that a soul’s time in
Purgatory can be reduced with prayers from Christians who are in good standing
with God in the world of the living.

11. Second Stage (Repentant)

 This is the last part of Ante-Purgatory.
 In his terrace, they encounter deceased kings who were negligible during their
rule, people who never repented while alive, and people who suffered violent
deaths but managed to repent at the last minute.
 That following evening, Dante falls asleep and wakes up at the gates of Purgatory
Proper, after having a dream that an eagle carried him during the night. The gates
are guarded by an angel, and he carves Dante’s forehead with the letter “P” seven
times.
 The angel informs Dante that he is about to go through the seven terraces of
Purgatory (each representing a sin among the seven deadly ones) and one of the
P’s will be erased as he progresses through each terrace as he climbs Mount
Purgatory. He then opens the gates.

12. Third Stage (Pride)

  This terrace that the poets enter first is full of those that were prideful during their
earthly lives.
 The walls of the terrace have sculptures with examples of humility, which is the
opposite of pride. The prideful never get a chance to see these sculptures, since
their backs are arched due to the huge weights they must carry using their backs
as their sins get purged.
 Dante bends over to converse with the souls and learns lessons from them. When
Dante reaches the exit of the terrace, an angel removes the first “P” from his
forehead, and the poets move on to the 2nd terrace.

13. Fourth Stage (Envy)

 This terrace is filled with the souls of envious penitents. Their earthly lives were
spent desiring what made other people happy to the point they would even harm
them in order to deprive them of this.
 Soon as they enter the terrace, they hear voices that speak examples of generosity,
which is the opposite of envy, and later on, they also hear the voices speak
examples of envy.
 The penitents wear gray cloaks and cannot see where they are going because their
eyes have been closed and sewn with iron wire. As they leave the terrace, the
second “P” is removed.

14. Fifth Stage (Wrath)

 In the third terrace, which is filled with souls of wrathful penitents. Dante begins
to have visions of gentleness, which is an example of the opposite virtue of wrath.
 The wrathful forever wonder in a cloud of black smoke, which is a manifestation
of the anger that clouded their mind and blinded them when they were alive.
 The souls in this part of the poem do not shout out any examples, but Dante does
have a conversation with Marco Lombardo about free will. Dante also has visions
about punished wrath. When they meet an angel, another “P” is removed and
Dante and Virgil exit the terrace.

15. Sixth Stage (Sloth)

 The next terrace contains the souls of those who were slothful in their earthly
lives. Virgil explains Purgatory’s structure to Dante and how it is determined by
love.
 The wrathful are forever preoccupied with running around the terrace without
rest, since they never had zeal (the opposite of sloth) in their earthly lives,
especially when it came to acting out of love.
 All example given in this terrace from the voices is the air are of zeal. Later that
evening, when Dante falls asleep, he is haunted by nightmares of a siren, a
 manifestation of gluttony, lust, and greed. On the next day, the fourth “P” is
removed and the poets leave the terrace.

16. Seventh Stage (Avarise)

 Dante and Vergil enter the terrace of the Avaricious and Prodigal. Their
punishment is to lie on the floor, face down, with their hands and feet bound
together.
 The souls are being punished and purged for desiring material goods with
extravagance, greed, or ambition.
 As the poets travel through the terrace, it is shaken by a mysterious tremor, but
Dante does not ask Virgil about it, even though he is curious.
 They run into the Roman, Statius, and he explains the mysterious tremor to Dante:
it happens when a soul is ready to move on from purgatory, and he, Statius, was
the soul that caused the tremor.
 He joins them on their journey. It also turns out that Statius is an admirer of
Virgil’s work. The next angel they run into removes the fifth “P” from Dante’s
forehead.

17. Eight Stage (Gluttony)

 The next terrace contains the souls of the gluttonous, and the poets witness their
painful punishment: they experience excruciating hunger and thirst while there are
plenty of trees with fruit around them.
 The souls experience this because they can never reach the trees. The voices in
the trees give examples of temperance, which is the opposite of gluttony.
 Dante runs into his friend Forese Donati and his predecessor Bonagiunta
Orbicciani (who turns out to be poetic and has nothing but kind words for one of
Dante’s poems, “La Vita Nuova”). As the three poets exit the sixth terrace, an
Angel removes the sixth “P”.

18. Ninth Stage (Lust)

 As they continue to climb Mount Purgatory, Dante contemplates how the
penitents in the terrace of the Gluttonous can be so thin but yet be souls.
 Statius takes this opportunity, and Virgil gives him the go-ahead, to explain how
the body and soul are related. In the terrace of the lustful, the penitent souls must
run through a great wall of flames.
 As they run through it, they call out examples of chastity, which is the opposite of
lust. Everyone must run through the wall before they leave, including Dante.
Dante is hesitant because he is afraid. Virgil tells him that Beatrice, the love of his
life, is waiting for him in the Earthly Paradise.
  This is enough to convince Dante, who goes through the flames. They all fall
asleep shortly after that and in the morning, they all proceed to the Earthly
Paradise and the final “P” on Dante’s forehead is removed.

PARADISO (“PARADISE”)
 The third and the last section of Dante Alighieri’s epic poem of Divine Comedy.
 In it, the Italian poet describes his journey through Heaven, the things he sees and
people he encounters on the way to Empyrean.

Nine Spheres of Heaven

10. First Sphere (The Moon: The Inconstant)
 When visiting the Moon, they see the souls of those who failed to keep their vows
including Piccarda Donati, sister of Dante’s friend Forese Donati and Queen
Constance of Sicily, both of whom were forced from their convents.
 Beatrice explains to Dante why their souls were “punished” by being allocated to
the lowest Heaven for something that wasn’t their fault.

11. Second Sphere (Mercury: The Ambitious)

 The planet Mercury represents those who did just and righteous during their
earthly lives but were primarily driven by ambition.
 Dante speaks to the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, who tells him the history of the
Roman empire, mentioning, among others, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Augustus,
Jesus’ crucifixion and the destruction of Jerusalem.

12. Third Sphere (Venus: The Lovers)

 The Third Sphere of Heaven or Venus is home to the souls of lovers who “earned”
their place in heaven with their love for God and humanity.
 Dante meets the young prince Charles Martel of Anjou, who speaks about the
influence of factors other than heredity on an individual’s character and qualities.
 He also met the soul of Cunizza da Romano, whose brother he encountered in the
Seventh Circle of Hell, and troubadour Folquet de Marselha, who later became
the Bishop of Toulouse.

13. Fourth Sphere (The Sun: The Wise)

 When reaching the Fourth Sphere of Heaven or the Sun, Dante and Beatrice are
surrounded by the greatest examples of prudence: the souls of the wise, who help
 to illuminate the world intellectually like the Sun, which is the Earth’s source of
illumination.
 A circle of twelve bright lights dance around them, which are the souls of:
 Thomas Aquinas
 Albertus Magnus
 Gratian
 Peter Lombard
 King Solomon
 Dionysus
 Orosius
 Boethius
 Isidore of Seville
 Bede
 Richard of Saint
Victor
 Siger of Brabant
  A second crown of twelve wise men then appears, with St. Bonaventure as their
main spokesman who presented the story of St. Dominic similarly as St. Thomas
told the story of life and work of St. Francis.

14. Fifth Sphere (Mars: The Warriors of the Faith)

 The planet Mars is traditionally associated with the God of War, which makes this
planet the home of warriors of the Faith, who gave their lives for God, forming
the shape of a cross.
 Dante is approached by the soul of his great-grandfather Cacciaguida who was
killed during the Second Crusade, who speaks about Florence’s glorious past and
criticizes its later decline.
 Holy warriors who appear in this sphere also include:
 Joshua
 Roland
 Charlemagne
 Judas Maccabeus
 Robert Guiscard

15. Sixth Sphere (Jupiter: The Just Rulers)

 Jupiter is traditionally associated with the king of the gods, which makes this
planet the home of the rulers who displayed justice.
 They spell out the Latin phrase diligite iustitiam qui iudicatis terram (“cherish
justice, you who judge the earth”) and then form a giant eagle that speaks to
Dante about divine justice and inscrutability.
 Rulers who are identified to form the eagle include the Biblical kings David and
Hezekiah, Constantine, Trajan, William II of Sicily and Ripheus, a Trojan hero
and pagan who was saved by God for his righteousness.

16. Seventh Sphere (Saturn: The Contemplatives)

 In the Seventh Sphere of Heaven or Saturn, Dante encounters the spirits of people
who dedicated their lives to prayer, climbing up and down a golden ladder.
 He speaks to St. Damian who points out to the corruption of the Church but he
also meets St. Benedict who is infuriated with the Church’s moral decline as well.
 St. Benedictine also tells Dante that the golden ladder is reaching up to the very
Empyrean and explains the latter’s nature.

17. Eighth Sphere (The Fixed Stars: Faith, Hope, and Love)
 Dante and Beatrice enter the Eighth Sphere of Heaven or Fixed Stars in the
constellation of Gemini.
 Here, they see the Virgin Mary and other Biblical saints including the apostles of
Peter, John and James who test Dante on faith, love and hope.
 He then sees Adam, who tells him how old he is, how long he lived in Eden, why
God got angry at him and what was his original language.
  They also witnessed Peter’s anger with the papacy and in particular, Pope
Boniface VIII.

18. Ninth Sphere (The Primum Mobile: The Angels)

 The Primum Mobile is the last stop before the Empyrean and the last of the
physical Heavens as the Empyrean is beyond space and time.
 It is moved directly by God, and its motion causes all the spheres it encloses to
move.
 Dante sees an intensely bright light surrounded by nine circles which, as he soon
learns, are the nine orders of angels surrounding God in the center.
 As they are slowly ascending to the Empyrean, Beatrice tells Dante the story of
creation and history of the angels.

The Empyrean
 The true home of God, saints, angels and the souls of the faithful.
 Beatrice, representing theology is here transformed to be more beautiful than ever
before, and Dante becomes enveloped in light, rendering him fit to see God.
 God appears as three equally large circles occupying the same space, representing the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in which Dante can discern the human form of
Christ within these circles.
 DIVINE COMEDY – INFERNO

A. Characters
Dante - The author and protagonist of Inferno; the focus of all action and interaction with

other characters. Because Dante chose to present his fictional poem as a record of events that

actually happened to him, a wide gulf between Dante the poet and Dante the character pervades

the poem. For instance, Dante the poet often portrays Dante the character as compassionate and

sympathetic at the sight of suffering sinners, but Dante the poet chose to place them in Hell and

devised their suffering. As a result, if Dante the character is at all representative of Dante the

poet, he is a very simplified version: sympathetic, somewhat fearful of danger, and confused

both morally and intellectually by his experience in Hell. As the poem progresses, Dante the

character gradually learns to abandon his sympathy and adopt a more pitiless attitude toward the

punishment of sinners, which he views as merely a reflection of divine justice.

Read an in-depth analysis of Dante.

Virgil - Dante’s guide through the depths of Hell. Historically, Virgil lived in the first

century b.c., in what is now northern Italy. Scholars consider him the greatest of the Latin poets.

His masterpiece, the Aeneid, tells the story of how Aeneas, along with fellow survivors of the

defeat of Troy, came to found Rome. The shade (or spirit) of Virgil that appears in Inferno has

been condemned to an eternity in Hell because he lived prior to Christ’s appearance on Earth

(and thus prior to the possibility of redemption in Him). Nonetheless, Virgil has now received

orders to lead Dante through Hell on his spiritual journey.

Virgil proves a wise, resourceful, and commanding presence, but he often seems helpless to

protect Dante from the true dangers of Hell. Critics generally consider Virgil an allegorical

representation of human reason—both in its immense power and in its inferiority to faith in God.
Read an in-depth analysis of Virgil.
Beatrice - One of the blessed in Heaven, Beatrice aids Dante’s journey by asking an

angel to find Virgil and bid him guide Dante through Hell. Like Dante and Virgil, Beatrice

corresponds to a historical personage. Although the details of her life remain uncertain, we know

that Dante fell passionately in love with her as a young man and never fell out of it. She has a

limited role in Inferno but becomes more prominent in Purgatorio and Paradiso. In fact, Dante’s

entire imaginary journey throughout the afterlife aims, in part, to find Beatrice, whom he has lost

on Earth because of her early death. Critics generally view Beatrice as an allegorical

representation of spiritual love.

Charon - A figure that Dante appropriates from Greek mythology, Charon is an old man

who ferries souls across the river Acheron to Hell.

Paolo and Francesca da Rimini - A pair of lovers condemned to the Second Circle of

Hell for an adulterous love affair that they began after reading the story of Lancelot and

Guinevere.

Lucifer - The prince of Hell, also referred to as Dis. Lucifer resides at the bottom of the

Ninth (and final) Circle of Hell, beneath the Earth’s surface, with his body jutting through the

planet’s center. An enormous giant, he has three faces but does not speak; his three mouths are

busy chewing three of history’s greatest traitors: Judas, the betrayer of Christ, and Cassius and

Brutus, the betrayers of Julius Caesar.

Minos - The king of Crete in Greek mythology, Minos is portrayed by Dante as a giant

beast who stands at the Second Circle of Hell, deciding where the souls of sinners shall be sent

for torment. Upon hearing a given sinner’s confession, Minos curls his tail around himself a

specific number of times to represent the circle of Hell to which the soul should be consigned.
 Pope Boniface VIII - A notoriously corrupt pope who reigned from 1294 to 1303,

Boniface made a concerted attempt to increase the political might of the Catholic Church and

was thus a political enemy of Dante, who advocated a separation of church and state.

Farinata - A Ghibelline political leader from Dante’s era who resides among the Heretics

in the Sixth Circle of Hell. Farinata is doomed to continue his intense obsession with Florentine

politics, which he is now helpless to affect.

Phlegyas - The boatman who rows Dante and Virgil across the river Styx.

Filippo Argenti - A Black Guelph, a political enemy of Dante who is now in the Fifth

Circle of Hell. Argenti resides among the Wrathful in the river Styx.

Nessus - The Centaur (half man and half horse) who carries Dante through the First Ring

of the Seventh Circle of Hell.

Pier della Vigna - A former advisor to Emperor Frederick II, della Vigna committed

suicide when he fell into disfavor at the court. He now must spend eternity in the form of a tree.

Geryon - The massive serpentine monster that transports Dante and Virgil from the

Seventh to the Eighth Circle of Hell.

Malacoda - The leader of the Malabranche, the demons who guard the Fifth Pouch of the

Eighth Circle of Hell. Malacoda (his name means “evil tail”) intentionally furnishes Virgil and

Dante with erroneous directions.

Vanni Fucci - A thief punished in the Seventh Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell who

prophesies the defeat of the White Guelphs. A defiant soul, Fucci curses God and aims an

obscene gesture at Him before Dante journeys on.

 Ulysses - The great hero of the Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ulysses was a

bold and cunning man who is now imprisoned in the Eighth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell

among those guilty of Spiritual Theft.

Guido da Montefeltro - An advisor to Pope Boniface VIII, da Montefeltro was promised

anticipatory absolution—forgiveness for a sin given prior to the perpetration of the sin itself. Da

Montefeltro now suffers in Hell, since absolution cannot be gained without repentance and it is

impossible to repent a sin before committing it.

Antaeus - The giant who transports Dante and Virgil from the Eighth to the Ninth Circle
of Hell.
Count Ugolino - A traitor condemned to the Second Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell.

Ugolino gnaws on the head of another damned traitor, Archbishop Ruggieri. When Ruggieri

imprisoned Ugolino and his sons, denying them food, Ugolino was driven to eat the corpses of

his starved sons.

Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria - Sinners condemned to the Third Ring of the Ninth

Circle of Hell. Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria are unlike the other sinners Dante encounters:

their crimes were deemed to be so great that devils snatched their souls from their living bodies;

thus, their souls reside in Hell while their bodies live on, now guided and possessed by demons.

B. Allegorical Analysis of the Different Sins ( 9 Circles of Hell)

Inferno, the first part of Dante's Divine Comedy that inspired the latest Dan Brown's

bestseller of the same title describes the poet's vision of Hell. The story begins with the

narrator (who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark wood where he is attacked by three

beasts which he cannot escape. He is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by
Beatrice (Dante's ideal woman). Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the

9 Circles of Hell.

a. First Circle (Limbo)

Dante’s First Circle of Hell is resided by virtuous non-Christians and

unbaptized pagans who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of

Heaven. They live in a castle with seven gates which symbolize the seven

virtues. Here, Dante sees many prominent people from classical antiquity such

as Homer, Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Hippocrates and Julius Caesar.

b. Second Circle (Lust)

In the Second Circle of Hell, Dante and his companion Virgil find people who

were overcome by lust. They are punished by being blown violently back and

forth by strong winds, preventing them to find peace and rest. Strong winds

symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for fleshly

pleasures. Again, Dante sees many notable people from history and

mythology including Cleopatra, Tristan, Helen of Troy and others who were

adulterous during their lifetime.

c. Third Circle (Gluttony)

When reaching the Third Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil find souls of

gluttons who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus. Sinners in this

circle of Hell are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that is

produced by never ending icy rain. The vile slush symbolizes personal

degradation of one who overindulges in food, drink and other worldly

 pleasures, while the inability to see others lying nearby represents the

gluttons’ selfishness and coldness.

d. Fourth Circle (Greed)

In the Fourth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are

punished for greed. They are divided into two groups – those who hoarded

possessions and those who lavishly spent it – jousting. They use great weights

as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which symbolizes their selfish drive

for fortune during lifetime. The two groups that are guarded by a character

called Pluto (probably the ancient Greek ruler of the underworld) are so

occupied with their activity that the two poets don’t try to speak to them.

e. Fifth Circle (Anger)

The Fifth Circle of Hell is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their

sins. Transported on a boat by Phlegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful

fighting each other on the surface of the river Styx and the sullen gurgling

beneath the surface of the water. Again, the punishment reflects the type of

the sin committed during lifetime.

f. Sixth Circle (Heresy)

Rejection of religious and/or political “norms.” Dante encounters

Farinata degli Uberti, a military leader and an aristocrat tried to win the Italian

throne, convicted of heresy in 1283. Dante also meets Epicurus, Pope

Anastasius II and Emperor Frederick II.

g. Seventh Circle (Violence)

The Seventh Circle of Hell is divided into three rings. The Outer Ring houses

murderers and others who were violent to other people and property. Here,

Dante sees Alexander the Great (disputed), Dionysius I of Syracuse, Guy de

Montfort and many other notable historical and mythological figures such as

the Centaurus, sank into a river of boiling blood and fire. In the Middle Ring,

the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees and bushes which are

fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates, chased and torn to

pieces by dogs. In the Inner Ring are blasphemers and sodomites, residing in a

desert of burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.

h. Eight Circle (Fraud)

The Eight Circle of Hell is resided by the fraudulent. Dante and Virgil reach it

on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different natures, just like the

fraudulent. This circle of Hell is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with

bridges between them. In Bolgia 1, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In

Bolgia 2 he finds flatterers. After crossing the bridge to Bolgia 3, he and

Virgil see those who are guilty of simony. After crossing another bridge

between the ditches to Bolgia 4, they find sorcerers and false prophets. In

Bolgia 5 are housed corrupt politicians, in Bolgia 6 are hypocrites and in the

remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds hypocrites (Bolgia 7), thieves (Bolgia 7), evil

counselors and advisers (Bolgia 8), divisive individuals (Bolgia 9) and various

falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers and counterfeits (Bolgia 10).

 i. Ninth Circle (Trechery)

The last Ninth Circle of Hell is divided into 4 Rounds according to the

seriousness of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy lake. Those who

committed more severe sin are deeper within the ice. Each of the 4 Rounds is

named after an individual who personifies the sin. Thus Round 1 is named

Caina after Cain who killed his brother Abel, Round 2 is named Antenora

after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam’s counselor during the Trojan War,

Round 3 is named Ptolomaea after Ptolemy (son of Abubus), while Round 4 is

named Judecca after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus with a kiss.

C. Summary of the Dante’s Inferno 9 circle of hell

Canto I -- First Dante describes an undefined forest, then a hiss lighted by the spring

sunshine, then three beast that stop him from climbing it, and finally Virgil appears to tell

him how he can overcome the beasts. The entire description is presented through images

resembling the logic of a dream.

Canto II -- After the traditional invocation to the Muses, Dante begins the narrative. But

first he has to clear his doubts about the validity of this journey, for he fears that he may

be heading for failure. Virgil assures him that the journey is favored by three heavenly

Ladies, the Virgin Mary, St. Lucia, and Beatrice. The latter summoned Virgil to go out of

Limbo and rescue Dante form the three beasts.

Canto III -- Dante enters the Gates of Hell. He find himself in a vestibule, an area

reserved for the souls of those who never made any decisions, the Neutrals. Here Dante

recognizes one who was known to having made a "great refusal." Dante then reaches the

shore of the first infernal river, Acheron. Here Charon picks up the damned who keep

falling down to ferry them to other side, to Hell.

Canto IV -- First circle of Hell: Limbo. This is the place for the souls of those who were

good people, but did not know Christ. And here Dante encounters the ancient

philosophers. The most important episode is when Dante and Virgil are joined by four

ancient poets: Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan. Together they talk about poetry.

Canto V -- Second circle of Hell: Lustful. This is one of the most popular cantos of

the Commedia. It has captured the attention of many scholars since Dante’s times, mainly

because Dante finds here among the lustful: Francesca da Rimini. Among other sinners,

Dido, queen of Cartage. Minos is the guardian of the circle. Theme: Courtly Love.

Canto VI -- Third circle of Hell: Gluttons: The setting of the third circle is again visual

and graphical: heavy, steady rain, hail and snow. It is monotonous, never ending, and

weakens the souls to the extent that they lay down because they have no strength to rise.

This monotony becomes an obsession. Dante talks to Ciacco, a Florentine, who predicts

Dante's upcoming exile. Cerberus, a three-headed dog, is the guardian of the circle

Canto VII -- Fourth and Fifth circles: The Avaricious and Prodigals are in the fourth

circle, then the two poets descent into the fifth circle, the Wrathful and the Sullen, who

are in the river Styx. These sinners push huge rocks in opposite direction. Dante notices
that most of them are clerics, but he does recognize any of them. The

demon Plutus stands as the guardian of the circle. The second part of the canto describes

the descent into a marshland, the river Stix, where the wrathful are visible, and the sullen

are submerged by the water.

Canto VIII -- Fifth circle and the City of Dis. This canto has two sections: the

conclusion of the representation of the Wrathful and the Sullen, which includes the poet’s

encounter with Filippo Argenti; the second part of the canto describes the presentation

of the city of Dis. This city is modeled after medieval cities, surrounded by walls, with

the gates to allow people in and out.

Canto IX -- The City of Dis - Entrance into Lower Hell. The major characteristic of this

canto is the confrontation between Dante and the forces of evil. They are represented by

the three Erinyes: Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone. Eventually the

invoke Medusa whose evil power is so powerful that anyone who look at her is changed

into stone. When everything seems lost, a Messenger form Heaven comes, and orders

the devils to open the gate of Dis. Dante and Virgil enter the city and find themselves into

a huge cemetery (circle 6).

Canto X -- Sixth Circle: The Heretics (Epicureans): The are placed into open tombs.

The main characters are: Farinata degli Uberti and Cavalcante dei

Cavalcanti. Themes: 1) Farinata’s prediction of Dante’s difficulty in returning to

Florence from exile, 2. Cavalcante’s misunderstanding of Dante’s remark on his son, the

poet Guido. 3) The inability of the damned to see the present, although they can foresee

the future.
Canto XI -- Programmatic canto, The structure of Hell. Still in the sixth circle. There is

a reference to Pope Anastasius’ tomb, but the main issue is Virgil’s exposition of the

structure of Hell. This canto is a doctrinal digression on the physical and moral division

of Hell. It is a programmatic canto in which Dante outlines the Aristotelian conception of

sins into the three categories: Incontinence, Violence, Bestiality (fraud).

Canto XII -- Seventh circle, first ring. Violent Against Others. The mythical monster

who guards the circle is the Minotaur who, being half human half beast, symbolizes the

entire lower hell. Also here we find the Centaurs, mythical creatures — half man half

horses —. They characterize the first section of the seventh circle. They are led by

Chiron, who orders Nessus to guide Dante and Virgil across the boiling river of blood,

the Phlegethon. In this river of boiling blood, we find Tyrants and Murderers; they are

punished by the arrows of the Centaurs.

Canto XIII -- Seventh circle, second ring. Violent Against Self (Suicides,

Squanderers). The setting is made up of a dreary wood populated by the Harpies. The

Suicides have been transformed into strange trees. The Squanderers, on the other hand,

are hounded and ripped apart by bitches. The main characters are, Pier delle

Vigne among the Suicides. He was a notary at the court of Frederick II, was accused of

treason and jailed. He killed himself because he could bear the shame of being in prison.

Two Florentines, Lano and Jacopo da Santo Andrea among the Squanderers.

Canto XIV -- Seventh circle, third ring. First Zone: Violent against God. The Violent

against God (Blasphemers) are lying down on the burning sand under a rain of fire

flakes. The main character of this canto is Capaneus, one of the most significant

examples of the nature of hell's punishment: Hell is internal suffering.. In the second
part of the canto Virgil tells Dante the myth of the Old Man of Crete, a grotesque statue,

whose streaming eyes form the rivers of Hell, Acheron, Phlegethon, Styx, and Cocytus.

Canto XV -- Seventh circle, third ring. Second zone: Violent Against Nature. This

canto centers on the figure of Brunetto Latini. These souls are endlessly running

throughout the fiery sands beneath the rain of fire. The main character, Brunetto Latini

had been chancellor of Florence and also Dante’s mentor and teacher in his early life.

Dante sees him as a father figure.

Canto XVI -- Still in the third ring of the seventh circle. Dante sees three

Florentines, Guido Guerra, Tegghiaio Aldombrandino and Jacopo Rusticucci, who

appears to be Sodomite (homosexual). Theme: Decadence of the city of Florence. The

canto ends with the river Phlegethon cascading into the next zone. Virgil summons a

monstrous figure and uses Dante belt as a bait to entice it to come.

Canto XVII -- Passage from the seventh circle, to the eighth circle on the back

of Geryon. As Virgil is coming to an agreement with the monster, Dante encounters

the Usurers, who are seated beneath the rain of fire with a purse — bearing the family’s

heraldic emblem — around their necks. The canto ends with the descent into the eight

circle.

Canto XVIII -- The eighth circle is called Malebolge (evil pouches, or ditches). This

place is reserved to the sin of fraud. This canto deals with the first two ditches: 1) the

Seducers , who are scourged by horned demons. Among the characters Dante sees here

are Venedico Caccianemico (a contemporary) and Jason (from mythology). The second
ditch is reserved to the Flatterers, who are immersed in excrements. Here Dante sees

Alessio Interminei (a contemporary) and Thais (from mythology).

Canto XIX -- Third ditch of the eight circle. This section is reserved to the Simonists,

that is, those who bought and sold sacred objects and positions. These sinners are set

heads down into holes in the rock, with their feet coming out of the hole tormented by

flames. Main character: Pope Nicholas III, who refers to Pope Boniface VIII and Pope

Clement V. The canto closes with Dante’s invective against the simonist popes. Theme of

the canto: Corruption of the Church.

Canto XX -- Fourth ditch of the eight circle. Diviners, Astrologers and Magicians. These

souls have their heads turned backward. It is the law of retribution applied to them: now

they can only see backward while in their lives they believed to see ahead in the future.

Among the characters: Amphiaraus, Tiresias, Aruns and Manto, whose presence leads

Virgil to explains the origin of Mantua, his native city. Among the contemporaries,

Michael Scot.

Canto XXI-XXII -- Eighth circle, fifth ditch. The Barrators. These sinners are plunged

into boiling pitch and guarded by winged demons armed with pitchforks and prongs. In

canto XXI, a new magistrate has just arrived from the city of Lucca. Ten demons are in

charge over these sinners; they are led by Malacoda (evil-tail); who is the chief of the

Malebranche (evil claws). The episode continues in canto XXII, with Ciampolo of

Navarre, in a devilish contest, succeeds in outsmarting the winged demons. Dante and

Virgil are abused by the devils, who like the sinners in this section, are untrustworthy.
Canto XXIII -- End of the fifth ditch: The demons, scorned by Ciampolo fight against

each other. Then they chase the two poets. Virgil helps Dante by pushing him down the

Sixth Ditch, where the Hypocrites walk slowly in a long file, clothed in caps of led. Two

Jovial Friars of Bologna, Catalano and Loderigo are among these sinners. Caiaphas is

stretched down in the figure of a cross with the others walking over him. Also, in this

canto Virgil expresses his distress at Malacoda’s deceitfulness.

Canto XXIV-XXV -- XXIV: Hard Passage to the Seventh Ditch and presentation the

Thieves. One of them, Vanni Fucci is bitten by a serpent, turns into ashes, and then is

restored. Vanni predicts the defeat of the Whites, Dante’s political party, at Pistoia. XXV:

Vanni Fucci’s episodes concludes with his obscene gesture against God. Other characters

in canto XXV include the centaur Cacus and Five Florentines, three of them human, two

of them serpents. The episode end with the astounding metamorphoses undergone by four

of them. Themes: Impotence of the damned souls, and disintegration of the human shape

(interchange with snakes). This narrative was inspired by medieval black magic.

Canto XXVI -- Eighth circle, eighth ditch: The Fraudulent Counselors are clothed in the

flames that burn them. One of these flames, with two points, is shared by Ulysses and

Diomedes. The canto’s main interest is in Ulysses’s account of his last days. He is

presented as a defeated hero, who searches knowledge, but ends in defeat because he is

backed spiritual means. He seeks knowledge for knowledge's sake.

Canto XVII -- Still the eighth circle, eighth ditch: The Fraudulent Counselors. After

Ulysses takes his leave, Dante hears the story of Guido da Montefeltro, who gives the
poet the opportunity to talk about the political affairs of Romagna. Guido tells how he,

being a master of deceit, was deceitfully deceived by Pope Boniface VIII, who absolved

him of a sin he was about to commit. This leads to a dispute between St. Francis and a

devil over Guido’s soul. Needless to say, the devil wins, and Guido ends in hell.

Canto XVIII -- Eighth circle, ninth ditch. The Sower of Scandal and Schism. These

souls are continually walking by, wounded by demons with swords — and after healing

they are wounded again. Here Dante recognizes many, and talks to some. The poetry of

horror returns. The best example is given by Beltran de Bornio, who is holding his

severed head like a lantern. Dante sees him as the most effective example of the

contrapasso (law of retribution).

Canto XIX-XXX -- Last section of the eighth circle: after the episode with Geri del

Bello, a cousin of Dante, the poets see the Falsifiers, divided into groups: 1) Falsifiers of

Metals (Alchemists) in canto XXIX; and in canto XXX: 2) falsifiers of persons, Gianni

Schicchi, and Myrrah; 3) falsifiers of coins makes up the third group with Master Adam,

and 4) Falsifiers of Words: (the Liars) Sinon the Greek. The scene resembles a huge

hospital, as all sinners show a sign of illness.

Canto XXXI -- Passage to the ninth circle. The lowest section of hell located in the last

river, the frozen Cocytus. In this canto we have a presentation of the Giants, who

characterize the last circle One of them, Antheus complies with Virgil’s request and

lowers the two poets on the surface of the frozen river. The ninth circle is divided into

four sections.
Canto XXXII -- Ninth circle, first ring, called Caina. Here are the Traitors of their kins,

immersed in ice, heads bent down. Among them is Carmiscione dei Pazzi. The Second

Ring, called Antenora, contains the traitors of their country. Dante approaches Bocca

degli Abati, who is reluctant to reveal his identity. The canto ends with the revolting sight

of two sinners stuck together, one devouring the other’s head.

Canto XXXIII -- Ninth circle, second and third rings. Count Ugolino tells the story of

his and his sons’ death in a Pisan prison, and he blames the archbishop Ruggeri (the one

whose head he devours) for his fate. His tale is followed by Dante’s invective against

Pisa. The Third Ring, Ptolomea, holds the traitors against their Guests. Their heads come

out of the ice, and their eyes are sealed by frozen tears. Here Dante sees two sinners, Fra’

Alberigo and Branca Doria, who are still alive, but already in Hell. The theological issue

is how can one be alive and already in hell.

Canto XXXIV -- End of Inferno. First part: fourth ring of the ninth circle, Judecca, site

of the Traitors of benefactors. The are fully covered by ice. At the center of the frozen

lake is Lucifer, the emperor of the kingdom of Hell. This giant monster has three faces,

with its three mouths chewing three sinners: Juda, Brutus and Cassius. His six wings

generate the icy breeze that freezes the Cocytus. Dante and Virgil descend through

Lucifer’s body, to the southern hemisphere. Then they climb up to exit the darkness and

see the morning stars.

 D. Symbols
Blank Banner - symbolizing the meaninglessness of their activity in life as shown in

Canto III.

Story of Divine Comedy - symbolizing the spiritual quest of human life

Geryon— a beast with the head of an innocent man and the body of a foul serpent, he

represents dishonesty and fraud.

Virgil - representative of reason, and Beatrice, representative of spiritual love;

The Journey - The first line of the poem compares Dante's life to a road or path which

Dante is halfway through. Thus, when Dante strays from the right path in the beginning of Canto

1, he has symbolically strayed from the right kind of life.

Light and Dark - Another pervasive symbol throughout The Inferno is the binary of light

and dark. Hell is, of course, associated with darkness. Dante often remarks on the darkness of

hell and how some areas of hell are completely devoid of light.
 DIVINE COMEDY – INFERNO

B. Characters
Dante - The author and protagonist of Inferno; the focus of all action and interaction with

other characters. Because Dante chose to present his fictional poem as a record of events that

actually happened to him, a wide gulf between Dante the poet and Dante the character pervades

the poem. For instance, Dante the poet often portrays Dante the character as compassionate and

sympathetic at the sight of suffering sinners, but Dante the poet chose to place them in Hell and

devised their suffering. As a result, if Dante the character is at all representative of Dante the

poet, he is a very simplified version: sympathetic, somewhat fearful of danger, and confused

both morally and intellectually by his experience in Hell. As the poem progresses, Dante the

character gradually learns to abandon his sympathy and adopt a more pitiless attitude toward the

punishment of sinners, which he views as merely a reflection of divine justice.

Read an in-depth analysis of Dante.

Virgil - Dante’s guide through the depths of Hell. Historically, Virgil lived in the first

century b.c., in what is now northern Italy. Scholars consider him the greatest of the Latin poets.

His masterpiece, the Aeneid, tells the story of how Aeneas, along with fellow survivors of the

defeat of Troy, came to found Rome. The shade (or spirit) of Virgil that appears in Inferno has

been condemned to an eternity in Hell because he lived prior to Christ’s appearance on Earth

(and thus prior to the possibility of redemption in Him). Nonetheless, Virgil has now received

orders to lead Dante through Hell on his spiritual journey.

Virgil proves a wise, resourceful, and commanding presence, but he often seems helpless to

protect Dante from the true dangers of Hell. Critics generally consider Virgil an allegorical

representation of human reason—both in its immense power and in its inferiority to faith in God.
Read an in-depth analysis of Virgil.
Beatrice - One of the blessed in Heaven, Beatrice aids Dante’s journey by asking an

angel to find Virgil and bid him guide Dante through Hell. Like Dante and Virgil, Beatrice

corresponds to a historical personage. Although the details of her life remain uncertain, we know

that Dante fell passionately in love with her as a young man and never fell out of it. She has a

limited role in Inferno but becomes more prominent in Purgatorio and Paradiso. In fact, Dante’s

entire imaginary journey throughout the afterlife aims, in part, to find Beatrice, whom he has lost

on Earth because of her early death. Critics generally view Beatrice as an allegorical

representation of spiritual love.

Charon - A figure that Dante appropriates from Greek mythology, Charon is an old man

who ferries souls across the river Acheron to Hell.

Paolo and Francesca da Rimini - A pair of lovers condemned to the Second Circle of

Hell for an adulterous love affair that they began after reading the story of Lancelot and

Guinevere.

Lucifer - The prince of Hell, also referred to as Dis. Lucifer resides at the bottom of the

Ninth (and final) Circle of Hell, beneath the Earth’s surface, with his body jutting through the

planet’s center. An enormous giant, he has three faces but does not speak; his three mouths are

busy chewing three of history’s greatest traitors: Judas, the betrayer of Christ, and Cassius and

Brutus, the betrayers of Julius Caesar.

Minos - The king of Crete in Greek mythology, Minos is portrayed by Dante as a giant

beast who stands at the Second Circle of Hell, deciding where the souls of sinners shall be sent

for torment. Upon hearing a given sinner’s confession, Minos curls his tail around himself a

specific number of times to represent the circle of Hell to which the soul should be consigned.
 Pope Boniface VIII - A notoriously corrupt pope who reigned from 1294 to 1303,

Boniface made a concerted attempt to increase the political might of the Catholic Church and

was thus a political enemy of Dante, who advocated a separation of church and state.

Farinata - A Ghibelline political leader from Dante’s era who resides among the Heretics

in the Sixth Circle of Hell. Farinata is doomed to continue his intense obsession with Florentine

politics, which he is now helpless to affect.

Phlegyas - The boatman who rows Dante and Virgil across the river Styx.

Filippo Argenti - A Black Guelph, a political enemy of Dante who is now in the Fifth

Circle of Hell. Argenti resides among the Wrathful in the river Styx.

Nessus - The Centaur (half man and half horse) who carries Dante through the First Ring

of the Seventh Circle of Hell.

Pier della Vigna - A former advisor to Emperor Frederick II, della Vigna committed

suicide when he fell into disfavor at the court. He now must spend eternity in the form of a tree.

Geryon - The massive serpentine monster that transports Dante and Virgil from the

Seventh to the Eighth Circle of Hell.

Malacoda - The leader of the Malabranche, the demons who guard the Fifth Pouch of the

Eighth Circle of Hell. Malacoda (his name means “evil tail”) intentionally furnishes Virgil and

Dante with erroneous directions.

Vanni Fucci - A thief punished in the Seventh Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell who

prophesies the defeat of the White Guelphs. A defiant soul, Fucci curses God and aims an

obscene gesture at Him before Dante journeys on.

 Ulysses - The great hero of the Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ulysses was a

bold and cunning man who is now imprisoned in the Eighth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell

among those guilty of Spiritual Theft.

Guido da Montefeltro - An advisor to Pope Boniface VIII, da Montefeltro was promised

anticipatory absolution—forgiveness for a sin given prior to the perpetration of the sin itself. Da

Montefeltro now suffers in Hell, since absolution cannot be gained without repentance and it is

impossible to repent a sin before committing it.

Antaeus - The giant who transports Dante and Virgil from the Eighth to the Ninth Circle
of Hell.
Count Ugolino - A traitor condemned to the Second Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell.

Ugolino gnaws on the head of another damned traitor, Archbishop Ruggieri. When Ruggieri

imprisoned Ugolino and his sons, denying them food, Ugolino was driven to eat the corpses of

his starved sons.

Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria - Sinners condemned to the Third Ring of the Ninth

Circle of Hell. Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria are unlike the other sinners Dante encounters:

their crimes were deemed to be so great that devils snatched their souls from their living bodies;

thus, their souls reside in Hell while their bodies live on, now guided and possessed by demons.

E. Allegorical Analysis of the Different Sins ( 9 Circles of Hell)

Inferno, the first part of Dante's Divine Comedy that inspired the latest Dan Brown's

bestseller of the same title describes the poet's vision of Hell. The story begins with the

narrator (who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark wood where he is attacked by three

beasts which he cannot escape. He is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by
Beatrice (Dante's ideal woman). Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the

9 Circles of Hell.

j. First Circle (Limbo)

Dante’s First Circle of Hell is resided by virtuous non-Christians and

unbaptized pagans who are punished with eternity in an inferior form of

Heaven. They live in a castle with seven gates which symbolize the seven

virtues. Here, Dante sees many prominent people from classical antiquity such

as Homer, Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Hippocrates and Julius Caesar.

k. Second Circle (Lust)

In the Second Circle of Hell, Dante and his companion Virgil find people who

were overcome by lust. They are punished by being blown violently back and

forth by strong winds, preventing them to find peace and rest. Strong winds

symbolize the restlessness of a person who is led by desire for fleshly

pleasures. Again, Dante sees many notable people from history and

mythology including Cleopatra, Tristan, Helen of Troy and others who were

adulterous during their lifetime.

l. Third Circle (Gluttony)

When reaching the Third Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil find souls of

gluttons who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus. Sinners in this

circle of Hell are punished by being forced to lie in a vile slush that is

produced by never ending icy rain. The vile slush symbolizes personal

degradation of one who overindulges in food, drink and other worldly

 pleasures, while the inability to see others lying nearby represents the

gluttons’ selfishness and coldness.

m. Fourth Circle (Greed)

In the Fourth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see the souls of people who are

punished for greed. They are divided into two groups – those who hoarded

possessions and those who lavishly spent it – jousting. They use great weights

as a weapon, pushing it with their chests which symbolizes their selfish drive

for fortune during lifetime. The two groups that are guarded by a character

called Pluto (probably the ancient Greek ruler of the underworld) are so

occupied with their activity that the two poets don’t try to speak to them.

n. Fifth Circle (Anger)

The Fifth Circle of Hell is where the wrathful and sullen are punished for their

sins. Transported on a boat by Phlegyas, Dante and Virgil see the wrathful

fighting each other on the surface of the river Styx and the sullen gurgling

beneath the surface of the water. Again, the punishment reflects the type of

the sin committed during lifetime.

o. Sixth Circle (Heresy)

Rejection of religious and/or political “norms.” Dante encounters

Farinata degli Uberti, a military leader and an aristocrat tried to win the Italian

throne, convicted of heresy in 1283. Dante also meets Epicurus, Pope

Anastasius II and Emperor Frederick II.

p. Seventh Circle (Violence)

The Seventh Circle of Hell is divided into three rings. The Outer Ring houses

murderers and others who were violent to other people and property. Here,

Dante sees Alexander the Great (disputed), Dionysius I of Syracuse, Guy de

Montfort and many other notable historical and mythological figures such as

the Centaurus, sank into a river of boiling blood and fire. In the Middle Ring,

the poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees and bushes which are

fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates, chased and torn to

pieces by dogs. In the Inner Ring are blasphemers and sodomites, residing in a

desert of burning sand and burning rain falling from the sky.

q. Eight Circle (Fraud)

The Eight Circle of Hell is resided by the fraudulent. Dante and Virgil reach it

on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with different natures, just like the

fraudulent. This circle of Hell is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with

bridges between them. In Bolgia 1, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In

Bolgia 2 he finds flatterers. After crossing the bridge to Bolgia 3, he and

Virgil see those who are guilty of simony. After crossing another bridge

between the ditches to Bolgia 4, they find sorcerers and false prophets. In

Bolgia 5 are housed corrupt politicians, in Bolgia 6 are hypocrites and in the

remaining 4 ditches, Dante finds hypocrites (Bolgia 7), thieves (Bolgia 7), evil

counselors and advisers (Bolgia 8), divisive individuals (Bolgia 9) and various

falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers and counterfeits (Bolgia 10).

 r. Ninth Circle (Trechery)

The last Ninth Circle of Hell is divided into 4 Rounds according to the

seriousness of the sin though all residents are frozen in an icy lake. Those who

committed more severe sin are deeper within the ice. Each of the 4 Rounds is

named after an individual who personifies the sin. Thus Round 1 is named

Caina after Cain who killed his brother Abel, Round 2 is named Antenora

after Anthenor of Troy who was Priam’s counselor during the Trojan War,

Round 3 is named Ptolomaea after Ptolemy (son of Abubus), while Round 4 is

named Judecca after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus with a kiss.

F. Summary of the Dante’s Inferno 9 circle of hell

Canto I -- First Dante describes an undefined forest, then a hiss lighted by the spring

sunshine, then three beast that stop him from climbing it, and finally Virgil appears to tell

him how he can overcome the beasts. The entire description is presented through images

resembling the logic of a dream.

Canto II -- After the traditional invocation to the Muses, Dante begins the narrative. But

first he has to clear his doubts about the validity of this journey, for he fears that he may

be heading for failure. Virgil assures him that the journey is favored by three heavenly

Ladies, the Virgin Mary, St. Lucia, and Beatrice. The latter summoned Virgil to go out of

Limbo and rescue Dante form the three beasts.

Canto III -- Dante enters the Gates of Hell. He find himself in a vestibule, an area

reserved for the souls of those who never made any decisions, the Neutrals. Here Dante

recognizes one who was known to having made a "great refusal." Dante then reaches the

shore of the first infernal river, Acheron. Here Charon picks up the damned who keep

falling down to ferry them to other side, to Hell.

Canto IV -- First circle of Hell: Limbo. This is the place for the souls of those who were

good people, but did not know Christ. And here Dante encounters the ancient

philosophers. The most important episode is when Dante and Virgil are joined by four

ancient poets: Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan. Together they talk about poetry.

Canto V -- Second circle of Hell: Lustful. This is one of the most popular cantos of

the Commedia. It has captured the attention of many scholars since Dante’s times, mainly

because Dante finds here among the lustful: Francesca da Rimini. Among other sinners,

Dido, queen of Cartage. Minos is the guardian of the circle. Theme: Courtly Love.

Canto VI -- Third circle of Hell: Gluttons: The setting of the third circle is again visual

and graphical: heavy, steady rain, hail and snow. It is monotonous, never ending, and

weakens the souls to the extent that they lay down because they have no strength to rise.

This monotony becomes an obsession. Dante talks to Ciacco, a Florentine, who predicts

Dante's upcoming exile. Cerberus, a three-headed dog, is the guardian of the circle

Canto VII -- Fourth and Fifth circles: The Avaricious and Prodigals are in the fourth

circle, then the two poets descent into the fifth circle, the Wrathful and the Sullen, who

are in the river Styx. These sinners push huge rocks in opposite direction. Dante notices
that most of them are clerics, but he does recognize any of them. The

demon Plutus stands as the guardian of the circle. The second part of the canto describes

the descent into a marshland, the river Stix, where the wrathful are visible, and the sullen

are submerged by the water.

Canto VIII -- Fifth circle and the City of Dis. This canto has two sections: the

conclusion of the representation of the Wrathful and the Sullen, which includes the poet’s

encounter with Filippo Argenti; the second part of the canto describes the presentation

of the city of Dis. This city is modeled after medieval cities, surrounded by walls, with

the gates to allow people in and out.

Canto IX -- The City of Dis - Entrance into Lower Hell. The major characteristic of this

canto is the confrontation between Dante and the forces of evil. They are represented by

the three Erinyes: Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone. Eventually the

invoke Medusa whose evil power is so powerful that anyone who look at her is changed

into stone. When everything seems lost, a Messenger form Heaven comes, and orders

the devils to open the gate of Dis. Dante and Virgil enter the city and find themselves into

a huge cemetery (circle 6).

Canto X -- Sixth Circle: The Heretics (Epicureans): The are placed into open tombs.

The main characters are: Farinata degli Uberti and Cavalcante dei

Cavalcanti. Themes: 1) Farinata’s prediction of Dante’s difficulty in returning to

Florence from exile, 2. Cavalcante’s misunderstanding of Dante’s remark on his son, the

poet Guido. 3) The inability of the damned to see the present, although they can foresee

the future.
Canto XI -- Programmatic canto, The structure of Hell. Still in the sixth circle. There is

a reference to Pope Anastasius’ tomb, but the main issue is Virgil’s exposition of the

structure of Hell. This canto is a doctrinal digression on the physical and moral division

of Hell. It is a programmatic canto in which Dante outlines the Aristotelian conception of

sins into the three categories: Incontinence, Violence, Bestiality (fraud).

Canto XII -- Seventh circle, first ring. Violent Against Others. The mythical monster

who guards the circle is the Minotaur who, being half human half beast, symbolizes the

entire lower hell. Also here we find the Centaurs, mythical creatures — half man half

horses —. They characterize the first section of the seventh circle. They are led by

Chiron, who orders Nessus to guide Dante and Virgil across the boiling river of blood,

the Phlegethon. In this river of boiling blood, we find Tyrants and Murderers; they are

punished by the arrows of the Centaurs.

Canto XIII -- Seventh circle, second ring. Violent Against Self (Suicides,

Squanderers). The setting is made up of a dreary wood populated by the Harpies. The

Suicides have been transformed into strange trees. The Squanderers, on the other hand,

are hounded and ripped apart by bitches. The main characters are, Pier delle

Vigne among the Suicides. He was a notary at the court of Frederick II, was accused of

treason and jailed. He killed himself because he could bear the shame of being in prison.

Two Florentines, Lano and Jacopo da Santo Andrea among the Squanderers.

Canto XIV -- Seventh circle, third ring. First Zone: Violent against God. The Violent

against God (Blasphemers) are lying down on the burning sand under a rain of fire

flakes. The main character of this canto is Capaneus, one of the most significant

examples of the nature of hell's punishment: Hell is internal suffering.. In the second
part of the canto Virgil tells Dante the myth of the Old Man of Crete, a grotesque statue,

whose streaming eyes form the rivers of Hell, Acheron, Phlegethon, Styx, and Cocytus.

Canto XV -- Seventh circle, third ring. Second zone: Violent Against Nature. This

canto centers on the figure of Brunetto Latini. These souls are endlessly running

throughout the fiery sands beneath the rain of fire. The main character, Brunetto Latini

had been chancellor of Florence and also Dante’s mentor and teacher in his early life.

Dante sees him as a father figure.

Canto XVI -- Still in the third ring of the seventh circle. Dante sees three

Florentines, Guido Guerra, Tegghiaio Aldombrandino and Jacopo Rusticucci, who

appears to be Sodomite (homosexual). Theme: Decadence of the city of Florence. The

canto ends with the river Phlegethon cascading into the next zone. Virgil summons a

monstrous figure and uses Dante belt as a bait to entice it to come.

Canto XVII -- Passage from the seventh circle, to the eighth circle on the back

of Geryon. As Virgil is coming to an agreement with the monster, Dante encounters

the Usurers, who are seated beneath the rain of fire with a purse — bearing the family’s

heraldic emblem — around their necks. The canto ends with the descent into the eight

circle.

Canto XVIII -- The eighth circle is called Malebolge (evil pouches, or ditches). This

place is reserved to the sin of fraud. This canto deals with the first two ditches: 1) the

Seducers , who are scourged by horned demons. Among the characters Dante sees here

are Venedico Caccianemico (a contemporary) and Jason (from mythology). The second
ditch is reserved to the Flatterers, who are immersed in excrements. Here Dante sees

Alessio Interminei (a contemporary) and Thais (from mythology).

Canto XIX -- Third ditch of the eight circle. This section is reserved to the Simonists,

that is, those who bought and sold sacred objects and positions. These sinners are set

heads down into holes in the rock, with their feet coming out of the hole tormented by

flames. Main character: Pope Nicholas III, who refers to Pope Boniface VIII and Pope

Clement V. The canto closes with Dante’s invective against the simonist popes. Theme of

the canto: Corruption of the Church.

Canto XX -- Fourth ditch of the eight circle. Diviners, Astrologers and Magicians. These

souls have their heads turned backward. It is the law of retribution applied to them: now

they can only see backward while in their lives they believed to see ahead in the future.

Among the characters: Amphiaraus, Tiresias, Aruns and Manto, whose presence leads

Virgil to explains the origin of Mantua, his native city. Among the contemporaries,

Michael Scot.

Canto XXI-XXII -- Eighth circle, fifth ditch. The Barrators. These sinners are plunged

into boiling pitch and guarded by winged demons armed with pitchforks and prongs. In

canto XXI, a new magistrate has just arrived from the city of Lucca. Ten demons are in

charge over these sinners; they are led by Malacoda (evil-tail); who is the chief of the

Malebranche (evil claws). The episode continues in canto XXII, with Ciampolo of

Navarre, in a devilish contest, succeeds in outsmarting the winged demons. Dante and

Virgil are abused by the devils, who like the sinners in this section, are untrustworthy.
Canto XXIII -- End of the fifth ditch: The demons, scorned by Ciampolo fight against

each other. Then they chase the two poets. Virgil helps Dante by pushing him down the

Sixth Ditch, where the Hypocrites walk slowly in a long file, clothed in caps of led. Two

Jovial Friars of Bologna, Catalano and Loderigo are among these sinners. Caiaphas is

stretched down in the figure of a cross with the others walking over him. Also, in this

canto Virgil expresses his distress at Malacoda’s deceitfulness.

Canto XXIV-XXV -- XXIV: Hard Passage to the Seventh Ditch and presentation the

Thieves. One of them, Vanni Fucci is bitten by a serpent, turns into ashes, and then is

restored. Vanni predicts the defeat of the Whites, Dante’s political party, at Pistoia. XXV:

Vanni Fucci’s episodes concludes with his obscene gesture against God. Other characters

in canto XXV include the centaur Cacus and Five Florentines, three of them human, two

of them serpents. The episode end with the astounding metamorphoses undergone by four

of them. Themes: Impotence of the damned souls, and disintegration of the human shape

(interchange with snakes). This narrative was inspired by medieval black magic.

Canto XXVI -- Eighth circle, eighth ditch: The Fraudulent Counselors are clothed in the

flames that burn them. One of these flames, with two points, is shared by Ulysses and

Diomedes. The canto’s main interest is in Ulysses’s account of his last days. He is

presented as a defeated hero, who searches knowledge, but ends in defeat because he is

backed spiritual means. He seeks knowledge for knowledge's sake.

Canto XVII -- Still the eighth circle, eighth ditch: The Fraudulent Counselors. After

Ulysses takes his leave, Dante hears the story of Guido da Montefeltro, who gives the
poet the opportunity to talk about the political affairs of Romagna. Guido tells how he,

being a master of deceit, was deceitfully deceived by Pope Boniface VIII, who absolved

him of a sin he was about to commit. This leads to a dispute between St. Francis and a

devil over Guido’s soul. Needless to say, the devil wins, and Guido ends in hell.

Canto XVIII -- Eighth circle, ninth ditch. The Sower of Scandal and Schism. These

souls are continually walking by, wounded by demons with swords — and after healing

they are wounded again. Here Dante recognizes many, and talks to some. The poetry of

horror returns. The best example is given by Beltran de Bornio, who is holding his

severed head like a lantern. Dante sees him as the most effective example of the

contrapasso (law of retribution).

Canto XIX-XXX -- Last section of the eighth circle: after the episode with Geri del

Bello, a cousin of Dante, the poets see the Falsifiers, divided into groups: 1) Falsifiers of

Metals (Alchemists) in canto XXIX; and in canto XXX: 2) falsifiers of persons, Gianni

Schicchi, and Myrrah; 3) falsifiers of coins makes up the third group with Master Adam,

and 4) Falsifiers of Words: (the Liars) Sinon the Greek. The scene resembles a huge

hospital, as all sinners show a sign of illness.

Canto XXXI -- Passage to the ninth circle. The lowest section of hell located in the last

river, the frozen Cocytus. In this canto we have a presentation of the Giants, who

characterize the last circle One of them, Antheus complies with Virgil’s request and

lowers the two poets on the surface of the frozen river. The ninth circle is divided into

four sections.
Canto XXXII -- Ninth circle, first ring, called Caina. Here are the Traitors of their kins,

immersed in ice, heads bent down. Among them is Carmiscione dei Pazzi. The Second

Ring, called Antenora, contains the traitors of their country. Dante approaches Bocca

degli Abati, who is reluctant to reveal his identity. The canto ends with the revolting sight

of two sinners stuck together, one devouring the other’s head.

Canto XXXIII -- Ninth circle, second and third rings. Count Ugolino tells the story of

his and his sons’ death in a Pisan prison, and he blames the archbishop Ruggeri (the one

whose head he devours) for his fate. His tale is followed by Dante’s invective against

Pisa. The Third Ring, Ptolomea, holds the traitors against their Guests. Their heads come

out of the ice, and their eyes are sealed by frozen tears. Here Dante sees two sinners, Fra’

Alberigo and Branca Doria, who are still alive, but already in Hell. The theological issue

is how can one be alive and already in hell.

Canto XXXIV -- End of Inferno. First part: fourth ring of the ninth circle, Judecca, site

of the Traitors of benefactors. The are fully covered by ice. At the center of the frozen

lake is Lucifer, the emperor of the kingdom of Hell. This giant monster has three faces,

with its three mouths chewing three sinners: Juda, Brutus and Cassius. His six wings

generate the icy breeze that freezes the Cocytus. Dante and Virgil descend through

Lucifer’s body, to the southern hemisphere. Then they climb up to exit the darkness and

see the morning stars.

 G. Symbols
Blank Banner - symbolizing the meaninglessness of their activity in life as shown in

Canto III.

Story of Divine Comedy - symbolizing the spiritual quest of human life

Geryon— a beast with the head of an innocent man and the body of a foul serpent, he

represents dishonesty and fraud.

Virgil - representative of reason, and Beatrice, representative of spiritual love;

The Journey - The first line of the poem compares Dante's life to a road or path which

Dante is halfway through. Thus, when Dante strays from the right path in the beginning of Canto

1, he has symbolically strayed from the right kind of life.

Light and Dark - Another pervasive symbol throughout The Inferno is the binary of light

and dark. Hell is, of course, associated with darkness. Dante often remarks on the darkness of

hell and how some areas of hell are completely devoid of light.
The Divine Comedy – Inferno

Character List

Dante – a 35 year old man, spiritually lost and wandering away from the True Way — the path
of righteousness and of God. Dante has become weak and is in need of spiritual guidance.
Luckily, a guide is sent to him and he embarks on a spiritual journey to learn the true nature of
sin.

Virgil - a "shade" residing in the Limbo section of Hell, also known as the first circle. Virgil is a
poet of antiquity, much admired by Dante, and the perfect guide for Dante's journey. He is said
to represent human reason and wisdom. Virgil is a strong and competent guide but needs Divine
intervention to complete the journey safely.

Achilles - one of the heroes of the Trojan War.

Antaeus - Giant slain by Hercules.

Argenti - Florentine, bitter enemy of Dante's.

Attila - Chief of the Huns. Called "the Scourge of God."

Beatrice - The inspiration for Dante's work. She entreats Virgil to save Dante.

Bocca - Traitor of Florence. On one occasion he betrayed the Guelphs and caused their defeat.

Boniface VIII, Pope - Dante's bitter enemy.

Brunetto Latini - Distinguished scholar, beloved friend, and advisor to Dante.

Brutus - One of the conspirators in the murder of Caesar.

Caiaphas - The high priest who influenced the Hebrew Council to crucify Jesus.

Capaneus - One of the seven against Thebes. Defied Zeus and was killed by him.

Cassius - One of the conspirators who killed Julius Caesar.

Calvacanti, Cavalcante dei - Father of the poet Guido who is Dante's friend.

Celestine V, Pope - Resigned the papal throne, thus making way for Pope Boniface VIII.

Cerberus - The three headed hound: guards one of the gates of Hell.

Charon - The Ferryman of the river Acheron in Hell.

Ciacco - A notorious glutton: his name means "the hog."

Cleopatra - Queen of Egypt; mistress of Caesar and Mark Antony.

Dido - Queen of Carthage. She was Aeneas' lover.

Diomede - Companion of Ulysses in his last voyage.

Donati family - A politically powerful family who caused the split in the political parties.

Erichtho - Sorceress who conjured Virgil's spirit to help Dante.

Farinata - A prominent leader of the Ghibelline party who defeated Dante's party.

Francesca da Rimini - Lover of Paolo whose brother slew them in the act of adultery.

Frederick II, Emperor - Attempted to unite Italy and Sicily.

Geri del Bello - Cousin to Dante whose murder was not avenged.

Geryon - A monster who represents fraud.

Gianni Schicchi - Aided a member of the Donati family in falsifying a will.

Harpies - In mythology, birds with the faces of women.

Jason - Leader of the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece.

Judas Iscariot - One of the twelve disciples. He betrayed Jesus.

Mahomet - Founder of the Islamic religion.

Malabranche - Demons who punish the barrators. The name means "evil-claws."

Malacoda - One of the Malebranche. His name means "evil tail."

Medusa - One of the Gorgons. The sight of her head filled with snakes turned men to stone.

Minotaur - A monster with a bull's body and a man's head.

Nessus - One of the Centaurs, killed by Hercules.

Nicholas, III, Pope - Successor to Pope John XXI; accused of Simony.

Paolo da Rimini - Committed adultery with Francesca, his brother's wife.

Phlegyas - Ferryman of the river Styx in Hell.

Plutus - God of riches.

Potiphar's Wife - Falsely accused Joseph of trying to seduce her.

Ruggieri, Archbishop - Traitor who starved Ugolino and his sons.

Satan - Also called Lucifer, Dis, and Beelzebub, he is the "Emperor of Hell."

Scala, Can Grande ella - Dante's friend and protector in exile.

Sinon the Greek - Accused of treachery during Trojan War.

Thaïs - A courtesan who flattered her lover excessively.

Ugolino, Count - Imprisoned with his sons and starved to death.

Ulysses - Legendary hero of Homer's Odyssey.

Vanni Fucci - A thief who shocks Dante with his obscenity.

Vigne, Pier delle - He was unjustly imprisoned for graft and committed suicide.

PLOT SUMMARY OF THE CANTOS

Summary: Canto I

Halfway through his life, the poet Dante finds himself wandering alone in a dark forest,
having lost his way on the “true path” (I.10). He says that he does not remember how he lost his
way, but he has wandered into a fearful place, a dark and tangled valley. Above, he sees a great
hill that seems to offer protection from the shadowed glen. The sun shines down from this
hilltop, and Dante attempts to climb toward the light. As he climbs, however, he encounters three
angry beasts in succession—a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf—which force him to turn back.
Returning in despair to the dark valley, Dante sees a human form in the woods, which soon
reveals itself to be the spirit, or shade, of the great Roman poet Virgil. Thrilled to meet the poet
that he most admires, Dante tells Virgil about the beasts that blocked his path. Virgil replies that
the she-wolf kills all who approach her but that, someday, a magnificent hound will come to
chase the she-wolf back to Hell, where she originated. He adds that the she-wolf’s presence
necessitates the use of a different path to ascend the hill; he offers to serve as Dante’s guide. He
warns Dante, however, that before they can climb the hill they must first pass through the place
of eternal punishment (Hell) and then a place of lesser punishment (Purgatory); only then can
they reach God’s city (Heaven). Encouraged by Virgil’s assurances, Dante sets forth with his
guide.
Summary: Canto II

It is now the evening of Good Friday, as the two poets approach the entrance to Hell. But
Dante wonders if he is truly worthy to make the journey: He recalls that Aeneas, and also St.
Paul, made the journey, and he feels unworthy to be included in this noble group: "I am not
Aeneas, nor am I Paul," and Dante is apprehensive.
Virgil reproves Dante for being afraid and assures him that there is great concern for him among
angelic spirits, mainly Beatrice, Dante's beloved, who is now in Heaven. Virgil relates how the
Virgin Mary's messenger, St. Lucia, sent Beatrice to instruct Virgil to help Dante rediscover the
"Right Path" from the Dark Woods. Virgil says that Beatrice wept as she pleaded, and Virgil
eagerly obeyed her instructions and rescued Dante, so they are ready to begin their journey.
Virgil tells Dante to have courage always because the three ladies of Heaven — Virgin Mary, St.
Lucia, and Beatrice — all care for him. Dante is reassured and tells Virgil to lead on and he will
follow.
Summary: Canto III

Virgil leads Dante up to the Gate of Hell, upon which they read a foreboding inscription
that includes the admonition “abandon all hope, you who enter here.” As soon as they enter,
Dante hears innumerable cries of torment and suffering. Virgil explains that these cries emanate
from the souls of those who did not commit to either good or evil but who lived their lives
without making conscious moral choices; therefore, both Heaven and Hell have denied them
entry. These souls now reside in the Ante-Inferno, within Hell yet not truly part of it, where they
must chase constantly after a blank banner. Flies and wasps continually bite them, and writhing
worms consume the blood and tears that flow from them. The souls of the uncommitted are
joined in this torment by the neutral angels—those who sided with neither God nor Satan in the
war in Heaven.
Virgil leads Dante to a great river called Acheron, which marks the border of Hell. A crowd of
newly dead souls waits to be taken across. A boat approaches with an old man, Charon, at its
helm. Charon recognizes Dante as a living soul and tells him to keep away from the dead, but
after Virgil informs him that their journey has been ordained from on high, Charon troubles them
no longer. He returns to his work of ferrying the miserable souls, wailing and cursing, across the
river into Hell. As he transports Virgil and Dante across, Virgil tells the frightened Dante that
Charon’s initial reluctance to ferry him bodes well: only damned souls cross the river. Suddenly,
an earthquake shakes the plain; wind and fire rise up from the ground, and Dante, terrified,
faints.
Summary: Canto IV

A clap of thunder restores Dante to consciousness. When he wakes, feeling as though he

has been asleep for a long time, he finds himself on the other side of the river, apparently having
been carried off the boat by Virgil. He looks down into a deep valley that stretches in front of
him: the First Circle of Hell, or Limbo. Virgil informs him that this circle, which contains the
souls of those who led virtuous lives but either were born before the advent of Christianity (and
thus could not properly honor God) or were never baptized. Dante asks if any souls have ever
received permission to leave Limbo for Heaven, and Virgil names a number of Old Testament
figures—Noah, Moses, and others. Christ granted these souls amnesty when he descended into
Hell during the time between his death and resurrection (an episode commonly known as the
Harrowing of Hell).
Many other notable figures, however, remain in Limbo. Virgil himself resides here, and has been
given only a brief leave to guide Dante. Dante watches a group of men approach and greet Virgil
as a fellow poet. Virgil introduces them as Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan—the greatest poets
of antiquity. They lead Dante to a great castle with seven walls, wherein he sees the souls of
other great figures from the past: the philosophers Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato; Aeneas,
Lavinia, and other characters from the Aeneid; the mathematician Euclid and the astronomer
Ptolemy; and many others. Virgil guides Dante out of the castle and again off into the darkness.
Summary: Canto V

Dante and Virgil now descend into the Second Circle of Hell, smaller in size than the
First Circle but greater in punishment. They see the monster Minos, who stands at the front of an
endless line of sinners, assigning them to their torments. The sinners confess their sins to Minos,
who then wraps his great tail around himself a certain number of times, indicating the number of
the circle to which the soul must go. Like Charon, Minos recognizes Dante as a living soul and
warns him not to enter; it is Virgil’s word that again allows them to pass unmolested.
Dante and Virgil pass into a dark place in which torrential rains fall ceaselessly and gales of
wind tear through the air. The souls of the damned in this circle swirl about in the wind, swept
helplessly through the stormy air. These are the Lustful—those who committed sins of the flesh.
Dante asks Virgil to identify some of the individual souls to him; they include many of great
renown, including Helen, for whose sake the Trojan War was fought, and Cleopatra. Dante
immediately feels sympathy for these souls, for essentially they are damned by love. With
Virgil’s permission, he calls out to the souls to see if they will speak to him and tell him their
story. One woman, Francesca, recognizes Dante as a living soul and answers him. She relates to
him how love was her undoing: bound in marriage to an old and deformed man, she eventually
fell in love with Paolo da Rimini, her husband’s younger brother. One day, as she and Paolo sat
reading an Arthurian legend about the love of Lancelot and Guinevere, each began to feel that
the story spoke to their own secret love. When they came to a particularly romantic moment in
the story, they could not resist kissing. Francesca’s husband quickly discovered their
transgression and had the young lovers killed. Now Paolo and Francesca are doomed to spend
eternity in the Second Circle of Hell. Overcome with pity, Dante faints again.
Summary: Canto VI

When Dante wakes, he finds that he has been moved to the Third Circle of Hell, where
the rains still fall. Now, however, the drops consist of filth and excrement, and a horrific stench
fills the air. A three-headed dog, Cerberus, tries to stop Virgil and Dante’s progress, but Virgil
satisfies the beast by throwing it a chunk of earth. Dante and Virgil then advance into the circle
of the Gluttonous, who must lie on the ground as the sewage rains down upon them.
One of the Gluttonous sits up when he sees Virgil and Dante, and asks if Dante recognizes him.
When Dante replies that he does not, the shade announces himself as Ciacco, saying that he spent
his earthly life in Florence. At Dante’s request, he voices his predictions for Florence’s political
future, which he anticipates will be filled with strife. Dante then asks about figures from
Florence’s political past, naming individuals he believes to have been well intentioned. Ciacco
replies that they reside in a much deeper circle of Hell. Before lying back down, he asks Dante to
remember his name when he returns to the world above.
As they leave the Third Circle, Dante asks Virgil how the punishments of the souls will change
after the Last Judgment. Virgil replies that since that day will bring the perfection of all creation,
their punishments will be perfected as well.
Summary: Canto VII

Virgil and Dante continue down toward the Fourth Circle of Hell and come upon the
demon Plutus. Virgil quiets the creature with a word and they enter the circle, where Dante cries
out at what he sees: a ditch has been formed around the circle, making a great ring. Within the
ring, two groups of souls push weights along in anger and pain. Each group completes a
semicircle before crashing into the other group and turning around to proceed in the opposite
direction. The souls condemned to this sort of torturous, eternal jousting match, Virgil explains,
are those of the Avaricious and the Prodigal, who, during their lives, hoarded and squandered,
respectively, their money.
Dante, as before, inquires whether he knows any of the souls here. Virgil informs him that most
of the Avaricious are corrupt clergymen, popes, and cardinals but adds that the experiences they
undergo here render them unrecognizable. He notes that the Avaricious and Prodigal share one
essential characteristic: they were not prudent with the goods of Fortune. Dante asks Virgil to
explain the nature of this “Fortune.” Virgil replies that Fortune has received orders from God to
transfer worldly goods between people and between nations. Her swift movements evade human
understanding; thus, men should not curse her when they lose their possessions.
Pondering this explanation, Dante follows Virgil down to the Fifth Circle of Hell, which borders
the muddy river Styx. They see souls crouched on the bank, covered in mud, and striking and
biting at each other. They are the Wrathful, those who were consumed with anger during their
lives. Virgil alerts Dante to the presence of additional souls here, which remain invisible to him
as they lie completely submerged in the Styx—these are the Sullen, those who muttered and
sulked under the light of the sun. They now gurgle and choke on the black mud of the swampy
river.
Summary: Canto VIII

Continuing around the Fifth Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante come to a tall tower standing
on the bank, its pinnacle bursting with flames. Virgil and Dante encounter the boatman Phlegyas,
who takes them across the Styx at Virgil’s prompting. On the way, they happen upon a sinner
whom Dante angrily recognizes as Filippo Argenti. He has no pity for Argenti and gladly
watches the other sinners tear him apart as the boat pulls away.
Virgil announces that they are now approaching the city of Dis—Lower Hell. As they near the
entrance, a host of fallen angels cries out. They demand to know why one of the living dares to
try to enter Dis. Virgil again provides a rationale for Dante’s presence, but, for the first time, he
proves unsuccessful in gaining entrance. The demons slam the gate in Virgil’s face, and he
returns to Dante hurt but not defeated.
Summary: Canto IX

Dante grows pale with fear upon seeing Virgil’s failure. Virgil, who appears to be waiting
for someone impatiently, weakly reassures Dante. Suddenly, Dante sees three Furies—creatures
that are half woman, half serpent. They shriek and laugh when they notice Dante, and call for
Medusa to come and turn him into stone. Virgil quickly covers Dante’s eyes so that he will not
see Medusa’s head.
An enormous noise from behind scatters the Furies. Virgil and Dante turn to see a messenger
from Heaven approaching across the river Styx, with souls and demons fleeing before him like
flies. He arrives at the gate and demands that it be opened for the travelers; he is promptly
obeyed. Virgil and Dante pass through the gate of Dis and enter the Sixth Circle of Hell. Tombs
surround them, glowing among fiercely hot flames; here lie the Heretics.
Summary: Canto X

Still in the Sixth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil wander among the fiery tombs of the
Heretics. Virgil describes the particular heresy of one of the groups, the Epicureans, who pursued
pleasure in life because they believed that the soul died with the body. Suddenly, a voice from
one of the tombs interrupts them and addresses Dante as a Tuscan (Tuscany is the region of Italy
in which Florence is located). The voice belongs to a soul whom Virgil identifies as Farinata, a
political leader of Dante’s era. Virgil encourages Dante to speak with him.
Dante and Farinata have hardly begun their conversation when another soul, that of Cavalcante
de’ Cavalcanti, the father of Dante’s intimate friend Guido, rises up and interrupts them,
wondering why his son has not accompanied Dante here. Dante replies that perhaps Guido held
Virgil in disdain. (According to some translations of Inferno, Dante says that Guido held God, or
Beatrice, in disdain. The point is a matter of considerable debate among scholars.) Frantic, the
shade reads too much into Dante’s words and assumes that his son is dead. In despair, he sinks
back down in his grave.
Farinata continues discussing Florentine politics. He and Dante clearly represent opposing
parties (though these parties are not named), yet they treat each other politely. From Farinata’s
words and those of the nearby soul, Dante realizes that the shades in Hell can see future events
but not present ones. Farinata can prophesy the future—he predicts Dante’s exile from
Florence—but remains ignorant of current events. Farinata confirms that, as part of their
punishment, the Heretics can see only distant things.
Virgil calls Dante back, and they proceed through the rest of the Sixth Circle. Farinata’s words
have made Dante apprehensive about the length of time remaining for his exile, but Virgil
assures him that he will hear a fuller account when they come to a better place.
Summary: Canto XI

The poets descend further and come to a group of broken boulders, behind which they rest a bit so
that they can become accustomed to the foul stink that rises from the lower circles. Dante sees a
headstone with an inscription, "I guard Anastasius, once Pope, he whom Photinus led from the straight
road."
While resting for a moment, Virgil begins explaining the structure of Hell, especially that of lower Hell.
Virgil explains that there are other, smaller circles, which comprise the last three circles beyond the wall
that begins the sixth circle.

Circle VII, the next circle, is comprised of three smaller circles: one circle for Violence against Persons and
their goods, another circle for Violence against Themselves (suicides), and the final circle for Violence
against God, Art, and Nature. Virgil goes into detail about who resides in which circle and for what sins. It
is growing late and they must leave for the descent into the next circle.

Summary: Canto XII

The poets enter round one of Circle VII and must navigate a steep passage of broken rocks. They come
upon the Minotaur, and Virgil taunts it into a fury, so that the two may pass unharmed.

Virgil tells Dante to turn his eyes to the valley where he will see souls boiling in blood. Dante sees a group
of armed Centaurs galloping toward them. Virgil names them and tells a bit of their individual histories.
One of the Centaurs, Chiron, moves his beard aside with an arrow and notes that Dante must be alive
since he moves things that he touches, such as rocks when he walks. Virgil gives Chiron an explanation
about their journey and asks that one of the Centaurs guide them to a shallow place in the river of blood
where Dante can cross, riding on the Centaur's back. Chiron volunteers Nessus, another of the Centaurs.
Nessus explains that the souls boiling in the river of blood were people that were kings of bloodshed and
despoilment. Dante turns to Virgil for guidance, but Virgil says that he will let Nessus guide at this point.
Nessus goes on to point out the names of some of the souls in the river. Nessus explains that the river
grows deep again on the other side of the ford, and he names some of the other souls punished there.
Nessus leaves the poets at the other side of the bank and goes back the way he came.

Summary: Canto XIII

In the Second Ring of the Seventh Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante enter a strange wood
filled with black and gnarled trees. Dante hears many cries of suffering but cannot see the souls
that utter them. Virgil cryptically advises him to snap a twig off of one of the trees. He does so,
and the tree cries out in pain, to Dante’s amazement. Blood begins to trickle down its bark. The
souls in this ring—those who were violent against themselves or their possessions (Suicides and
Squanderers, respectively)—have been transformed into trees.
Virgil tells the damaged tree-soul to tell his story to Dante so that Dante may spread the story on
Earth. The tree-soul informs them that in life he was Pier della Vigna, an advisor to Emperor
Frederick, and that he was a moral and admirable man. But when an envious group of scheming
courtiers blackened his name with lies, he felt such shame that he took his own life.
Dante then asks how the souls here came to be in their current state. The tree-soul explains that
when Minos first casts souls here, they take root and grow as saplings. They then are wounded
and pecked by Harpies—foul creatures that are half woman, half bird. When a tree-soul’s branch
is broken, it causes the soul the same pain as dismemberment. When the time comes for all souls
to retrieve their bodies, these souls will not reunite fully with theirs, because they discarded them
willingly. Instead, the returned bodies will be hung on the soul-trees’ branches, forcing each soul
to see and feel constantly the human form that it rejected in life.
At this point, two young men run crashing through the wood, interrupting Dante’s conversation
with the tree-soul. One of the men, Jacomo da Sant’Andrea, falls behind and leaps into a bush;
vicious dogs have been pursuing him, and now they rend him to pieces. Virgil and Dante then
speak to the bush, which is also a soul: it speaks of the suffering that has plagued Florence ever
since it decided to make St. John the Baptist its patron, replacing its old patron, Mars (a Roman
god). The bush-soul adds that he was a Florentine man in life who hanged himself.
Summary: Canto XIV

Dante gathers the bush’s scattered leaves and gives them to the bush. He and Virgil then
proceed through the forest of tree-souls to the edge of the Third Ring of the Seventh Circle of
Hell. Here they find a desert of red-hot sand, upon which flakes of fire drift down slowly but
ceaselessly. As Virgil expounded in Canto XI, this ring, reserved for those who were violent
against God, is divided into three zones. The rain of fire falls throughout all three. The First Zone
is for the Blasphemers, who must lie prone on a bank of sand. The falling flakes of fire keep the
sand perpetually hot, ensuring that the souls burn from above and below. Among these sinners
Dante sees a giant, whom Virgil identifies as Capaneus, one of the kings who besieged Thebes.
Capaneus rages relentlessly, insisting that the tortures of Hell shall never break his defiance.
he poets reach another river, which runs red, and Virgil speaks to Dante about the source of
Hell’s waters. Underneath a mountain on the island of Crete sits the broken statue of an Old
Man. Tears flow through the cracks in the statue, gathering at his feet. As they stream away, they
form the Acheron, the Styx, the Phlegethon, and finally Cocytus, the pool at the bottom of Hell.
Summary: Canto XV

Crossing the stream, Virgil and Dante enter the Second Zone of the Seventh Circle’s
Third Ring, where the Sodomites—those violent against nature—must walk continuously under
the rain of fire. One of these souls, Brunetto Latini, recognizes Dante and asks him to walk near
the sand for a while so that they may converse. Latini predicts that Dante will be rewarded for
his heroic political actions. Dante dismisses this prediction and says that Fortune will do as she
pleases. Virgil approves of this attitude, and they move on as Latini returns to his appointed path.
Summary: Canto XVI

Still in the Second Zone among the Sodomites, Dante is approached by another group of
souls, three of whom claim to recognize Dante as their countryman. The flames have charred
their features beyond recognition, so they tell Dante their names. Dante recalls their names from
his time in Florence and feels great pity for them. They ask if courtesy and valor still characterize
their city, but Dante sadly replies that acts of excess and arrogance now reign.
Before leaving the Second Zone, Virgil makes a strange request. He asks for the cord that Dante
wears as a belt, then throws one end of it into a ravine filled with dark water. Dante watches
incredulously as a horrible creature rises up before them.
Summary: Canto XVII

Dante now sees that the creature has the face of a man, the body of a serpent, and two
hairy paws. Approaching it, he and Virgil descend into the Third Zone of this circle’s Third
Ring. Virgil stays to speak with the beast, sending Dante ahead to explore the zone, inhabited by
those who were violent against art (Virgil has earlier denoted them as the Usurers). Dante sees
that these souls must sit beneath the rain of fire with purses around their necks; these bear the
sinners’ respective family emblems, which each “with hungry eyes consumed” (XVII.51). As
they appear unwilling to talk, Dante returns to Virgil.
In the meantime, Virgil has talked the human-headed monster into transporting them down to the
Eighth Circle of Hell. Fearful but trusting of his guide, Dante climbs onto the beast’s serpentine
back; Virgil addresses their mount as “Geryon.” To Dante’s terror and amazement, Geryon rears
back and suddenly takes off into the air, circling slowly downward. After setting them down
safely among the rocks at the edge of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Geryon returns to his domain.
Summary: Canto XVIII

Virgil and Dante find themselves outside the Eighth Circle of Hell, known as Malebolge
(“Evil Pouches”). Dante describes the relationship between the circle’s structure and its name:
the circle has a wall running along the outside and features a great circular pit at its center; ten
evenly spaced ridges run between the wall and the pit. These ridges create ten separate pits, or
pouches, in which the perpetrators of the various forms of “ordinary fraud” receive their
punishments. Virgil leads Dante around the left side of the circle, where they come upon the First
Pouch.
Here, Virgil and Dante see a group of souls running constantly from one side of the pouch to the
other. On both of the pouch’s containing ridges, demons with great whips scourge the souls as
soon as they come within reach, forcing them back to the opposite ridge. Dante recognizes an
Italian there and speaks to him; the soul informs Dante that he lived in Bologna and now dwells
here because he sold his sister to a noble. This pouch is for the Panders (pimps) and the
Seducers—those who deceive women for their own advantage. Moving on, Virgil and Dante also
see the famous Jason of mythology, who abandoned Medea after she helped him find the Golden
Fleece.
As Virgil and Dante cross the ridge to the Second Pouch, a horrible stench besieges them, and
they hear mournful cries. Dante beholds a ditch full of human excrement, into which many
sinners have been plunged. From one of these souls, he learns that this pouch contains the
Flatterers. After a few seconds, Virgil says that they have seen enough of this foul sight. They
progress toward the Third Pouch.
Summary: Canto XIX

Dante already knows that the Third Pouch punishes the Simoniacs, those who bought or
sold ecclesiastical pardons or offices. He decries the evil of simony before he and Virgil even
view the pouch. Within, they see the sinners stuck headfirst in pits with only their feet
protruding. As these souls writhe and flail in the pits, flames lap endlessly at their feet.
Dante notes one soul burning among flames redder than any others, and he goes to speak with
him. The soul, that of Pope Nicholas III, first mistakes Dante for Boniface. After Dante corrects
him, the soul tells Dante that he was a pope guilty of simony. He mourns his own position but
adds that worse sinners than he still remain on Earth and await an even worse fate. Dante asserts
that St. Peter did not pay Christ to receive the Keys of Heaven and Earth (which symbolize the
papacy). He shows Nicholas no pity, saying that his punishment befits his grave sin. He then
speaks out against all corrupt churchmen, calling them idolaters and an affliction on the world.
Virgil approves of Dante’s sentiments and helps Dante up over the ridge to the Fourth Pouch.
Summary: Canto XX

Dante looks down upon the faces of the sinners in the next chasm and weeps with grief at their
torment; these sinners must walk through eternity with their heads on backwards and tears in
their eyes. Virgil reproaches Dante for feeling any pity for these sinners, the Fortune Tellers and
Diviners, because they are here as a point of justice. They sinned by trying to foretell the future,
which is known only to God.
As Virgil mentions Manto, one of the sinners in this chasm, he also delivers a lengthy, detailed
description of how his native city, Mantua, originated, and Virgil makes Dante promise to tell
this true story. Dante promises and asks about the others in the chasm. Virgil names a few of the
souls before saying that he and Dante should hurry onward because the moon is already setting.
With that, the poets travel on to the next chasm.
Summary: Canto XXI

Entering the Fifth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Dante sees “an astounding
darkness.” The darkness is a great pit filled with a kind of boiling tar similar to what the
Venetians used to patch their ships (XXI.6). As Dante examines the pitch to determine its
composition, Virgil yells for him to watch out: a demon races up the rocks on the side of the pit,
grabbing a new soul and tossing him into the blackness. As soon as the sinner comes up for
breath, the demons below—the Malabranche, whose name means “evil claws”—thrust him back
underneath with their prongs.
Virgil now advises Dante to hide behind a rock while he tries to negotiate their passage. The
Malabranche at first act recalcitrant, but once he tells them that their journey is the will of
Heaven, they agree to let the two travelers pass. They even provide an escort of ten demons—a
necessary accompaniment, they say, as one of the bridges between the pouches has collapsed.
Malacoda, the leader of the Malabranche (his name means “evil tail”), informs them of the exact
moment that the bridge fell: 1,266 years and nineteen hours (or, as he puts it, five hours later
than the same time yesterday) before the present moment. Malacoda adds that a nearby ridge
provides an alternate route.
Summary: Canto XXII

The group goes forward, with Dante carefully watching the surface of the pitch for
someone with whom to converse. He has few opportunities, as the sinners cannot stay out of the
pitch long before getting skewered. Finally, Virgil manages to talk to one of the sinners who is
being tortured outside of the pit. The soul, a Navarrese, explains that he served in the household
of King Thibault and was sent to the Fifth Pouch because he accepted bribes—this pouch, then,
contains the Barterers. The conversation breaks off as the tusked demon Ciriatto rips into the
soul’s body. Virgil then asks the soul if any Italians boil in the pitch. The soul replies that it
could summon seven if the travelers wait for a moment. A nearby demon voices the suspicion
that the soul merely intends to escape the demons’ tortures and seek the relative relief of the
pitch below. The other demons turn to listen to their coworker, and the soul races back to the
pitch and dives in, not intending to return. Furious, two of the demons fly after the soul but
become mired in the sticky blackness. As the other demons try to free their comrades, Virgil and
Dante take the opportunity to make a discreet exit.
Summary: Canto XXIII

As he and Virgil progress, Dante worries that they may have provoked the demons too
much with this embarrassment. Virgil agrees. Suddenly, they hear the motion of wings and claws
from behind, and turn to see the demons racing after them in a mad pack. Virgil acts quickly.
Grabbing hold of Dante, he runs to the slope leading to the Sixth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of
Hell. He then slides down the slope with Dante in his arms, thus foiling the demons, who may
not leave their assigned pouch.
Now in the Sixth Pouch, Virgil and Dante see a group of souls trudging along in a circle, clothed
in hats, cowls, and capes. Dante soon notices that lead lines their garments, rendering them
massively heavy. One of the shades recognizes Dante’s Tuscan speech and begs Dante to talk
with him and his fellow sinners, as they include Italians in their ranks. These are the Hypocrites.
The sight of one of them in particular stops Dante short: he lies crucified on the ground, and all
of the other Hypocrites trample over him as they walk. The crucified sinner is Caiphus, who
served as high priest under Pontius Pilate. Virgil asks one of the sinners for directions to the next
part of Hell. He finds that Malacoda lied to him about the existence of a connecting ridge, and
now learns the proper route.
Summary: Canto XXIV

Making their way to the Seventh Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante
face many dangers. Because of the collapsed bridge, they must navigate treacherous rocks, and
Virgil carefully selects a path before helping his mortal companion along. Dante loses his breath
for a moment, but Virgil urges him onward, indicating that a long climb still awaits them. They
descend the wall into the Seventh Pouch, where teeming masses of serpents chase after naked
sinners; coiled snakes bind the sinners’ hands and legs. Dante watches a serpent catch one of the
sinners and bite him between the shoulders. He watches in amazement as the soul instantly
catches fire and burns up, then rises from the ashes to return to the pit of serpents.
Virgil speaks to this soul, who identifies himself as a Tuscan, Vanni Fucci, whom Dante knew
on Earth. Fucci tells them that he was put here for robbing a sacristy—the Seventh Pouch holds
Thieves. Angered that Dante is witnessing his miserable condition, he foretells the defeat of
Dante’s political party, the White Guelphs, at Pistoia.
Summary: Canto XXV

Cursing God with an obscene gesture, Fucci flees with serpents coiling around him, and
Dante now relishes the sight. Moving further along the pit, he and Virgil behold an even more
incredible scene. Three souls cluster just beneath them, and a giant, six-footed serpent wraps
itself so tightly around one of them that its form merges with that of its victim; the serpent and
soul become a single creature. As the other souls watch in horror, another reptile bites one of
them in the belly. The soul and the reptile stare at each other, transfixed, as the reptile slowly
takes on the characteristics of the man and the man takes on those of the reptile. Soon they have
entirely reversed their forms.
Summary: Canto XXVI

Having recognized these thieves as Florentines, Dante sarcastically praises Florence for
earning such widespread fame not only on Earth but also in Hell. Virgil now leads him along the
ridges to the Eighth Pouch, where they see numerous flames flickering in a deep, dark valley.
Coming closer, Virgil informs Dante that each flame contains a sinner. Dante sees what appear
to be two souls contained together in one flame, and Virgil identifies them as Ulysses and
Diomedes, both suffering for the same fraud committed in the Trojan War.
Dante desires to speak with these warriors, but Virgil, warning him that the Greeks might disdain
Dante’s medieval Italian, speaks to them as an intermediary. He succeeds in getting Ulysses to
tell them about his death. Restlessly seeking new challenges, he sailed beyond the western edge
of the Mediterranean, which was believed to constitute the rim of the Earth; legend asserted that
death awaited any mariner venturing beyond that point. After five months, he and his crew came
in view of a great mountain. Before they could reach it, however, a great storm arose and sank
their ship.
Summary: Canto XXVII

After hearing Ulysses’ story, Virgil and Dante start down their path again, only to be
stopped by another flame-immersed soul. This soul lived in Italy’s Romagna region, and now,
hearing Dante speak the Lombard tongue, he asks for news of his homeland. Dante replies that
Romagna suffers under violence and tyranny but not outright war. He then asks the soul his
name, and the sinner, believing that Dante will never leave the abyss and thus will be unable to
spread word of his infamy, consents to tell him.
He introduces himself as Guido da Montefeltro and states that he was originally a member of the
Ghibellines. After a time, he underwent a religious conversion and joined a Franciscan
monastery, but he was then persuaded by Pope Boniface VIII to reenter politics on the opposing
side. At one point, Boniface asked him for advice on how to conquer Palestrina (formerly called
Penestrino, it served as the fortress of the Ghibelline Colonna family). Da Montefeltro showed
reluctance, but Boniface promised him absolution in advance, even if his counsel were to prove
wrong. He then agreed to give his advice, which turned out to be incorrect. When he died, St.
Francis came for him, but a devil pulled him away, saying that a man could not receive
absolution before sinning, for absolution cannot precede repentance and repentance cannot
precede the sin. Such preemptive absolution he deemed “contradictory,” and thus invalid.
Calling himself a logician, the devil took da Montefeltro to Minos, who deemed the sinner guilty
of fraudulent counsel and assigned him to the Eighth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell.
Summary: Canto XXVIII

Virgil and Dante continue on to the Ninth Pouch, where they see a line of souls circling
perpetually. Dante sees they bear wounds worse than those suffered at the battles at Troy and
Ceparano. A devil stands at one point of the circle with a sword, splitting open each sinner who
walks by. One of the sinners speaks to Dante as he passes—it is Mohammed, prophet of the
Muslims. These are the Sowers of Scandal and Schism, and for their sins of division they
themselves are split apart. Worse, as they follow the circle around, their wounds close up so that
they are whole by the time they come back to the sword, only to be struck again.
Many others in this line look up at Dante, hearing his living voice. The Italians among them beg
Dante to carry messages to certain men still living on Earth. They make predictions of a
shipwreck and give a warning for Fra Dolcino, who is in danger of joining them when he dies.
Finally, Dante sees a man carrying his own head in his hands: it is Bertran de Born, who advised
a young king to rebel against his father.
Summary: Canto XXIX

Virgil reprimands Dante for staring so long at the wounded souls, reminding him that
their time is limited; this time, however, Dante stubbornly follows his own inclination. He takes
note of one more soul, an ancestor of his who died unavenged.
Finally, Virgil and Dante follow the ridge down and to the left until they can see the Tenth Pouch
below them. This pouch houses the Falsifiers, and it is divided into four zones. In the First Zone,
souls huddle in heaps and sprawl out on the ground. Scabs cover them from head to foot; they
scratch at them furiously and incessantly.
Dante locates two Italians in this zone. Since his journey will take him back to the world of the
living, he offers to spread their names among men if they will tell him their stories. The two
souls oblige. One of them is Griffolino of Arezzo, who was burned at the stake for heresy but has
landed here in the Tenth Pouch for his practice of the occult art of alchemy. The other is a
Florentine, Capocchio, who was likewise an alchemist burned at the stake. We learn that the First
Zone holds the Falsifiers of Metals.
Summary: Canto XXX

Beholding the Second Zone in the Tenth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Dante recalls
stories of antiquity in which great suffering caused humans to turn on each other like animals.
But the viciousness portrayed in these stories pales in comparison with what he witnesses here,
where the sinners tear at each other with their teeth; these are the Falsifiers of Others’ Persons.
Dante sees a woman, Myrrha, who lusted after her father and disguised herself as another in
order to gratify her lust. Some of the sinners of the Third Zone, the Falsifiers of Coins, mingle
among these souls. Dante speaks with Master Adam, who counterfeited Florentine money; part
of his punishment is to be racked with thirst. Adam points out two members of the Fourth Zone,
the Falsifiers of Words, or Liars: one is the wife of Potiphar, who falsely accused Joseph of
trying to seduce her, and the other is a Greek man, Sinon. The latter apparently knows Adam and
comes over to pick a fight with him. Dante listens to them bicker for a while. Virgil harshly
reprimands his companion, telling him that it is demeaning to listen to such a petty disagreement.
Summary: Canto XXXI

As Virgil and Dante finally approach the pit in the center of the Eighth Circle of Hell,
Dante sees what appear to be tall towers in the mist. Going closer, he realizes that they are
actually giants standing in the pit. Their navels are level with the Eighth Circle, but their feet
stand in the Ninth Circle, at the very bottom of Hell. One of the giants begins to speak in
gibberish; he is Nimrod, who, via his participation in building the Tower of Babel, brought the
confusion of different languages to the world.
Virgil names some of the other giants whom they pass until they come to Antaeus, the one who
will help them down the pit. After listening to Virgil’s request, Antaeus takes the two travelers in
one of his enormous hands and slowly sets them down by his feet, at the base of the enormous
well. They are now in the Ninth Circle of Hell, the realm of Traitors.
Summary: Canto XXXII

Dante feels that he cannot adequately express the grim terror of what he and Virgil see
next, but he states that he will nevertheless make an attempt. Walking past the giant’s feet, the
two come upon a vast frozen lake, as clear as glass—Cocytus. In the ice, souls stand frozen up to
their heads, their teeth chattering. The First Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell is called Caina (after
Cain, who, as Genesis recounts, slew his brother, Abel), where traitors to their kin receive their
punishment. Virgil and Dante see twins frozen face to face, butting their heads against each other
in rage. Walking farther, Dante accidentally kicks one of the souls in the cheek. Leaning down to
apologize, he thinks he recognizes the face—it turns out to belong to Bocca degli Abati, an
Italian traitor. Dante threatens Bocca and tears out some of his hair before leaving him in the ice.
Virgil and Dante progress to the Second Ring, Antenora, which contains those who betrayed
their homeland or party. Continuing across the lake, Dante is horrified to see one sinner gnawing
at another’s head from behind. He inquires into the sin that warranted such cruelty, stating that
he might be able to spread the gnawing sinner’s good name on Earth.
Summary: Canto XXXIII

The sinner raises himself from his gnawing and declares that in life he was Count
Ugolino; the man whose head he chews was Archbishop Ruggieri. Both men lived in
Pisa, and the archbishop, a traitor himself, had imprisoned Ugolino and his sons as
traitors. He denied them food, and when the sons died, Ugolino, in his hunger, was driven
to eat the flesh of their corpses.
Dante now rails against Pisa, a community known for its scandal but that nevertheless has
remained unpunished on Earth. He and Virgil then pass to the Third Ring, Ptolomea, which
houses those who betrayed their guests. The souls here lie on their backs in the frozen lake, with
only their faces poking out of the ice. Dante feels a cold wind sweeping across the lake, and
Virgil tells him that they will soon behold its source.
The poets react with particular horror at the sight of the next two souls in the Third Ring, those
of Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria. Although these individuals have not yet died on Earth, their
crimes were so great that their souls were obliged to enter Hell before their time; devils occupy
their living bodies aboveground. After leaving these shades, Virgil and Dante approach the
Fourth Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell, the very bottom of the pit.
Summary: Canto XXXIV

The poets reach the final round of the last circle of Cocytus, the ninth and final circle of
Hell called Judecca, and see the sinners there completely encased in the ice, in all sorts of strange
and twisted positions. These are the sinners who were treacherous to their masters, and since
they cannot speak, the poets move on to see Satan, the master of this place.
Dante uses Virgil as a windbreaker, because Satan's bat-like wings are flapping, creating a cold
wind that freezes the ice firmer. Dante stands dazed and shaken in the presence of this hideous
being and can only attempt to describe him.
Satan is bound in the ice to his mid-point and has three faces — a red one, a yellow one, and
black one. In each of his three mouths he chews a sinner. Virgil explains that Judas Iscariot, who
betrayed Christ, is the one in the middle and suffering most, and that the other two are Brutus
and Cassius, who betrayed Caesar.
Virgil tells Dante to hold on to him as he climbs Satan's back, waiting for a moment when the
wings are open so that they can have a safe passage down. Finally, Virgil climbs through a hole
in the central rock, turning around — Dante is afraid that Virgil is going back through Hell, but
both of the poets find themselves on their feet and standing on the other side of the world, having
passed the mid-point of the Earth. They can see Satan's legs on this side, his body still frozen in
the ice above.
Without pausing to rest, the poets make the long journey to the other side of the world where
they are delivered though a round opening into the world under the stars.
GLOSSARY

True Way the way of God.

holy hour dawn.

sweet season of commemoration Easter.

shade the word Dante uses for spirits in Hell.

Lombard a native or inhabitant of Lombardy.

Mantuan from Mantua.

sub Julio during the reign of Julius Caesar.

Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus) 63 b.c.-14 a.d.; first Roman emperor (27 b.c.-14 a.d.);
grandnephew of Julius Caesar.

Troy ancient Phrygian city in Troas, NW Asia Minor; scene of the Trojan War.

the second death a soul's damnation.

King of Time Christ.

Peter's Gate here, the gate to Purgatory.

Muses the nine goddesses who preside over literature and the arts and sciences.
father of Sylvius Aeneas.
Apostolate the office, duties, or peroid of activity of an apostle.
Aeneas hero of the Aeneid, written by Virgil.
Paul St. Paul; (original name Saul) died c. 67 a.d.; a Jew of Tarsus who became the Apostle of
Christianity to the Gentiles; author of several letters in the New Testament.
Limbo in some Christian theologies, the eternal abode or state, neither Heaven nor Hell, of the
souls of infants or others dying in original sin but free of grievous personal sin; or, before the
coming of Christ.
Seraphim any of the highest order of angels, above the cherubim.
Lady in Heaven Virgin Mary.
Lucia St. Lucia, messenger of the Virgin Mary, patron saint of eyesight; here, represents Divine
Light.
Rachel an Old Testament figure; here, she is said to represent Contemplative Life.

Acheron the River of Sorrow.

spleen malice; spite; bad temper.

Mighty One Christ.

our first parent Adam.

bestial like a beast in qualities or behavior; brutish or savage; brutal, coarse, vile, and so on.

Minos Greek Mythology. a king of Crete, son of Zeus by Europa; after he dies he becomes one
of the three judges of the dead in the lower world. In mythology, Minos is a compassionate
judge. He refused to judge his wife Paesaphe when she had an affair with a bull, producing the
Minotaur, because he had never been exposed to such violent passions. Dante ignores this and
makes Minos into a stern and horribly bestial judge.

wherries in this canto, the term suggests fast movement.

Semiramis Babalonian Legend. a queen of Assyria noted for her beauty, wisdom, and sexual
exploits; reputed founder of Babylon; based on a historical queen of the ninth century b.c.

Ninus husband of Semiramis.

Sichaeus husband of Dido.

Helen Greek Legend. the beautiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta; the Trojan War is started
because of her abduction by Paris to Troy.

Paris Greek Legend. a son of Priam, king of Troy; his kidnapping of Helen, wife of Menelaus,
causes the Trojan War.

Tristan Arthurian Legend. a knight sent to Ireland by King Mark of Cornwall to bring back the
princess Isolde to be the king's bride. Isolde and Tristan fall in love and tragically die together.

Po river in northern Italy, flowing from the Cottian Alps east into the Adriatic.

Caina the first ring of the last circle in Hell, according to Dante.

Lancelot Arthurian Legend. the most celebrated of the Knights of the Round Table and the lover
of Guinevere.

Michael Bible. one of the archangels.

Charybdis old name of a whirlpool off the Northeast coast of Sicily, in the Strait of Messina
(now called Galofalo).
Permutations any radical alteration; total transformation.

Styx The River of Hate; in Inferno, a terrible marsh where the Wrathful and Sullen reside.

Judaica the final pit of Hell; also, Judecca.

Furies Greek and Roman Mythology. the three terrible female spirits with snaky hair (Alecto,
Tisiphone, and Megaera) who punish the doers of unavenged crimes.

hydras water serpents.

Erinyes Furies.

Hecate Greek Mythology. a goddess of the moon, earth, and underground realm of the dead, later
regarded as the goddess of sorcery and witchcraft.

Megaera Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Alecto Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Tisiphone Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Theseus Greek legend. the principal hero of Attica, son of Aegeus, and king of Athens; famed
especially for his killing of the Minotaur; tried to kidnap Hecate.

Gorgon Greek Mythology. any of three sisters with snakes for hair, so horrible that the beholder
is turned to stone.

Jehosaphat valley outside Jerusalem where it is believed that the Last Judgement will take
place.

Epicurus Greek philosopher. 341-270 b.c. founder of the Epicurean school, which held that the
goal of man should be a life characterized by serenity of mind and the enjoyment of moderate
pleasure.

Guido Guido Cavalanti, poet and friend of Dante; also Farinata's son-in-law.

Cardinal of the Ubaldini a cardinal in Dante's time, said to be involved in money and politics.

Anastasius in Inferno, the leader (whether pope or emperor) who led Photinus to deny the divine
paternity of Christ.

Photinus deacon of Thessolonica who commited heresy by denying the divine paternity of
Christ.
Sodom Bible. a city destroyed by fire together with a neighboring city, Gomorrah, because of the
sinfulness of the people: Genesis 18 and 19.

Cahors a city in France known for its usurers.

sycophants persons who seek favor by flattering people of wealth or influence.

Slides of Mark near Trent on the left bank of the river Adige about two miles from Roverto.

Infamy of Crete the Minotaur.

Centaurs Greek Mythology. any of a race of monsters with a man's head, trunk, and arms, and a
horse's body and legs.

Chiron Greek Mythology. the wisest of all Centaurs, famous for his knowledge of medicine; he
is the teacher of Asclepius, Achilles, and Hercules.

Dejanira Hercules wife.

Pholus mentioned by a number of classical poets, but not much detail is known about him.

Alexander Alexander the Great; 356-323 b.c.; king of Macedonia (336-323); military conqueror
who helped spread Greek culture from Asia Minor and Egypt to India.

Dionysius father and son, I and II, tyrants of Sicily.

Azzolinao cruel Ghibelline tyrant.

Opizzo da Esti cruel Ghibelline tyrant.

That one before God's Altar pierced a heart Guy de Montfort, leader of a rebellion against
Henry III.

Sextus the younger son of Pompeii the Great.

Pyrrhus either the son of Achilles or the king of Epirus; both were bloodthirsty warriors.

Strophades the island where the Harpies live.

Toppo a river near Arezzo in Italy.

Arno river in Tuscany, central Italy, flowing west through Florence.

Cato Cato of Utica; also a friend of Cicero.

Alexander 356-323 b.c.; king of Macedonia (336-323); military conqueror who helped spread
Greek culture from Asia Minor and Egypt to India.

Mongibello Mount Edna, where Vulcan had his forge.

Vulcan Roman Mythology. the god of fire and of metalworking; later identified with the Greek
Hephaestus.

Phlegra the battle at Phlegra for which Vulcan was the forge.

Bulicame a red-tinted stream in Viterbo where the prostitutes bathed.

Crete Greek island in the Mediterranean.

Rhea Greek Mythology. daughter of Uranus and Gaea, wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus,
Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, Hera, and Hestia; identified with the Roman Ops and the Phrygian
Cybele.

Corybantes any of the attendants who follow the Phrygian goddess Cybele with dancing and
frenzied orgies.

Daimetta Egypt.

Cocytus the final circle of Hell.

Francesco d'Accorso Florentine scholar.

Servent of Servents Boniface VII, Dante's enemy.

Arno river in Tuscany, central Italy, flowing west through Florence and into the Ligurian Sea.

Bacchiglione river in Italy.

Guido Guerra a leader of the Guelphs; the last name means "war."

Gualdrada legendary modest woman, used as a model of womanhood.

Tegghiaio Aldobrandi a knight and a Guelph noble.

Jacopo Rusticucci respected Florentine knight.

Borsiere courtier arranger of marriages and a peacemaker.

San Benedetto dell'Alpe a monastery close to Florence.

Tartar or Turk Tartars and Turks were the great weavers of Dante's time.
Arachne famous spinner who challenged Minerva to a spinning contest; Minerva became
enraged at the result of the contest and turned Arachne into a spider.

Phaeton Son of Apollo who drove the chariot of the sun and lost control of the horses, so Zeus
struck him down so that the world would not catch fire; the track of the horses is the Milky Way.

Icarus Greek Mythology. the son of Daedalus; escaping from Crete by flying with wings made
by Daedalus, Icarus flies so high that the sun's heat melts the wax by which his wings are
fastened, and he falls to his death in the Aegean sea.

Colchian Ram the Golden Fleece.

Lemnos Greek island in the North Aegean Sea.

Venus' curse made the women of Lemnos smell bad so that their men would not come near
them; the women eventually killed their men for refusing to come near them.

Hypsipyle daughter of the king of Lemnos; seduced and deserted by Jason; saved her father
when all the men of Lemnos were being killed.

Medea Greek Mythology. a sorceress who helps Jason get the Golden Fleece and later, when
deserted by him, kills their children and his new lover.

Simonists persons involved in the buying or selling of sacred or spiritual things, as sacraments or
benefices.

Simon Magus a magician from whom the word "simony" is derived; tried to buy the rights and
power to administer the Holy Ghost.

San Giovianni church that Dante attended.

Jason of the Maccabees bought an office as High Priest of the Jews.

Charles of Anjou seventh son of Louis VIII of France.

Constantine Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus) c. 280-337 a.d.; emperor

of Rome (306-337); converted to Christianity; called the Great.

Thebans citizens of Thebes, one of the chief cities of ancient Greece.

Amphiareus one of the seven captains who fought against Thebes.

Tiresias Greek Mythology. a blind soothsayer of Thebes.

Aruns a soothsayer from Etruria.

Luni an ancient Etruscan city.

Manto sorceress after whom Mantua is named.

Bacchus Greek and Roman Mythology. the god of wine and revelry.

Mantua commune in Lombardy, Northern Italy; birthplace of Virgil.

Eurypylus Greek augur.

Michael Scot Irish scholar; dealt with the occult.

Guido Bonatti court astrologer and military adviser.

Cain with his bush of thorns the moon.

Santa Zita the Patron Saint of Lucca.

Bonturo politician of Lucca.

Pisan a person from the city of Pisa of Pisa.

Sardinia Italian island in the Mediterranean, south of Corsica; or the region of Italy comprising
this island and small nearby islands.

Aesop real or legendary Greek author of fables; supposed to have lived in the sixth century b.c.

Frederick's capes Frederick II executed people by placing them in a leaden shell which was
then melted around them.

Jovial Friars the nickname of the monks of the Glorious Virgin Mary from Bolongna.

Bolognese of Bologna, its people, or their dialect.

Pharisees a member of an ancient Jewish party or fellowship that carefully observed the written
law but also accepted the oral (or traditional) law; advocated democratization of religious
practices; mainly they hated Jesus for questioning their authority.

chelidrids, jaculi , phareans, cenchriads, amphisbands various reptilian cretures that torture
the sinners in the seventh pit.

Ethiopia ancient kingdom (possibly dating to the tenth century b.c.) in Northeastern Africa, on
the Red Sea, corresponding to modern Sudan and Northern Ethiopia (the country).

Red Sea sea between Northeastern Africa and Western Arabia; connected with the
Mediterranean Sea by the Suez Canal and with the Indian Ocean by the Gulf of Aden.
Black Black Guelph.

White White Guelph.

making figs an obscene gesture, still used in Italy today.

Maremma low, unhealthful, but fertile marshy land near the sea, especially in Italy.

Gaville refering to Francesco dei Cavalcanti, who was killed by the people of Gaville; many
townspeople were then killed by his kinsmen avenging his death.

Prato Cardianal Niccolo da Prato.

Eteocles Greek Mythology. a son of Oedipus and Jocasta.

Polynices Greek Mythology. a son of Oedipus and Jocasta.

ambush of the Horse the Trojan Horse.

Circe in Homer's Odyssey, an enchantress who turns men into swine.

Penelope Ulysses' wife who waits faithfully for his return from the Trojan War.

Sicillian bull an instrument of torture in which a person is placed inside a brass bull that is then
placed over a fire; holes cut in the bull emit the tortured's cries, sounding like a bull.

Verrucchio the castle of Malatesta.

Great Priest Pope Boniface III.

Prince of the New Pharisees Pope Boniface III.

Silvestro Pope who took refuge from Constantine during the persecutions of the Christians; later,
he is said to have cured Constantine of leprosy.

Livy (Latin name Titus Livius) 59 b.c.-17 a.d.; Roman historian.

Ali c. 600-661 a.d.; fourth caliph of Islam (656-661), considered the first caliph by the Shiites;
son-in-law of Mahomet.

Neptune Roman Mythology. the god of the sea; the same as the Greek Poseidon.

Cyprus country on an island at the east end of the Mediterranean, south of Turkey.

Majorca island of Spain, largest of the Balearic Islands.

Argive of ancient Argos or Argolis.

Rubicon small river in northern Italy that formed the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and the
Roman Republic; when Caesar crossed it (49 b.c.) at the head of his army to march on Rome, he
began the civil war with Pompey.

Absalom Bible. David's favorite son; killed after rebelling against his father: 2 Samuel 18.

David Bible. the second king of Israel and Judah, succeeding Saul; reputed to be the writer of
many psalms.

Daedalus Greek Mythology. the skillful artist and builder of the Labyrinth in Crete, from which,
by means of wings he made, he and his son Icarus escaped.

Alchemy an early form of chemistry, with magical associations. Its chief aims were to change
base metals into gold and to discover the elixir of perpetual youth.

Juno Roman Mythhology. the sister and wife of Jupiter, queen of the gods, and goddess of
marriage.

Semele daughter of King Cadmus of Thebes.

King Athamas Semele's brother-in-law.

Hecuba taken to Greece from Troy as a slave; written about by Ovid.

Baptist's image John the Baptist's image was stamped on gold florins.

Guido, Alessandro the Counts of Guidi.

Narcissus' mirror Greek Myth. a beautiful youth who, after Echo's death, is made to pine away
for love of his own reflection in a spring and changes into the narcissus.

Jove Roman Mythology. the chief deity; god of thunder and the skies.

Mars Roman Mythology. the god of war.

Hannibal 247c.-183 b.c.; Carthaginian general; crossed the Alps to invade Italy in 218 b.c.

High Olympus mountain in Northern Greece, between Thessaly and Macedonia; c. 9,580 ft.
(2,920 m); in Greek mythology, the home of the gods.

Caina the first round in Circle IX; named after Cain.

Foccaccia murdered his cousin, causing a great feud between the Black and the White Guelphs.
Sassol Macheroni appointed as guardian of his nephew and murdered him to get the inheritance.

Camicion de' Pazzi murdered a kinsman.

Carlin traitor to his country, will go to the next circle.

Antenora second round of Circle IX.

Buoso da Duera accepted a political bribe.

Beccheria abbot that plotted with the Ghibellines; the Guelphs cut off his head.

Gianni de' Soldanier Ghibelline deserter.

Ganelon infamous betrayer of his master Roland, Charlemagne's greatest warrior, in the French
epic "Song of Roland."

Pisa commune in Tuscany, Western Italy, on the Arno River.

Gualandi, Sismondi and Lanfranchi Ghibelline nobles.

Friar Albergio Jovial Friar; killed his brother at a banquet he hosted; the code was "bring in the
fruit."

Atropos Greek and Roman Mythology. the one of the three Fates who cuts the thread of life.

Branca D'Oria Ghibelline who killed his father-in-law at a banquet he hosted.

Michael Zanche father-in-law to Branca D'Oria; can be found in the sticky pitch of Canto XXII.

Dis, Lucifer, and Beelzebub All meanings are the same: Satan.

middle tierce seven thirty.

ALLEGORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT SINS

Inferno, the first part of Dante's Divine Comedy that inspired the latest Dan Brown's
bestseller of the same title describes the poet's vision of Hell. The story begins with the narrator
(who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark wood where he is attacked by three beasts which he
cannot escape. He is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by Beatrice (Dante's ideal
woman). Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the 9 Circles of Hell.
First Circle: Limbo
The unbaptized and virtuous pagans, including: Virgil, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Socrates,
Plato, and Saladin.
Second Circle: Lust
Souls are blown about in a violent storm, without hope of rest. Francesca da Rimini and
her lover Paolo are here.
Third Circle: Gluttony
The Gluttons are forced to lie in vile, freezing slush, guarded by Ceberus. Ciacco of
Florence is here.
Fourth Circle: Avarice & Prodigality
The miserly and spendthrift push great heavy weights together, crashing them time and
time again. Plutus guards them.
Fifth Circle: Wrath & Sullenness
The wrathful fight each other on the surface of the Styx while the sullen gurgle beneath
it. Fillippo Argenti is here.
Sixth Circle: Heresy
Heretics are trapped in flaming tombs. Florentines Farinata degli Uberti and Cavalcanti
are here.
Seventh Circle: Violence
The violent against people and property, the suicides, the blasphemers, the sodomites and
the usurers.
Eighth Circle: Fraud
Panderers and seducers, flatterers, sorcerers and false prophets, liars, thieves, and Ulysses
and Diomedes.
Ninth Circle: Treachery
Betrayers of special relationships are frozen in a lake of ice. Satan, Judas, Brutus, and
Cassius are here.
THEMATIC/SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CANTOS
PASSION IN THE FACE OF DEATH
In Bel Canto, the proximity of death and suffering makes people love more passionately.
We learn that Hosokawa’s love for opera grew in part from his hard life in post–World War II
Japan. Simon and Edith Thibault renew their love for each other in what they call a “godforsaken
country.” Most centrally, the hostages and the terrorists grow to love one another in the face of
death and danger. The characters in Bel Canto must live for the moment, since their situation is
uncertain and death could come at any time. They find that under these circumstances, they crave
love and friendship. The first time Watanabe and Carmen kiss, they do not make great plans for
their future; they talk about the likelihood that they will be separated.
The specter of death also sharpens the characters’ appreciation of beauty and art. The first time
Kato plays the piano, he plays “the love and loneliness that each of them felt, that no one had
brought himself to speak of.” Coss sings “as if she were trying to save the lives of everyone in
the room.”
Patchett suggests that the drone of daily life makes it hard to live passionately. In order to get
through the days, people put aside thoughts of loss, vulnerability, and death. They behave calmly
and conventionally, and mute the desire to live and love with intensity. In Paris, a city of elegant
women, Thibault saw his wife as just one of many elegant women. In Japan, Hosokawa spent
most of his day fulfilling his duties as businessman, husband, and father. He shoehorned his
passion into the little time he devoted to opera. It takes a hostage crisis to teach the characters in
Bel Canto to live and love fully.
THE STRANGENESS OF FATE
In the world of Bel Canto, fate exists, and people are at the mercy of destinies they can’t
control. In the fifth chapter of the novel, we learn that Father Arguedas is “only just beginning to
see the full extent to which it was his destiny to follow, to walk blindly into fates he could never
understand.” Like Arguedas, Watanabe marvels at the strangeness of fate. It seems almost
impossible that he, a highly educated and well-traveled professional from Japan, would meet
Carmen, a terrorist from a remote village in Latin America. But not only do Watanabe and
Carmen meet, they fall in love. Watanabe often thinks about how strange it is that they should
have found each other. Thibault, similarly, is amazed by the unexpected twists in his marriage.
First he rediscovers his love for his wife, and then he loses her company after being taken
captive.
THE BASIC HUMAN IMPULSE TOWARD CIVILIZATION
Many novels explore humans’ base impulses toward violence and power. Novels like The
Lord of the Flies suggest that our darkest impulses lurk just beneath the surface and will spring
out if given the chance. In Bel Canto, Patchett suggests just the opposite: that our strongest
impulses are not barbaric, but civilizing. At the beginning of the novel, the characters are caught
up in daily struggles for fame, for money, for power. But once captivity removes these struggles,
people gravitate toward art and culture. The hostages and the terrorists read, sing, learn
languages, cook, watch TV, play chess, play sports, garden, and fall in love

SYMBOLS
THE VICE PRESIDENT’S MANSION
Every moment of Bel Canto takes place in the vice president’s mansion, which becomes
symbolic of a hidden, private world. Fog settles around the mansion, cutting it off from the
outside, and no one but Joachim Messner can come and go. The mansion becomes a cocoon in
which characters focus on their own thoughts and feelings and on their love for the people
around them, undistracted by the busy outside world.
THE SOAP OPERA
Art connects people by expressing shared feelings of love and loss. High art like opera
functions this way, and so does low art like soap operas. In Bel Canto, soaps symbolize art’s
powers of unification. The president of the country misses the party to watch a soap opera that
the entire country is also watching. In a lyrical scene, Patchett describes the way the soap
transfixes everyone from young terrorists to the president. By watching the soap, the country
experiences emotions and catharsis as a unified group.
RUSALKA
The opera Rusalka symbolizes the fear that deep love will end in terrible suffering.
Rusalka, which is the centerpiece of Coss’s repertoire, is about a water goddess who wants to
love a human prince. She has a witch give her human form, but the transformation comes with a
curse: when her human lover is untrue, her embrace becomes deadly. The goddess’s lover
repents for straying and begs for her love. At the end of the opera, the goddess and the lover
embrace, knowing that that embrace will kill the lover.
CHILD TERRORISTS
The child terrorists who take over the vice president’s mansion symbolize the danger that
accompanies every sweet part of life: innocence, love, joy. The child terrorists play games,
wonder at the world, and long for the affection of the adults around them. But they wear
uniforms, wield guns, and hold their hostages for months. Their innocence isn’t pure, just as love
isn’t perfect, and joy isn’t lasting.
The Divine Comedy – Inferno

Character List

Dante – a 35 year old man, spiritually lost and wandering away from the True Way — the path
of righteousness and of God. Dante has become weak and is in need of spiritual guidance.
Luckily, a guide is sent to him and he embarks on a spiritual journey to learn the true nature of
sin.

Virgil - a "shade" residing in the Limbo section of Hell, also known as the first circle. Virgil is a
poet of antiquity, much admired by Dante, and the perfect guide for Dante's journey. He is said
to represent human reason and wisdom. Virgil is a strong and competent guide but needs Divine
intervention to complete the journey safely.

Achilles - one of the heroes of the Trojan War.

Antaeus - Giant slain by Hercules.

Argenti - Florentine, bitter enemy of Dante's.

Attila - Chief of the Huns. Called "the Scourge of God."

Beatrice - The inspiration for Dante's work. She entreats Virgil to save Dante.

Bocca - Traitor of Florence. On one occasion he betrayed the Guelphs and caused their defeat.

Boniface VIII, Pope - Dante's bitter enemy.

Brunetto Latini - Distinguished scholar, beloved friend, and advisor to Dante.

Brutus - One of the conspirators in the murder of Caesar.

Caiaphas - The high priest who influenced the Hebrew Council to crucify Jesus.

Capaneus - One of the seven against Thebes. Defied Zeus and was killed by him.

Cassius - One of the conspirators who killed Julius Caesar.

Calvacanti, Cavalcante dei - Father of the poet Guido who is Dante's friend.

Celestine V, Pope - Resigned the papal throne, thus making way for Pope Boniface VIII.

Cerberus - The three headed hound: guards one of the gates of Hell.

Charon - The Ferryman of the river Acheron in Hell.

Ciacco - A notorious glutton: his name means "the hog."

Cleopatra - Queen of Egypt; mistress of Caesar and Mark Antony.

Dido - Queen of Carthage. She was Aeneas' lover.

Diomede - Companion of Ulysses in his last voyage.

Donati family - A politically powerful family who caused the split in the political parties.

Erichtho - Sorceress who conjured Virgil's spirit to help Dante.

Farinata - A prominent leader of the Ghibelline party who defeated Dante's party.

Francesca da Rimini - Lover of Paolo whose brother slew them in the act of adultery.

Frederick II, Emperor - Attempted to unite Italy and Sicily.

Geri del Bello - Cousin to Dante whose murder was not avenged.

Geryon - A monster who represents fraud.

Gianni Schicchi - Aided a member of the Donati family in falsifying a will.

Harpies - In mythology, birds with the faces of women.

Jason - Leader of the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece.

Judas Iscariot - One of the twelve disciples. He betrayed Jesus.

Mahomet - Founder of the Islamic religion.

Malabranche - Demons who punish the barrators. The name means "evil-claws."

Malacoda - One of the Malebranche. His name means "evil tail."

Medusa - One of the Gorgons. The sight of her head filled with snakes turned men to stone.

Minotaur - A monster with a bull's body and a man's head.

Nessus - One of the Centaurs, killed by Hercules.

Nicholas, III, Pope - Successor to Pope John XXI; accused of Simony.

Paolo da Rimini - Committed adultery with Francesca, his brother's wife.

Phlegyas - Ferryman of the river Styx in Hell.

Plutus - God of riches.

Potiphar's Wife - Falsely accused Joseph of trying to seduce her.

Ruggieri, Archbishop - Traitor who starved Ugolino and his sons.

Satan - Also called Lucifer, Dis, and Beelzebub, he is the "Emperor of Hell."

Scala, Can Grande ella - Dante's friend and protector in exile.

Sinon the Greek - Accused of treachery during Trojan War.

Thaïs - A courtesan who flattered her lover excessively.

Ugolino, Count - Imprisoned with his sons and starved to death.

Ulysses - Legendary hero of Homer's Odyssey.

Vanni Fucci - A thief who shocks Dante with his obscenity.

Vigne, Pier delle - He was unjustly imprisoned for graft and committed suicide.

PLOT SUMMARY OF THE CANTOS

Summary: Canto I

Halfway through his life, the poet Dante finds himself wandering alone in a dark forest,
having lost his way on the “true path” (I.10). He says that he does not remember how he lost his
way, but he has wandered into a fearful place, a dark and tangled valley. Above, he sees a great
hill that seems to offer protection from the shadowed glen. The sun shines down from this
hilltop, and Dante attempts to climb toward the light. As he climbs, however, he encounters three
angry beasts in succession—a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf—which force him to turn back.
Returning in despair to the dark valley, Dante sees a human form in the woods, which soon
reveals itself to be the spirit, or shade, of the great Roman poet Virgil. Thrilled to meet the poet
that he most admires, Dante tells Virgil about the beasts that blocked his path. Virgil replies that
the she-wolf kills all who approach her but that, someday, a magnificent hound will come to
chase the she-wolf back to Hell, where she originated. He adds that the she-wolf’s presence
necessitates the use of a different path to ascend the hill; he offers to serve as Dante’s guide. He
warns Dante, however, that before they can climb the hill they must first pass through the place
of eternal punishment (Hell) and then a place of lesser punishment (Purgatory); only then can
they reach God’s city (Heaven). Encouraged by Virgil’s assurances, Dante sets forth with his
guide.
Summary: Canto II

It is now the evening of Good Friday, as the two poets approach the entrance to Hell. But
Dante wonders if he is truly worthy to make the journey: He recalls that Aeneas, and also St.
Paul, made the journey, and he feels unworthy to be included in this noble group: "I am not
Aeneas, nor am I Paul," and Dante is apprehensive.
Virgil reproves Dante for being afraid and assures him that there is great concern for him among
angelic spirits, mainly Beatrice, Dante's beloved, who is now in Heaven. Virgil relates how the
Virgin Mary's messenger, St. Lucia, sent Beatrice to instruct Virgil to help Dante rediscover the
"Right Path" from the Dark Woods. Virgil says that Beatrice wept as she pleaded, and Virgil
eagerly obeyed her instructions and rescued Dante, so they are ready to begin their journey.
Virgil tells Dante to have courage always because the three ladies of Heaven — Virgin Mary, St.
Lucia, and Beatrice — all care for him. Dante is reassured and tells Virgil to lead on and he will
follow.
Summary: Canto III

Virgil leads Dante up to the Gate of Hell, upon which they read a foreboding inscription
that includes the admonition “abandon all hope, you who enter here.” As soon as they enter,
Dante hears innumerable cries of torment and suffering. Virgil explains that these cries emanate
from the souls of those who did not commit to either good or evil but who lived their lives
without making conscious moral choices; therefore, both Heaven and Hell have denied them
entry. These souls now reside in the Ante-Inferno, within Hell yet not truly part of it, where they
must chase constantly after a blank banner. Flies and wasps continually bite them, and writhing
worms consume the blood and tears that flow from them. The souls of the uncommitted are
joined in this torment by the neutral angels—those who sided with neither God nor Satan in the
war in Heaven.
Virgil leads Dante to a great river called Acheron, which marks the border of Hell. A crowd of
newly dead souls waits to be taken across. A boat approaches with an old man, Charon, at its
helm. Charon recognizes Dante as a living soul and tells him to keep away from the dead, but
after Virgil informs him that their journey has been ordained from on high, Charon troubles them
no longer. He returns to his work of ferrying the miserable souls, wailing and cursing, across the
river into Hell. As he transports Virgil and Dante across, Virgil tells the frightened Dante that
Charon’s initial reluctance to ferry him bodes well: only damned souls cross the river. Suddenly,
an earthquake shakes the plain; wind and fire rise up from the ground, and Dante, terrified,
faints.
Summary: Canto IV

A clap of thunder restores Dante to consciousness. When he wakes, feeling as though he

has been asleep for a long time, he finds himself on the other side of the river, apparently having
been carried off the boat by Virgil. He looks down into a deep valley that stretches in front of
him: the First Circle of Hell, or Limbo. Virgil informs him that this circle, which contains the
souls of those who led virtuous lives but either were born before the advent of Christianity (and
thus could not properly honor God) or were never baptized. Dante asks if any souls have ever
received permission to leave Limbo for Heaven, and Virgil names a number of Old Testament
figures—Noah, Moses, and others. Christ granted these souls amnesty when he descended into
Hell during the time between his death and resurrection (an episode commonly known as the
Harrowing of Hell).
Many other notable figures, however, remain in Limbo. Virgil himself resides here, and has been
given only a brief leave to guide Dante. Dante watches a group of men approach and greet Virgil
as a fellow poet. Virgil introduces them as Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan—the greatest poets
of antiquity. They lead Dante to a great castle with seven walls, wherein he sees the souls of
other great figures from the past: the philosophers Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato; Aeneas,
Lavinia, and other characters from the Aeneid; the mathematician Euclid and the astronomer
Ptolemy; and many others. Virgil guides Dante out of the castle and again off into the darkness.
Summary: Canto V

Dante and Virgil now descend into the Second Circle of Hell, smaller in size than the
First Circle but greater in punishment. They see the monster Minos, who stands at the front of an
endless line of sinners, assigning them to their torments. The sinners confess their sins to Minos,
who then wraps his great tail around himself a certain number of times, indicating the number of
the circle to which the soul must go. Like Charon, Minos recognizes Dante as a living soul and
warns him not to enter; it is Virgil’s word that again allows them to pass unmolested.
Dante and Virgil pass into a dark place in which torrential rains fall ceaselessly and gales of
wind tear through the air. The souls of the damned in this circle swirl about in the wind, swept
helplessly through the stormy air. These are the Lustful—those who committed sins of the flesh.
Dante asks Virgil to identify some of the individual souls to him; they include many of great
renown, including Helen, for whose sake the Trojan War was fought, and Cleopatra. Dante
immediately feels sympathy for these souls, for essentially they are damned by love. With
Virgil’s permission, he calls out to the souls to see if they will speak to him and tell him their
story. One woman, Francesca, recognizes Dante as a living soul and answers him. She relates to
him how love was her undoing: bound in marriage to an old and deformed man, she eventually
fell in love with Paolo da Rimini, her husband’s younger brother. One day, as she and Paolo sat
reading an Arthurian legend about the love of Lancelot and Guinevere, each began to feel that
the story spoke to their own secret love. When they came to a particularly romantic moment in
the story, they could not resist kissing. Francesca’s husband quickly discovered their
transgression and had the young lovers killed. Now Paolo and Francesca are doomed to spend
eternity in the Second Circle of Hell. Overcome with pity, Dante faints again.
Summary: Canto VI

When Dante wakes, he finds that he has been moved to the Third Circle of Hell, where
the rains still fall. Now, however, the drops consist of filth and excrement, and a horrific stench
fills the air. A three-headed dog, Cerberus, tries to stop Virgil and Dante’s progress, but Virgil
satisfies the beast by throwing it a chunk of earth. Dante and Virgil then advance into the circle
of the Gluttonous, who must lie on the ground as the sewage rains down upon them.
One of the Gluttonous sits up when he sees Virgil and Dante, and asks if Dante recognizes him.
When Dante replies that he does not, the shade announces himself as Ciacco, saying that he spent
his earthly life in Florence. At Dante’s request, he voices his predictions for Florence’s political
future, which he anticipates will be filled with strife. Dante then asks about figures from
Florence’s political past, naming individuals he believes to have been well intentioned. Ciacco
replies that they reside in a much deeper circle of Hell. Before lying back down, he asks Dante to
remember his name when he returns to the world above.
As they leave the Third Circle, Dante asks Virgil how the punishments of the souls will change
after the Last Judgment. Virgil replies that since that day will bring the perfection of all creation,
their punishments will be perfected as well.
Summary: Canto VII

Virgil and Dante continue down toward the Fourth Circle of Hell and come upon the
demon Plutus. Virgil quiets the creature with a word and they enter the circle, where Dante cries
out at what he sees: a ditch has been formed around the circle, making a great ring. Within the
ring, two groups of souls push weights along in anger and pain. Each group completes a
semicircle before crashing into the other group and turning around to proceed in the opposite
direction. The souls condemned to this sort of torturous, eternal jousting match, Virgil explains,
are those of the Avaricious and the Prodigal, who, during their lives, hoarded and squandered,
respectively, their money.
Dante, as before, inquires whether he knows any of the souls here. Virgil informs him that most
of the Avaricious are corrupt clergymen, popes, and cardinals but adds that the experiences they
undergo here render them unrecognizable. He notes that the Avaricious and Prodigal share one
essential characteristic: they were not prudent with the goods of Fortune. Dante asks Virgil to
explain the nature of this “Fortune.” Virgil replies that Fortune has received orders from God to
transfer worldly goods between people and between nations. Her swift movements evade human
understanding; thus, men should not curse her when they lose their possessions.
Pondering this explanation, Dante follows Virgil down to the Fifth Circle of Hell, which borders
the muddy river Styx. They see souls crouched on the bank, covered in mud, and striking and
biting at each other. They are the Wrathful, those who were consumed with anger during their
lives. Virgil alerts Dante to the presence of additional souls here, which remain invisible to him
as they lie completely submerged in the Styx—these are the Sullen, those who muttered and
sulked under the light of the sun. They now gurgle and choke on the black mud of the swampy
river.
Summary: Canto VIII

Continuing around the Fifth Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante come to a tall tower standing
on the bank, its pinnacle bursting with flames. Virgil and Dante encounter the boatman Phlegyas,
who takes them across the Styx at Virgil’s prompting. On the way, they happen upon a sinner
whom Dante angrily recognizes as Filippo Argenti. He has no pity for Argenti and gladly
watches the other sinners tear him apart as the boat pulls away.
Virgil announces that they are now approaching the city of Dis—Lower Hell. As they near the
entrance, a host of fallen angels cries out. They demand to know why one of the living dares to
try to enter Dis. Virgil again provides a rationale for Dante’s presence, but, for the first time, he
proves unsuccessful in gaining entrance. The demons slam the gate in Virgil’s face, and he
returns to Dante hurt but not defeated.
Summary: Canto IX

Dante grows pale with fear upon seeing Virgil’s failure. Virgil, who appears to be waiting
for someone impatiently, weakly reassures Dante. Suddenly, Dante sees three Furies—creatures
that are half woman, half serpent. They shriek and laugh when they notice Dante, and call for
Medusa to come and turn him into stone. Virgil quickly covers Dante’s eyes so that he will not
see Medusa’s head.
An enormous noise from behind scatters the Furies. Virgil and Dante turn to see a messenger
from Heaven approaching across the river Styx, with souls and demons fleeing before him like
flies. He arrives at the gate and demands that it be opened for the travelers; he is promptly
obeyed. Virgil and Dante pass through the gate of Dis and enter the Sixth Circle of Hell. Tombs
surround them, glowing among fiercely hot flames; here lie the Heretics.
Summary: Canto X

Still in the Sixth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil wander among the fiery tombs of the
Heretics. Virgil describes the particular heresy of one of the groups, the Epicureans, who pursued
pleasure in life because they believed that the soul died with the body. Suddenly, a voice from
one of the tombs interrupts them and addresses Dante as a Tuscan (Tuscany is the region of Italy
in which Florence is located). The voice belongs to a soul whom Virgil identifies as Farinata, a
political leader of Dante’s era. Virgil encourages Dante to speak with him.
Dante and Farinata have hardly begun their conversation when another soul, that of Cavalcante
de’ Cavalcanti, the father of Dante’s intimate friend Guido, rises up and interrupts them,
wondering why his son has not accompanied Dante here. Dante replies that perhaps Guido held
Virgil in disdain. (According to some translations of Inferno, Dante says that Guido held God, or
Beatrice, in disdain. The point is a matter of considerable debate among scholars.) Frantic, the
shade reads too much into Dante’s words and assumes that his son is dead. In despair, he sinks
back down in his grave.
Farinata continues discussing Florentine politics. He and Dante clearly represent opposing
parties (though these parties are not named), yet they treat each other politely. From Farinata’s
words and those of the nearby soul, Dante realizes that the shades in Hell can see future events
but not present ones. Farinata can prophesy the future—he predicts Dante’s exile from
Florence—but remains ignorant of current events. Farinata confirms that, as part of their
punishment, the Heretics can see only distant things.
Virgil calls Dante back, and they proceed through the rest of the Sixth Circle. Farinata’s words
have made Dante apprehensive about the length of time remaining for his exile, but Virgil
assures him that he will hear a fuller account when they come to a better place.
Summary: Canto XI

The poets descend further and come to a group of broken boulders, behind which they rest a bit so
that they can become accustomed to the foul stink that rises from the lower circles. Dante sees a
headstone with an inscription, "I guard Anastasius, once Pope, he whom Photinus led from the straight
road."
While resting for a moment, Virgil begins explaining the structure of Hell, especially that of lower Hell.
Virgil explains that there are other, smaller circles, which comprise the last three circles beyond the wall
that begins the sixth circle.

Circle VII, the next circle, is comprised of three smaller circles: one circle for Violence against Persons and
their goods, another circle for Violence against Themselves (suicides), and the final circle for Violence
against God, Art, and Nature. Virgil goes into detail about who resides in which circle and for what sins. It
is growing late and they must leave for the descent into the next circle.

Summary: Canto XII

The poets enter round one of Circle VII and must navigate a steep passage of broken rocks. They come
upon the Minotaur, and Virgil taunts it into a fury, so that the two may pass unharmed.

Virgil tells Dante to turn his eyes to the valley where he will see souls boiling in blood. Dante sees a group
of armed Centaurs galloping toward them. Virgil names them and tells a bit of their individual histories.
One of the Centaurs, Chiron, moves his beard aside with an arrow and notes that Dante must be alive
since he moves things that he touches, such as rocks when he walks. Virgil gives Chiron an explanation
about their journey and asks that one of the Centaurs guide them to a shallow place in the river of blood
where Dante can cross, riding on the Centaur's back. Chiron volunteers Nessus, another of the Centaurs.
Nessus explains that the souls boiling in the river of blood were people that were kings of bloodshed and
despoilment. Dante turns to Virgil for guidance, but Virgil says that he will let Nessus guide at this point.
Nessus goes on to point out the names of some of the souls in the river. Nessus explains that the river
grows deep again on the other side of the ford, and he names some of the other souls punished there.
Nessus leaves the poets at the other side of the bank and goes back the way he came.

Summary: Canto XIII

In the Second Ring of the Seventh Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante enter a strange wood
filled with black and gnarled trees. Dante hears many cries of suffering but cannot see the souls
that utter them. Virgil cryptically advises him to snap a twig off of one of the trees. He does so,
and the tree cries out in pain, to Dante’s amazement. Blood begins to trickle down its bark. The
souls in this ring—those who were violent against themselves or their possessions (Suicides and
Squanderers, respectively)—have been transformed into trees.
Virgil tells the damaged tree-soul to tell his story to Dante so that Dante may spread the story on
Earth. The tree-soul informs them that in life he was Pier della Vigna, an advisor to Emperor
Frederick, and that he was a moral and admirable man. But when an envious group of scheming
courtiers blackened his name with lies, he felt such shame that he took his own life.
Dante then asks how the souls here came to be in their current state. The tree-soul explains that
when Minos first casts souls here, they take root and grow as saplings. They then are wounded
and pecked by Harpies—foul creatures that are half woman, half bird. When a tree-soul’s branch
is broken, it causes the soul the same pain as dismemberment. When the time comes for all souls
to retrieve their bodies, these souls will not reunite fully with theirs, because they discarded them
willingly. Instead, the returned bodies will be hung on the soul-trees’ branches, forcing each soul
to see and feel constantly the human form that it rejected in life.
At this point, two young men run crashing through the wood, interrupting Dante’s conversation
with the tree-soul. One of the men, Jacomo da Sant’Andrea, falls behind and leaps into a bush;
vicious dogs have been pursuing him, and now they rend him to pieces. Virgil and Dante then
speak to the bush, which is also a soul: it speaks of the suffering that has plagued Florence ever
since it decided to make St. John the Baptist its patron, replacing its old patron, Mars (a Roman
god). The bush-soul adds that he was a Florentine man in life who hanged himself.
Summary: Canto XIV

Dante gathers the bush’s scattered leaves and gives them to the bush. He and Virgil then
proceed through the forest of tree-souls to the edge of the Third Ring of the Seventh Circle of
Hell. Here they find a desert of red-hot sand, upon which flakes of fire drift down slowly but
ceaselessly. As Virgil expounded in Canto XI, this ring, reserved for those who were violent
against God, is divided into three zones. The rain of fire falls throughout all three. The First Zone
is for the Blasphemers, who must lie prone on a bank of sand. The falling flakes of fire keep the
sand perpetually hot, ensuring that the souls burn from above and below. Among these sinners
Dante sees a giant, whom Virgil identifies as Capaneus, one of the kings who besieged Thebes.
Capaneus rages relentlessly, insisting that the tortures of Hell shall never break his defiance.
he poets reach another river, which runs red, and Virgil speaks to Dante about the source of
Hell’s waters. Underneath a mountain on the island of Crete sits the broken statue of an Old
Man. Tears flow through the cracks in the statue, gathering at his feet. As they stream away, they
form the Acheron, the Styx, the Phlegethon, and finally Cocytus, the pool at the bottom of Hell.
Summary: Canto XV

Crossing the stream, Virgil and Dante enter the Second Zone of the Seventh Circle’s
Third Ring, where the Sodomites—those violent against nature—must walk continuously under
the rain of fire. One of these souls, Brunetto Latini, recognizes Dante and asks him to walk near
the sand for a while so that they may converse. Latini predicts that Dante will be rewarded for
his heroic political actions. Dante dismisses this prediction and says that Fortune will do as she
pleases. Virgil approves of this attitude, and they move on as Latini returns to his appointed path.
Summary: Canto XVI

Still in the Second Zone among the Sodomites, Dante is approached by another group of
souls, three of whom claim to recognize Dante as their countryman. The flames have charred
their features beyond recognition, so they tell Dante their names. Dante recalls their names from
his time in Florence and feels great pity for them. They ask if courtesy and valor still characterize
their city, but Dante sadly replies that acts of excess and arrogance now reign.
Before leaving the Second Zone, Virgil makes a strange request. He asks for the cord that Dante
wears as a belt, then throws one end of it into a ravine filled with dark water. Dante watches
incredulously as a horrible creature rises up before them.
Summary: Canto XVII

Dante now sees that the creature has the face of a man, the body of a serpent, and two
hairy paws. Approaching it, he and Virgil descend into the Third Zone of this circle’s Third
Ring. Virgil stays to speak with the beast, sending Dante ahead to explore the zone, inhabited by
those who were violent against art (Virgil has earlier denoted them as the Usurers). Dante sees
that these souls must sit beneath the rain of fire with purses around their necks; these bear the
sinners’ respective family emblems, which each “with hungry eyes consumed” (XVII.51). As
they appear unwilling to talk, Dante returns to Virgil.
In the meantime, Virgil has talked the human-headed monster into transporting them down to the
Eighth Circle of Hell. Fearful but trusting of his guide, Dante climbs onto the beast’s serpentine
back; Virgil addresses their mount as “Geryon.” To Dante’s terror and amazement, Geryon rears
back and suddenly takes off into the air, circling slowly downward. After setting them down
safely among the rocks at the edge of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Geryon returns to his domain.
Summary: Canto XVIII

Virgil and Dante find themselves outside the Eighth Circle of Hell, known as Malebolge
(“Evil Pouches”). Dante describes the relationship between the circle’s structure and its name:
the circle has a wall running along the outside and features a great circular pit at its center; ten
evenly spaced ridges run between the wall and the pit. These ridges create ten separate pits, or
pouches, in which the perpetrators of the various forms of “ordinary fraud” receive their
punishments. Virgil leads Dante around the left side of the circle, where they come upon the First
Pouch.
Here, Virgil and Dante see a group of souls running constantly from one side of the pouch to the
other. On both of the pouch’s containing ridges, demons with great whips scourge the souls as
soon as they come within reach, forcing them back to the opposite ridge. Dante recognizes an
Italian there and speaks to him; the soul informs Dante that he lived in Bologna and now dwells
here because he sold his sister to a noble. This pouch is for the Panders (pimps) and the
Seducers—those who deceive women for their own advantage. Moving on, Virgil and Dante also
see the famous Jason of mythology, who abandoned Medea after she helped him find the Golden
Fleece.
As Virgil and Dante cross the ridge to the Second Pouch, a horrible stench besieges them, and
they hear mournful cries. Dante beholds a ditch full of human excrement, into which many
sinners have been plunged. From one of these souls, he learns that this pouch contains the
Flatterers. After a few seconds, Virgil says that they have seen enough of this foul sight. They
progress toward the Third Pouch.
Summary: Canto XIX

Dante already knows that the Third Pouch punishes the Simoniacs, those who bought or
sold ecclesiastical pardons or offices. He decries the evil of simony before he and Virgil even
view the pouch. Within, they see the sinners stuck headfirst in pits with only their feet
protruding. As these souls writhe and flail in the pits, flames lap endlessly at their feet.
Dante notes one soul burning among flames redder than any others, and he goes to speak with
him. The soul, that of Pope Nicholas III, first mistakes Dante for Boniface. After Dante corrects
him, the soul tells Dante that he was a pope guilty of simony. He mourns his own position but
adds that worse sinners than he still remain on Earth and await an even worse fate. Dante asserts
that St. Peter did not pay Christ to receive the Keys of Heaven and Earth (which symbolize the
papacy). He shows Nicholas no pity, saying that his punishment befits his grave sin. He then
speaks out against all corrupt churchmen, calling them idolaters and an affliction on the world.
Virgil approves of Dante’s sentiments and helps Dante up over the ridge to the Fourth Pouch.
Summary: Canto XX

Dante looks down upon the faces of the sinners in the next chasm and weeps with grief at their
torment; these sinners must walk through eternity with their heads on backwards and tears in
their eyes. Virgil reproaches Dante for feeling any pity for these sinners, the Fortune Tellers and
Diviners, because they are here as a point of justice. They sinned by trying to foretell the future,
which is known only to God.
As Virgil mentions Manto, one of the sinners in this chasm, he also delivers a lengthy, detailed
description of how his native city, Mantua, originated, and Virgil makes Dante promise to tell
this true story. Dante promises and asks about the others in the chasm. Virgil names a few of the
souls before saying that he and Dante should hurry onward because the moon is already setting.
With that, the poets travel on to the next chasm.
Summary: Canto XXI

Entering the Fifth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Dante sees “an astounding
darkness.” The darkness is a great pit filled with a kind of boiling tar similar to what the
Venetians used to patch their ships (XXI.6). As Dante examines the pitch to determine its
composition, Virgil yells for him to watch out: a demon races up the rocks on the side of the pit,
grabbing a new soul and tossing him into the blackness. As soon as the sinner comes up for
breath, the demons below—the Malabranche, whose name means “evil claws”—thrust him back
underneath with their prongs.
Virgil now advises Dante to hide behind a rock while he tries to negotiate their passage. The
Malabranche at first act recalcitrant, but once he tells them that their journey is the will of
Heaven, they agree to let the two travelers pass. They even provide an escort of ten demons—a
necessary accompaniment, they say, as one of the bridges between the pouches has collapsed.
Malacoda, the leader of the Malabranche (his name means “evil tail”), informs them of the exact
moment that the bridge fell: 1,266 years and nineteen hours (or, as he puts it, five hours later
than the same time yesterday) before the present moment. Malacoda adds that a nearby ridge
provides an alternate route.
Summary: Canto XXII

The group goes forward, with Dante carefully watching the surface of the pitch for
someone with whom to converse. He has few opportunities, as the sinners cannot stay out of the
pitch long before getting skewered. Finally, Virgil manages to talk to one of the sinners who is
being tortured outside of the pit. The soul, a Navarrese, explains that he served in the household
of King Thibault and was sent to the Fifth Pouch because he accepted bribes—this pouch, then,
contains the Barterers. The conversation breaks off as the tusked demon Ciriatto rips into the
soul’s body. Virgil then asks the soul if any Italians boil in the pitch. The soul replies that it
could summon seven if the travelers wait for a moment. A nearby demon voices the suspicion
that the soul merely intends to escape the demons’ tortures and seek the relative relief of the
pitch below. The other demons turn to listen to their coworker, and the soul races back to the
pitch and dives in, not intending to return. Furious, two of the demons fly after the soul but
become mired in the sticky blackness. As the other demons try to free their comrades, Virgil and
Dante take the opportunity to make a discreet exit.
Summary: Canto XXIII

As he and Virgil progress, Dante worries that they may have provoked the demons too
much with this embarrassment. Virgil agrees. Suddenly, they hear the motion of wings and claws
from behind, and turn to see the demons racing after them in a mad pack. Virgil acts quickly.
Grabbing hold of Dante, he runs to the slope leading to the Sixth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of
Hell. He then slides down the slope with Dante in his arms, thus foiling the demons, who may
not leave their assigned pouch.
Now in the Sixth Pouch, Virgil and Dante see a group of souls trudging along in a circle, clothed
in hats, cowls, and capes. Dante soon notices that lead lines their garments, rendering them
massively heavy. One of the shades recognizes Dante’s Tuscan speech and begs Dante to talk
with him and his fellow sinners, as they include Italians in their ranks. These are the Hypocrites.
The sight of one of them in particular stops Dante short: he lies crucified on the ground, and all
of the other Hypocrites trample over him as they walk. The crucified sinner is Caiphus, who
served as high priest under Pontius Pilate. Virgil asks one of the sinners for directions to the next
part of Hell. He finds that Malacoda lied to him about the existence of a connecting ridge, and
now learns the proper route.
Summary: Canto XXIV

Making their way to the Seventh Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Virgil and Dante
face many dangers. Because of the collapsed bridge, they must navigate treacherous rocks, and
Virgil carefully selects a path before helping his mortal companion along. Dante loses his breath
for a moment, but Virgil urges him onward, indicating that a long climb still awaits them. They
descend the wall into the Seventh Pouch, where teeming masses of serpents chase after naked
sinners; coiled snakes bind the sinners’ hands and legs. Dante watches a serpent catch one of the
sinners and bite him between the shoulders. He watches in amazement as the soul instantly
catches fire and burns up, then rises from the ashes to return to the pit of serpents.
Virgil speaks to this soul, who identifies himself as a Tuscan, Vanni Fucci, whom Dante knew
on Earth. Fucci tells them that he was put here for robbing a sacristy—the Seventh Pouch holds
Thieves. Angered that Dante is witnessing his miserable condition, he foretells the defeat of
Dante’s political party, the White Guelphs, at Pistoia.
Summary: Canto XXV

Cursing God with an obscene gesture, Fucci flees with serpents coiling around him, and
Dante now relishes the sight. Moving further along the pit, he and Virgil behold an even more
incredible scene. Three souls cluster just beneath them, and a giant, six-footed serpent wraps
itself so tightly around one of them that its form merges with that of its victim; the serpent and
soul become a single creature. As the other souls watch in horror, another reptile bites one of
them in the belly. The soul and the reptile stare at each other, transfixed, as the reptile slowly
takes on the characteristics of the man and the man takes on those of the reptile. Soon they have
entirely reversed their forms.
Summary: Canto XXVI

Having recognized these thieves as Florentines, Dante sarcastically praises Florence for
earning such widespread fame not only on Earth but also in Hell. Virgil now leads him along the
ridges to the Eighth Pouch, where they see numerous flames flickering in a deep, dark valley.
Coming closer, Virgil informs Dante that each flame contains a sinner. Dante sees what appear
to be two souls contained together in one flame, and Virgil identifies them as Ulysses and
Diomedes, both suffering for the same fraud committed in the Trojan War.
Dante desires to speak with these warriors, but Virgil, warning him that the Greeks might disdain
Dante’s medieval Italian, speaks to them as an intermediary. He succeeds in getting Ulysses to
tell them about his death. Restlessly seeking new challenges, he sailed beyond the western edge
of the Mediterranean, which was believed to constitute the rim of the Earth; legend asserted that
death awaited any mariner venturing beyond that point. After five months, he and his crew came
in view of a great mountain. Before they could reach it, however, a great storm arose and sank
their ship.
Summary: Canto XXVII

After hearing Ulysses’ story, Virgil and Dante start down their path again, only to be
stopped by another flame-immersed soul. This soul lived in Italy’s Romagna region, and now,
hearing Dante speak the Lombard tongue, he asks for news of his homeland. Dante replies that
Romagna suffers under violence and tyranny but not outright war. He then asks the soul his
name, and the sinner, believing that Dante will never leave the abyss and thus will be unable to
spread word of his infamy, consents to tell him.
He introduces himself as Guido da Montefeltro and states that he was originally a member of the
Ghibellines. After a time, he underwent a religious conversion and joined a Franciscan
monastery, but he was then persuaded by Pope Boniface VIII to reenter politics on the opposing
side. At one point, Boniface asked him for advice on how to conquer Palestrina (formerly called
Penestrino, it served as the fortress of the Ghibelline Colonna family). Da Montefeltro showed
reluctance, but Boniface promised him absolution in advance, even if his counsel were to prove
wrong. He then agreed to give his advice, which turned out to be incorrect. When he died, St.
Francis came for him, but a devil pulled him away, saying that a man could not receive
absolution before sinning, for absolution cannot precede repentance and repentance cannot
precede the sin. Such preemptive absolution he deemed “contradictory,” and thus invalid.
Calling himself a logician, the devil took da Montefeltro to Minos, who deemed the sinner guilty
of fraudulent counsel and assigned him to the Eighth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell.
Summary: Canto XXVIII

Virgil and Dante continue on to the Ninth Pouch, where they see a line of souls circling
perpetually. Dante sees they bear wounds worse than those suffered at the battles at Troy and
Ceparano. A devil stands at one point of the circle with a sword, splitting open each sinner who
walks by. One of the sinners speaks to Dante as he passes—it is Mohammed, prophet of the
Muslims. These are the Sowers of Scandal and Schism, and for their sins of division they
themselves are split apart. Worse, as they follow the circle around, their wounds close up so that
they are whole by the time they come back to the sword, only to be struck again.
Many others in this line look up at Dante, hearing his living voice. The Italians among them beg
Dante to carry messages to certain men still living on Earth. They make predictions of a
shipwreck and give a warning for Fra Dolcino, who is in danger of joining them when he dies.
Finally, Dante sees a man carrying his own head in his hands: it is Bertran de Born, who advised
a young king to rebel against his father.
Summary: Canto XXIX

Virgil reprimands Dante for staring so long at the wounded souls, reminding him that
their time is limited; this time, however, Dante stubbornly follows his own inclination. He takes
note of one more soul, an ancestor of his who died unavenged.
Finally, Virgil and Dante follow the ridge down and to the left until they can see the Tenth Pouch
below them. This pouch houses the Falsifiers, and it is divided into four zones. In the First Zone,
souls huddle in heaps and sprawl out on the ground. Scabs cover them from head to foot; they
scratch at them furiously and incessantly.
Dante locates two Italians in this zone. Since his journey will take him back to the world of the
living, he offers to spread their names among men if they will tell him their stories. The two
souls oblige. One of them is Griffolino of Arezzo, who was burned at the stake for heresy but has
landed here in the Tenth Pouch for his practice of the occult art of alchemy. The other is a
Florentine, Capocchio, who was likewise an alchemist burned at the stake. We learn that the First
Zone holds the Falsifiers of Metals.
Summary: Canto XXX

Beholding the Second Zone in the Tenth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Dante recalls
stories of antiquity in which great suffering caused humans to turn on each other like animals.
But the viciousness portrayed in these stories pales in comparison with what he witnesses here,
where the sinners tear at each other with their teeth; these are the Falsifiers of Others’ Persons.
Dante sees a woman, Myrrha, who lusted after her father and disguised herself as another in
order to gratify her lust. Some of the sinners of the Third Zone, the Falsifiers of Coins, mingle
among these souls. Dante speaks with Master Adam, who counterfeited Florentine money; part
of his punishment is to be racked with thirst. Adam points out two members of the Fourth Zone,
the Falsifiers of Words, or Liars: one is the wife of Potiphar, who falsely accused Joseph of
trying to seduce her, and the other is a Greek man, Sinon. The latter apparently knows Adam and
comes over to pick a fight with him. Dante listens to them bicker for a while. Virgil harshly
reprimands his companion, telling him that it is demeaning to listen to such a petty disagreement.
Summary: Canto XXXI

As Virgil and Dante finally approach the pit in the center of the Eighth Circle of Hell,
Dante sees what appear to be tall towers in the mist. Going closer, he realizes that they are
actually giants standing in the pit. Their navels are level with the Eighth Circle, but their feet
stand in the Ninth Circle, at the very bottom of Hell. One of the giants begins to speak in
gibberish; he is Nimrod, who, via his participation in building the Tower of Babel, brought the
confusion of different languages to the world.
Virgil names some of the other giants whom they pass until they come to Antaeus, the one who
will help them down the pit. After listening to Virgil’s request, Antaeus takes the two travelers in
one of his enormous hands and slowly sets them down by his feet, at the base of the enormous
well. They are now in the Ninth Circle of Hell, the realm of Traitors.
Summary: Canto XXXII

Dante feels that he cannot adequately express the grim terror of what he and Virgil see
next, but he states that he will nevertheless make an attempt. Walking past the giant’s feet, the
two come upon a vast frozen lake, as clear as glass—Cocytus. In the ice, souls stand frozen up to
their heads, their teeth chattering. The First Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell is called Caina (after
Cain, who, as Genesis recounts, slew his brother, Abel), where traitors to their kin receive their
punishment. Virgil and Dante see twins frozen face to face, butting their heads against each other
in rage. Walking farther, Dante accidentally kicks one of the souls in the cheek. Leaning down to
apologize, he thinks he recognizes the face—it turns out to belong to Bocca degli Abati, an
Italian traitor. Dante threatens Bocca and tears out some of his hair before leaving him in the ice.
Virgil and Dante progress to the Second Ring, Antenora, which contains those who betrayed
their homeland or party. Continuing across the lake, Dante is horrified to see one sinner gnawing
at another’s head from behind. He inquires into the sin that warranted such cruelty, stating that
he might be able to spread the gnawing sinner’s good name on Earth.
Summary: Canto XXXIII

The sinner raises himself from his gnawing and declares that in life he was Count
Ugolino; the man whose head he chews was Archbishop Ruggieri. Both men lived in
Pisa, and the archbishop, a traitor himself, had imprisoned Ugolino and his sons as
traitors. He denied them food, and when the sons died, Ugolino, in his hunger, was driven
to eat the flesh of their corpses.
Dante now rails against Pisa, a community known for its scandal but that nevertheless has
remained unpunished on Earth. He and Virgil then pass to the Third Ring, Ptolomea, which
houses those who betrayed their guests. The souls here lie on their backs in the frozen lake, with
only their faces poking out of the ice. Dante feels a cold wind sweeping across the lake, and
Virgil tells him that they will soon behold its source.
The poets react with particular horror at the sight of the next two souls in the Third Ring, those
of Fra Alberigo and Branca d’Oria. Although these individuals have not yet died on Earth, their
crimes were so great that their souls were obliged to enter Hell before their time; devils occupy
their living bodies aboveground. After leaving these shades, Virgil and Dante approach the
Fourth Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell, the very bottom of the pit.
Summary: Canto XXXIV

The poets reach the final round of the last circle of Cocytus, the ninth and final circle of
Hell called Judecca, and see the sinners there completely encased in the ice, in all sorts of strange
and twisted positions. These are the sinners who were treacherous to their masters, and since
they cannot speak, the poets move on to see Satan, the master of this place.
Dante uses Virgil as a windbreaker, because Satan's bat-like wings are flapping, creating a cold
wind that freezes the ice firmer. Dante stands dazed and shaken in the presence of this hideous
being and can only attempt to describe him.
Satan is bound in the ice to his mid-point and has three faces — a red one, a yellow one, and
black one. In each of his three mouths he chews a sinner. Virgil explains that Judas Iscariot, who
betrayed Christ, is the one in the middle and suffering most, and that the other two are Brutus
and Cassius, who betrayed Caesar.
Virgil tells Dante to hold on to him as he climbs Satan's back, waiting for a moment when the
wings are open so that they can have a safe passage down. Finally, Virgil climbs through a hole
in the central rock, turning around — Dante is afraid that Virgil is going back through Hell, but
both of the poets find themselves on their feet and standing on the other side of the world, having
passed the mid-point of the Earth. They can see Satan's legs on this side, his body still frozen in
the ice above.
Without pausing to rest, the poets make the long journey to the other side of the world where
they are delivered though a round opening into the world under the stars.
GLOSSARY

True Way the way of God.

holy hour dawn.

sweet season of commemoration Easter.

shade the word Dante uses for spirits in Hell.

Lombard a native or inhabitant of Lombardy.

Mantuan from Mantua.

sub Julio during the reign of Julius Caesar.

Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus) 63 b.c.-14 a.d.; first Roman emperor (27 b.c.-14 a.d.);
grandnephew of Julius Caesar.

Troy ancient Phrygian city in Troas, NW Asia Minor; scene of the Trojan War.

the second death a soul's damnation.

King of Time Christ.

Peter's Gate here, the gate to Purgatory.

Muses the nine goddesses who preside over literature and the arts and sciences.
father of Sylvius Aeneas.
Apostolate the office, duties, or peroid of activity of an apostle.
Aeneas hero of the Aeneid, written by Virgil.
Paul St. Paul; (original name Saul) died c. 67 a.d.; a Jew of Tarsus who became the Apostle of
Christianity to the Gentiles; author of several letters in the New Testament.
Limbo in some Christian theologies, the eternal abode or state, neither Heaven nor Hell, of the
souls of infants or others dying in original sin but free of grievous personal sin; or, before the
coming of Christ.
Seraphim any of the highest order of angels, above the cherubim.
Lady in Heaven Virgin Mary.
Lucia St. Lucia, messenger of the Virgin Mary, patron saint of eyesight; here, represents Divine
Light.
Rachel an Old Testament figure; here, she is said to represent Contemplative Life.

Acheron the River of Sorrow.

spleen malice; spite; bad temper.

Mighty One Christ.

our first parent Adam.

bestial like a beast in qualities or behavior; brutish or savage; brutal, coarse, vile, and so on.

Minos Greek Mythology. a king of Crete, son of Zeus by Europa; after he dies he becomes one
of the three judges of the dead in the lower world. In mythology, Minos is a compassionate
judge. He refused to judge his wife Paesaphe when she had an affair with a bull, producing the
Minotaur, because he had never been exposed to such violent passions. Dante ignores this and
makes Minos into a stern and horribly bestial judge.

wherries in this canto, the term suggests fast movement.

Semiramis Babalonian Legend. a queen of Assyria noted for her beauty, wisdom, and sexual
exploits; reputed founder of Babylon; based on a historical queen of the ninth century b.c.

Ninus husband of Semiramis.

Sichaeus husband of Dido.

Helen Greek Legend. the beautiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta; the Trojan War is started
because of her abduction by Paris to Troy.

Paris Greek Legend. a son of Priam, king of Troy; his kidnapping of Helen, wife of Menelaus,
causes the Trojan War.

Tristan Arthurian Legend. a knight sent to Ireland by King Mark of Cornwall to bring back the
princess Isolde to be the king's bride. Isolde and Tristan fall in love and tragically die together.

Po river in northern Italy, flowing from the Cottian Alps east into the Adriatic.

Caina the first ring of the last circle in Hell, according to Dante.

Lancelot Arthurian Legend. the most celebrated of the Knights of the Round Table and the lover
of Guinevere.

Michael Bible. one of the archangels.

Charybdis old name of a whirlpool off the Northeast coast of Sicily, in the Strait of Messina
(now called Galofalo).
Permutations any radical alteration; total transformation.

Styx The River of Hate; in Inferno, a terrible marsh where the Wrathful and Sullen reside.

Judaica the final pit of Hell; also, Judecca.

Furies Greek and Roman Mythology. the three terrible female spirits with snaky hair (Alecto,
Tisiphone, and Megaera) who punish the doers of unavenged crimes.

hydras water serpents.

Erinyes Furies.

Hecate Greek Mythology. a goddess of the moon, earth, and underground realm of the dead, later
regarded as the goddess of sorcery and witchcraft.

Megaera Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Alecto Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Tisiphone Greek and Roman Mythology. one of the three Furies.

Theseus Greek legend. the principal hero of Attica, son of Aegeus, and king of Athens; famed
especially for his killing of the Minotaur; tried to kidnap Hecate.

Gorgon Greek Mythology. any of three sisters with snakes for hair, so horrible that the beholder
is turned to stone.

Jehosaphat valley outside Jerusalem where it is believed that the Last Judgement will take
place.

Epicurus Greek philosopher. 341-270 b.c. founder of the Epicurean school, which held that the
goal of man should be a life characterized by serenity of mind and the enjoyment of moderate
pleasure.

Guido Guido Cavalanti, poet and friend of Dante; also Farinata's son-in-law.

Cardinal of the Ubaldini a cardinal in Dante's time, said to be involved in money and politics.

Anastasius in Inferno, the leader (whether pope or emperor) who led Photinus to deny the divine
paternity of Christ.

Photinus deacon of Thessolonica who commited heresy by denying the divine paternity of
Christ.
Sodom Bible. a city destroyed by fire together with a neighboring city, Gomorrah, because of the
sinfulness of the people: Genesis 18 and 19.

Cahors a city in France known for its usurers.

sycophants persons who seek favor by flattering people of wealth or influence.

Slides of Mark near Trent on the left bank of the river Adige about two miles from Roverto.

Infamy of Crete the Minotaur.

Centaurs Greek Mythology. any of a race of monsters with a man's head, trunk, and arms, and a
horse's body and legs.

Chiron Greek Mythology. the wisest of all Centaurs, famous for his knowledge of medicine; he
is the teacher of Asclepius, Achilles, and Hercules.

Dejanira Hercules wife.

Pholus mentioned by a number of classical poets, but not much detail is known about him.

Alexander Alexander the Great; 356-323 b.c.; king of Macedonia (336-323); military conqueror
who helped spread Greek culture from Asia Minor and Egypt to India.

Dionysius father and son, I and II, tyrants of Sicily.

Azzolinao cruel Ghibelline tyrant.

Opizzo da Esti cruel Ghibelline tyrant.

That one before God's Altar pierced a heart Guy de Montfort, leader of a rebellion against
Henry III.

Sextus the younger son of Pompeii the Great.

Pyrrhus either the son of Achilles or the king of Epirus; both were bloodthirsty warriors.

Strophades the island where the Harpies live.

Toppo a river near Arezzo in Italy.

Arno river in Tuscany, central Italy, flowing west through Florence.

Cato Cato of Utica; also a friend of Cicero.

Alexander 356-323 b.c.; king of Macedonia (336-323); military conqueror who helped spread
Greek culture from Asia Minor and Egypt to India.

Mongibello Mount Edna, where Vulcan had his forge.

Vulcan Roman Mythology. the god of fire and of metalworking; later identified with the Greek
Hephaestus.

Phlegra the battle at Phlegra for which Vulcan was the forge.

Bulicame a red-tinted stream in Viterbo where the prostitutes bathed.

Crete Greek island in the Mediterranean.

Rhea Greek Mythology. daughter of Uranus and Gaea, wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus,
Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, Hera, and Hestia; identified with the Roman Ops and the Phrygian
Cybele.

Corybantes any of the attendants who follow the Phrygian goddess Cybele with dancing and
frenzied orgies.

Daimetta Egypt.

Cocytus the final circle of Hell.

Francesco d'Accorso Florentine scholar.

Servent of Servents Boniface VII, Dante's enemy.

Arno river in Tuscany, central Italy, flowing west through Florence and into the Ligurian Sea.

Bacchiglione river in Italy.

Guido Guerra a leader of the Guelphs; the last name means "war."

Gualdrada legendary modest woman, used as a model of womanhood.

Tegghiaio Aldobrandi a knight and a Guelph noble.

Jacopo Rusticucci respected Florentine knight.

Borsiere courtier arranger of marriages and a peacemaker.

San Benedetto dell'Alpe a monastery close to Florence.

Tartar or Turk Tartars and Turks were the great weavers of Dante's time.
Arachne famous spinner who challenged Minerva to a spinning contest; Minerva became
enraged at the result of the contest and turned Arachne into a spider.

Phaeton Son of Apollo who drove the chariot of the sun and lost control of the horses, so Zeus
struck him down so that the world would not catch fire; the track of the horses is the Milky Way.

Icarus Greek Mythology. the son of Daedalus; escaping from Crete by flying with wings made
by Daedalus, Icarus flies so high that the sun's heat melts the wax by which his wings are
fastened, and he falls to his death in the Aegean sea.

Colchian Ram the Golden Fleece.

Lemnos Greek island in the North Aegean Sea.

Venus' curse made the women of Lemnos smell bad so that their men would not come near
them; the women eventually killed their men for refusing to come near them.

Hypsipyle daughter of the king of Lemnos; seduced and deserted by Jason; saved her father
when all the men of Lemnos were being killed.

Medea Greek Mythology. a sorceress who helps Jason get the Golden Fleece and later, when
deserted by him, kills their children and his new lover.

Simonists persons involved in the buying or selling of sacred or spiritual things, as sacraments or
benefices.

Simon Magus a magician from whom the word "simony" is derived; tried to buy the rights and
power to administer the Holy Ghost.

San Giovianni church that Dante attended.

Jason of the Maccabees bought an office as High Priest of the Jews.

Charles of Anjou seventh son of Louis VIII of France.

Constantine Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus) c. 280-337 a.d.; emperor

of Rome (306-337); converted to Christianity; called the Great.

Thebans citizens of Thebes, one of the chief cities of ancient Greece.

Amphiareus one of the seven captains who fought against Thebes.

Tiresias Greek Mythology. a blind soothsayer of Thebes.

Aruns a soothsayer from Etruria.

Luni an ancient Etruscan city.

Manto sorceress after whom Mantua is named.

Bacchus Greek and Roman Mythology. the god of wine and revelry.

Mantua commune in Lombardy, Northern Italy; birthplace of Virgil.

Eurypylus Greek augur.

Michael Scot Irish scholar; dealt with the occult.

Guido Bonatti court astrologer and military adviser.

Cain with his bush of thorns the moon.

Santa Zita the Patron Saint of Lucca.

Bonturo politician of Lucca.

Pisan a person from the city of Pisa of Pisa.

Sardinia Italian island in the Mediterranean, south of Corsica; or the region of Italy comprising
this island and small nearby islands.

Aesop real or legendary Greek author of fables; supposed to have lived in the sixth century b.c.

Frederick's capes Frederick II executed people by placing them in a leaden shell which was
then melted around them.

Jovial Friars the nickname of the monks of the Glorious Virgin Mary from Bolongna.

Bolognese of Bologna, its people, or their dialect.

Pharisees a member of an ancient Jewish party or fellowship that carefully observed the written
law but also accepted the oral (or traditional) law; advocated democratization of religious
practices; mainly they hated Jesus for questioning their authority.

chelidrids, jaculi , phareans, cenchriads, amphisbands various reptilian cretures that torture
the sinners in the seventh pit.

Ethiopia ancient kingdom (possibly dating to the tenth century b.c.) in Northeastern Africa, on
the Red Sea, corresponding to modern Sudan and Northern Ethiopia (the country).

Red Sea sea between Northeastern Africa and Western Arabia; connected with the
Mediterranean Sea by the Suez Canal and with the Indian Ocean by the Gulf of Aden.
Black Black Guelph.

White White Guelph.

making figs an obscene gesture, still used in Italy today.

Maremma low, unhealthful, but fertile marshy land near the sea, especially in Italy.

Gaville refering to Francesco dei Cavalcanti, who was killed by the people of Gaville; many
townspeople were then killed by his kinsmen avenging his death.

Prato Cardianal Niccolo da Prato.

Eteocles Greek Mythology. a son of Oedipus and Jocasta.

Polynices Greek Mythology. a son of Oedipus and Jocasta.

ambush of the Horse the Trojan Horse.

Circe in Homer's Odyssey, an enchantress who turns men into swine.

Penelope Ulysses' wife who waits faithfully for his return from the Trojan War.

Sicillian bull an instrument of torture in which a person is placed inside a brass bull that is then
placed over a fire; holes cut in the bull emit the tortured's cries, sounding like a bull.

Verrucchio the castle of Malatesta.

Great Priest Pope Boniface III.

Prince of the New Pharisees Pope Boniface III.

Silvestro Pope who took refuge from Constantine during the persecutions of the Christians; later,
he is said to have cured Constantine of leprosy.

Livy (Latin name Titus Livius) 59 b.c.-17 a.d.; Roman historian.

Ali c. 600-661 a.d.; fourth caliph of Islam (656-661), considered the first caliph by the Shiites;
son-in-law of Mahomet.

Neptune Roman Mythology. the god of the sea; the same as the Greek Poseidon.

Cyprus country on an island at the east end of the Mediterranean, south of Turkey.

Majorca island of Spain, largest of the Balearic Islands.

Argive of ancient Argos or Argolis.

Rubicon small river in northern Italy that formed the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and the
Roman Republic; when Caesar crossed it (49 b.c.) at the head of his army to march on Rome, he
began the civil war with Pompey.

Absalom Bible. David's favorite son; killed after rebelling against his father: 2 Samuel 18.

David Bible. the second king of Israel and Judah, succeeding Saul; reputed to be the writer of
many psalms.

Daedalus Greek Mythology. the skillful artist and builder of the Labyrinth in Crete, from which,
by means of wings he made, he and his son Icarus escaped.

Alchemy an early form of chemistry, with magical associations. Its chief aims were to change
base metals into gold and to discover the elixir of perpetual youth.

Juno Roman Mythhology. the sister and wife of Jupiter, queen of the gods, and goddess of
marriage.

Semele daughter of King Cadmus of Thebes.

King Athamas Semele's brother-in-law.

Hecuba taken to Greece from Troy as a slave; written about by Ovid.

Baptist's image John the Baptist's image was stamped on gold florins.

Guido, Alessandro the Counts of Guidi.

Narcissus' mirror Greek Myth. a beautiful youth who, after Echo's death, is made to pine away
for love of his own reflection in a spring and changes into the narcissus.

Jove Roman Mythology. the chief deity; god of thunder and the skies.

Mars Roman Mythology. the god of war.

Hannibal 247c.-183 b.c.; Carthaginian general; crossed the Alps to invade Italy in 218 b.c.

High Olympus mountain in Northern Greece, between Thessaly and Macedonia; c. 9,580 ft.
(2,920 m); in Greek mythology, the home of the gods.

Caina the first round in Circle IX; named after Cain.

Foccaccia murdered his cousin, causing a great feud between the Black and the White Guelphs.
Sassol Macheroni appointed as guardian of his nephew and murdered him to get the inheritance.

Camicion de' Pazzi murdered a kinsman.

Carlin traitor to his country, will go to the next circle.

Antenora second round of Circle IX.

Buoso da Duera accepted a political bribe.

Beccheria abbot that plotted with the Ghibellines; the Guelphs cut off his head.

Gianni de' Soldanier Ghibelline deserter.

Ganelon infamous betrayer of his master Roland, Charlemagne's greatest warrior, in the French
epic "Song of Roland."

Pisa commune in Tuscany, Western Italy, on the Arno River.

Gualandi, Sismondi and Lanfranchi Ghibelline nobles.

Friar Albergio Jovial Friar; killed his brother at a banquet he hosted; the code was "bring in the
fruit."

Atropos Greek and Roman Mythology. the one of the three Fates who cuts the thread of life.

Branca D'Oria Ghibelline who killed his father-in-law at a banquet he hosted.

Michael Zanche father-in-law to Branca D'Oria; can be found in the sticky pitch of Canto XXII.

Dis, Lucifer, and Beelzebub All meanings are the same: Satan.

middle tierce seven thirty.

ALLEGORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT SINS

Inferno, the first part of Dante's Divine Comedy that inspired the latest Dan Brown's
bestseller of the same title describes the poet's vision of Hell. The story begins with the narrator
(who is the poet himself) being lost in a dark wood where he is attacked by three beasts which he
cannot escape. He is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil who is sent by Beatrice (Dante's ideal
woman). Together, they begin the journey into the underworld or the 9 Circles of Hell.
First Circle: Limbo
The unbaptized and virtuous pagans, including: Virgil, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Socrates,
Plato, and Saladin.
Second Circle: Lust
Souls are blown about in a violent storm, without hope of rest. Francesca da Rimini and
her lover Paolo are here.
Third Circle: Gluttony
The Gluttons are forced to lie in vile, freezing slush, guarded by Ceberus. Ciacco of
Florence is here.
Fourth Circle: Avarice & Prodigality
The miserly and spendthrift push great heavy weights together, crashing them time and
time again. Plutus guards them.
Fifth Circle: Wrath & Sullenness
The wrathful fight each other on the surface of the Styx while the sullen gurgle beneath
it. Fillippo Argenti is here.
Sixth Circle: Heresy
Heretics are trapped in flaming tombs. Florentines Farinata degli Uberti and Cavalcanti
are here.
Seventh Circle: Violence
The violent against people and property, the suicides, the blasphemers, the sodomites and
the usurers.
Eighth Circle: Fraud
Panderers and seducers, flatterers, sorcerers and false prophets, liars, thieves, and Ulysses
and Diomedes.
Ninth Circle: Treachery
Betrayers of special relationships are frozen in a lake of ice. Satan, Judas, Brutus, and
Cassius are here.
THEMATIC/SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CANTOS
PASSION IN THE FACE OF DEATH
In Bel Canto, the proximity of death and suffering makes people love more passionately.
We learn that Hosokawa’s love for opera grew in part from his hard life in post–World War II
Japan. Simon and Edith Thibault renew their love for each other in what they call a “godforsaken
country.” Most centrally, the hostages and the terrorists grow to love one another in the face of
death and danger. The characters in Bel Canto must live for the moment, since their situation is
uncertain and death could come at any time. They find that under these circumstances, they crave
love and friendship. The first time Watanabe and Carmen kiss, they do not make great plans for
their future; they talk about the likelihood that they will be separated.
The specter of death also sharpens the characters’ appreciation of beauty and art. The first time
Kato plays the piano, he plays “the love and loneliness that each of them felt, that no one had
brought himself to speak of.” Coss sings “as if she were trying to save the lives of everyone in
the room.”
Patchett suggests that the drone of daily life makes it hard to live passionately. In order to get
through the days, people put aside thoughts of loss, vulnerability, and death. They behave calmly
and conventionally, and mute the desire to live and love with intensity. In Paris, a city of elegant
women, Thibault saw his wife as just one of many elegant women. In Japan, Hosokawa spent
most of his day fulfilling his duties as businessman, husband, and father. He shoehorned his
passion into the little time he devoted to opera. It takes a hostage crisis to teach the characters in
Bel Canto to live and love fully.
THE STRANGENESS OF FATE
In the world of Bel Canto, fate exists, and people are at the mercy of destinies they can’t
control. In the fifth chapter of the novel, we learn that Father Arguedas is “only just beginning to
see the full extent to which it was his destiny to follow, to walk blindly into fates he could never
understand.” Like Arguedas, Watanabe marvels at the strangeness of fate. It seems almost
impossible that he, a highly educated and well-traveled professional from Japan, would meet
Carmen, a terrorist from a remote village in Latin America. But not only do Watanabe and
Carmen meet, they fall in love. Watanabe often thinks about how strange it is that they should
have found each other. Thibault, similarly, is amazed by the unexpected twists in his marriage.
First he rediscovers his love for his wife, and then he loses her company after being taken
captive.
THE BASIC HUMAN IMPULSE TOWARD CIVILIZATION
Many novels explore humans’ base impulses toward violence and power. Novels like The
Lord of the Flies suggest that our darkest impulses lurk just beneath the surface and will spring
out if given the chance. In Bel Canto, Patchett suggests just the opposite: that our strongest
impulses are not barbaric, but civilizing. At the beginning of the novel, the characters are caught
up in daily struggles for fame, for money, for power. But once captivity removes these struggles,
people gravitate toward art and culture. The hostages and the terrorists read, sing, learn
languages, cook, watch TV, play chess, play sports, garden, and fall in love

SYMBOLS
THE VICE PRESIDENT’S MANSION
Every moment of Bel Canto takes place in the vice president’s mansion, which becomes
symbolic of a hidden, private world. Fog settles around the mansion, cutting it off from the
outside, and no one but Joachim Messner can come and go. The mansion becomes a cocoon in
which characters focus on their own thoughts and feelings and on their love for the people
around them, undistracted by the busy outside world.
THE SOAP OPERA
Art connects people by expressing shared feelings of love and loss. High art like opera
functions this way, and so does low art like soap operas. In Bel Canto, soaps symbolize art’s
powers of unification. The president of the country misses the party to watch a soap opera that
the entire country is also watching. In a lyrical scene, Patchett describes the way the soap
transfixes everyone from young terrorists to the president. By watching the soap, the country
experiences emotions and catharsis as a unified group.
RUSALKA
The opera Rusalka symbolizes the fear that deep love will end in terrible suffering.
Rusalka, which is the centerpiece of Coss’s repertoire, is about a water goddess who wants to
love a human prince. She has a witch give her human form, but the transformation comes with a
curse: when her human lover is untrue, her embrace becomes deadly. The goddess’s lover
repents for straying and begs for her love. At the end of the opera, the goddess and the lover
embrace, knowing that that embrace will kill the lover.
CHILD TERRORISTS
The child terrorists who take over the vice president’s mansion symbolize the danger that
accompanies every sweet part of life: innocence, love, joy. The child terrorists play games,
wonder at the world, and long for the affection of the adults around them. But they wear
uniforms, wield guns, and hold their hostages for months. Their innocence isn’t pure, just as love
isn’t perfect, and joy isn’t lasting.