Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Solar drying of wastewater sludge: A review

Lyes Bennamoun ∗
Laboratoire des Composants Actifs et Matériaux, Faculté des Sciences Exactes, Sciences Naturelles et de la Vie, Université Larbi BenM’hidi, Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Drying constitutes an important process for wastewater sludge management, as it can reduce the mass
Received 16 September 2011 and the volume of the product and consequently the cost of storage, handling and transport. During con-
Accepted 12 October 2011 stant operating conditions, the drying kinetic of the sludge has shown mainly: a constant drying rate,
Available online 4 November 2011
one or two falling rate periods and a final short period with variations along the process of the physical
properties of the product with the appearance of shrinkage and cracks phenomena. Solar drying was
Keywords:
benefit as using free solar energy can reduce the cost of the operation. On the other hand, it plays an
Solar energy
important role for the pathogen reduction until Environmental protection Agency (EPA) recommenda-
Drying kinetic
Shrinkage
tions. In some studied cases, the value of 1000 CFU g−1 DS, which represents the EPA Class A pathogen
Cracks requirement, for fecal coliform was attained. The general design of used solar dryers was constituted of:
Design a greenhouse made with transparent material and a floor, where the product is speared in thick layers.
Greenhouse Furthermore, fans and ventilations can be used in order to have homogeneous distribution of the air
inside the greenhouse with replacement of humidified air with fresh one. Automatic or handle mix of
the product was used once or for several times a day. In order to increase the performances of the drying
system, other ways such as heating the floor using solar water heater, infrared lamps, using heat pumps
or adding thermal energy storage systems were also tested. Covered solar drying has given better results
than open solar drying. However, the origin of the wastewater sludge affects the obtained results. Alter-
natively, modeling drying systems was effectuated using heat and mass balances, applied for the air and
the dried product. Solar drying of wastewater sludge has given satisfactory results.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
2. Behaviour of wastewater sludge during drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
3. Phenomena occurring to wastewater sludge during drying process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
4. Solar drying of wastewater sludge: a review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072

1. Introduction 20 l per day in some regions such as Mali or Haiti [1]. In general man-
ner, statistics show that 70% of water produced quantity is used for
Water constitutes one of the keys of the socio-economic agriculture especially for the irrigation; however 30% are directed
development and the human daily comfort. Consequently, the to the industry [1]. These important consumed quantities of water
production of water increases with the population increase. Statis- engender, of course, the production of wastes that, in some cases,
tics confirm the non-homogeneous distribution of this important can be noxious to the environment. The use of wastewater treat-
resource around the world; as the consumption of an inhabitant of ment plants (WWTP) was one of the novel developed solutions that
Europe is estimated to 3000 m3 per year. This quantity increases permit to have drinkable water from wastewater; nevertheless it
to 9985 m3 per year for an inhabitant of the U.S.A. and decreases causes the production of sludge. In 2009, over 9.18 million tons of
to 200 m3 per year in the developing countries and attains dry solids sludge is produced in China from WWTP [2]. This quan-
tity was 5.36 million tons in the U.S.A. and around 2.00 million
tons in Japan, in 1996 and 1993 respectively, as reported by Chen
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +213 32 42 39 83; fax: +213 32 42 39 83. et al. [3,4]. The European commission [5] has given detailed statis-
E-mail address: lyes bennamoun@yahoo.ca tics about the total production, in the last decade, of sewage sludge

1364-0321/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.10.005
1062 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073

from urban wastewater (Table 1). It shows that some countries have
Nomenclature increased considerably their produced quantities such as Greece,
Hungary, Spain, France, Poland and the United Kingdom, conversely
A area (m2 ) other countries have kept a constant production or decreased it,
a solar absorption coefficient similar to Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech republic, Germany, Netherlands
Cp specific heat (J kg−1 ◦ C−1 ) and Austria. Nowadays, agriculture, incineration and landfill uses
E evaporation rate (kg of water m−2 of ground h−1 ) constitute the major applications of sludge disposal. The European
h convective exchange coefficient (W m−2 ◦ C−1 ) commission [5] has given more details for the most relevant pro-
Lv latent heat of vaporization (J kg−1 ) ducer countries. Table 2 shows that Spain, United Kingdom and
M mass (kg) Ireland are widely using more than 50% of their sewage sludge
P solar radiation or power (W m−2 ) obtained from wastewater in agriculture against France, Germany,
R radiative heat (W) Hungary and Czech Republic which present moderate use between
T temperature (◦ C) 28 and 47%. Until 2009, Greece and Netherlands have never incor-
t or  time (s) porated their sewage sludge in agriculture. Netherlands, Austria,
V volume (m3 ) Belgium and Germany prefer the incineration use of their sludge
W or X moisture content (% or kg kg−1 dry basis) with rates equal to: 73.62%, 44.31%, 41.01% and 36.20% respectively.
w humidity ratio (kg of water kg−1 of air) France and United Kingdom present small values which did not
exceed 18%. However, Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Hungary did
Greek symbols
not use incineration with a rate near zero. Greece uses the landfill
 density (kg m−3 )
for almost the totality of their sewage sludge with a rate around
 coefficient of transmission
86% as well as a rate of 100% from 2001 to 2005. The rate is more or
less the third for Bulgaria, Ireland, Hungary and Poland. According
Subscripts
to the values given by Chen et al. [3,4], U.S.A. is using 33.3% of their
a air
global sludge production in agriculture, 16.1% in incineration and
Bo sludge
34% in landfill. However, for Japan these values are 0%, 75% and 25%
ext external
respectively (Tables 3 and 4).
in air inlet
In all cases, drying constitutes an essential process, after appli-
out air outlet
cation of the mechanical dewatering by centrifugation or filtration.
s solid
It can reduce the water content below 5% dry solids leading to the
V sup glass roof
decrease of waste mass and volume and in consequence the reduc-
V glass
tion of the cost for storage, handling and transport. On the other
0 initial value
hand, drying sludge increases the low calorific value, transforming

Table 1
Total sewage sludge production for urban wastewater (values presented by millions of kilograms).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Belgium 101 112 118 109 116 113 128 129 140
Bulgaria 48 45 40 43 58 42 38 40 43 39
Czech Rep. 207 206 211 180 179 172 175 172 220
Germany 2429 2261 2170 2049
Ireland 34 38 60 88
Greece 68 78 80 83 117 126 134 136 152
Spain 853 892 987 1012 1092 1121 1065 1153 1156 1205
France 954 1060 1087
Hungary 102 115 117 152 184 260
Netherlands 346 358 365 353 354 359 373 353 353
Austria 315 323 305 255 254
Poland 360 397 436 447 476 486 501 533 567 563
United Kingdom 1527 1544 1656 1721 1771 1809 1825 1814 1761

Source: [4].

Table 2
Agriculture use of sewage sludge from urban wastewater (in % of the total value).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean value

Belgium 9.82 9.32 17.43 18.10 18.58 14.06 7.75 7.86 12.87
Bulgaria 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 31.58 15.00 25.58 35.90 10.81
Czech Rep. 74.76 75.36 10.00 17.32 16.86 19.43 27.91 25.00 33.33
Germany 31.08 27.78 41.98 29.87 32.68
Ireland 41.18 44.74 76.67 54.19
Greece 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Spain 53.22 67.94 66.67 66.21 65.11 64.76 64.51 74.93 80.19 82.57 68.61
France 50.42 43.87 47.10 47.13
Hungary 26.47 22.61 25.64 19.08 22.28 56.92 28.83
Netherlands 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Austria 11.75 12.07 12.46 15.29 15.75 13.46
Poland 14.17 12.34 15.37 12.98 14.08 13.58 16.17 18.39 19.75 21.85 15.87
United Kingdom 55.66 54.60 64.01 64.96 68.94 61.64

Source: [4].
 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073 1063

Table 3
Incineration use of sewage sludge from urban wastewater (in % of the total value).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean value

Belgium 58.93 60.17 17.43 24.14 31.86 33.59 52.71 49.29 41.01
Bulgaria 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Czech Rep. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.36 0.17
Germany 22.85 31.45 43.41 47.10 36.20
Ireland 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Greece 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49 17.65 0.00 2.13
Spain 8.21 6.17 6.99 7.61 7.05 6.96 3.85 0.00 0.00 5.20
France 17.40 16.79 18.95 17.71
Hungary 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.77 0.13
Netherlands 52.02 58.10 55.89 63.46 75.99 82.73 87.13 92.07 95.18 73.62
Austria 47.62 50.15 49.51 38.43 35.83 44.31
Poland 1.67 1.76 1.61 1.34 0.21 1.23 0.80 0.38 1.06 1.60 1.17
United Kingdom 15.78 19.82 18.96 15.86 15.92 17.27

Source: [4].

Table 4
Landfill use of sewage sludge from urban wastewater (in % of the total value).

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean value

Belgium 16.07 11.02 13.76 7.76 3.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.52
Bulgaria 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 87.93 54.76 42.11 52.50 41.86 28.21 30.74
Czech Rep. 18.45 18.96 12.78 13.97 6.98 8.00 5.23 12.27 12.08
Germany 6.59 3.49 1.24 0.24 2.89
Ireland 50.00 52.63 16.67 39.77
Greece 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 97.62 55.22 52.94 71.71 86.39
Spain 17.94 14.69 16.31 16.11 14.93 14.54 15.77 0.00 0.00 12.25
France 24.11 20.94 8.28 17.78
Hungary 46.08 47.83 40.17 40.13 28.80 29.62 38.77
Netherlands 18.50 17.60 10.96 4.53 4.24 3.90 4.02 0.00 0.00 7.08
Austria 13.33 11.46 9.84 9.80 8.27 10.54
Poland 42.22 50.13 44.04 36.91 34.24 31.07 29.34 23.45 16.23 14.56 32.22
United Kingdom 7.99 8.03 5.31 3.89 5.42 6.13

Source: [4].

the product into an acceptable combustible. Also, the treatment by depends on the origin of the sludge, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Sludge
high temperatures makes the product as pathogen free stabilized A shows a clear constant drying rate period which is not the case
material [6–8]. of sludge B. However, the other falling periods and the short final
The physico-chemical composition of several sewage sludges period are observed for both sludges. Reyes et al. [15] and Léonard
harvested from different WWTP in the world and the elements et al. [14] have studied the effect of the drying operating conditions,
range are represented in Table 5 [3,4,9–11]. The results show the in particular the influence of the air temperature and its superficial
existence of important minerals that can be functional for agricul- velocity, as exposed in Fig. 3(a) and (b). The results presented in
ture and soil utilization and other elements that must be treated these figures point towards that drying are strongly affected by
or eliminated. Moreover, the table shows difference in the element the air temperature and with a smaller degree by its superficial
concentrations, depending on the source of the sludges. velocity, similar results were found for the treatment of food dry-
ing [16–19]. In general way, increasing, the temperature and the
superficial velocity, lead to the increase of the drying rate. On the
2. Behaviour of wastewater sludge during drying other hand, we observe at the beginning of the process (at the point
X = 2.6 kg kg−1 to around 2.4 kg kg−1 ) the existence of a very short
The general behaviour of the wastewater sludge during drying first period caused by the adaptation of the product to the operating
process, under constant operating conditions is divided by Deng
et al. [2], and confirmed by Vaxelaire and Cézac [12], into 4 prin-
cipal parts, as shown in Fig. 1, which represents a typical drying
curve. The water removed in the first part (line AB) is considered
as free water. After that, we have a succession of two falling rates;
the first is represented by the line BC and the second by the curve
CD. The water removed in these parts is, respectively, interstitial
and surface water. The last period of the curve is a short inter-
val, where bound water is removed and equilibrium moisture is
reached. However, Deng et al. [1] observe in their experimental
labour the inexistence of the constant drying rate during drying
of municipal sewage sludge. They report this observation due to
the utilization, before applying drying process, of the mechanical
dewatering which removes all the free water. The same observa-
tion was made by Tao et al. [13] during their utilization of the
mechanical dewatering of different types of wastewater sludges.
The experimental work developed by Léonard et al. [7,14] has
shown that the behaviour of the wastewater sludge during drying Fig. 1. Typical sludge drying curve [2].
1064 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073

Table 5
Physico-chemical properties of several sludges.

Parameter Sludge A Sludge B Sludge C Range

pH 7.6 ± 0.8 7.6 ± 0.1 5.0–8.0

Moisture content (%) 85.0
Dry matter (%) 18.0 ± 0.6
Total solids (TS, %) 20.6 ± 1.8 3.0–7.0
Volatile solids (%) 60.4 ± 2.1 (of TS) 72.9 (of dry solids DS) 60–80 (of TS)
Nitrogen (N, %) 5.38 ± 2.13 3.34 ± 0.1 1.5–5.0 (% of TS)
Phosphorus (P2 O5 , %) 2.7 ± 0.6 2710 ± 9.2 mg kg−1 0.5–2.8 (% of TS)
Potash (K2 O, %) 0.0–1.0 (% of TS)
Heat value (kJ kg−1 dry basis DB) 18,500–30,000
Alkalinity (mg l−1 as CaCO3 ) 500–1500
Arsenic (As, mg kg−1 DB) 44.9 ± 5.7 1.1–230
Cadmium (Cd, mg kg−1 ) 1.3 ± 0.4 1.5 (DS) 2.0 ± 0.5 1–3410 (DB)
Chromium (Cr, mg kg−1 ) 321 ± 15 26.7 (DS) 243 ± 10 10–99,000 (DB)
Copper (Cu, mg kg−1 ) 388 ± 18 154.4 (DS) 19 ± 1.0 84–17,000 (DB)
Lead (Pb, mg kg−1 ) 29.2 ± 3.6 43.3 (DS) 34 ± 2.0 13–26,000 (DB)
Mercury (Hg, mg kg−1 DB) 0.6–56
Molybdenum (Mo, mg kg−1 DB) 0.1–214
Nickel (Ni, mg kg−1 ) 128 ± 12 21 (DS) 79.0 ± 3.0 2–5300 (DB)
Selenium (Se, mg kg−1 DB) 1.7–17.2
Zinc (Zn, mg kg−1 ) 541 ± 73 616.3 (DS) 1435 ± 15 101–49,000 (DB)
Iron (Fe, mg kg−1 ) 10,375 ± 675 5128.6 (DS) 1000–154,000 (DB)
Cobalt (Co, mg kg−1 DB) 11.3–2490
Tin (Sn, mg kg−1 DB) 2.6–329
Manganese (Mn, mg kg−1 ) 165 ± 8 144.4 (DS) 32–9870 (DB)

Source: Sludge A: [9], Sludge B: [10], Sludge C: [11] and Range: [3,4].

conditions and represented by an increase of the drying rate. Usu- product physical properties, it was recently introduced especially
ally, this period is neglected in modeling and simulation works in food drying [18,27–29]. In addition, shrinkage was observed
[15,20,21]. Léonard et al. [6] have experimented in their work two during wastewater sludge drying by Tao et al. [13] (Fig. 5). The
wastewater sludges. The constant drying rate, made known in Fig. 4 upper images of the figure were scanned using micro-computerized
by “reference”, was clearly observed. One of the objectives of the tomography scanner (micro-CT) and the lower images are the 2-D
work was to study the effect of the expansion of the sludge extru-
dates bed due to increasing additions of dry product and variations
were followed using X-ray tomography. As shown in the figure, the
constant drying period was made shorter with the bed expansion
increase until it roughly disappearance.

3. Phenomena occurring to wastewater sludge during

drying process

Léonard et al. [8,22,23], Tao et al. [13], Hsu et al. [24] and Ruiz
et al. [25,26] observed the creation of two phenomena that take
place inside the sludge during drying process. The phenomena are:
shrinkage and cracks.
Shrinkage consists on the reduction of the product size because
of the loss of its water during drying process. In spite of the impor-
tance of the phenomenon and the engendered changes in the

Fig. 3. Influence of the operating conditions on the behaviour of the drying kinetics
Fig. 2. Drying kinetic curve for two sludges at 160 ◦ C, 1 m s−1 and 0.006 kg kg−1 [13]. [14]: (a) Va = 0.65 m s−1 , (b) Va = 0.43 m s−1 .
 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073 1065

Fig. 4. Drying kinetics of two wastewater sludges with back mixing influence [5].

reconstituted transversal section of the upper images. In the same
way and as shown in Fig. 6, Léonard et al. [8,22,23] follow the effect
of the moisture content decrease using X-ray microtomography.
The water content inside the product was calculated on the base
of the variations of the grey level of water, wet and dry solid. On
the other hand, the authors have observed cracks at the interior
and the surface of the dried product at the same time as shrinkage
happens. Shrinkage starts with the drying process begin (Fig. 7)
and continue until reaching a constant value evaluated between
0.4 and 0.2 of the initial volume, depending on the origin of the

Fig. 5. Observation of shrinkage during wastewater sludge drying [13].

1066 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073

Fig. 6. 2D cross section images at different water content illustrating shrinkage and cracks development [23].

Table 6
Initial and final dimensions of extrudate samples of two different wastewater sludges [8].

Sludge A Sludge B

Extrudate 1 Extrudate 2 Extrudate 1 Extrudate 2

Initial equivalent diameter (mm) 12.74 ± 0.18 12.64 ± 0.08 13.00 ± 0.32 13.11 ± 0.12
Final equivalent diameter (mm) 7.40 ± 0.44 7.48 ± 0.39 10.09 ± 0.23 9.35 ± 0.90
Initial height (mm) 15.98 ± 0.34 15.91 ± 0.33 16.29 ± 0.29 16.36 ± 0.28
Final height (mm) 9.29 ± 0.20 9.04 ± 0.40 12.67 ± 0.10 12.67 ± 0.07

wastewater sludge. Table 6 gives the initial and final dimensions of
the dried product. It shows an isotropic reduction varying between
77% and 58%, in both diameter and height of the product, which
gives the announced precedent shrinkage rates. However, cracks
show constant low values at the beginning of the process. These
values increase with the moisture content decrease, until attain-
ing values around 0.35 and more than 0.5, with an influence of the
operating drying conditions, as illustrated in Fig. 8 and the origin
of the sludge.
Fig. 7. Shrinkage curve for two different wastewater sludges [8].
4. Solar drying of wastewater sludge: a review
Applying free solar energy may well be an alternative solution
for reduction of the cost of the drying process. However, contrary
to drying with constant conditions, the obtained drying kinetics
during solar drying present some variations, as the operating condi-
tions continuously change with time. It was found that at variation
of the operating conditions; the product adapts its comportment to
the new conditions by varying the common direction of its drying
kinetic with a non-instant adaptation and registration of a time of
reaction [18,30,31].
Salihoglu et al. [9] present the performances of a solar drying
plant situated in Bursa city at the southeast of the Marmara Sea
in Turkey. By the end of 2006, this country has produced around
27,000 tons of dry solids per year. Wastewater sludge was obtained
from a municipal plant which has a capacity of 64,000 m3 per
day. Covered and open sludge drying plants were constructed with
floor dimensions of 2 m × 5 m to conduct the experiments. The two
plants were operated according to the conceptual model shown in
Fig. 9. For both plants, the sludge was spread out on the floors in
25 cm-layers.
The covered sludge drying plant was constructed as a tunnel
type greenhouse with a roof height of 2.5 m. It was completely
enclosed by two walls, 10 mm thick transparent polycarbonate
sheet with light transmittance of 80%. The indoor air accumulated
in the plant during the day is directed to the rock-bed for energy
storage. The schematic view of the plant is shown in Fig. 10. Aera-
tion of the surface of the sludge is effectuated by a ventilator fixed
in the roof. The saturated sludge surface layer was removed with
the ventilator turbulent air. Besides, saturated air by accumulation
was discharged by means of two fans mounted above the doors of
the plant, and air renewal was provided. The impermeable concrete
 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073 1067

Fig. 8. Development of cracks during drying of wastewater sludge [23].

floor of the greenhouse was heated using hot water pipes connected
to two flat plate solar collectors. Under the concrete floor, a rock-
bed, composed of 16–48 mm diameter stones and 50 cm depth, is
used as storage system. The bottom and sidewalls of the rock-bed
were insulated with an impermeable concrete floor and heat insu-
lation material. Every day and for two times, the sludge was mixed
manually for sludge renewal purposes.
On the other hand, an impermeable concrete floor is constructed
for the open sludge drying plant. Surface aeration was supplied
with the wind effect and sludge was heated with direct expo-
sure to the sun. Also, the sludge was mixed manually twice a
day.
As commented before regarding the adaptation of the dry-
ing kinetic its behaviour during application of variable conditions,
Fig. 11 show the total dependence of the moisture content vari-
ations on the climatic conditions with a non-regular decrease, in
particular sludge dried in the open plant. In this plant and after 55
days of drying time the moisture content was around 60%. How-
ever, it has reached 20%, for the same time, for a sludge dried in the
covered plant. With lime added the performances of both plants
were ameliorated and the total amount of the sludge to be disposed
would be reduced by approximately 40%. The financial evaluation
of the covered drying system gave a self amortization in only 4
years.

Fig. 9. Conceptual model for the experimental design [9].

1068 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073

Fig. 10. Schematic view of the covered solar drying plant [9].

Fig. 11. Covered and open sun wastewater sludge drying in summer period [9].
 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073 1069

Concerning the pathogen removal, a greater reduction was

obtained within the covered sludge drying system comparing to the
open system. Fig. 11 shows the fecal coliform reduction obtained
during the solar drying in the cover and open plants, in sum-
mer period. The coliform content of the mechanically dewatered
sludge was 107 before starting drying process. At the end of 45
days and at the application of the covered solar drying, the col-
iform content decreased to below 2 × 106 CFU g−1 DS in summer.
This is the limit value of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Class B pathogen requirement. However, to obtain the EPA class A
pathogen requirement of 1000 CFU g−1 DS in a shorter time; a lim-
ited amount of lime was added to the dewatered sludge before solar
drying. An average time of 10 days in summer and 20 days in winter
were needed.
Lei et al. [32] developed a laboratory greenhouse, shown in
Fig. 12. The greenhouse is made of glass. Its inner bottom side is
painted in black in order to increase absorption of solar energy
radiations. A chimney of 180 cm high was placed on the top of
the greenhouse. Also, 6 air vents were made on the two walls of
the greenhouse. The drying system was tested in the region of
Shanghai in china. It is characterized by a maximum irradiance of
1002 W m−2 in summer. It decreases to 947 W m−2 in autumn and Fig. 12. Greenhouse used for sludge drying [32].

in spring and it decreases until 910 W m−2 in winter. Samples of

fresh sludge were obtained from WWTP situated in Shanghai. The
sludge has initial moisture of 5.16 kg kg−1 dry basis and was dried
to 0.78 kg kg−1 dry basis. It was putted in 25 mm thick layers in
a plate which was made of 0.1 mm steel mesh and had an area of
0.22 m × 0.36 m. The drying process has taken 125 h in summer and
around 550 h in winter with a non-regular decrease of the moisture
content, as illustrated in Fig. 13(a) and (b).
Mathioudakis et al. [10] propose drying wastewater sludge
using two solar drying plants. The sludge was obtained from WWTP

Fig. 13. Variations of the moisture content vs. time of the sludge for different seasons [32].
1070 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073
Fig. 14. Solar drying plants (left) and plant indoor view (right) [10].
of Komotini in Greece. Several batches of sludge were sampled after
thickening and dewatering. The dewatered sludge was dried using
two pilot-scale solar drying plants of approximate 2.5 m3 each and
made of polycarbonate, as it is illustrated in Fig. 14. The first plant
was equipped with gravel floor, where hot water, generated by a
commercial solar water heater, circulated. It permits the utilization
of solar energy additionally to the energy given by the greenhouse.
Hot water circulation was controlled by a thermostat, and it was
performed only when the water temperature was higher than the
plant indoor temperature. A fan was installed inside both plants to
provide turbulent air able to remove the moisture from the surface
layer. Also, two axial fans were replacing saturated air with fresh
ambient air. Approximately, 8 kg of dewatered sludge were placed
into crates forming a depth between 20 and 25 cm. The sludge was
mixed manually once per day. The results show that the moisture
content of wastewater sludge has decreased from 85% to 6% wet
basis within 7–12 days in summer and to 10% as final moisture
content within 9–33 days in autumn. Incorporating a solar water
heater, with recirculation through the bottom of the plant has accel-
erated drying process by 1–9 days during winter conditions.
Before drying, the total and fecal coliform of the dewatered
sludge was respectively 4 × 106 CFU g−1 DS and 3 × 105 CFU g−1 DS
in summer and in autumn. After application of solar drying,
the dry sludge has attained, in summer, the following values:
2 × 104 CFU g−1 DS as total coliform and 103 CFU g−1 DS as fecal
coliform. These values were respectively 2 × 106 CFU g−1 DS and
8 × 105 CFU g−1 DS in autumn.
Slim et al. [33] have modeled a wastewater sludge drying system
using climatic conditions of the region of Agen in France. Sludge is
uniformly spread over a concrete floor of the greenhouse dryer. The
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of the solar and heat pump sludge drying system [33].
drying system is composed of three main parts: the greenhouse,
the sludge mixing engine and the heat pumps with corresponding
heat sources and sinks (Fig. 15). The greenhouse is consists of a
hall of 4.6 m width and 20 m length completely covered by a trans-
parent shell, resistant to unfavourable climatic conditions. It limits
loosing and exchanging heat with external air. The roof of the green-
house has a height of 4 m under gutter and 5 m at the top. Inside the
greenhouse, two walls of 0.45 m height are dividing the space of the
house. The ventilation ducts are fixed on these walls to make a lat-
eral sweeping of the house. Its floor is made of three layers: deepest
one is composed of polystyrene to reduce the heat looses towards
the ground. The second layer consists of a network of polyethy-
lene tubes fixed to the polystyrene panels. The tubes are installed
to ensure a uniform flux distribution inside the greenhouse. The
last layer is made of 10 cm thick of concrete. Sludge is mixed inside
the greenhouse using a mixing engine that operate every 12 h and
prevent the formation of crusts. Two heat pumps are used in the
drying system, one for heating the air and the second for heating
the floor of the greenhouse. The heat pumps are controlled by an
on–off strategy and its functioning depends on the climatic condi-
tions. The authors have modeled and compared the efficiencies of
the drying systems in different seasons. The modeling work was
based on mass, energy and momentum laws as well as some heat
transfer correlations. It was deduced that more detailed economi-
cal calculations are needed to confirm the obtained results and thus
the use of the proposed model by the designers.
Roux et al. [34] tested and modeled solar drying of wastewa-
ter sludge using a greenhouse situated in the region of Fonsorbes
in France. The drying unit is made up of two drying bays and is
about 50 m long, 4 m height and 15 m wide. According to the design
 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073 1071

Experimental data are used for determination of the thin layer

drying of wastewater sludge.
The modeling work has successfully permitted to follow the
variations of the windrow height and the dryness evolution with
time. Also, it was possible to calculate the temperature inside the
greenhouse.
Krawczyk and Badyda [35] constructed and tested a pilot
wastewater sludge dryer in Kamienna region in Poland. The main
part of the dryer is a light steel structure covered with polycar-
bonate plates built on a concrete plate. The structure was fitted
with ventilation system in order to provide a uniform distribution
of the air over the surface of the dried sludge through a number
of blowers. Also, a sludge shuffling system was installed. The solar
drying system has an average daily drying rate of 8.12 kg H2 O/m2 d.
Fig. 16. Transfer phenomena in the solar drying unit [34]. In order to increase the performances of the drying system, an aux-
iliary source is added. The first experienced auxiliary source was
infrared (IR) lamps which gave a supplement of power assumed
geometry, shown in Fig. 16, and the operating conditions, sludge is
equal to 150 W m−2 . The average daily drying rate has enhanced
spread only in the first bay of the green house. The design of the unit
to 11.11 kg H2 O/m2 d. The calculus of the usage efficiency gave a
contains windrows in order to offer an optimized transfer area with
rate of 57.7%. For the second investigation and in addition to solar
the forced air flux. This high forced air renewal allows water evapo-
drying, floor was heated. The average daily drying rate has attained
ration from the sludge and the transport of the water out of the unit.
11.71 kg H2 O/m2 d, with an average power output of the floor heat-
Fans were placed inside the unit for ensuring homogeneous water
ing system equal to 225 W m−2 and the usage efficiency were 46.2%.
concentration and sufficient connective transfers with the sludge.
The variations of the drying rate for the three proposed methods are
Also, a robot regularly adds some fresh sludge within windrows
shown in Fig. 17. It is clear that the obtained periods at application
and mixes them to homogenize dryness and temperature.
of constant operating conditions are non observable. The authors
Modeling of the drying unit passes through the establishment
modeled the functioning of the drying system based on heat and
of heat and mass balances. So, two differential equations were
mass transport within the dried matter, the ambient air and the
obtained:
border between the two areas, and using the unsteady case. The
The boundary walls balances take into account solar effects,
efficiency of the drying system was calculated using the following
internal and external convections and infrared radiations. The dif-
equation:
ferential equation of the roof of the greenhouse is written:
dTV sup
V sup VV sup CpV sup = [PV sup aV sup + hV sup (Ta − TV sup ) W · r
dt = (3)
 P · 86, 400
+ hext (Text − TV sup )]AV sup + Rj−V sup (1)
j walls =
/ V sup
where W is, for the first studied case, the increase in the daily
drying rate when using IR lamps, referenced to purely solar drying
The second differential equation is written in the following
and the increase in the daily drying rate using floor heating system
form:
dTBo referenced to purely solar drying for the second case.
Bo VBo CpBo = [PBo aBo V + hBo (Ta − TBo )]ABo P is the assumed power output of the IR heating for the first
dt
 dX case and for the second case is the average power output of the
+ Rj−Bo + Ms Lv (2) floor heating system.
dt
j walls =
/ Bo The study must be completed by an economical study to
know the real performances of the proposed drying systems with

Fig. 17. Comparison of drying rate curve for purely solar drying and after adding an auxiliary source of energy [35].
1072 L. Bennamoun / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 1061–1073
supplementary heating sources. Also, in some cases, question of
practicality must be treated.
Seginer et al. [36] have used one of the drying chambers existing
in Füssen in Germany. The drying chamber has a concrete floor with
10 m wide and 50 m long from the wall with air inlet to the outlet
wall, where fans are located. The installed capacity of the mixing
fans and the ventilation fans is 150 m3 of air per m2 of floor and
per hour. In the experiments the mixing fans can give two rates: 0
and 150 m3 m−2 h−1 , however the ventilation fans were operated
at several rates of 30, 100 and 140 m3 m−2 h−1 . The fans were con-
tinuously operated at the designated rates. The sludge was mixed
by a robot, on a constant daily schedule, for 4 or 6 h per day. Two
methods were used to measure the loss of water; sludge sampling
and vapour balance. The first method consists on the determination
of the amount of the solids from the volume, bulk density and dry
solids content (DSC) of the sludge. On the other hand, sampling the
sludge every few days to determine its DSC is effectuated. The sec-
ond measuring method consists of measuring the humidity ratio of
the ventilating air at inlet and outlet then multiplying the humid-
ity difference by the density of the air and the nominal volumetric
discharge of the ventilation fans Qv . The obtained evaporation rate
is expressed:
E = (wout − win )
Four types of prediction models were considered: physical,
additive, multiplicative and neural network model, the multiplica-
tive model has shown best results. The most important predictors
of evaporation rate for the conditions under consideration were
solar radiation, outdoor temperature, ventilation rate and dry solids
content of the sludge.
5. Conclusion
Drying is an essential process during the wastewater man-
agement, as it reduces the quantity of sludge that could be
manipulated. Drying kinetic is one of the important parameters
that must be known to have a better understand and control of
the process. The general behaviour of the drying kinetic during
wastewater sludge drying contains a short adaptation period to the
applied drying conditions. Depending on the origin of the sludge, a
first principle period known as a constant drying rate period can be
observed. This period is generally followed by one or two falling rate
periods then a short final period where bound water is removed.
During all the process the product has shown shrinkage and cracks
phenomena.
Using free solar energy for wastewater sludge drying can be ben-
efit in point of view of energy consumption and in consequence on
the cost of the drying system. This review has shown that in whole
presented cases, the wastewater sludge is spread in thick layers, in
the floor of a greenhouse chamber, which is the main part of the
presented drying systems. Fans and ventilations can be added, in
order to have homogeneous distribution of the inlet air at the sur-
face layers of the product. Also, ventilation is used to evacuate the
saturated air and replace it by fresh air. Generally mixing the prod-
uct manually or using a robot, once or several times in a day was
effectuated which permits to have harmonized distribution of the
dried product. Several, materials were added in order to increase
the efficiency of the drying systems, such as heat pump, infrared
lamps, heating the floor of the greenhouse using solar water heater
or adding rock-bed as thermal energy storage system. According to
the obtained results and the cost of the operation, it was not bene-
fit, in all cases, to use a second source of energy beside to free solar
energy. The performances of the drying systems change through
the period of use, the geographical situation of the place where the
experimental work was done, what is more it depends on the origin
of the wastewater sludge.
Several works have modeled solar drying of the wastewater
sludge. It passes commonly through the establishment of heat and
mass transfer applied for the air and the product with taking in
consideration the variations of the solar radiations, inlet and outlet
temperatures and added materials such as fans, ventilation, auxil-
iary sources and storage systems when they are used.
It was confirmed that using solar drying plays an interesting
role for the pathogen reduction of the wastewater sludge [9–11,37].
The fecal coliform content decreases until EPA Class B pathogen
requirement and even EPA Class A pathogen requirement, in some
cases, such as at the use of a limited amount of lime.
For the most realized drying systems exhaustive modeling stud-
ies are needed for having more details about air and product
temperature and humidity, which should give necessary informa-
tion for an accurate design of solar drying of wastewater sludge
system. Also, economical studies concerning the different used
methods are required for calculation of the cost of the used systems
and their investment feedback.
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