(***

ELECTRONIC
CIRCUIT DEVICES

AVIONICS TECHNICIAN TRAINING COURSE

 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/electroniccircuiOOfran
 ORDER NO. EA-192-1

ELECTRONIC
CIRCUIT DEVICES

AN AVIATION MAINTENANCE PUBLISHERS, INC.

TRAINING MANUAL

By
Frank Harris

: 'V
k J

I A P, Inc.
P.a Box 36* 1000 College View Drive
Riverton, Wyoming 85201-0036
Tel: (BOO) 443-9250 • (307) 856-1582
 International Standard Book Number 0-89100-192-1

Aviation Maintenance Publishers. Inc.

P.O. Box 36. 1000 College View Dr.. Riverton. WY 82501

Copyright 1983 by Frank Harris

All Rights Reserved

Printed in the United States ot America

 Table of Contents

Introduction ix

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DEVICES 1

I. Basic Electronic Theory 1

A. Atoms, Crystals, and Energy States 1

B. Conductivity 2

C. Insulators 3

D. Semiconductors 3

E. Controlled Introduction of Electrons and Holes 5

F. Conduction by Holes 6

G. Conduction by Doped Semi-conductors 8

H. Thermistors 8

I. Photoconductors and Photo Resistors 8

J. Electron Conduction in Vacuum Tubes 9

II. Diodes 13

A. Diodes 13

B. Ideal Diodes 13

C. Vacuum Tube Diodes 14

D. Semiconductor 15

E. Diode Applications 19

F. Filtering Rectifier Output 21

G. Diode Clippers 23

H. Diode Peak Detector Circuits 23

i
 I. DC to DC Voltage Inverter 24

J. Diode Switch 25

K. Diode Detector 26

L. Diode Frequency Converters 27

III. Special Purpose Diodes 33

A. Stabistor Diodes 33

B. Silicon Solar Cells 34

C. Light Emitting Diodes 35

D. High Voltage Diodes 36

E. Zener Diodes 37

F. Varactor and Step Recovery Diodes 38

G. Pin Diodes 42

H. Schottky or HCD Diodes 43

I. The Tunnel Diode 44

J. Tunnel Diode Oscillators 46

K. Tunnel Diode Amplifiers 49

L. Tunnel Rectifiers 50

M. Gunn Diodes 50

IV. Transistors and Other Electronic Control Devices 53

A. The Ideal Control Device 53

B. The Basic Transistor Amplifier 59

C. The Ideal Transistor Volt- Ampere Characteristic 60

D. Vacuum Tubes 60

E. The Transistor 62
 F. Bipolar Transistors 63

G. How to Turn Off a Transistor 63

H. How to Turn On a Transistor 64

I. Why Transistors Have Gain 66

J. Transistor Input Characteristic 68

K. Limitations in Transistor Performance 69

L. Transistor Fabrication 70

M. Testing Transistors 71

V. AC Power Control Devices 75

A. Controlling Alternating Current 75

B. The Thyratron 76

C. Thyristors 77

D. The P-N-P-N Diode 77

E. Inert Gas Lights and Voltage Regulators 79

F. Silicon Controlled Rectifiers 80

G. Controlling the SCR 81

H. Controlling Full Wave AC Power 85

I. DIACS and TRIACS 85

VI. Field Effect Transistors 89

A. Introduction •
89

B. Junction Field Effect Transistors 90

C. Field Effect Current Regulator Diodes 92

D. The Metal-Oxide-Semi-conductor FET (MOSFET) 92

E. MOSFET Symbols 95

m
 F. NMOS and PMOS 96

G. Complementary MOSFETs (CMOS) 97

H. Dual Gate MOSFETs 98

I. VMOS Power Transistors 99

J. How to Protect MOS Transistors and Integrated Circuits 99

K. Storing Loose MOSFET Devices 100

L. Installing MOSFETs in Circuits 100

M. Built-in MOSFET Protection 101

VII. Transistor Amplifiers 103

A. Amplifiers 103

B. Impedance Matching 103

C. Basic Transistor Amplifiers 105

D. The Emitter Follower (Common Collector Amplifier) 107

E. The Common Base Amplifier 108

F. Direct Coupled Transistor Amplifiers 109

G. Basic Field Effect Transistor Amplifiers 110

H. Alphabet Classification of Amplifiers 110

I. Linearity and Distortion Ill

J. Class A Amplifiers 112

K. Class B Amplifiers 113

L. Class C Amplifiers 115

M. Class AB Amplifiers 120

N. Class D Amplifiers 120

O. Class E Amplifiers 120

P. Biasing Transistor Amplifiers . . 121

iv
 Q. Biasing Class A Amplifiers 123

R. Static and Dynamic Amplifier Characteristics 125

VIII. Sine Wave Oscillators 129

A. Introduction 129

B. The Phase Shift Oscillator 130

C. Resonant Circuit Oscillators 132

D. Colpitts and Hartley Oscilators 133

E. Crystal Oscillators 135

F. The Armstrong Oscillator 137

G. The Regenerative Detector 138

IX. Square Wave Generators and Bistable Circuits 141

A. Introduction 141

B. The Multivibrator 142

C. Uses for the Bistable Flip-flop 145

D. Bistable Flip-flops as Memories 147

E. Astable Multivibrators 148

F. Synchronized Multivibrators 149

G. Monostable Multivibrators 150

H. Schmitt Triggers, Zero Crossing Detectors, and Comparators 151

I. Unijunction Transistor Oscillators 154

J. Integrated Timing Circuits 155

X. Operational Amplifiers 161

A. Introduction 161

B. The Op-Amp-The Ideal Amplifier 161

 C. Differential Amplifiers 161

D. Inverting and Non-inverting Inputs 163

E. Operational Amplifier Design 163

F. The Comparator 165

G. The Voltage Follower 166

H. Precision Diode 168

I. Operational Amplifiers with Controlled Voltage Gain 169

J. Balancing Operational Amplifiers 171

K. A Thermocouple Amplifier 172

L. Single Power Supply Amplifiers 173

M. Op-Amp Output Impedance 173

XI. Applications for Operational Amplifiers 177

A. Introduction 177

B. Operational Amplifiers as Differential Amplifiers 177

C. Summing Amplifier 177

D. Active Frequency Filters 178

E. The Logarithmic Amplifier 180

F. Integrators and Differentiators 183

G. Integrator Sweep Circuits 185

H. The Operational Differentiator 186

I. The Voltage-to-Current Converter 189

XII. Power Supplies and Voltage Regulators 193

A. Introduction 193

B. Power Supply Design Goals 193

VI
 C. Parallel Voltage Regulators 194

D. The Series Voltage Regulator 196

E. Current Limiter Circuits 197

F. Three Terminal Integrated Voltage Regulators 199

G. Energy Gap Voltage Standards 201

H. Varistors 202

I. Switching Power Supplies 202

J. Isolated Power Supplies and the Phate Isolator 208

K. Constant AC Voltage Transformer 211

Glossary 217

Answers to Study Questions 233

Final Examination 255

Answers to the Final Exam 261

vn
 INTRODUCTION

Electronics really began with the invention of
the triode vacuum tube in 1906 by Lee Deforest.
The triode vacuum tube was important because,
for the first time it was possible to control big
voltages and currents with tiny voltages and cur-
rents.
Unlike an electromechanical relay, it could do
this without moving parts and at very high
measures 1/4" by 3/4" and 90% of its bulk is
taken up with the 14 pins that enable it to be
plugged into a socket. What used to be a large
module in a costly machine is now a component
available for less money than a single resistor
cost 25 years ago. As a result, circuit designers
today use operational amplifiers in their designs
as casually as resistors were used twenty years
ago.

speeds. By controlling voltages and currents we

The most example of this trend is
startling
mean turning them "on'" or "off," or sometimes
the microcomputer. Microcomputers are avail-
just partly "on." The vacuum tube and the tran-
able now on a single chip for about S5. Although
sistor are comparable devices and can be thought
everyone is familiar with TV games and home
of as electrically controlled electricity faucets.
computers which are based on the microcom-
puter,what is not generally known is that they
Twenty years ago a book written on elec- can be programmed to perform almost any elec-
tronic devices would have been limited to a tronic function. They are, in essence, the ultimate
discussion of discrete electronic components such electronic Unfortunately they
device. are too
as diodes, transistors, and vacuum tubes. Since complex to be covered in this text.
that time, the integrated circuit has made it

possible to compress complex circuits and even

Electronic devices are a wide, complex field,
entire instruments into a single silicon chip. Sud-
and you aren't going to learn it all here. In fact, if
denly pieces of equipment, such as operational
you spend the rest of your life studying elec-
amplifiers, frequency counters, memory banks,
tronics, you will still be ignorant about some
and even entire computers have become single
aspects of the field. This is very discouraging for
devices that can be plugged into a circuit much
the beginner, but it is also the salvation for the
like a transistor or diode.
old hand. You will never run out of things to learn
and challenge you.
For example, in 1954 an operational amplifier
was a module found only in analog computers. One of the reasons you will never stop learn-
Physically it was a metal chassis about the size of ing in electronics is because it is practically im-
a cereal box which contained half a dozen glowing possible to explain anything completely and pre-
vacuum tubes and lots of resistors and wires. It cisely, therefore, your understanding will always
was mounted in a huge instrument rack with a be incomplete.
large number of similar modules. These ampli-
fiers were interconnected with test leads to we make frequent use of running
In this book
simulate engineering problems such as the design water, rubber balloons, childrens' swings and
of suspension systems in automobiles. Each other simple analogies. This is enough for the
amplifier represented one of the design variables earliest rough approximation, but you should
in the system such as a coil spring, the rebound of never let yourself believe that electricity always
the tires, and so on. behaves like the analogy. Many of its more subtle
characteristics have no counterparts in the every-
Today four operational amplifiers are avail- day world. These crude analogies are just intend-
able in a single integrated circuit which sells for ed to get you started. We often have to go much
49c retail. This integrated circuit (IC for short) deeper to reach a useful level of understanding.
IX
 When you reach something you can't under-
stand, just get the general idea and take it
faith.Later on, read it again or better yet, read
about it in some other book and get a fresh out-
look on it. Most abstract ideas can be explained
"correctly" in more than one way. Every time you
go over a subject you will find that your under-
standing will improve.
Electronic books are generally written on one
of two levels. When written for the beginner, they
are usually so trivial that they do not give the
reader enough depth of knowledge to use the
formation in practical circuits such as found in
avionics equipment.
The other level of writing is the engineering
level where the high priests have carefully con-
cealed the knowledge behind a smokescreen of
on abstract generalizations and mathematical gib-
berish. It may be a surprise for the reader to learn
that it is possible to graduate with good grades
and a degree in electrical engineering and not
understand enough about electronics to explain it
to anyone.
The author was living proof of this state-
ment. Engineers are taught how to calculate
answers at breakneck speed in order to pass tests.
However, they are rarely taught how anything
in- works or why it is important. It is no wonder that
good engineers are such a rarity.
This book is an attempt to describe electronic
devices on a middle level in which we will explain
how each device works and why it is important.
 SECTION I

Basic Electronic Theory

It is possible to explain what electronic uum as found in a TV A good place

picture tube.
devices do without a detailed explanation of how atom and how its
to start is a description of the
they do it. In the long run though, it is better to electrons can sometimes be coaxed away to form
have a qualitative idea of what is going on inside a useful electric current.
a device. The devices are usually named with A. Atoms, Crystals and Energy States
strange words and letters based on their theory
and construction. If you know the vocabulary, An atom consists of a dense, positively
you can keep the devices separate in your mind charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
and know how they are used. For example, an negatively charged orbiting electrons. The elec-
"N-channel MOSFET" is a transistor which can trons are sometimes compared to planets orbiting
be easily damaged if you handle it carelessly. the sun. The force which keeps the planets from
Once you know what initials like "MOSFET" leaving the solar system is the gravitational at-
mean, you will know what characteristics to ex- traction between any two masses. In order for
pect from the transistor, how to avoid damaging gravity to be significant, at least one of the
it, and how it should be wired into a circuit. masses must be huge. So, in the atom, gravita-
tional forces are insignificant. The electrons are
Electronics the science of controlling the
is held in orbit by the attraction between the
flow of electrons through solids, such as wires negatively charged electrons and the positively
and transistors, and sometimes through a vac- charged atomic nucleus.

HYDROGEN DONATES
ONE ELECTRON CARBON DONATES
OR ACCEPTS
FOUR ELECTRONS SILICON DONATES
OR ACCEPTS FOUR
ELECTRONS
Fig. 1-1 Diagrams of atoms showing electron shells.

1
 Most of the electrons in a typical medium-to-
large sized atom are orbiting close to the nucleus
and are too tightly bound to leave the atom under
ordinary conditions. With very energetic persua-
sion, such as atoms in the midst of an atomic ex-
plosion, even the inner electrons can be removed
from the atom. The electrons which are most dis-
tant from the nucleus are not held tightly and can
be lost to other atoms during a chemical reaction
or under the influence of the low voltages used in
electronics.
In general, a molecule is stable when each
atom in the molecule has access to 8 electrons in
its outer shell. When oxygen combines with only
one hydrogen, the two atoms together have only 7
electrons to share. This substance, called the
hydroxyl radical, will react with a great many
substances to try to capture an 8th electron.
Sodium hydroxide (lye), releases this hydroxyl
radical easily. That is why the lye used in toilet
bowl cleaner can dissolve the debris out of plumb-
ing.

From the analogy of planets orbiting the sun, Some atoms, such as neon and argon gases,
and from the diagrams in this section, you could already have 8 electrons in their outer orbits.
easily get the idea that electrons are sedate, quiet These atoms not only react poorly with other
objects that park in specified positions where kinds of atoms, they don't even associate closely
they are associated with other nearby electrons enough with their own kind to form solids!
and atoms. In fact, electrons whirl frantically
around their atom and cover a spherical shell- Flourine has 7 electrons in its outer orbit.
shaped pathway rather than a simple circular When flourine reacts with hydrogen, you would
orbit. Moreover, they go so fast that according to expect it to form a very stable compound.
physics theory, they are too indistinct and However, the flourine atom holds onto the
"ghostly" to be certain where one is going at a hydrogen atom's electron so tightly that it does
given instant. In summary, electrons are very not share the electron with the hydrogen very
esoteric objects and one must be wary of descrip- well and the molecule is very unstable. The
tions that make them sound like billiard balls. In hydrogen atom is easily set free from its own elec-
spite of this, the number of electrons that can be tron and will go off to try to capture a new elec-
gained or lost by a given voltage level directly ex- tron from some other molecule. An atom which
plains many of the chemical and physical proper- has lost or gained electrons is called an ion.
ties of each kind of atom. Because the hydrogen ion is so easily released
from the hydrogen flouride molecule, hydrogen
For example, oxygen will share two electrons flouride is the most corrosive acid known.
with two hydrogen atoms to form a stable cluster
of three atoms which make up a single molecule of The number of electrons that an atom is able
water (H2O). When we say "shares electrons," we to give up or accept is called its valence. For ex-
mean that the outer electrons actually orbit ample, the valence of hydrogen is plus 1 because
around all three atoms, binding them together. it donates an electron easily. The valences of
flourine and oxygen are minus 1 and minus 2
respectively because they accept those numbers
of electrons easily.

B. Conductivity

HYDROGEN ATOMS
+ 1 CHARGE IN NUCLEUS The property of materials that most concerns
-1 CHARGE IN ELECTRON
us in electronics is conductivity. A material that
is a good conductor allows electrons to travel

through it, from atom to atom, with little applica-

OXYGEN ATOM tion of force. The "force" is voltage which pushes
+8 CHARGE IN NUCLEUS
-6 ELECTRONS IN electrons from atom to atom.
OUTER SHELL

Most good conductors are metals. Metals

Fig. 1-2 A
water molecule is made from one oxy- generally have just one or two outer electrons
gen and two hydrogen atoms. The three atoms that are easily removed. Once the electrons have
share their outer shell with eight electrons to been removed, they are easily replaced by other
make a stable molecule. traveling electrons. Just inside the orbit of these
outer electrons is a filled shell of electrons, which matrix of atoms in the conductor. Conduction
explains why
metals don't mind losing their outer can't occur unless free electrons and resting
electrons. In many heavy metals this filled shell places are both present.
contains as many as 18 electrons. None the less,
this shell is filled and these electrons are not C. Insulators
available for conduction or chemical reactions.
Insulators are very poor conductors. Many
1. Crystalline structure insulators are also crystals. Crystalline glass,
rocks, and salt are examples. Some crystalline
The structure metals is basically crys-
of structures keep the adjacent atoms so close that
talline. Individual atoms in a crystal are stacked it requires too much energy for an electron to

together in a uniform pattern, something like a enter or leave the atom. This should sound
neat pile of bricks. The closeness of the individual backwards to you, but it turns out that when
metal atoms means that their outer electron or- atoms are closest, the crystal is most likely to be
bits are practically touching. As a result, it takes an insulator.
energy for weakly bound electrons to
little

wander over and orbit around neighboring atoms. In a good insulator the kinetic energy of a
Compared to other crystals we will talk about, traveling electron is far higher than one which is
metal atoms form rather loose, flexible crystals. resting in an outer orbit. Since so much energy is
needed, we can say that there are effectively no
Many
nonmetallic atoms form tight chem- resting places or free electrons in an insulator. If
icalbonds with others of their own kind when you put enough voltage across an insulator, even-
they form a crystal. In these crystals each atom tually it breaks down and conducts. However,
has access to 8 electrons in its outer shell. This there is so much energy expended in jamming
locks each atom tightly to its neighbors. Metal electrons into orbits and yanking them out, that
atoms already have a filled, next-to-outer shell so the insulator overheats and is destroyed. For ex-
the metal atoms do not need to share their filled ample, wood is a good insulator, but when light-
shell with other atoms in order to be stable. Only ning strikes a wooden house and uses it for a con-
a few outer electrons are shared in metals and this ductor, the heat released usually sets the house
tenuous linkage between adjacent atoms explains on fire.

why metal is flexible. When under pressure

metals usually bend while glass and other crys-
tals shatter.
2. Kinetic energy
The energy of motion (kinetic energy) of a
truck doing 90 mph down the interstate is ob-
viously higher than one parked at the truck stop.
Similarly, the energy stored in an electron travel-
ing through a conductor should be higher than
one which is resting in the outer orbit of some
atom. But in a really good conductor, the energy
D. Semiconductors
Semiconductors, logically enough, are half-
way between the two extremes of good conduc-
tors and good insulators. The reason that semi-
conductors are so important in electronics is their
conductivity can be widely altered from good con-
ductor to good insulator just by applying a small
voltage, heat, or light. In other words, the ability
of semiconductors to change from insulator to
conductor makes it possible to control the flow of
electrical current with subtle application of small

of some of the traveling electrons is no higher amounts of energy.

than the energy of some of the resting electrons.
This is because it requires so little energy to 1. Crystals
travel, that the energy of some parked electrons
is at the same level as some of the wandering Semiconductors are also crystals. They are
ones. usually made from atoms which have valences of
four. Each atom shares its four outer electrons

We can summarize conductors as having two
basic ingredients: free electrons which are easily
lured away from their atoms, and resting places
in the outer electron shells which provide step-
ping stones for electrons wandering through the
with four other atoms in a stable, rigid, crystal.
Molecules and crystals are particularly stable
and chemically inert when there are 8 electrons in
the outer shell of each atom. Because each of the
Fig. 1-3 Diagram of a silicon crystal showing how valence electrons are shared with four other atoms.

semiconductor atoms has access to 8 electrons, 3. Carbon

there are no electrons to lose and no unfilled
resting places. Pure semiconductor crystals are Carbon is an interesting example of how crys-
actually good insulators. talline structure can change the physical and elec-
trical properties of a material. Carbon occurs in

2. Impurities three different forms: amorphous carbon, such as

In order for a semiconductor to behave like a
conductor it must either be impure or extremely
hot. If there are any different kinds of atoms
ped in the crystal matrix, these impurities will
have different valences and will donate free elec-
trons and resting places and turn the semiconduc-
tor into a conductor.
In semiconductors these resting places are
the soot in your chimney; graphite, as in pencil
lead; and diamonds.
trap- Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon is a poor conductor com-
pared to most metals, but it is a conductor none
the less. The resistors used in electronics are
usually made of carbon. When amorphous carbon
is compressed under enough heat and pressure, it

called holes because each one represents a place turns into graphite crystal.
where an electron can go, but which is not filled at
the moment. Heat energy can also form free elec- Graphite carbon
trons and resting places by knocking electrons
out of a pure semiconductor crystal structure. Graphite has its atoms closer together than
When an electron is knocked out, it leaves a cavi- amorphous carbon and is a semiconductor. It
ty or hole for some other traveling electron to rest turns out that it conducts electrons too easily
in. when heated for graphite to be used to make tran-
sistors. When graphite is compressed under very
extreme pressure, the graphite crystal collapses
into an extremely dense crystal structure which
is the diamond. Diamonds are excellent in-
sulators.
Silicon and germanium are the two most im-
portant semiconductors used in electronics. There
are others though, such as gallium arsenide and
gallium phosphide, semiconductor molecules
which are used in the light emitting diodes
(LED's) which make up the glowing red or green
numbers in calculator and watch displays.
E. Controlled Introduction of Electrons and
Holes
If impuritieswhich donate both electrons and
holes are introduced into the same semiconductor
crystal, the result will be a good conductor. One
reason that semiconductors are so special is that
these two properties, electrons and holes, can be
added separately. When only one of these conduc-
tion components is added in small quantities, the
resulting crystal is still an insulator. However,
the crystal is now very sensitive and can now
have the missing component, electrons or holes,
induced into it by voltage, heat, or light. This
makes the semiconductor an insulator on the
verge of becoming a conductor. It is like a valve
that can be easily turned on.
Fig. 1-4 Diagram of a silicon crystal with
—5 and +3 introduce extra electrons and holes into the crystal
1. Holes
Holes can be added by introducing an impuri-
ty, such as gallium or indium, which have a
valence of plus 3. Since indium has only 3 elec-
trons to share, it will fit into the crystal, but it
will not have enough electrons to share with each
of its four neighbors. The result is an instability,
a hole, that will readily accept an electron to fill
the place of the missing eighth electron.
2. Electrons
Electrons can be added by introducing an im-
purity like arsenic or phosphorus which have a
valence of plus 5. These also fit into the matrix
but have an extra electron which is free for con-
duction. Phosphorus can also have a valence of
minus 3. This is another way of saying that
phosphorus has 5 electrons in its outer shell.
Phosphorus can accept 3 electrons to make a
stable eight electrons in its outer shell. Alter-
natively, it can share all 5 with other atoms in
which case it isconsidered to have a valence of
plus 5. When phosphorus is trapped in a silicon
semiconductor crystal, four of its 5 electrons are
shared with neighboring silicon atoms, making 8
The ninth electron is
electrons in a stable octet.
out of place and very easily lost. This ninth
is
electron becomes a conduction electron.
phosphorus and indium impurities showing how valences of
and make it a conductor.
3. Doping F. Conduction by Holes

The process adding impurities to semicon-

of We have pictured all conductivity through
ductors is called doping. A semiconductor with a solids as electrons jumping from resting place to
large amount of impurity added is said to be resting place. This is close enough for beginners,
heavily doped. but in the big time this idea is refined into two
separate kinds of conductivity. The idea is that
Asemiconductor which has been doped to the atom-to-atom hopping that occurs in semicon-
add holes is said to be a P-type semiconductor. P
ductors has two mechanisms of conduction.
stands for "positive" because negative electrons
are attracted to those holes. This does not mean The first is the atom-to-atom hopping that we
that the whole semiconductor is positively charg- already described for metals. This conduction in-
ed. volves relatively high energy electrons which are
in the conduction band. Conduction band elec-
Asemiconductor that has been doped to add trons are the only kind of conduction mechanism
electrons is said to be an N-type semiconductor. N
that metals have.
stands for "negative" because the extra electrons
are negatively charged and N-type semiconductor The second kind of conduction in semiconduc-
has them available for conduction. Again, it does tors is an atom-to-atom hopping that only occurs
not mean that the whole crystal is negatively among the low energy electrons that are orbiting
charged. A N-type semiconductor which has been crystal atoms in semiconductors. This low energy
heavily doped is called an N
plus (N+) type kind of conduction is said to occur in the valence
semiconductor. And finally, a heavily doped band.
P-type semiconductor is called a P+ type semi-
conductor.
Valence band conduction

You will have the terms pretty well mastered

if you can just remember the following:
P-type stands for positive and has holes.
N-type stands for negative and has
extra electrons.
To make this as confusing as possible, val-
ence band conduction is referred to as conduction
by holes. You aren't going to believe this, but the
accepted way of looking at valence band conduc-
tion in semiconductors is that the holes are mov-
ing instead of the electrons.

The upper floor, the conduction band, is like an expressway.

c 5

The lower floor, the valence band, is like bumper-to-bumper traffic.

2l
-SPACE
£g —
As the cars move
"o —
to the right, the
xy
^ SPACE
space between them, holes, move to the left.

Fig. 1-5 Conduction in a semiconductor can be compared to a two level parking garage.
6
 Suppose you were in a helicopter hovering
over a parking lot just outside the Superbowl.
The parking lot has more cars than pavement and
the scarce, empty car-sized spaces are quickly fill-
ed as cars attempt to maneuver around the lot.
As seen from a great distance it could appear that
the empty places were moving around the lot in-
stead of the cars. Everytime a car moves into a
space it leaves another space behind it which
another car quickly moves into. The important
thing to notice is that as the cars move in one
direction, the spaces seem to move in the opposite
direction.
The parking lot analogy to conduction in
semiconductors has been expanded by Shockley,
Bardeen and Brattain — the inventors of the
bipolar transistor. He pictured the two energy
states as being like two floors in a parking
garage. The upper floor is virtually empty and
represents the conduction energy band. Cars can
drive around unimpeded up there because there
are so few of them. This is the only state there is
in a metal conductor because the conduction
energy band and the va-lence energy band
overlap and there is little difference between
them.
For a pure semiconductor Shockley pictures
the lower floor of the parking garage as being
completely filled with cars so that none of them
can move and none of them can go upstairs where
they could travel about freely.
By adding a quantity of energy one car can be
lifted from the lower floor up to the upper floor
where it is free to go anywhere its driver wants.
In the process of raising one car from the lower
floor, a parking space is created on the lower
floor. Once a space has been made, the cars can
move around down there from space to space.
The lesson in semiconductors is that when
energy is applied to a semiconductor and it begins
to conduct, electrons have been lifted from the
valence band up to the conduction band. The cur-
rent carriers, which are conduction band electrons
and valence band holes, are generated in pairs.
Moreover, the conduction can be thought of
as occuring in two ways. In the conduction band
the electrons whizz along as if in a metal. In the
valence band the movement is just as rapid but
the electrons move from hole to hole as if they
were in bumper to bumper traffic.
1. Insulators
Let's go back and apply this analogy to in-
sulators.As atoms are jammed closer and closer
together, we said that the crystal is more and
more likely to be an insulator. As the atoms are
brought closer and closer, the valence band
energy becomes lower and lower, but at the same
time, the conduction band energy is becoming
higher and higher.
Insulators are much like the situation we
have been describing for pure semiconductors.
The bottom floor of the garage is packed with
cars so there can be no valence band conduction.
The upper floor representing the conduction band
is totally empty so there can be no conduction up
there either.
The difference between pure semiconductors
and insulators is that insulators have the upper
floor thousands of feet above the lower floor. It
takes huge energies (huge voltages) to lift cars
(electrons) up there to get conduction started.
In contrast, the parking garage analogy for
semiconductors would have the upper floor the
minimum distance above the cars on the lower
floor. Since raising a car a few feet requires less
energy (small voltages), conduction is easily
started in semiconductors.
2. Hole
In the semiconductor literature the word hole
is reserved for valence band resting places in
semiconductors. It seems to the author that this
subject would be less confusing if the world
would acknowledge that the conduction in both
bands is basically electrons hopping from resting
place to resting place.
In metals or N+ type semiconductor, extra
electrons are left out of the outer octet of orbiting
electrons. Therefore they are very easily lured
away from their home atom.
None the less, any atcm which has lost its
valence electron is positively charged and there-
wandering conduc-
fore attracts electrons. Since
tionband electrons use positively charged metal
atoms as stepping stones, doesn't this make the
charged atoms a kind of hole too?
G. Conduction in Doped Semiconductors because the conduction band becomes crowded as
the heat energy pushes more and more electrons
into it.
Doping adds holes or extra electrons to
semiconductors and conductivity becomes very
However, semiconductors usually decrease
much easier. When holes are added they allow
conduction in the valence band. That is, holes
their resistanceby 6 or 8% for every degree of
temperature rise. This happens because at low
allow the bumper-to-bumper kind of conduction.
temperatures there are very few electrons in the
When extra electrons are added, they allow con-
conduction band, but as the temperature rises,
duction in the conduction band because the ninth
the heat energy knocks loose hole-electron pairs
electrons are not welcome in the filled shell of
eight electrons and they need very little extra
and in that way increases conductivity.
energy to leave their atoms and enter the conduc-
It turns out that germanium and silicon
tion band.
semiconductors are too hard to build with iden-
tical temperature characteristics because it is
To keep the crystal from becoming highly
conductive, the amount of impurity added to a hard to control the exact concentration of im-
purities. Thermistors are usually made from
pure semiconductor is usually miniscule. 1 atom
of impurity in 10 million atoms of semiconductor sintered nickel, manganese and cobalt oxides

crystal is plenty. Otherwise the N-type or P-type

which are easier to make consistent.
semiconductor would conduct all the time and
there would be no way to turn them off. A heavily doped semiconductor can have a
positive temperature coefficient like a metal but
it is much more temperature sensitive. These
Majority and minority carrier
temperature sensors are called sensistors and in-

crease their resistance with temperature.

In a P-type semiconductor, valance band
holes are the primary means of conduction. /. Photoconductors and Photoresistors
Therefore, in P-type, holes are the majority car-
rier. Heat energy introduced into a semiconductor
knocks loose hole-electron pairs and in that way
Even in a P-type semiconductor, some free increases conductivity. Semiconductors respond
electrons enter the conduction band. Therefore, in to any form of energy that has the end effect of
a P-type semiconductor, electrons are the minori- heating the crystal matrix. This includes visible
ty carrier. light and has led to a variety of photoconductors
and photoresistors.
The opposite observations can be made for a
N-type In N-type, conductor
semiconductor.
band electrons are the majority carrier while
holes are the minority carrier.

H. Semiconductor Thermistors

One of the difficulties in using semiconduc-

tors is dramatic change in conductivity with
their
temperature. Like most problems encountered
with materials, this one can be turned into an ad-
vantage. Semiconductor thermistors are designed
to measure temperature.

All conductors change their resistance a

small amount with temperature. Most metals in-
crease their resistance a small amount for each
degree centigrade of temperature rise. This is Fig. 1-6 Typical cadmium sulfide photoresistor
 Cadmium sulfide cells Most vacuum tubes resemble an ordinary
light bulb.They have a glass or metal envelope
The most common variety is the cadmium that keeps the air out of the vacuum. The heat is
used in camera light meters and door
sulfide cell provided by a hot filament just like a light bulb.
openers. The cadmium sulfide crystal is deposited In some tubes the filament itself serves as the
in a thin layer and has impurities of silver, in- cathode, but in most tubes the filament is sur-
dium, or antimony. rounded by a separate cathode which is made
from a material which is particularly good at
It is the most popular photoresistor because emitting electrons when heated.
its color spectrum sensitivity is similar to that of
the eye. In the dark it has a resistance of as much The TV picture tube, a variety of cathode ray
as 2 megaohms, but in full sunlight, its resistance tube (CRT), is a good example of a vacuum tube
drops to as little as 10 ohms. A lead sulfide cell is that is not yet obsolete.

similar but is more sensitive to infrared radiation

Anodes
and is not as widely used.

J. Electron Conduction in Vacuum Tubes In addition to a glass envelope and a hot

cathode, a cathode ray tube has several metal

We said in the beginning that electrons can plates called anodes which have positive voltages

also flow across a vacuum as well as through

solids like conductors and semiconductors. For
most applications vacuum tubes have become ob-
solete as better and cheaper semiconductor re-
placements for them have been invented. How-
ever, conduction through a vacuum is vital to TV
picture tubes, TV camera tubes, and a variety of
other useful tubes.
Cathode ray tube
The basic principle behind most vacuum
tubes is that a very hot object placed in a vacuum
will give off electrons directly into the vacuum.
When discussing semiconductors we talked
about how high temperatures can elevate elec-
trons from their orbits around atoms and put
them in the conduction band. If you raise the
temperature of a conductor far enough, and if the
conductor happens to be in a vacuum, then the
valence electrons can be driven clear out of the
metal.
A vacuum means that the hot object, which is
called a cathode, is surrounded by nothing. This
means there is nothing to prevent the electrons
from leaving the surface of the metal. If the hot
object were surrounded by air, air is a non-
conductor and would not let them leave unless
on them. The positive voltage attracts the neg-
atively charged electrons away from the cathode
and accelerates them toward the viewing screen.
This assembly is called an electron gun and
shoots a stream of electrons at the viewing screen
where they are seen as a lighted spot. The pos-
itive voltage on the anodes attracts them away
from the cathode. Since there is no air to stop
them, they readily stream across the void to
reach the positive metal anodes. Most of the elec-
trons streaming toward the first metal anode
strike it and are wasted. However, a small hole in
the center of the anode allows a tiny beam to pass
on toward the screen.
In some designs, like Fig. 1-7, a second and
third anode focus the electron beam by first re-
pelling it toward the center of the cylinder with a
slightly negative voltage, then accelerating it
again with a high, positive voltage.
In some tubes the electrons are focused by
magnets mounted on the neck of the tube. Final-
ly, the electron beam is shot out into the large
bell-shaped end of the picture tube.
In most designs the inside of the bell shaped
end is painted with a conductive coating which

they were exceedingly energetic. serves as the final accelerating anode. In a large
picture tube this last anode can have as much as
The sun is a gigantic example of such a hot, 30,000 volts DC on it. The electrons slam into the
electron emitter. It throws off huge clouds of elec- screen of the tube which is coated with a powdery
trons every second which make their way out phosphor which converts the energy of the elec-
through the vacuum of space as the solar wind. trons into visible light.
 HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION PLATES

VERTICAL DEFLECTION
PLATES
+

10T FILAMENT
HEATS CATHODE
ACCELERATING
ANODES -FOCUSING ELECTRODE
(HIGH + VOLTAGE) (SLIGHTLY NEGATIVE)

Fig. 1-7 Cathode ray tube

Color TV while the outer shell has only one electron.

What physical and electrical properties
Color TV tubes have three separate kinds of would you expect lithium to have?
phosphor arranged in a pattern of colored dots. A
grid behind the screen selects which of the three Krypton not only the planet where Super-
is

dots produces light to produce the correct color man was born, it is the name of an element

combinations. Some designs have three separate found on planet Earth. Krypton has four
electron guns, one for each color. electron shells. Listing them from the inner-
most shell to the outermost shell, these
In order to "paint"' a picture, the beam of shells contain 2, 8, 18 and 8 electrons respec-
electrons is swept back and forth in an orderly tively. What does this tell you about the
pattern to cover the whole screen. In large CRT's chemical and physical properties of kryp-
the electron beam is steered by magnetic deflec- ton? Do you think krypton might be a semi-
tion using coils mounted outside the tube. In conductor? Why or why not?
small CRT's the electron beam is steered by
anodes which are at the end of the electron gun as In a semiconductor or insulator, what is the
shown in Fig. 1-7. In TV the scanning pattern is difference between electrons in the valence
rectangular while in radar sets the scanning pat- band and electrons in the conduction band?
tern is usually radial.
In many ways pure semiconductor crystals
QUESTIONS and insulator crystals are alike. What is the
essential difference between them that ac-
1. Describe the structure of a typical atom. counts for their different electrical be-
havior?
2. In all known elements, the innermost elec-
tron shell is filled when
has only two elec-
it Name two ways that holes and conduction
trons. Lithium
an element with only three
is band electrons can be introduced into a
electrons. The inner shell has two electrons semiconductor.
10
7. The resistance of a thermistor varies with 10. Because a cold electrode does not release
temperature. A piece of metal also varies its electrons into a vacuum while a hot one
resistance with temperature. What is so dif- does, what relationship would you expect
ferent about thermistors? between the resistance of the vacuum tube
(from cathode to anode) and the temperature
8. Why are semiconductors so useful in elec- of the cathode?
tronics? Other substances like amorphous
carbon are poor conductors and poor in-
sulators. Why can't amorphous carbon be 11. When a positive voltage is applied to the
used in place of semiconductor materials? anode of a vacuum tube and a negative volt-
age is placed on the cathode, a current of
9. In order for electrons to flow from the electrons streams across the vacuum. What
cathode to the viewing screen of a picture do you suppose happens when the positive
tube, what three conditions must be pre- voltage is applied to the cathode and the
sent? negative voltage is applied to the anode?

11
 SECTION II

Diodes

A. Diodes positive terminal to the negative terminal of the

battery or voltage source. Actually, the electrons
A diode is a one-way electricity gate. Actual- are flowing from the negative battery terminal to
ly, a diode means a device that has two elec- the positive battery terminal.
trodes, but the word has come to mean a one-way
electricity valve. Later we will confuse you with
some exotic diodes which are not one-way valves. CHECK VALVE
However, garden variety diodes conduct current
in onlyone direction. This simple property can be
used to detect radio signals, change AC current
into DC current, shape voltage waveforms, and
even turn signals on and off.
-SPRING
Check valve DOOR SHUTS WHEN FLUID
-TRY TO FLOW IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTION
A check valve found in plumbing and fuel
lines is a good analogy to a diode. A check valve DIODE
contains a spring-loaded flapper or door which
can open in only one direction. When the fluid
HX A LOAD
RESISTOR IS

pressure is in that direction, the door opens and NEEDED.

DIRECTION OF POSITIVE OTHERWISE
the water flows unimpeded. When the water at- CURRENT FLOW THE CURRENT
tempts to flow in the opposite direction, the MIGHT BE SO
pressure, which is analogous to voltage, slams the HIGH IT

BATTERY WOULD BURN

door and prevents the water from flowing. The
UP THE DIODE.
higher the pressure, the more firmly it keeps the
door shut.
Fig. 2-1 Check valve analogy for a diode

The circuit symbol for the electronic diode is

shown below the check valve. Positive charge is

allowed to flow through the diode unimpeded B. Ideal or Perfect Diodes

when its direction is the same as the arrowhead in
the symbol. When positive current attempts to Before we study real d'odes, it is helpful to
flow through from the other direction, the diode talk about what a diode would be like if it were a
blocks the current as suggested by the barrier ideal or perfect one-way electricity valve. Volt-
facing the arrowhead. Before the flow of electric ampere characteristics like Fig. 2-2 are a good
current was well understood, positive current way to graph what an electronic device does in
flow was defined as current flowing from the response to voltage and current.
13
 + 1 negative currents are plotted below. You will
notice that there are no negative currents because
the diode conducts only in one direction.
RESISTOR
VOLT— AMPERE
CHARACTERISTIC 2. Resistance

Whenever the voltage across the ideal diode

is positive from the arrowhead to the barrier, the
-V current flows through the diode. Therefore the
current must rise above the horizontal axis in the
first quadrant where both the voltage and current
are positive.

With the ideal diode, the current flow is im-

mediately unlimited with even the slightest for-
ward positive voltage. This is because a perfect
diode would have zero resistance. When you
+ 1 divide the voltage, V, by the resistance, zero
ohms, you get an unbounded current, an infinite
current, which can't be plotted on the curve. That
PERFECT is why the arrow just points off toward infinity,
DIODE R = ZERO OHMS

TURNS FULL ON
WITH SLIGHTEST Any would produce an in-
positive voltage
POSITIVE VOLTAGE finite current provided that all the other com-

-V +V ponents in the circuit loop also had zero re-

sistance. Real diodes always have some resist-

COMPLETELY ance, and as you will see shortly, their plots are
TURNED OFF more interesting.
WHEN VOLTAGE
IS NEGATIVE
When the more negative voltage is applied to
the arrowhead end of the diode, the diode does not
conduct, therefore the current passing through it
-I
is zero. In Fig. 2-2 this zero current is plotted
along the horizontal axis to the left. Perfect
Fig. 2-2 Volt-ampere characteristics for a "per- diodes can also resist unlimited voltage across
fect" diode and a resistor. them without conducting. Real diodes will even-
tually breakdown or fail when too much voltage is
placed across them.

1. Linear and non-linear 3. Zero Volts Transition

The volt-ampere characteristic for an ordi- Another property of the theoretical perfect
nary resistor is shown alone. Resistors, even real diode is that the transition between conducting
life resistors, are very linear devices. The term and non-conducting is abrupt and occurs at zero
linear means that it makes a straight line when volts. Real diodes, even the most modern ones,
plotted on a volt-ampere graph. don't achieve this without resorting to a number
of components wired together to attempt to
On the other hand, diodes are very non-linear achieve the perfect zero volts transition.
because their resistance varys with the amount of
voltage across them. The current through the C. Vacuum Tube Diodes
diode is plotted against the voltage across the
diode.The voltage across the diode, V, is plotted There are a number of ways to construct a
along the horizontal axis. Positive currents, +1, diode. The earliest really first rate diodes were
are plotted above the horizontal axis, while vacuum tubes. The vacuum diode strongly re-

II
sembles an ordinary light bulb. The only addi- of N-type semiconductor. The resulting P-N junc-
tional component is a cylindrical metal anode or tion conducts only when the voltage across the
plate which surrounds the filament. diode is more positive on the P side of the junc-
tion.
When a positive voltage is placed on the
metal plate, electrons are attracted away from Positive voltage applied to the P side is called
the hot filament, stream across the vacuum and forward the voltage across the diode is
bias. If
strike the plate. So whenever a positive voltage is more positive on the N side, only the tiniest
placed on the plate, the diode conducts. When the leakage current flows, typically a millionth of an
filament or cathode is positive with respect to the ampere ( \x a) or less.
anode, the excess of electrons is now on the plate.
Since electrons can't leave a cold plate, the diode When the more negative voltage is applied to
does not conduct in this direction. the P side, this is called backward bias. The P side
and N side are sometimes still called the anode
and cathode, just as if P-N junction diodes were

CATHODE

W
DIODE SYMBOL
ANODE
vacuum diodes.

HOT CATHODE
FILAMENT
METAL
PLATE HOLES-^,
P-TYPE N-TYPE
V
y EXTRA
PFPTRnMS
,

ANODE *o o
ANODE O CATHODE
WIRE o o WIRE
GLASS OR
METAL o
o o
ENVELOPE

ELECTRONS STREAM TO
PLATE IN VACUUM Fig. 2-4 A P-N junction semiconductor diode

Diode and transistor circuits can frequently

be figured out from a diagram by reasoning out
DIODE VACUUM which direction the P-N junctions will allow cur-
TUBE SYMBOL rent to flow. From now on, whenever you can
identify a P-N junction in a circuit diagram, you
should mumble to yourself:
Fig 2-3 Vacuum tube diode
"Positive to P Conducts"

Loose electrons and holes

D. Semiconductor Diodes
We will give two explanations for why P-N
By far the most important diodes are made junction diodes only conduct in one direction.
from semiconductors. In Section 1 we said that First a simplified explanation: remember in Sec-
one of the reasons that semiconductors are so tion 1 we said that the two essential ingredients
special is that conduction band electrons and for conduction are loose electrons which can leave
valence band holes can be added separately to their home atom and resting places in the outer
form N-type and P-type semiconductors. orbits of atoms where those electrons can go.
When either of these two ingredients are missing,
Semiconductor diodes are formed when a there is no conduction and the material behaves
layer of P-type semiconductor is joined to a layer like an insulator.
15
 P-TYPE N-TYPE

ELECTRONS ELECTRONS
DRAWN OUT OF O o o PUSHED INTO
HOLES IN P-REGION NREGION

o*
ELECTRON
© / ELECTRON
FLOW o FLOW
o-

VOLTAGE PUSHES ELECTRONS

OFF CLIFF INTO HOLES

BATTERY

Fig. 2-5 Forward biased P-N semiconductor diode

A simple to look at type N semiconduc-

way the P side, it attracts more electrons across the
tor is thathas some loose electrons, but very
it N-to-P boundary and into the waiting holes.
few resting places. A similar view of the P
semiconductor is that it has some resting places In other words, the conductive boundary
{holes), but very few loose electrons. region becomes wider until the diode starts to
conduct. On the N side, the negative voltage is

In the center of the diode where P material is pushing electrons into the N region to replace
joined to the N material, there are free electrons those electrons that diffused over to the P side.
just a few atoms away from empty holes. Some So, by applying positive voltage to the P side and
electrons diffuse over into the holes and some a more negative voltage to the N side, both sides
holes diffuse across the border to take up elec- of the junction obtain the electrons and holes
trons. Since the two components become mixed, they need to become conductors.
the boundary region becomes a conductor.
Now we will reverse bias the diode and see
why it doesn 't conduct. When the more positive
Forward and backward bias voltage is applied to the N side of the boundary, it
away from the boun-
attracts the loose electrons
We will forward bias the diode and see what dary and out of the crystal. The N material
happens. When the positive voltage is applied to started off with some loose electrons and no

P-TYPE N-TYPE

ELECTRONS PUSHED ELECTRONS DRAWN

INTO HOLES OUT OF N SIDE

HOLES FILLED SO ELECTRONS PULLED OUT

P SIDE BECOMES SO N SIDE BECOMES
VERY NEGATIVE VERY POSTIVE

BATTERY

Fig. 2-6 Reverse biased P-N semiconductor diode

16
resting places. When the more positive voltage
applied to the N side, it attracts the loose elec-
trons away from the boundary region and out
the diode, leaving the N side with no electrons
and no resting places.
On the other side of the junction, the more
negative voltage pushes electrons into the P side
thus filling in the holes and destroying the
resting places. So, on the P side too, the diode has
no electrons and no resting places. By back bias-
ing the diode, both semiconductor layers have
been converted into insulators.
Amore complete way to understand the P-N
junction diode is to remember that semiconduc-
tors have two modes of conduction. Hole-to-hole
conduction (bumper-to-bumper traffic) occurs
among low energy electrons in the valence energy
band. Atom-to-atom hopping by high energy elec-
trons (expressway traffic) occurs in the conduc-
tion band. The fundamental difference between
these two bands is their different energy levels.
Potential energy
Another word for voltage is potential energy.
When we talk about energy difference between
bands, we are really talking about voltage dif-
ference between bands. This means that it takes
energy to raise a valence band electron up to the
conduction band energy level. It is very much like
lifting those cars up to the second floor of the
parking garage.
On the other hand, it takes no external
energy for an electron in the conduction band to
fall down to the valence band level. It is easy to
roll down the ramp to the lower floor of the park-
ing garage. You don't have to burn gasoline or
even start the car!
Now again apply forward bias to the diode
and see what happens to the energy levels. When
the more negative voltage is on the N side of the
diode, it pushes electrons into the N-type ma-
terial and makes electrons more numerous along
the boundary between the N and P layers. Elec-
trons can fall down, that is, lose energy, as they
fall into the holes along the boundary.
On the P more positive voltage at-
side, the
tracts electrons out of theP material so that the
holes do not become filled by the electrons com-
ing across the border from the N side. The for-
is ward biased diode conducts because the electrons
are able to fall down hill.
of
We can summarize by saying that forward
biasing the diode pushes electrons "off the cliff"
from the conduction band in the N side down to
the valence band holes. The forward bias is ac-
tually decreasing the energy difference between
the conduction band and the valence band.
Positive and negative charged
P-N diodes are back biased when the more
positive voltage is applied to the N material. This
draws electrons out of the N side and makes it
more positively charged.
Similarly,when electrons are pushed into the
P makes the P side more negatively charg-
side, it
ed. Since both sides become more ionized with
charge of opposite polarities, the voltage between
them is increased. This increases the voltage be-
tween the conduction band and the valence band
respectively. This has to happen because virtual-
ly all the electrons doing the conducting on the N
side are in the conduction band. And, virtually all
the electrons doing the conducting on the P side
are in the valence band.
In order for back baised diodes to conduct,
the electrons would have to enter the P region,
then conduct from hole to hole over to the bound-
ary which is at the foot of the energy "cliff." In
order to get up the cliff, the electrons would have
to acquire enough voltage to "climb up the cliff"
to enter the conduction band. The interesting
thing about this phenomenon is that, the more
voltage you back bias across the diode, the higher
the cliff becomes to prevent conduction. This is
reminiscent of the flapper door in the check valve.
The higher the water pressure becomes in the off
direction, the more tightly it holds the door shut.
Semiconductor forms
Semiconductor diodes are usually packaged
in two forms. Small diodes usually take the form
of glass, plastic, or ceramic cylinders or beads
with two leads projecting from the ends. Usually
there is a band painted around the diode body
which indicates the cathode end of the diode.
Large diodes that can handle large currents
without overheating are usually mounted in a
metal bolt-like package with the threaded end
17
 .

# Fi^. 2-7 Assorted semiconductor diodes

+
serving as the cathode. The diode is bolted to a
l

(mA)
heat sink (a large chunk of metal) to keep the
semiconductor temperature down. The anode for FORWARD
is usually a terminal which pro-
these large diodes CONDUCTION
ZENER STARTS AT
jects out of the top.
BREAKDOWN ABOUT +0.2
VOLTAGE VOLTS DC
Sometimes several diodes are packaged to-
gether in arrays or bridges for use as rectifiers or
in signal processing. These multiple diode
packages may even resemble integrated circuits
LEAKAGE
with 14 or more leads coming out of them. CURRENT
a 1.AMP
Silicon and Germanium Diodes
GERMANIUM
Most general purpose diodes are now made DIODE
from silicon, although germanium diodes are still
useful for some applications. From a physics
-I
point of view, the key difference between silicon
and germanium is that the energy level difference
between the conduction band and the valence
band is greater in silicon than it is in germanium.
This means that devices made from germanium
FOWARD
CONDUCTION
are more likely to increase their conductivity with STARTS AT
heat. If the electrons and holes induced by heat ZENER ABOUT +0.6
BREAKDOWN VOLTS DC
become more numerous than those embedded in VOLTAGE
the crystal by doping, the P-N device will loose its
one way characteristics.
«/ " +V
1.0 (VOLTS)
Volt-ampere characterics

Fig. 2-8 shows the volt-ampere character-

istics of germanium and silicon diodes. If you
compare these graphs with Fig. 2-1, you will see SILICON
DIODE
that neither of these diodes is very "perfect."

For most circuits, the principle practical dif

ference between these diodes and the ideal diode
is that they need a small, positive voltage to turn Fig. 2-8 Germanium and silicon diode volt-ampere
them on. characteristics
18
 In case of silicon, this voltage is 0.6 volts DC. Depending on the diode, the zener voltage
For germanium diodes, this forward voltage is on- can be anywhere from 5 to 600 volts. This transi-
ly 0.2 volts, because the energy band difference is tion often destroys the diode, but as we will see in
less. Most of the time these voltage offsets are the next section, it is possible to design diodes
not very important if the voltages they are work- that survive the zener breakdown.
ing with are large. For example, when used with a
25 volt signal, it usually doesn't matter whether E. Diode Applications
the diode begins to conduct at zero, 0.2, or 0.6
veils.
Diodes as circuit elements are extremely ver-
satile. Diodes can accomplish many tasks that
When real diodes conduct,
they always have one might assume would require more elaborate
some forward resistance. When measured
with an devices, such as transistors or even integrated
ohmmeter, this is typically 5 or 10 ohms for ger- circuits. Examples include radio signal detectors,
manium diodes and 10 to 20 for silicon diodes. frequency converters, modulators, peak detec-
Because the forward voltage drop is so constant, tors, regulators, clippers and more.
the resistance at high current levels can be ex-
tremely low, 0.1 ohm or less. Of course, to have
Rectification
such low resistances, the diode must be large
enough to tolerate high current levels without
overheating.
Probably the most common use for diodes is
rectification. Rectification
the conversion of
is
alternating current to direct current. Since the
Large diodes have more leakage current when
current through a diode flows only in one direc-
back biased. For example, a small diode might
pass a microampere of current when back biased. tion, by definition, this current is direct current.

Large, high current diodes might pass a milli-

Therefore when alternating current is applied to a
diode, only direct current in the proper direction
ampere or more when back biased. A "perfect"
diode would, of course, refrain from passing any
will flow and hence the rectification.

current when back biased.

Zener breakdown
Another departure from the ideal diode is the
zener breakdown which occurs when a semicon-
ductor diode is back biased past its ability to
resist voltage. At a certain threshold, called the
zener voltage, the P-N barrier is swept away and
the diode suddenly behaves like a good conduc-
tor. It is as though the flapper door in the check
valve were caved in and swept aside by too much
pressure.
Half-wave rectifier
When a sine wave voltage, such as household
120 volts AC, is applied to the half-wave rectifier,
the current flows only during the positive half
cycles, hence the name, half-wave rectifier. The
output voltage is taken from across the load re-
sistor. Anytime current flows through a resistor,
voltage appears across it. Although this is pro-
bably obvious, resistors are commonly used in
electronic circuits to convert the current coming
out of a device into a voltage.

> >

V, N
RESISTOR „
t
LOAD

INPUT VOLTAGE
> *
Fig. 2-9 A half-wave rectifier circuit
19
 >- ->

RESISTOR
t
v, N VquT
LOAD

> ->

Fig. 2-10 Negative half-wave rectification

If the direction of the diode is reversed, then Oscilloscopes are a kind of high impedance
the current will flow through the resistor only in voltmeter that plot a graph of voltage versus
the opposite direction. The polarity of the output time on the face of a cathode ray tube.
voltage across the resistor is reversed. Notice
that the "negative voltage" we have generated is Fig. 2-11 shows an oscilloscope measuring
just a matter of which of the two output leads is voltage through a typical medium-sized, semicon-
defined as "zero." ductor diode. Since the oscilloscope draws prac-
tically no current, it can see both the positive and
Voltmeters/oscilloscopes negative parts of the sine wave right through the
diode.
It is common forbeginners to think that
diodes only let through positive voltage. This The lesson here is that in order for rectifica-
isn't quite right. It is positive current in the tion to take place, relatively low resistance loads
anode-to-cathode direction that is allowed to must be placed on the diode output. Suppose the
pass. Voltage, regardless of the polarity, can be diode can pass only 1 microampere in the reverse
measured through very high resistances, even direction. If the load were 10 ohms, the voltage
back biased diodes. across the resistor on the negative half cycle
would be:
As you probably know, voltmeters have very
high resistances in them so that they will not V = I R
draw any current. This is called a high internal
impedance. Its purpose is to be sure that the V= (1 u amp) (10 ohms)
voltmeter will not draw current and change the
voltage that it is trying to measure. V = 10 millionths of a volt - practically zero

m
WAVEFORM ON
>— +r SCOPE LOOKS
JUST LIKE
TYPICAL
DIODE INPUT
VOLTAGE. NO
RECTIFICATION!

1 MEGAOHM
LOAD INSIDE
OSCILLOSCOPE
>

Fig. 2-11 An oscilloscope measuring voltage through a diode

20
 So, for a 10 ohm load, the rectification would Diode misconception
be excellent.
Another common diode misconception is that
has a 1 million
If the oscilloscope in Fig. 2-11
in order for conduction to occur, the voltage on
ohm internal impedance, the negative voltage it the anode must be "positive" while the voltage
would see during the negative half cycle would be: on the cathode must be "negative." Actually,
positive and negative are just relative terms. All
V = (1 fi amp) (1 megaohm) that matters is which end of the diode is more
positive.
V= 1 volt

If the sine wave had 1 volt peaks, this means Both of the diodes shown in Fig. 2-12 are for-
that the oscilloscope could show the complete ward conducting because the voltage at the anode
sine wave without the slightest evidence of rec- end of each is more positive than the voltage at
tification. We
should point out that small, high the cathode end.

quality silicon diodes with leakage currents as

low as 0.1 ^ ampere will rectify even in this situa-
tion. F. Filtering rectifier output

*r -WAA/ — The current from a half-wave rectifier is DC,

VOLTS
12 = ^^ 6
VOLTS
but it is certainly not continuous DC such as you
would obtain from a battery. If this source of DC
were being used to power a Hi-Fi amplifier, these
pulses of DC would be heard as a loud 60 cycle
hum in the loudspeaker, exactly the same sort of

X JT hum that a large transformer makes.

The humps in the rectifier output are called

ripple and to smooth them out, the output is
>j WW-T]_ almost always passed through a low pass filter. A
low pass filter passes very low frequencies but
severely attenuates high frequencies. Pure direct
12
current is the lowest possible frequency. Pure DC
.

6 - VOLTS
VOLTS not only does not alternate its polarity, it doesn't
even change its voltage level. Therefore its fre-

X zr quency is zero and when pulsed DC is passed

through a low pass filter, the pulses are at-
tenuated.
Fig. 2-12 Forward biased diodes

R-C
LOW PASS
FILTER

>—w DC RIPPLE

Fig. 2-13 Half-wave rectifier with a low pass filter

21
 -^
Rload

->

ISOLATION
TRANSFORMER

Fig. 2-14 Full-wave rectifier circuit

Looking at it another way, the capacitor
charges and discharges so slowly that the gaps
between the pulses are not long enough to allow
the capacitor to discharge to zero volts.
result the gaps are eliminated. There is always
some up and down variation, ripple, which re-
mains no matter how large the capacitor is. The
larger the capacitor and the larger the resistance,
the purer the DC that will emerge from the filter.
2. Full-wave rectification
voltages at the ends of the secondary are opposite
each other, one end or the other of the secondary
will always be positive with respect to the center
As a of the secondary winding.
By using the center tap as a ground reference,
the voltage coming out of the full-wave rectifier
will be half as high as it would be if we used one
end of the secondary as "ground." But since we
are using a transformer, the winding can be built
to produce any voltage desired.

The output from the full-wave rectifier is a

Since large capacitors are expensive, and
series of half cycles with no gaps between.
in
diodes are not, full-wave rectification is an inex-
These pulses are all positive and so close together
pensive way to greatly improve the ripple pro-
that they are easier to filter. There are 120 humps
blem. The idea behind full-wave rectification is to
per second instead of 60 per second for unfiltered
produce useful current out of both the negative
half-wave rectification. If this unfiltered DC were
and the positive half cycles. In order to do this,
used to power a stereo, you would again hear a
you need a new "ground" or zero reference for the
loud, unpleasant hum, but the frequency would
output voltage.
be noticeably higher.

Isolation transformer
3. Bridge rectifier

The most expensive kind of full-wave rec-
tification,but the easiest to understand, is ac-
complished with an isolation transformer.
Household 60 Hz current is nearly always refer-
enced to earth ground. By passing this current in-
to the primary of an isolation transformer, the
output from the secondary of a well designed
transformer can be as well isolated from ground
as if it were coming from a diesel generator
floating in a balloon.
Isolation means that you could touch
side of the secondary with a bare finger tbut not
both sides) and not be shocked. The new ground
reference can be the center tap of the transformer
secondary winding. Since the polarities of the
Diodes can be used to establish the new
ground reference for full-wave rectification. The
diamond shaped configuration for the diodes is
called a bridge rectifier. The AC to be rectified is
fed into opposite ends of the diamond. The output
is taken off the other two corners.
you look at the direction of each diode
If
you will see that only positive current is
carefully,
allowed to go to the positive side of the output
while negative current (positive current going the
either opposite direction) is allowed to go only to the
negative side of the output. At any given moment
two of the four diodes are conducting, one to the
positive side and one from the negative side of the
output.
22
 LOW PASS
FILTER VOUT

Fig. 2-15 Diode bridge rectifier with low pass filter.

Choke inductor voltage of the battery, the diode turns on and con-
ducts current into the battery.
A more complex low pass filter using a choke
inductor isshown. The chokes are not used often In this way the voltage across the load re-
in such filters unless the current is low, because sistor is prevented from rising higher than the
high current inductors cost quite a lot. The ad- battery voltage. This clips the sine wave off at V
vantage of the inductor is that, unlike the re- volts. This clipping action is not restricted to
sistor, it doesn't dissipate energy and the output positive half cycles. The circuit in Fig. 2-17 clips
voltage is higher for the same degree of ripple both the positive and negative peaks of the sine
smoothing. The input capacitor, Ci, when com- wave. In effect, it produces a fairly good AC
bined with the forward resistance of the diodes square wave from a sine wave.
makes an R-C low pass filter. The C-L-C con-
figuration is sometimes called a pi filter because What happens to the energy that is shunted
the three elements drawn in a circuit resemble the into the batteries? Some of it is lost in heating the

greek letter n. resistance of the battery and diode, but most of it

charges the battery. As we shall see later, there

G. Diode Clippers are easy ways to build clippers that do not require
batteries.
Clipping circuits resemble rectifier circuits.
They are also called limiters, amplitude selectors, H. Diode Peak Detector Circuits
or slicers. The rectifier circuits we examined
"clipped" the AC cycle at zero volts. By rearrang- Suppose you had a widely varying DC volt-
ing the circuit and adding a reference voltage, it is age and you needed to know the highest voltage
possible to clip off either the positive or negative that was reached during a certain time interval. A
voltage peaks at any desired voltage level. peak detector consists of a diode charging a
capacitor. The diode allows current (charge) to
Fig. 2-16 shows a diode clipper circuit made flow into the capacitor, but will not let it leave.
from a diode and a battery. Whenever the voltage As a result, the capacitor charges to the highest
across the diode and battery tries to exceed the voltage it is exposed to, but doesn't discharge.

> WW- ">

I Rload *-:

V VOLTS
"(BATTERY)

> *
Fig. 2-16 Diode clipper circuit

23
 > \AAAr *

I
> >
Fig. 2-17 Dual clipper circuit converts an AC sine wave to an AC square wave.

.PEAK
-r PEAK
>— w- ->
VOUT /

\ ! .

SWITCH
RESETS
CAPACITOR
TO ZERO

fc t

> ">

Fig. 2-18 Diode peak detector

+5 volts to —5 volts
/. DC-to-DC Voltage Inverter

The following circuit uses a principle similar

Before +5 volts can be inverted to a minus
to the peak detector to provide a small source of
supply, it must be converted into a square
first
wave. This is done by just switching it on and off
negative voltage. Because power supplies are ex-
with some sort of electronic switch, such as a
pensive, engineers try to design electronic equip-
multivibrator.
ment with as few of them as possible.

Let's assume that the first capacitor, Ci, is

For example, most computer circuits use 5
volts DC practically everywhere. However, every
now and then a precision operation amplifier or
an analog to digital converter must be used which
requires a few milliamperes of —5 volts DC. The
circuit in Fig. 2-19 uses diodes and capacitors to
make this transition from +5 volts to —5 volts.
not charged so the voltage across it is zero. As
soon as the square wave jumps up from zero to
+5 volts for the first time, the voltage at the bot-
tom of the capacitor, that is, the voltage across
the diode, CRi, will rise abruptly to +5 volts.
This is because the voltage across a capacitor
can't change instantly.

This circuit can be thought of as

(Fig. 2-19) Since the voltage across the diode is more
two peak detectors. on the fact that once
It relies positive on the anode side, the diode will conduct
a capacitor is charged, a capacitor has no way to and the capacitor will charge toward +5 volts.
discharge itself. Moreover, a good quality diode Let's assume that by the time the square wave
can only conduct in one direction, so between drops back down to zero, the capacitor has charg-
these two properties, energy is "pushed into" the ed to + 5 volts and the voltage across CRi is zero.
capacitors and is given no way to leave except in CR2 has not conducted yet, so the voltage across
the form of a —5 volts supply. C2 is still zero.

24
 + 5 V CR 2 -5 VOLTS

cr c/)
• •
*
+ 5 VOLTS DC Oh £
<O CC
uj
=^c 2
>
CC UJ O
-J c/5
qj
CD a? w>
CO
^Rload
t- 2: O + a.

iizo
so-
CR,

• *
} VOLTS
Fi/j. 2-79 DC-to-DC inverter

As soon as the square wave drops from +5
volts down to zero volts, it will "push" the charg-
ed capacitor below zero. Remember, the capacitor
can't change its voltage immediately, so its +5
volt side is suddenly connected to zero, while its
old "zero side" is suddenly connected only to the
diode CR2 which connects it to the node where we
want —5 volts. Since CR2 now has a higher
voltage on the right, zero, than it has on the left,
—5 volts, current flows from the zero, right to
left. And, while this current is discharging the
capacitor, Ci, it is also charging C2 in the
negative direction.
J. Diode Switch
The diode can be used as a switch to turn
small AC signals on and off. When you
word switch you immediately think of a device
like a light switch that has three basic parts— the
wire going in, the wire coming out, and the handle
to turn it on. The diode has the first two ingre-
dients, the input and output leads, but where is
the handle ?
The handle diode is the fact that a small
in a
signal can on top of a large DC signal.
ride
Whenever the diode is turned on by a relatively
large DC signal, a relatively small AC signal can
be added to the large DC signal so that its
waveform is impressed on the top of the DC.
An analogy might be waves on the surface of
a deep river. When the large DC signal is changed
from positive to negative, the diode stops con-
ducting and the AC is turned off along with the
DC. If the river dries up, obviously the waves will
use the disappear with it.

ON

V
, F pK^nON
AC RIDING
OFF.

+
ON
X-
,\ \t
DC PULSE

>
OFF OFF RC
- SV /ITCHIN G HIGH
WFORN PASS

MvW
1

FILTER OFF 1* •

OUTPUT
WAVEFORM
T
WIK> AC SIGNAL
k_
CURRENT FROM LARGE
DOWN TO
SWITCH
*
•ON" FLO//S
BEING SWITCHED
SMALL AC VOLTAGE

Fig. 2-20 A diode switching a small AC signal on and off

25
K. Diode Detector The difference is that the signal going into
the detector a high frequency radio signal in-
is

Crystal sets stead of the low 60 Hz signal found in power sup-

plies. The radio signal is a high frequency sine

The earliest practical AM radio receivers wave, anywhere from, say 100,000 Hz to 100,000
were called crystal sets and consisted of little MHz. The signal varies up and down in amplitude
more than a diode, an antenna, and a headphone. at a rate proportional to the modulation. The
Diode radio detectors are basically rectifier cir- modulaton can be voice, music, TV picture, or
cuits followed by low pass filters. They are not whatever. Ifthe output from the detector were
very different from the half- and full-wave rec- unfiltered itwould remain a series of DC pulses,
tifier circuits we discussed earlier. much like the unfiltered output from half- or full-
wave rectifier circuits.

Modulation and detection

The modulation and detection process is seen

*-t The upper waveform is the original
in Fig. 2-21.
audio waveform as it comes out of the studio
microphone at the radio station. The second
waveform is the transmitted radio signal. The
audio signal rides on top of the radio signal, much
the way the small AC signal rode on top of the DC
signal in the diode switching circuit.

Looking at this another way, it is as though

the amplitude of the radio transmitter signal is

being increased and decreased in time with the

DJ's voice. The third waveform is the same radio
signal after it has been rectified by a simple half-
wave rectifier. After passing through a low pass
TRANSMITTED RADIO SIGNAL filter, the resulting signal is a good replica of the
original audio signal.

Fig. 2-22 shows a circuit diagram of a simple

crystal set AM receiver. The signal is first tuned
by an L-C tank circuit so that, hopefully, only one
station will be heard at a time. The idea behind
"- the resonant tank circuit is that all stations ex-
SIGNAL AFTER cept the desired one will be shorted to ground.
RECTIFICATION BY DIODE
The signalthen rectified and passed
is

through a low
pass filter consisting of the
resistance which is the forward resistance of the
diode and the capacitor, Cj. After leaving the low
pass filter, the audio signal is a positive DC signal
which varys up and down at the audio frequency
rate. The R-C filter just removes the short radio
frequency pulses. The headphones in this circuit
serve two purposes. The most obvious is, of
REPLICA OF AUDIO WAVEFORM course, that they convert the varying DC signal
AFTER LOW PASS FILTERING to sound waves.

As the DC current passes through the head-

Fig. 2-21 AM modulation und detection process phones, small inductors, coils, produce a varying
26
 LONG WIRE ANTENNA

RC
LOW PASS
FILTER
~> HEADPHONES
CONVERT VARYING
FORWARD RESISTANCE RECTIFIED DC
DC CURRENT
IN DIODE TO SOUND

-V*
Rd
LC TUNED HEADPHONES
CIRCUIT SELECTS ALSO DRAIN
-CURRENT OUT OF
r DESIRED STATION
(SHORTS ALL OTHERS Ci TO KEEP IT

T TO GROUND) DISCHARGED WHEN

THERE IS NO SIGNAL

Fig. 2-22 AM detector in a crystal set

magnetic field that pushes and pulls on thin steel down to the frequency of the original speech. The
diaphragms. These diaphragms vibrate and pro- headphones convert the electrical signal into
duce the sound. sound waves compatible with your ears.

The second purpose of the headphones is

more subtle. They provide a load on the capacitor, Mixers
Ci, and discharge it in between audio peaks. If
there were no load on the capacitor, the circuit It is frequently necessary in more complex
would be a peak detector and would charge to the radio receivers and transmitters to convert one
highest audio peak and stay there. Although de- radio frequency to another radio frequency. Diode
tectors are frequently more complex than this, converters or mixers are one way this can be
simple diode detectors are still widely used, even done.
in sophisticated avionics receivers.

The basic idea is to mix the radio signal that

L. Diode Frequency Converters
you want to convert with another different, local-
ly generated radio frequency signal. When mixed
The diode an example of a diode
crystal set is
together, the two signals interfere with each
frequency converter. The radio signal varys in
other. One moment they are both positive and
amplitude at a rate which matches the speech and
they reinforce each other. This makes the sum
music frequencies that are being broadcast. The
bigger than either of the two signals.
human ear can't hear sound waves at a frequency
higher than about 20,000 Hz and it certainly
can't hear electromagnetic (radio) waves at any However, the next moment one may be posi-
frequency. tive while the other is negative. In this case they
cancel each other and the mixture of the two sig-
Even if the waves were converted
radio nals is smaller than either of the original two
directly to sound waves, say at 1,000,000 Hz, you signals. Since the two signals don't have the same
stillwouldn't be able to hear the modulation frequency, it is inevitable that they will be out of

because the sound frequency would be too high
for the ear to respond. Sound waves above the
range of hearing are easy to generate and are call-
ed ultrasound. The diode detector serves as a fre-
quency converter which reduces the modulation
synchronization with each other half of the time.
The result of this mixing is a new complex signal
which is amplitude modulated with a sine wave
whose frequency is the difference between the fre-
quencies of the original two signals.
 MIXTURE, FradiO + FLOCAL

kKMJd

>
Fradio input
-)h

DETECTOR
£
TUNED TO / SHORTS /TUNED TO BEAT
RADIO -¥ 'OUT HALF FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY^ 'OF MIXTURE = Flocal - Fradio
/r
-fV
>
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR

Fig. 2-23 A diode frequency converter

Beat frequency not very sensitive. The antenna

First, it is
must be huge and the signal must be very strong
This difference frequency is called a a beat in order to hear a station clearly. Moreover, the
frequency. The beat frequency could be in the signal going to the earphones is far too weak to
audio range if the local oscillator and the radio drive a loudspeaker. The second serious problem
signal were only a few hundred cycles apart. How- with the crystal set is that it is not very selective.
ever, usually the two signals are hundreds of kilo- It will easily pick up more than one station at
hertz apart so that the beat frequency itself is a once.
radio signal. In summary, mixing the radio fre-

quency signal with the local oscillator signal pro- Both of these problems can be greatly im-
duces an AM modulated signal which is modula- proved by amplifying the radio signal many times
ted with a new radio frequency. with several sharply tuned amplifiers. We will
discuss amplifiers in detail in Sections 4, 5, and 6.
Frequency converter For now it is enough to understand that ampli-
fiers take small, low amplitude signals and make
The next step in the frequency converter is to high amplitude signals that are like the original,
detect this modulated radio frequency. This can but very much larger.
be done in the same way as in the crystal set. In
the circuit seen in Fig. 2-23, the diode "shorts It turns
out that it isn't practical for one
out" the negative half cycles by conducting them amplifier to make
the signal large enough to drive
to ground. The rectified half-wave signal is a loudspeaker or to drive several tuning filters.
transferred across the transformer where it is Practical radio receivers have 4 or more ampli-
tuned by an L-C filter to exclude all frequency fiers in series to produce signals of sufficient
components except the desired new beat frequen- strength to drive a loudspeaker.
cy.
TFR receiver
You should be asking yourself, "What is a
frequency converter good for?" We shall start at Another obsolete kind of receiver is seen in
the beginning. Suppose you were to build the Fig. 2-24, the tuned radio frequency receiver
crystal set in Fig. 2-22. You would find that it has (TRF). The TRF receiver uses 4 or more radio fre-
two serious drawbacks. quency amplifiers in series to produce strong,
28
 ANTENNA
ALL FOUR L-C CIRCUITS
TUNED TO RADIO STATION
Fig. 2-24
selective radio signals prior to detection.
audio amplifier makes the audio signal from the
detector strong enough to drive a loudspeaker.
Note that each radio frequency amplifier is
preceded by an L-C tuned circuit which selects
the proper station. After being tuned four times,
the selectivity is very good. While we are at it,
notice that the low pass filter after the detector
is, in effect, a tuning mechanism for the audio
amplifier. That is, it rejects all the high frequency
half cycles that we do not want to amplify.
The TRF receiver works great, but what hap-
pens when you want to change stations? Each of
those L-C tuned circuits must be individually
tuned to the new station. This is very difficult
and explains why TRF receivers are obsolete. At-
tempts to tune all four tuned circuits simulta-
neously don't work very well, usually because one
or two of the amplifiers won't tune exactly like
the others.
Modern receivers achieve the advantages of
the TRF receiver without the tuning difficulty.
The radio frequency signal is converted to a
single, constant intermediate frequency. After
the signal has been converted, the string of tuned
amplifiers amplify without the need for retuning
them for each station. The idea is that the radio is
tuned by shifting the frequency of the local
oscillator rather than tuning all those amplifiers.
DETECTOR
&LOW PASS
FILTER
LOUD-
SPEAKER
A TRF receiver
An Superhetrodyne receiver
Fig. 2-25 shows a block diagram of a super-
hetrodyne receiver. This is a fancy word for a
receiver with a frequency converter. The string of
tuned RF amplifiers is called intermediate fre-
quency amplifiers or IF amplifiers. After the IF
amplifiers there are the usual detector and audio
amplifier. Sometimes the frequency converter is
called the first detector and the audio detector the
second detector.
As an example, let's say that the in-
termediate frequency is 455 kHz. As the local
oscillator frequency is changed, the oscillator is
always 455 kHz away from some frequency. So
that is the frequency that is detected and sent to
the IF amplifiers. For a standard AM
radio tuned
to 1000 kHz with an IF of 455 kHz, the local
oscillator must be tuned to 1455 kHz. When the
radiois tuned to 600 kHz, the local oscillator is
tuned to 1055 kHz, and so on.
Unfortunately there is a catch to local
oscillator tuning. The local oscillator is not only
455 kHz above some frequency, it is also 455 kHz
below some frequency. This means that if there
were not some filtering on the antenna, the radio
could pick up two radio stations at once, even
though the stations were 910 kHz apart! The un-
wanted station is called an image and is tuned out
by a filter between the antenna and the frequency
converter.
29
 ANTENNA
FREQUENCY
CONVERTER THESE 3 L-C CIRCUITS
„ ARE PERMANENTLY TUNED
TO THE INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY ',

ANTENNA AND LOCAL

OSCILLATOR ARE TUNED
SIMULTANEOUSLY
TO SELECT THE STATION
LOUDSPEAKER

Fig. 2-25 A superhetrodyne receiver

Tuning two circuits, the filter
than tuning four or more
oscillator, is still easier
RF amplifiers, so the superhetrodyne has become
the standard way of building radios. Diode fre-
quency converters are still important at very high
frequencies (like radar) where other more exotic
frequency converters don't work very well.
QUESTIONS:
1. All semiconductor diodes have a forward
offset voltage and a forward resistance.
From what you know about the behavior of
thermistors, how would you expect these
two diode characteristics to change as the
diode temperature increases?
2. Large diodes have more N- and P-type
semiconductor in them. How is this related
to the fact that large diodes pass more
leakage current in the reverse direction than
small diodl
and the voltage regardless of how much current was
passing through the voltage source. Refer-
ring to Fig. 2-8, are there any features of
semiconductor diodes that seem to fit this
definition of a "perfect" voltage source?
4. List as many reasons as you can why the
semiconductor diode is not "perfect."
5. Just because diodes are not linear does not
mean that they do not obey Ohm's law. Re-
ferring to the silicon diode characteristics
shown in Fig. 2-8, what is the approximate
forward resistance of the diode when it is
conducting 5 milliamperes? Now find the
resistance and power dissipated in the same
diode for 10 milliamperes of forward cur-
rent.
6. It is customary to rate diodes
in terms of the
maximum forward current they can safely
conduct, rather than the maximum power
they can dissipate. This is because the for-
'

3. It were such a thing, a "perfect

there ward voltage drop across the diode is very
voltage source would provide a constant constant with different forward currents.
30
 Therefore, the maximum power is directly 7. Electronics engineer Jones designed the
proportional to the maximum current. For following hybrid power supply for the new
example, the Motorola MR
1396 is a silicon Mark IV Wonderview TV. It is a combina-
diode rated at 30 amperes maximum aver- tion of a diode bridge full-wave rectifier and
age forward current. At this current the for- a center tap full-wave rectifier. Over 40,000
ward voltage drop is only 1.0 volt. At 0.5 Wonderview TV's were built before this in-
amperes forward current the voltage drop is novative circuit was noticed. Why was
0.8 volts. How many watts can it safely Jones fired? Was the management jealous of
dissipate? What is its forward resistance his inventive genius?
under these two different conditions?

POSITIVE DC
120 VOLTS VOLTAGE
lAtifc 1

AC DESIRED HERE

/TYYY
T
1
HINT: Look at what happens to each diode as the transformer secondary processes positive and negative voltage in each
half of the center tapped winding.

When bench testing some of the 40,000
Wonderview TV's, it was found that some of
them worked fine after initially blowing the
and belching clouds of black
circuit breakers
smoke. Looking at the circuit in question 7,
what might have happened that could have
"redesigned" Jones' circuit and left it work-
ing properly?
9. Electronics engineer Jones gets a new job
with ThunderVista Television Company. He
is certain that his new design will not blow
circuit breakers or smoke. He secretly shows
the new power supply design to you before
building it. Is he right? Will it work?

POSITIVE DC
VOLTAGE-
DESIRED HERE

T
1
HINT: How can the positive current travel from one side of the secondary winding to the other?

31
10. In each of the following clipper circuits, 13. Engineer Jones has observed that TV com-
figure out the output voltage waveform. If mercials are louder than the rest of the
you by a circuit, figure it out
are confused regular program audio. He is designing a cir-
firstwithout the battery. That is, replace cuit that will turn off the TV audio when-
the battery with a piece of wire. Then move ever a commercial comes on. He plans to use
the clipping action up and down in the direc- a peak detector similar to the one in Fig.
tion (polarity) indicated by the battery. 2-18 except that the peak detector must ig-
nore all the audio peaks less than a certain

> •M- > threshold voltage, V. He wants to add a bat-

tery of voltage V to the circuit so that the
output voltage will remain zero until audio
peaks exceed the battery voltage, +V. He
^t V IN VOUT
can't figure out where to put the battery, so
he asks you to help him. Draw the new thres-
hold peak detector and sample waveforms.

*
14. In the diode switch shown in Fig. 2-20 a
11. Draw the output voltage waveform. "small" AC signal turned on and off by a
is

large DC square wave. Why does the AC sig-

nal have to be small? Why isn't the AC sig-
y vwv ->
nal rectified?

VOUT
15. There are about four steps involved in
receiving amplitude modulated radio waves
in the crystal set shown in Fig. 2-22. In your

X own words, describe these steps.

12. Draw the output voltage waveform.

In what ways are a diode AM
16. detector and a
diode frequency converter alike? In what
> M ,
> ways are a diode AMdetector and diode fre-
quency converter different?

VOUT
17. What is the purpose of a local oscillator in a

superhetrodyne receiver? Why is it neces-

sary to tune the antenna signal as well as
> the local oscillator?

32
 SECTION III
Special Purpose Diodes

In the last section we studied ideal or perfect

i>T /\AAA/*
diodes and compared them with real semiconduc- DIODE
0.6VOLT IDEAL
tor diodes. We found that real diodes have a BATTERY DIODE FORWARD
number of flaws that can complicate their use as
RESISTANCE
one way electricity valves.

It turns out that many of these flaws can be Fig. 3-1 Equivalent circuit of a silicon diode
com-
useful. Several types of exotic diodes are made from "perfect" parts.
monly used which capitalize on these unusual
characteristics. First we will look at applications
for the forward offset voltage.
the need for real batteries. Several silicon diodes
A. Stabistor Diodes can be placed in series to produce larger voltage
offsets.
Stabistor diodes consist of several silicon
diodes connected in series and packaged as
if they For example, if we put four silicon diodes in
were one diode. Their combined forward offset series, the offsetvoltage will be about 2.4 volts.
voltages make them useful for voltage regulators. Fig. 3-2 compares a clipper circuit of the type we
They are sometimes called forward voltage re- looked at in Section 2 with one made from a sta-
ference diodes. bistor diode.

Silicon diodes Voltage barrier

Silicon diodes typically have a forward offset

All this talk about batteries inside of diodes
voltage of 0.6 volts. This offset voltage is like
may have given you the idea that you can run
having a 0.6 volt battery built into the diode.
your flashlight on a 3 volt stabistor. This "bat-
Fig. 3-1 shows an equivalent circuit for a real tery" we are talking about is really a voltage bar-
rier. It is not actually a battery that will provide
silicon diode made from "perfect" parts. It con-
tains an ideal diode, a resistor, and a 0.6 volt bat- energy.
tery.
A good analogy would be a dam on a river.
Resistor The water must reach a certain depth before it
can flow over the dam. Just because there is a
The resistor represents the forward resist- dam, does not guarantee that there is any water
ance of the diode when it is conducting. Since in the river behind the dam. The energy must
each diode comes equipped with its own 0.6 volt come from outside the diode before current can
battery, it is easy to build clipper circuits without flow "over" the voltage barrier.
33
 R
> Z>

I IDEAL
DIODE
VlN VOUT

_ 2.4 VOLT
BATTERY

> X
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
^
> vVv'sA ^

STABISTOR v
VlN
'DIODE

J
> >
Fig. 3-2 A stabistor clipper circuit

Stabistor voltage When the sun shines on the P semiconductor,

it frees hole-electron pairs, just the way that heat
Stabistors are available in a variety of frees hole-electron pairs in thermistors and any
voltages up to about 5 volts. From the curves in semiconductor material. The sun's energy knocks
Fig. 2-8 you can see that diode forward offset electrons from the valence band in the P material
voltage(s) do vary somewhat with current, so the "up" into the conduction band in the N material.
nominal regulating voltage of a stabistor is usual- The forward offset voltage, 0.6 volts, prevents
ly specified at some standard current, like 10 them from falling back down to the valence band.
milliamperes. Since the stabistor has a voltage
across it and a current passing through it, there This offset voltage barrier itself acts like a
must be power consumed by it. Therefore, the back biased "ideal" diode as long as the "back-
other important parameter of a stabistor is the ward" voltage (the real anode to cathode voltage)
amount of power (heat) that it can dissipate doesn't exceed 0.6 volts. By providing an exter-
without damage. nal circuit for these electrons to flow through,
these new electrons in the N material can do
B. Silicon Solar Cells useful work by flowing back to the P semiconduc-
tor layer via the external circuit. Of course, the
We said that in order for current to flow over voltage in this solar battery is limited to the off-
the forward offset voltage barrier, it had to be set voltage, 0.6 volts.
provided by some outside source. The silicon
solar cell is a diode that does this by converting In practice a silicon solar cell provides 0.6
sunlight to electrical current. As long as the sun volts only when it has virtually no load on it

is shining, this diode really is a battery! (when it is not powering anything). When a useful
load is placed on it, the voltage drops down to
Solar cell construction about 0.45 volts or less.

made from delicate wafers of

Solar cells are Silicon cell battery charger
Vtype with a very thin layer of P-type
silicon
silicon on the surface. A grid of thin metal win's To use silicon cells to charge a battery, many
on the surface of the solar cell collects the current placed in series to give a voltage greater
cells are

from the V semiconductor. than the battery you wish to charge. For exam-
 GRID OF
COLLECTING HOLES APPEAR
IN P MATERIAL
~>
WIRES
A POSITIVE .LOAD
CURRENT
(FLOW OF
HOLES)
SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONS KNOCKED
METAL INTO N MATERIAL
LAYER

Fig. 3-3 A silicon solar cell

pie, tocharge a 12 volt battery, typically 32 to 36 C. Light Emitting Diodes

diode cells in series are used. The amount of cur-
rent a silicon cell can provide is directly propor- Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are replacing
tional to the area of the cells. incandescent lamps for panel lights in most elec-
tronic equipment and are widely used to make up
Fig. 3-4 shows a circuit with 9 silicon cells be- the number and letter displays in calculators,
ing used to charge one 3 volt battery. Notice the digital clocks, cash registers, and avionics in-
extra, conventional diode in series with the bat- struments. We are describing them here because,
tery. This diode allows positive charge to enter in a way, they are another application of the for-
the positive end of the battery but does not let ward voltage drop in a semiconductor diode.
positive charge go from the battery back to the
solar cells. Light emitting diodes are the opposite of a
silicon solar cell. Solar cellsabsorb light which
When the sun sets, the solar cells revert to or- knocks electrons from the valance band up to the
dinary silicon diodes and could put a drain on the conduction band. Light emitting diodes give off
battery. This drain is not serious because the light when electrons are pushed off the "energy
combined forward offset voltages would have to cliff" and fall from the conduction band down to
be overcome before large currents can flow. None the valence band.
the less, there is a leakage current and it is stan-
dard practice to put a protection diode in series In most respects light emitting diodes are or-
with the solar panel. dinary diodes. That is, their volt-ampere char-
acteristics have all the same features as those
shown for silicon and germanium diodes in Fig.
THIS DIODE 2-8. When ordinary diodes conduct in the forward
SUN PREVENTS direction, they just get hot. The energy dissi-
THE BATTERY
pated in their forward resistance warms the
( \ FROM
9 SILICON ^DISCHARGING diode. When LEDs conduct, most of the energy
SOLAR CELL WHEN THE becomes heat, but a few percent of the energy is
DIODES SUN SETS dissipated in the form of visible light.
r 3VOLT
BATTERY LED construction

J We said in Section 1 that semiconductors are

usually made from materials that have 4 elec-
Fig. 3-4 Silicon solar cells charging a battery. trons in the outer shell. For various physical
35
Fig 3-5 Assorted light emitting diodes. Note the diodes on the right. They are arranged in patterns to
make up numbers and letters.

reasons, silicon and germanium are the only pure in the far infrared spectrum. Infrared light is just
elements that work. heat. With LEDs this characteristic frequency is
high because the energy drop is high and the re-
LEDs are made from
various mixtures of sult is visible light.
aluminum and gallium (which both have 3 elec-
trons in the outer shell) and phosphorus and Coherent light
arsenic (which both have 5 electrons in the outer
shell). When mixed together in the right propor- Light emitting diodes can be designed to give
tions, these four elements produce a crystal that off coherent laser light as well as pure light.
behaves as though its valence were the average of Coherent means that the light waves do not in-
3 and 5, which is 4. The energy difference between terfere with each other, but stay in phase and do
valence and conduction bands is large and it not disperse like ordinary light.
takes about 2 volts to turn on an LED.
These laser diodes are used with flexible glass
LED light sending messages over long distances.
fibers for
Diode laseroptical fiber systems can carry so
LEDs not only give off visible light, the light much information for so little cost that eventual-
is limited to one pure color. LEDs are available in ly these optical fibers will replace copper tele-
red, orange, yellow and green. Blue LEDs exist, phone lines and probably even microwave tele-
but aren't yet commercially practical. The reason phone links. Diode lasers and fiber optics are not
for the pure colors is the exact difference in yet used in avionics, but it is inevitable that they
energy (voltage) between the valence band and will be used in the future.
the conduction band in these semiconducting
mixtures of elements. D. High Voltage Diodes

Whenever an electron falls from the conduc-
tion band down to the valence band, it gives off a
fixed, tiny amount of energy for each electron
that falls. Each little packet of released energy (a
quantum), is an electromagnetic wave with a fre-
quency (wavelength) proportional to the height of
the energy cliff that it fell off. The higher the
set voltage, the higher the frequency.
For ordinary diodes these quanta produce
low frequency, long wavelength "light" which is
We have been discussing applications related
to the forward characteristics of diodes. Now we
are going to look at the backward characteristics
of diodes. When a diode is back biased by a large
voltage, eventually it will reach the zener break-
down voltage, often destroying the diode. To
off- build a semiconductor diode for rectifying very
high voltages, it is necessary to put many diodes
in series so that the sum of all the zener break-
down voltages will be higher than the high volt-
age being rectified.

36
 For example, the Varo VC50X silicon diode the power system becomes overloaded due to gen-
can tolerate over 5000 volts DC back biased but it power company
erator failure or hot weather, the
requires over 15 volts forward voltage before it sometimes reduces the voltage rather than cut off
begins to turn on. From this we can conclude that the electricity entirely. When the line voltage
it consists of about 25 silicon diodes in series. drops, the power supply voltage drops with it,

Each diode must be able to tolerate over 200 volts unless it is regulated.
before zener breakdown occurs in order for the
whole string to tolerate 5000 volts. Constant load

There are three basic ways of regulating

power supply voltage. Two of them, switching
power supplies and saturable reactors, are com-
plicated and don't directly involve zener diodes.
The most common method of regulating voltage
is to start with more voltage than you need and

then burn up what you don't want in some sort of

variable resistance.

When the power company decreases the line

voltage, the voltage regulator circuit compen-
sates by decreasing the power dissipated in the
resistance. This keeps the voltage across the load

Fig. 3-6 High voltage silicon diode constant. By using a zener diode with a break-
down voltage equal to the voltage desired across
the load, the zener diode can clamp (or clip) the
load voltage to the zener breakdown voltage. In

Zener Diodes other words, the zener diode is an automatic

E.
variable resistance.

By increasing the amount of doping in the

semiconductor that makes up a diode, the zener Regulator characteristics
breakdown voltage can be decreased. In fact, the
zener voltage can be designed to fall anywhere in An example of a zener diode regulator is
the range of about 200 volts down to zero volts. shown in Fig. 3-7. The circuit symbol for a zener
diode is like a regular diode but the cathode bar
diode is made large enough to stand the
If the has been converted to a sort of "Z."
heat, these zener diodes can be used as clippers
and voltage regulators, just as was described for Suppose a regulated power supply is needed
stabistors. Refer back to Fig. 2-8 and you will see
that will provide 12 volts DC at 100 mA. The
how constant the voltage is across a diode in
voltage we will start with can vary anywhere
zener breakdown. Whenever the zener voltage is
from 20 to 15 volts DC. The zener regulator is set
reached, the back biased diode can conduct a
up exactly like the clipper circuits we discussed in
great deal of current without a significant change
Figs. 3-2 and 2-16. Whenever the voltage across
in the voltage across the diode. Since the diode
the load tries to rise higher than 12 volts, the
must obey Ohm's law, the power dissipated in the
zener breakdown occurs and clamps the voltage
diode is P = V Z where I z is the current through
IZ ,
across the load to 12 volts.
the diode and V z is the zener voltage.
As the unregulated supply voltage rises
Voltage regulator higher and higher, more and more current passes
through the zener diode to hold the voltage across
Probably the most common use for zener the zener diode constant. The resistor, Rj, is
diodes is for regulating power supply voltage. chosen so that, when the unregulated voltage is
Holding power supply voltage constant is ne- as low as it will ever get, (15 volts here) the zener
cessary because the power company does not diode will be just barely conducting in the zener
always provide the standard 120 volts AC. When breakdown mode.
37
 27Q

> AA/W Ri

ZENER
UNREGULATED CURRENT
DC VOLTAGE 11 TO 196 mA LOAD 12VOLTS
LOAD RESISTANCE
VARIES FROM DC REGULATED
CURRENT ,(120 Q OHMS)
15 TO 20 VOLTS
100 mA
ZENER
DIODE

>
Fig. 3-7 A zener diode in a power supply

For example, when Ri is 27 ohms, the voltage under 5 volts, stabistors are usually preferred
across it will be 3 volts and the current through it because they have less internal resistance under
will be 111 milliamperes. The load draws the 100 the same operating conditions.
milliamperes it requires and the zener diode
draws 11 milliamperes. F. Varactor and Step Recovery Diodes

V = I R Capacitance

(15 - 12 volts) = 3 volts = I (27 ohms)

Any P-N junction diode has a certain amount
I = 0.111 amperes
of built-in capacitance. This is usually a nuisance
Iz = I - 100 mA = mA to circuit but varactor diodes are
designers,
specifically designed to have high capacitance
When the unregulated supply rises to 20 which changes with the voltage across them. This
volts, the drop across the 27 ohm resistor is 8 property allows tuned circuits to be tuned with-
volts. This means that the current through the out any moving parts. Varactors are also useful
resistor is now 296 milliamperes. It follows then for multiplying frequency.
that 100 milliamperes still go to the load and 196
milhamperes will heat up the zener diode. The
power consumed by the zener diode will be:

P = iz vz = (0.196 amp)(12 volts)

P = 2.35 watts

A 3 watt, 1 2 volt zener diode should work fine

in this circuit.

Zener diode variety

Zener diodes come in a huge variety of

voltages and power handling capabilities; 200
volts down to 2 volts and 1/4 watt up to 20 watts.
There is a zener diode available for practically
any reasonable application. Unfortunately zener
diodes look like any normal silicon diode. When
replacing a zener diode, you have to look up the
part number very carefully to be sure you have Fig. 3^8 A mechanical variable capacitor and the
the right diode. For low voltage applications, varactor diode which can replace it.
38
 For example, if you had a 100 MHz signal
and wanted to convert it to a 200 MHz or 300
MHz signal, a varactor multiplier is an inexpen-
sive way to do this. Finally, varactors can even be
used to amplify high frequency signals. They are
widely used in avionics and help make complex
designs reliable and small in size.

SYMBOLS FOR When a P-N diode is back biased, the positive

VARACTORS
voltage on the N-type semiconductor attracts ex-
tra electrons out of the crystal matrix. On the
other side of the junction the negative voltage is

trying to push electrons into the holes in the

200- P-type semiconductor. The more voltage that is
VARACTOR
VOLTAGE-CAPACITANCE applied across the diode, the more electron charge
CHARACTERISTICS that is pushed into the P side and pulled out of
the N side. This process resembles the charging
of a capacitor in which electrons are pulled off one
100-
metal plate and pushed onto the other metal
plate.
. IN 5476
-

**"
IN 5470
~~~ In a capacitor, no current can pass directly
I

10
' I

20
i

30
from one plate to the other because of the dielec-
tric insulation. If the applied voltage is suddenly
REVERSE VOLTAGE
removed from both the diode and capacitor, the
charge has no easy way to rearrange itself. The
Fig. 3-9 Varactor voltage-capacitance character- voltage across the diode (or capacitor) can't
istic and varactor symbols change instantly.

THISPOINT IS GROUNDED BY THE

»+ VOLTS DC .01MFD CAPACITOR AS FAR AS
THE RF IS CONCERNED

< WW
SOURCE OF
VARIABLE
100 K

.01 MFD
* <
RF INPUT TO
L-C FILTER

DC VOLTAGE

DC VOLTAGE TUNED L-C CIRCUIT

/RF INPUT TO
\LC CIRCUIT

EQUIVALENT L-C CIRCUIT USING

MECHANICAL VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Fig. 3-10 Varactor tuned L-C circuit

39
 Varactor diodes are designed to exaggerate
this peculiarity so that changing the voltage
across them can control the capacitance. By vary-
ing a DC voltage which is back biased across a
varactor diode, it can vary the capacitance as
seen by a small RF (radio frequency) signal across
the diode. This allows tuned circuits in radio
equipment (L-C circuits) to be tuned by a DC
voltage instead of by a clumsy mechanical ca-
pacitor or slug tuned coil.
to the voltage. Saying it another way, the ca-
pacitance is not constant and changes as the
voltage changes. The higher the back bias volt-
age, the lower the capacitance because, unlike
metal plates in a capacitor, the number of holes
and electrons in a diode is severely limited and
and at high voltage they become used up.
Half-wave rectifier

In most high speed diode applications, this

Since the diodes are back biased, they draw with rectification.
built-in capacitance interferes
very little power and may be supplied with DC
Suppose a diode is being used as a half-wave rec-
voltage through a very high resistance, typically
tifier at high frequency. If the diode can handle a
100,000 ohms. In fact, a single voltage line can be
large current, it usually has a physically large
used to tune several separate tuned circuits
P-N junction which can store a lot of holes and
simultaneously.
electrons.

In a normal capacitor, the amount of charge Every time the sine wave switches from
that a capacitor can store is directly related to the minus (nonconducting) to plus (conducting), the
voltage by a constant, the capacitance. capacitance must first discharge before the
voltage across the diode can drop. The input sine
Q = CV, where Q is the charge, wave pushes the charged diode below zero in
voltage so that, instead of simple half-wave rec-
C is the capacitance, tification with only positive half cycles in the out-
put, the real diode produces negative recovery
and V is the voltage. spikes which are below the zero axis. If the sine
wave frequency is very high and the recovery

Diodes are not this linear. As seen in Fig. 3-9, spike lasts very long, the diode will act like a
the amount of charge is not directly proportional capacitor and will not rectify at all.

IDEAL DIODE

) Vr

SINE WAVE INPUT

A f\
> ->
IDEAL HALF-WAVE OUTPUT

REAL DIODE

—T+r T
I

i
ii
I

•
*
REAL OUTPUT

L-| |- J
I I

> > REAL OUTPUT

-Jtf,
REVERSE RECOVERY
TIME

Fig. 3-11 How diode capacitance interferes with rectification at high frequencies. The negative pikes are
caused by the capacitance discharging.
10
 Notice in Fig. 3-11 how the negative "'error" Some varactor multipliers can produce an
in the half-wave rectified signal has about half the output of 10 or 20 watts at microwave frequen-
width of the positive half-wave cycle. If it were cies. The multiplication efficiency ranges from 70
possible to select out these half wave negative to 80% at low frequencies to 10% at very high fre-
spikes with a resonant tuned circuit, these neg- quencies. All power that does not come out of the
ative spikes would make a frequency twice that of varactor as useful sine wave is wasted as heat.
the input frequency because they are only half as This heat must be dissipated by the varactor
wide. Eureka! We have just invented the varactor without the diode junction overheating.
frequency multiplier.
Non-linear devices
Varactor multiplier or step recovery diode
In general, the basic requirement of a fre-
quency multiplier is non-linearity, not capac-
A varactor multiplier is seen in Fig. 3-12. A itance. A pure sine wave has a certain maximum
tuned filter on the left allows just the fundamen- rate of change with time that defines its frequen-
tal frequency, f, to pass through the diode. The cy. If this sine wave is fed into some device that
varactor makes its "error" spikes because it is do- distorts the sine wave by rectifying it, chopping
ing a poor job of half-wave rectifying the fun- it, or altering the shape in any way, the maximum
damental sine wave, f.
rate of change waveform will be increased
of the
and the new waveform will contain higher fre-
A second tuned circuit, on the right, is tuned quency components. Since any distortion is de-
to twice the frequency of f, i.e. 2f, so that only a fined as non-linearity, any device that is non-
signal twice the frequency of the fundamental fre- linear can be used as a frequency multiplier.
quency can get through to the output. The signal
which appears on the output side is a sine wave at Low Forward Resistance
twice the original frequency.
Varactors make good multipliers because
they have low forward resistance so that they
Varactors designed for use as multipliers, dissipate little power and are quite efficient. If
especially large varactors, are sometimes called varactors had high internal resistance, the input
step recover varactors, or step recovery diodes. signal energy would be converted to heat and we
"Step recovery" refers to the negative spike pro- would have warm varactors and small 2f output
duced by the capacitance discharging. signals. Moreover, because of the capacitance, the

L-C FILTER L-C FILTER

TUNED TO F TUNED TO 2F
* A.
INPUT VOLTAGE v
< N OUTPUT VOLTAGE

THIS PEAK IS TWICE THE

INPUT FREQUENCY BECAUSE
THE WIDTH IS ABOUT 1/2

Fig. 3-12 A varactor frequency multiplier

41
varactor stores energy over most of the cycle so doing this is that, not only does the RF sine wave
that it is only passing current through its re- become larger, but the modulation that is carried
sistance during a small fraction of the total time. on that sine wave is also enlarged.

Varactor amplifiers For example, if the signal being amplified

Varactors can also be used as amplifiers.
Amplifiers can start with a small high frequency
voltage sine wave and make another that is like
the first, but larger. How a varactor does this is a
little abstract, but don't panic.
were a microwave relay of a TV signal, the
microwave signal would be mixed with an un-
modulated signal of the same frequency gener-
ated by the microwave receiver itself. The
resulting signal would be an amplified version of
the input TV signal.

In the remote tuning application for varac- G. PIN Diodes

tors, theDC bias on the varactor stays fairly con-
stant so that the varactor capacitance appears Voltage variable resistor
constant, at least as far as the small RF signal is
concerned. This small AC signal "rides" on the We just saw that the varactor diode can serve
large DC To explain how a varactor
bias voltage. as a voltage variable capacitor. The PIN diode is
can amplify, we must first think about what usually designed for use as a voltage variable
would happen to the voltage across a capacitor if resistor. It is commonly used for controlling the
the capacitance suddenly changed. signal level of very high frequency signals. Other
versions of the PIN diode are used as high volt-
Suppose you had one of those clumsy me- age rectifiers and as charge storage diodes which
chanical variable capacitors sitting on a wooden are used like varactors for harmonic frequency
desk, and let's suppose that it is charged to, say multipliers.
10 volts. The capacitor is not connected to any
circuit, so the amount of charge, Q, stored in the
capacitor is fixed because it has nowhere to go.
Now suppose you could reach over with insulated METAL LEADS ATTACHED TO SEMICONDUCTOR
fingers and change the capacitance to half its
original value, say 200 picofarads to 100 pico- P+ AND N +
LAYERS ARE
farads. Since theamount of charge can't change HEAVILY DOPED
and the capacitance is now half, the voltage must
become twice as high. 3

First: Q = CV = (200 pfd)(10 volts)

PURE INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
then later: Q = (1/2C) (2V) = (100 pfd)(20 volts)
Fig. 3-13 PIN diode internal structure
This is like squeezing a balloon. The amount
of air inside the balloon is fixed. So when the
balloon squeezed, the air is forced into a smaller
is The PIN diode (all capital letters) is named
volume. In other words, the volume capacity of for its internal structure. It consists of a heavily
the balloon is decreased. The price that must be doped P+ layer, a central layer of pure, intrinsic
paid for compressing the air is higher pressure in- semiconductor, and a layer of heavily doped N+
side the balloon. This is analogous to increased type semiconductor.
"electrical pressure" which of course is voltage.
Heavily doped semiconductor conducts quite
Amplification with varactors is accomplished well and if there were no central layer of pure
by mixing the signal to be amplified with a se- semiconductor, the device would act like a zener
cond signal that has the same frequency but dif- diode with a zener breakdown of zero volts. When
fers from the first in phase. This second signal voltage is applied to the PIN diode, holes and
has the effect of abruptly changing the capac- electrons are pushed into the pure semiconductor
itance of the varactor during each half cycle so layer to establish a temporary, conventional P-N
that the voltage abruptly rises. The point of junction diode in the center.
42
 However, if the middle intrinsic layer
the transition between reverse bias cutoff and for-
ward bias conduction is gradual instead of abrupt
as it is in a conventional diode. When back biased,
a typical PIN diode has a resistance of 8000
ohms. But, as more and more forward bias
voltage is applied, this resistance drops gradually
to about 1 ohm. By adjusting the level of a DC
bias voltage, the resistance of the PIN diode can
be adjusted to anywhere in this range. The small
AC signal which is being controlled rides on top
of this DC level. The resistance encountered by
the small signal depends on the DC bias level.
is wide, quency of the audio modulation. This signal is
then passed on to the audio amplifier and loud-
speaker.
This same signal is also fed to a second low
pass filter which averages (integrates) the signal
level over a few seconds to make a very slowly
varying DC signal which is proportional to the
overall signal strength. This signal is then
amplified and used to forward bias the PIN diode
variable resistor. So if the average signal
strength drops over a period of one or two se-
conds, the gain (volume) is slowly increased to
compensate for the drop.

Because so much charge has to be pushed in-

to and pulled out of the central layer, this diode
has a very large recovery time, much like a varac-
tor diode. Because of this, it responds too slowly
to rectify signals at high frequencies. So, from the
point of view of a high frequency radio signal, the
PIN diode is a variable resistor, not a rectifier.
AGCs
H. Schottky or HCD Diodes
Schottky barrier diodes are sometimes called
hot carrier diodes (HCDs). These are semiconduc-
tor diodes made from a metal anode, fused direct-
ly to a semiconductor cathode. Schottky diodes
have very low capacitance, high switching speed,
less reverse leakage current, produce less radio
noise, and even have a smaller forward conduc-
tion voltage than conventional P-N diodes.

A typical application for PIN diodes is in

automatic gain control circuits (AGCs). Modern
radio receivers, even the smallest transistorAM CATHODE ANODE
radios, have an automatic gain control circuit
which tries to hold the signal level constant. Sim-
%}
ple radios rarely use PIN diodes for this. PIN
diode AGCs are more common in fancy avionics
Fig. 3-14 Schottky diode symbol
receivers.

To build a PIN diode AGC, a DC signal is

Silicon Schottky diodes
generated that is proportional to the strength of
the incoming radio signal. This DC signal forward
Silicon Schottky diodes conduct at 0.2 to 0.4
biases the PIN diode to turn it on just enough to
volts instead of the usual 0.6 volts. They are
let in the correct signal strength. As the radio
preferred for many very high frequency applica-
signal becomes weaker, the DC bias level is in-
tions such as mixers and detectors.
creased so that more and more radio signal is
allowed into the intermediate frequency (IF)
amplifiers. This keeps the signal level coming out
HCD construction
of the loudspeaker relatively constant so that you
Hot carrier diodes take advantage of a "pro-
do not have to be continually adjusting the
blem" that formerly plagued designers building
volume.
integrated circuits. Aluminum and gold are easy
metals to use for printing miniature wires on
The DC signal which biases the PIN diode is silicon wafers. The problem arises because
usually derived from the detector circuit. In Sec- aluminum has a valence of plus 3. When it is
tion 2 you learned that the output of an AM bonded to N-type or pure semiconductor, some of
detectoris fed to a low pass filter which removes the aluminum atoms diffuse into the silicon and
the radio frequency component. The signal convert it into P-type silicon. This produces an
emerging from the low pass filter is a DC signal unintentional P-N junction where none was
which varies up and down in amplitude at the fre- wanted.
43
 When gold and other metals are pressed Anytime metals, especially aluminum, are
against semiconductor, a similar P-N junction is fused or bonded to semiconductor, there is a
formed but the exact mechanism is not as easy to possibility that some sort of non-linear diode
explain. In fact, the diode used in early crystal set junction will be formed. When a diode junction is
radios was a lump of semiconductor with a metal not wanted, it can be prevented by adding an in-
"cat whisker" pressed against it. termediate layer of heavily doped type N+
semiconductor between the metal and the semi-
The P layer in a Schottky diode is so small conductor layer that the wire is supposed to con-
that there are very few holes. As a result, when nect. The extra N-type doping donates enough
the diode is conducting, the electrons from the N electrons to fill in any holes that may be con-
semiconductor pass almost directly into the tributed by the metal atoms diffusing into the
metal without passing through an extensive P semiconductor.
region. Because the P side of the junction is so
tiny, very little charge is stored in the vicinity of For this reason, Schottky diodes are usually
the P-N junction when the diode is back-biased. made from three layers: the aluminum (or gold)
This accounts for the extremely low capacitance layer which is the anode, the pure or N-type
of Schottky diodes. semiconductor layer in which the P-N junction is
formed, and finally an N+ layer which is an in-
termediary between the metal lead and the semi-
conductor cathode. Without the N+ layer, the
GLASS CASE GOLD WHISKER
FUSED TO Schottky diode would have two diode junctions in
SEMICONDUCTOR series oriented cathode to cathode.

CATHODE ANODE Hot carrier

We should probably explain the term "hot

-VERY THIN LAYER OF PURE
SEMICONDUCTOR
carrier." Since the P region is so tiny in these
P AND N IMPURITIES diodes, the current carrier is almost 100% elec-
DIFFUSE INTO THIS LAYER trons. There are many free electrons available in
both the N-type semiconductor and the metal.
Some of these are moving around due to thermal
agitation, but they can't cross the P-N barrier
ALUMINUM ANODE without forward voltage.
CATHODE
N+
£
-COPPER LEADS-
ANODE
When forward bias is applied, the electrons
that cross the barrier have a velocity higher than
the electrons that were freed by heat but were
unable to cross the barrier. Since the current
carrying electrons are moving faster, it is as
though they were hotter. Therefore these forward
conduction electrons are called "hot carriers."

ALUMINUM /. The Tunnel Diode

r — GLASS CATHODE
\ INSULATING ALUMINUM ANODE This strange P-N junction diode can oscillate
V LAYER
(make sine waves) at extremely high frequencies
zzzzzzzzzzzzz
(10,000 MHz), amplify weak high frequency sig-
nals, and is used to build extremely fast logic cir-
cuits. It can even be used to rectify very low
-N+ REGION DIODE voltages which are less than the forward break-
PREVENTS A JUNCTION down voltage of conventional diodes.
SECOND DIODE IS HERE
JUNCTION
However, when used as a rectifier, the P-N
Fig. 3-15 Three different examples of Schottky polarity is the reverse of the standard P-N diode.
diode construction. There seems to be little agreement about what
44
 e TUNNEL
RECTIFIER

Fig. 3-16 Tunnel diode circuit symbols. All are equivalent except the last symbol which is supposed to
signify that the tunnel diode is being used as a rectifier.

circuit symbol should represent the tunnel diode, able to sneak through the crystal matrix simply
but the first three symbols in Fig. 3-16 are the by random motion, even though they do not have
most common. the necessary energy to go over the barrier.

With a little forward voltage for encourage-

Impurity concentration
ment, say 0.05 volts, a significant current can
flow in this manner, anywhere from 1 to 100
In a conventional diode the semiconductor P milliamperes. This phenomenon is called tunnel-
and N regions have a very low impurity concen- ing under the barrier, hence the name.
tration, approximately 1 atom of impurity for
every ten million atoms of crystal. By keeping the As still more forward voltage is applied, say
concentration of electrons and holes low, it takes 0.3 volts, the short cut tunnel under the barrier
a large voltage to break down the diode in the becomes clogged by too many carriers trying to
reverse direction. go through at once. For silicon, at a voltage of 0.4
volts, the tunnel current is cut off almost entirely.
As we know, it takes a small but significant
voltage to make it conduct in the forward direc- However, as the voltage is increased still far-
tion. As more and more impurity is added, it ther, the normal barrier voltage is exceeded and
becomes easier and easier to break down the the diode conducts like a conventional forward
diode in the reverse direction. At an impurity con- biased diode. This crude explanation of tunneling
centration of about one atom in 1000, the zener is inadequate, but the author's opinion is that a
voltage will fall to zero and the diode becomes complete explanation of the physics is even less
useless for any conventional diode applications. satisfying!

Volt-ampere characteristics
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE FORWARD
Tunneling REGION CONDUCTION
+ 1
REGION

Heavily doped diodes like this have a strange

forward current volt-ampere characteristic that
makes them useful. To begin with, the built-in for-
ward voltage barrier, 0.6 volts for silicon and 0.2 -V +V
.05 .35
volts for germanium is still about the same.
ZENER MILLIVOLTS
BREAKDOWN
However, at voltages between zero and 0.6 OCCURS AT TYPICAL TUNNEL DIODE
volts for silicon, there is a new phenomenon that ZERO VOLTS- CHARACTERISTICS
allows small amounts of current to pass through (GALLIUM ARSENIDE DEVICE)
or under the forward offset voltage barrier. There -I
are so "many" extra electrons and holes looking
at each other across the voltage barrier that there Fig. 3-17 Volt-ampere characteristics of the tun-
is a high probability that a few of them will be nel diode
45
 Negative resistance
The volt-ampere curve for a typical tunnel
diode seen in Fig. 3-17. Notice that the diode
is
practically looks like a short circuit when it is
reverse biased. The most interesting part of the
to filter it with a low pass filter before it is direct
current with no alternating current component.
What we really had was a mixture of alternating
current and direct current.
High pass filter

curve is the S-shaped curve between zero and the

forward conduction region. Suppose for some reason we had wanted to
extract the AC component instead of the DC com-
The central region where increasing voltage ponent. This can be done by using a high pass
produces decreasing current is called the negative filter instead of a low pass filter. This is il-

resistance region. This region behaves the op-
posite of ordinary resistors in which increasing
voltage produces increasing current. Because of
this S-shaped characteristic, one current level can
lustrated in Fig. 3-18. In the R-C high pass filter,
direct current can't pass through the insulation
inside the capacitor. Although currents can pass
into it, one direction and then in the other,
first in

be produced by three different voltages. I wonder in the long run the average direct current passing
what George Simon Ohm would think of that!? through the capacitor will always be zero.

J. Tunnel Diode Oscillators

AC Waveform Generation

Oscillators in general In electronics whenever an AC waveform

must be generated, it is usually done by
Before we can discuss how tunnel diode os- switching DC on and off to make DC pulses. The
cillators work, we have to discuss oscillators in pulses are then passed through some sort of high
general. Oscillatorsmake alternating current. Or, pass filter to make AC.
if they don'tmake currents that alternate be-
tween positive and negative, they at least make a Actually, leaving the AC in the form of an AC
DC current or voltage that varies in amplitude signal riding on a DC signal is quite convenient.
and which can be converted to an alternating cur- Most and electronic devices are
transistors like
rent. diodes and can only conduct DC currents.

Low pass filter Sometimes complex AC signals, such as a TV

picture signal, can go through the entire receiving
For example, you are already familiar with process and be projected onto the CRT screen
half-wave rectifiers.The output of such a rectifier without ever actually being converted to "of-
is a series of half cycles of the original AC ficial" 100% alternating current where the
waveform. Since all these pulses have one polar- positive half of the signal is equally balanced with
ity, we call it "direct current." However, we have the negative half of the signal.

+ V|N

+v
> ->

WL. DC CURRENT
THROUGH
CAPACITOR
IS ZERO
I

> •>

Fig. 3-18 High pass filter showing how DC pulses can be converted to AC
46
 DCin

+v > ELECTRONIC
">
+V
SWITCH

> ">

Fig. 3-19 Basic elements of an AC generating circuit

Another way to look at this is to say that the Look at the volt-ampere characteristic for the
zero voltage has been redefined so that zero is ac- tunnel diode and you will see that as many as
tually plus 5 volts DC
some other convenient
or three different voltages can be related to the same
"zero" for the AC This concept of a signal
signal. current!
having two components, a DC component and an
AC component, is very important and will give The second part of the inconsistency is that a
rise to endless confusion if you don't have it clear low energy state must be able to stimulate the
in your mind. device to produce a high energy state. And con-
versely, a high energy state must stimulate the
Linear and nonlinear resistors device to turn off or produce a low energy state.
Let's see how these ideas apply to the tunnel
Now that we have established that pulsed DC diode oscillator.
and AC are interchangeable, we can narrow in on
the basic issue: what switches the DC on and off Tunnel diode oscillator circuit
into pulses? All electronic devices that can be
used as oscillators have two basic states, turned The tunnel diode oscillator circuit shown in
on and turned off. In order to be suitable for Fig. 3-20 is a practical circuit in every respect ex-
oscillators, they must also have an inconsistency, cept for the battery. 0.12 volt batteries are hard
so that, when they are turned on they will change to find. Usually the voltage source is made from a
their behavior and try to turn themselves back higher voltage source which is divided down with
off. When they are turned off, they will change resistors and made stable with large capacitors
again and try to turn themselves back on. It is across it.
like letting the dog out. He immediately wants to
come back in! L-C circuit

Earlier we said that a resistor was linear All electronic oscillators contain an energy
because, when volt-ampere characteristic is
its storage element. This can be an inductor, a
plotted, it is a straight line. When the volt- capacitor, or both. The energy storage element
ampere characteristic of an ordinary diode is plot- determines the rate at which the electronic switch
ted, it is not a straight line and therefore it is switches on and off. The tunnel diode oscillator
nonlinear. But, even though the diode character- uses a resonant L-C circuit.
istic is complicated, there is no instance where a
given voltage can be related to more than one cur- L-C circuits can be compared to a
Parallel
rent. bell. When is struck with the clapper, the
the bell
In all real devices that can be made to bell vibrates with a distinct sound frequency. In
oscillate, a current through the device can be order to make an oscillator based on an L-C reso-
caused by more than one voltage. Or, a voltage nant circuit, pulses must be generated which keep
level can cause two or more current levels. This is "striking" the L-C circuit so that the oscillation
part of the inconsistency we were talking about. will be continous.

47
 TINY AC SIGNAL
Vin RIDING ON
DC * DC SIGNAL
0.12

0.12
rwwwm
t __ VOLT Rload Vq UT-

4
LC RESONANT FILTER
DETERMINES FREQUENCY

Fig. 3-20 Tunnel diode oscillator circuit

In order to generate the current pulses to the peak, point A. Every time the voltage across
make the tunnel circuit oscillate, the load resistor the capacitor is low, the current is turned back on
and voltage source must be carefully chosen so to charge it up again. So, during every sine wave
that the tunnel diode is forced to operate in its cycle, a pulse of current is injected into the L-C
region of inconsistency. For example, if we used a circuit to sustain the oscillation.
10 volt batteryand a 50 ohm resistor, the cur-
rents thatwould flow would be far into the for-
ward conduction region of the diode where its + 1 CURRENT
behavior is like an ordinary diode. DC QUIESCENT
-POINT
When the proper tiny voltage source and load CURRENT WAVEFORM
resistance are used, the diode can be forced to
operate in the center of the negative resistance
region. Adjusting the average DC current and
voltage on an electronic device to make it operate
in some special part of its characteristic is called
biasing. VOLTAGE

Sine wave
FVg, .V-1'7 Tunnel diode oscillator operating char-
Let's assume that the L-C circuit is already acteristics
-

"ringing' or oscillating and we just need to sus-

tain the oscillation. The voltage across a ringing
L-C circuit is a sine wave. This sine wave is added Linear negative resistance
to and subt acted from the operating DC voltage
(bias) which is in the center of the negative Let's explain tunnel diode oscillators again
resistance region, point B. If there were no with a different approach. Earlier we said that all
oscillation, the circuit would tend to "rest" at devices which can be used as oscillators must
point H and this is why an operating point like have two or more operating points that can be
this is sometimes called the quiescent point. related to the same voltage or current. This is

literally true because all real devices fit this

\> the sine wave voltage rises, it turns the definition.
diode off because very little current Dows
through the diode in the vicinity of the "vallej However, if there were a device that had
point." point C, which is at the high voltage end linear negative resistance over its entire volt-
ot the negative resistance region. ampere characteristic, this device could be made
to oscillate because negative resistance itself is
\^ the sinewave voltage falls, it turns the inconsistent behavior. Low voltage, by definition,
dirnle on because the current is high at the top of means low potential energy, but with negatixe
l^
resistance, low voltage causes a large current to the diode to drop. The curve is steep, so that a
flow. A large current represents energy which can small change in voltage will produce a big change
increase the voltage across an energy storage in current. The large change in current will in turn
device, such as the L-C circuit. produce a large change in the voltage across the
load resistance.
Once the voltagerises, the current is turned
off.Since the L-C circuit has no source of energy The circuit for the tunnel diode amplifier is
other than the tunnel diode, the voltage across almost identical to that for the tunnel diode
the L-C circuit eventually must fall again as its oscillator (Fig. 3-20) except that the two wires
energy is dissipated in the load resistance. This is shown as the output also serve as the input for an
like throwing a ball up in the air. You know that amplifier. Tunnel diode amplifiers are used at
eventually it will have to come back down, so the microwave frequencies and a circuit diagram does
falling down part is automatic. Since the nega- not tell you much unless you understand micro-
tive resistance property "automatically" throws waves.
the ball back up in the air, sustained oscillation is

inevitable.
Waveguides
Because the voltages across a tunnel diode
are so small, the sine wave signal that is produced Microwaves are such high radio frequencies
is also tiny. 0.07 volts peak-to-peak is typical. that ordinary wires act like radio frequency
This is such a tiny signal that it hardly seems chokes. That is, wires conduct microwave signals
worth the trouble. However, tunnel diodes oper- very poorly. Since ordinary wires can't be used,
ate well at extremely high microwave frequencies the signals are conducted through microwave cir-
where transistors work poorly. cuits using coaxial transmission lines or even
silver-plated pipes called waveguides. Microwave
K. Tunnel Diode Amplifiers signals are conducted down waveguides in the
form of actual radio waves. A resonant circuit for
The tunnel diode can also be used as an use with a waveguide system looks like a silver-
amplifier.The diode is provided with a voltage plated tin can with bolts which screw in and out
source and load resistance that will again make it to adjust the resonant frequency.
operate in the negative resistance region. The
signal to be amplified is applied across the diode Reflectance amplifier
in the form of a tiny AC voltage.
The tunnel diode amplifier is a reflectance
As the input voltage increases, the voltage amplifier. In the waveguide version, the diode is
across the diode will cause the current through mounted at the end of a silver plated pipe. The
radar signal to be amplified is transmitted down

this dead-end tunnel and reflects off the diode,

+ I
much like a flashlight reflecting off a mirror.
OUTPUT
CURRENT
Unlike the flashlight reflection, the signal
that returns from this "mirror" is "brighter"

(larger) than the original signal. This is because

the current passing through the diode is bigger
than it would have been for a given amount of
voltage had the diode just been a lump of inert
metal.

The input signal and the amplified output

signal are separated from each other by means of
a central chamber or a block of exotic magnetic
material called a circulator. If it were not for the
circulator and the fact that it is operating at
microwave frequencies, none of this would work
Fig. 3-22 Tunnel diode amplification oreven be worth the trouble!
49
 Tunnel diode construction USUALLY THINNER
INTHE CENTER
Tunnel diodes used for oscillators or am- TIN CONTACTS
plifiersare made from either germanium or
gallium arsenide. Gallium arsenide tunnel diodes
/
have twice the voltage swing of germanium dio-
des. They are preferred for oscillators because the
output signal can be larger.

PIECE OF
L. Tunnel Rectifiers GALLIUM ARSENIDE
SEMICONDUCTOR
Silicon tunnel diodes

Silicon tunnel diodes do not make good Fig. 3-22 Gunn diode construction
oscillators or amplifiers and do not have a pro-
nounced tunneling current peak. Silicon tunnel
diodes are used for rectifiers for very low AC
new, high energy state where they lose their
mobility. They are no longer able to conduct
voltages, less than 0.6 volts. The tunneling cur-
through the material when they are in this high
rent peak is so low, less than 1 mA, that this can
energy state, so the resistance of the semiconduc-
approximate being turned off. The "forward"
tor increases as the voltage across it increases.
conducting state of the silicon tunnel rectifier is
This process sounds something like valence band
really its backward characteristic which has a
electrons being kicked up into the conduction
zener breakdown of zero volts.
bana, but physicists never call it that, and it is a
different phenomenon. The diode shows negative
For this reason, tunnel diode rectifiers are
resistance because increasing voltage produces
also called backward diodes. Using tunnel rec-
decreasing current.
tifiers, a rectifying transition at exactly zero
However, the low "back-
volts can be achieved.
ward" breakdown voltage (0.6 volts) and the
large leakage current, 1 mA. make this diode far
from perfect.

M. Gunn Diodes NEGATIVE

w 4.
RESISTANCE
ui
BE REGION
UI
Gunn diodes are named after their inventor, Q.

J.B. Gunn. They are used for generating micro-

5
<
wave radio signals at extremely high frequencies, <J 2-|
a
up to 35,000 MHz. In one respect they are com-
parable to a tunnel diode: their volt-ampere
characteristic includes a segment of its curve that
has negative resistance. By proper biasing the 50 100 150 200 250
Gunn diode can be made to oscillate or amplify.
DC VOLTS
Gunn diodes do not have a deliberate P-N
junction like other diodes and they make lousy Fig. 3-24 Volt-ampere characteristics for a Gunn
one way valves. They are simply a piece of N-type diode
gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor with two
wire leads attached.
As you can see. a typical Gunn diode is biased
Gunn volt-ampere characteristics with hundreds of volts, and large currents
(amperes) flow through it. It should not be sur-
When very high voltage (500 volts per of mm prising that Gunn diodes become very hot and
semiconductor) is applied across this particular frequently must be cooled with refrigeration
semiconductor, the conduction electrons gain a machinery to keep them from being destroyed by
great deal of energy and are "transferred" up to a high temperature. Over 100 watts of microwave
50
power can be generated by a Gunn diode, but
even with refrigeration it must be pulsed
mittantly to keep from burning it up.
There are still other diodes that are used to
generate microwaves. These include the IMPact
Avalanche and Transit Time (IMPATT) diodes,
and a number of devices made by combining
Gunn diodes and IMPATT diodes with Schottky
diodes. These devices are difficult to cover in
detail without a good background in microwave
circuits.
QUESTIONS:
7. Using a zener diode, design a DC voltage
inter- regulator which will supply 5 volts at 100
milliamperes. The average voltage from a
fullwave rectifier and low pass filter may
vary anywhere from 6 volts up to 10 volts
DC. Calculate the zener breakdown voltage,
the resistance of the voltage dropping re-
sistor, and the power dissipation of the
zener diode.
8. Compare varactor diodes with capacitors.
How must varactors be biased to behave as
capacitors in tuned circuits? How does the
capacitance change with voltage?

1. An equivalent circuit for a real silicon diode

(not a solar cell) is shown in Fig. 3-1. The cir- 9. What is the essential characteristic that a
cuit contains a battery and the text points device must have for use as a frequency
out that this "battery" cannot be used to multiplier? Have we studied any other de-
provide energy. Explain why not. Is there vices that may be used for this purpose?
energy stored in the "battery?" Looking
closely at the diagram in Fig. 3-1, what 10. How did PIN diodes get their name? What
other reason is there why the "battery" are two major uses for PIN diodes?
can't be used to provide current?

2. A stabistor is used in a clipper circuit to clip 11. How a Schottky barrier diode construc-
is
tion from conventional diodes?
different
off the peaks of a sine wave at about 4.2
volts. How many diode junctions are inside
What are its advantages over conventional
diodes?
this silicon stabistor?

3. What do stabistors, high voltage diode rec- 12. What do a zener diode and a tunnel diode
tifiers, and a panel of silicon solar cells (used have in common? What are the two most
to charge a battery) have in common? common uses for tunnel diodes?

4. In what ways are light emitting diodes

13. Why is a tunnel rectifier called a "backward
similar to silicon solar cells?
diode?" What are tunnel rectifiers good for?
5. High voltage silicon diodes are made from
strings of several diodes in series. Why is 14. What do tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes
this necessary? What does this do to the for- have in common? Suppose you were design-
ward offset voltage? ing a radar system and had to choose be-
tween using a Gunn diode and a tunnel diode
6. The zener breakdown voltage can be design- for an oscillator to provide microwave power

ed to fall anywhere in the range of zero to at 10,000 MHz. What are the relative advan-
200 volts. What parameter controls this? tages of one device over the other?

51
 SECTION IV
Transistors and Other
Electronic Control Devices

The British call vacuum tubes "valves", a 1. A perfect switch -Able to turn completely on
very good description of both tubes and tran- (zero resistance) and completely off (infinite
sistors. The purpose of both of these devices is to resistance).
enable a very small amount of electricity to con-
trol a very large amount of electricity.
2. Unlimited gain - An infinitesimal amount of

A water faucet is a good analogy to a tran- control electricity (voltage or current) should

sistor because the input signal only operates on turn the device all the way on or off.

the "handle." A person turning the handle has no

direct connection with the water pipes and water 3. Perfect linearity When used with negative
-

reservoir. The faucet can turn water full on, full feedback to produce a finite gain, the output
off or anywhere in between. In electronic control signals should be a proportional, perfect copy
devices, a small voltage or current takes the place of the input signals.
of the person turning the handle.

We started our discussion on diodes with the 4. Complete input-output isolation - The output
ideal diode. We said that ideal diodes don't exist must have no influence on the input signal

but available diodes can be used as if they were and the input signal should control the out-
ideal with good results. We also showed how the put signal in only the desired manner.
inherent "defects" in real diodes such as zener
breakdown and forward offset voltages can be 5. Infinitely fast switching and unlimited slew
used to advantage. We will use the idea of an rate - The device should be able to follow any
"ideal control device" as a standard of com- input signal of any frequency.
parison for real control devices.

6. Perfect current source or voltage source out-

A. The Ideal Control Device
put - This means that the gain of the device
will be constant and will not be effected by
The ideal control device, of course, does not
the voltage which happens to be across the
exist. Also, itsfunction would be more com-
output side of the device or the current that is
plicated than a diode and there would be disagree-
flowing through the device.
ment about the properties for such a "perfect"
device because the "defects" can also be useful.
Most experts would probably include the follow- These six characteristics are very abstract
ing features: and we will now explain them.
53
1. Perfect switching
obvious that if you want to turn a cur-
It is
rent off, you want
it completely off and not just
nearly off. The reasons for this are accuracy and
power dissipation. Suppose the current through a
device is supposed to represent some value, like
"miles per hour." It is inaccurate if the device
passes a current representing 3 miles per hour
when the car is standing still and the current
should be zero. Second, a leaking device wastes
energy and generates heat.
When the transistor or control device turns
on, it is desirable to have the "on" resistance as
The reasons are again ac-
close to zero as possible.
curacy and power dissipation. When turned on,
the device should have zero volts across it and
this can't happen unless the on resistance is zero.
The largest currents flow through the device
when it is turned "on" and any resistance that
the device may have will cause the device to heat
up as the voltage is dissipated across the re-
Fig. 4-1 A dam as an analogy for an electronic control device.
54
sistance. The less heat that is generated, the more
devices that can be packaged in a small space
without the semiconductor material overheating.
2. Gain
The device must be able to turn a large
voltage or current on and off in response to a very
small current or voltage. An analogy might be the
head gate on a dam across a large river. Since
there a great deal of mechanical advantage in
is
the machinery that opens the flood gates, a single
man can turn a very large river on and off just by
turning a head gate wheel. It would be more likely
that he would do this by flipping a switch in the
control room.
To make the analogy more like a transistor,
let'shave the head gate opened and closed by a
water wheel driven by a small brook sized ditch.
With such a mechanism a small flow of water, say
a few gallons per second can turn off and on
thousands of gallons of water flow per second.
a. Current gain finitevoltage gain and typically have gains of one
million or more. In caseyou are wondering, opera-
This the concept of gain or
illustrates tional amplifiers achieve this high gain by put-
amplification. A
few gallons of flow change in the ting several transistors in series so that one tran-
ditch makes thousands of gallons flow change in sistor turns on another, which turns on a third
the river. This would be a "water current gain" of and so on.
thousands. In the case of high gain transistors, a
few milliamperes of control current will typically In later chapters we will show that an ex-
cause 100 times as much current to flow through tremely high gain can be shunted with a negative
the transistor. The electrical current gain would feedback resistance to produce any lesser finite
be 100 in such a transistor. gain that might be needed as well as other advan-
tages. For now we will assume that all device
output current gains are some finite number, say from 1 to 1000
current gain = and that the output will equal the input times the
input control current
gain.

b. Voltage gain device output = control input X gain

3. Amplification
The gain of an electrical control device is not
always expressed as current gain. Some control
devices, such as vacuum tubes or field effect tran- We said earlier that the perfect switch should
be able to turn the current completely on or com-
sistors draw so little current on the control input,
pletely off. In many applications we need to have
that it is more appropriate to define the gain in
the valve perform as a variable resistor, i.e.,
terms of the voltage across the output divided by
"half-on." If your shower faucet had only the
the voltage on the input.
"on" and "off" positions, you would probably
stop taking showers. The ideal device should
output voltage
voltage gain = follow the control input perfectly.
input control voltage
In other words, the gain equation above
c. Power gain would always be true no matter what the input
was. Saying this another way, the gain would
Another kind of gain is power gain. Since always be constant and the equation above (out-
power = current times voltage, the power gain put = input X gain) would be a linear, first order
would be: equation.

output voltage X output current

power gain = — ; Beginners in electronics frequently have a
mput voltage X input current hang up about amplification. They picture ampli-
fication as a sort of signal enlargement process
These are the three commonly used kinds of comparable to inflating a balloon. The notion that
gain. It is important to specify which one you the original signal "gets bigger" interferes with
mean when talking about gain. Notice that volt- understanding how the amplifier works.
age gain or current gain can be very low (1 or even
less) and still yield a very high power gain. They understand that a small signal enters
the input of an amplifier and that a large signal
d. Operational amplifiers comes out. For some reason, they can't get it in
their heads that the output is not the original
How much gain would be ideal for a control signal. The little signal was not inflated by the
device? This is a philosophical question, but pro- amplifier. The input signal merely turns the flood
bably the best answer is that the gain should be gate on and off. If the fluctuations in the river
infinite. In our analogy this could be approx- flow happen to resemble the fluctuations in the
imated by having a raindrop fall on the water flow in the little control ditch, then the amplifier
wheel and turn on the river. is said to be linear and the output is said to have

low distortion. The original signal is dead and

This doesn't sound very practical, but opera- gone. Only the big representation emerges from
tional amplifiers are designed to approximate in- the output.
55
4. Input - output isolation Frequently, a fast computer can replace a
much more complicated, slow computer simply
The ideal control device should be well because it has time to perform calculations using
isolated between the control signal and the main a more tedious method. Suppose one computer
stream it is means that fluctua-
controlling. This uses 16 bit numbers but is very slow. A simple,
tions in the main stream should have no effect fast 4 bit computer may be able to do more work
whatever on the current in the control ditch. to the same precision, even though it must use
many more steps to work out the answers to 16
Imagine the chaos that might result if water bits.

splashing up from the river were to fall on the

water wheel or control ditch. The river might turn 6. Power dissipation
itself on or off with no regard for the small cur-
rent in the ditch. If turning the river on and off A second reason that high switching speed is
were to cause the splashing that was turning the important is power dissipation. When a switch is
river on and off, the oscillation would be self- full on (closed), it looks like a short circuit. That

perpetuating. is, its resistance is zero. The power dissipated in a

resistance in P = I
2
R.
This is a serious problem in real amplifiers,
especially high gain amplifiers. Capacitive coupl- So P = I
2
(0) = 0.

ing can cause positive feedback between the out-

put and the input and cause the amplifier to This means there is no heat and no power
oscillate by itself. dissipated, at least not in the switching device
itself When the switch is full off, its resistance is
An example of positive feedback occurs when infinite. Since current can't flow through infinite
a microphone is placed too near to the loud- resistance, the current is zero so,
speaker of a public address system and the
system whistles and howls. Like most problems, p = (0)2 (
oo )
= o.
feedback oscillation can be put to good use. Most
oscillators in radios, transmitters, and other cir- c. Heat
cuits are essentially amplifiers that amplify their
own outputs. Again, no power is dissipated. In between the
time that a control device is full on and full off, it
must be half on, right? This means that both R
5. High switching speed and slew rate
and I are finite and will produce a finite power— in
other words, heat.
If the circuit is being used as a switch, it is
The slower the switching time the longer the
desirable to have the device turn on or off instan- time interval when it dissipates power and the
taneously, as soon as the control signal appears more the device will heat up. If a transistor is
on the control wire. But, of course, none of the unable to get rid of the heat that is developed in-
real devices are able to do this. The switching side it, its temperature will rise until eventually it
delay is caused by the circuit as a whole just as fails.
much as it is by the characteristics of the device
Present transistor circuits need anywhere
itself.
Usually transistor failures are quite boring.
from one nanosecond to several microseconds to The transistor just stops working. When you test
switch. it out of the circuit with an ohm meter you often

find that all three leads have shorted together in-

a. Speed ternally. On rare occasions a transistor can fail so
suddenly due to overheating that it explodes and
Fast switching time is important for at least shoots its innards right out through its case.
three reasons. First, time is money. A computer
can only work as fast as its individual transistors Large transistors are physically better at
switch on and off. The length of time that it takes
conducting the heat away, so they are less likely
to do a calculation is literally the sum of all the to fail. However, as a rule, the larger the device,
necessary switching times and circuit delays in
the slower the switching speed, so this is a vicious
the computer.
circle with the bank account the loser.

56
 Finally, switching speed is important be-
cause high speed information can be lost or gar-
bled if the device is not able to keep up with the
input signal.
d. Slew rate
In analog amplifiers, which are supposed to
amplify a continuously varying signal, the equi-
valent parameter to switching speed is slew rate.
Suppose a HI-FI amplifier were amplifying a
Mozart concerto and during one particular in-
stant the input voltage changed from 0.1 volt to
0.2 volt in just 50 microseconds. If the voltage
gain were 100, the output would be expected to
swing from 10 volts up to 20 volts in 50 micro-
seconds too. This represents a slew rate of 0.2
volts per microsecond.
If the amplifier has a slew rate equal to or
better than this, the output will follow the input
and there be no loss of high frequency
will
sounds. If the slew rate is slower than needed to
keep up with the input, then the quick transitions
will be blurred or lost by the amplifier. The
amplifier performance will be "low fidelity."
If we are talking about a TV
fier, the picture will literally become blurry
amplifier is too slow. In an analog amplifier, the
control device looks like a variable
whenever the signal passing through
is
nearly always dissipating power.
6. Gain - bandwidth product
Since an ideal control device would be
finitely fast and would have
stands to reason that when gain is multiplied
times the highest frequency it can follow, the pro-
duct would be unlimited. In real devices there is
usually a trade-off between gain and high fre-
quency.
In other words, the higher the frequency you
try to feed into the control device, the less
amplification that comes out of it because it is
unable to keep up with the input. As the frequen-
cy is increased with any amplifier, eventually you
will reach a frequency at which the variations in
the output have no greater amplitude than the
variations in the input.
The observed current gain
multiplied times the operating frequency tends to
be a constant for a given amplifier or for the con-
trol devices that make up amplifiers. This num-
ber, the gain-bandwidth product, is a useful way
to rate amplifiersand compare their performance
at high frequencies. Basically, the gain-
bandwidth product equals that frequency at
which the gain is one.
For example, suppose that a given amplifier
is unable to increase the size of any signal which
has a frequency greater than 10,000,000 Hz. That
is, the gain-bandwidth product is 10,000,000. It
might very well be that at a frequency of
1,000,000 Hz that the gain is 10, since 10 times
1,000,000 is 10,000,000. However, you can't as-
sume that if the frequencyis 1 Hz, the gain will be
10,000,000, because real devices seldom have
gains that high.
7. Current source or voltage source outputs
a. Voltage source
The concepts of current sources and voltage
sources are very useful and important, but hard
picture ampli-
to become accustomed to. The voltage source is
if the
probably the easiest to visualize because it can be
thought of as an infinitely large battery. No mat-
resistor
ter how much current you draw from a perfect
it, so it is
voltage source, the voltage remains constant.
Suppose you had a "perfect" 12 volt voltage
source for a car battery. One cold January morn-
in- ing your neighbor asks you to help him start his
infinite gain, it car using jumper cables. With a perfect voltage
source you could not only start his car, you could
start every other car in the universe simulta-
neously. The perfect voltage source would main-
tain 12 volts across any resistance load, even zero
resistance.
Another way to look at this is that the perfect
battery would have zero internal resistance. Real
batteries always have a distributed resistance, R,
inside them. When a heavy load (a low resistance)
is placed across a real battery, there is always a
voltage drop across the internal battery resist-
ance. The battery becomes hot because the resist-
ance dissipates power. Real batteries act as
though they had a perfect voltage source inside
or voltage gain them, but the voltage source can never be sepa-
rated away from the internal resistance.
cw
 problem passing a certain current through zero
resistance loads. Their departure from ideal
occurs with very high resistance loads.
RL =
A SHORT CIRCUIT
WOULD PRODUCE An arc welding machine is an example of an
INFINITE attempt to build a current source. In order to
CURRENT. make a neat and uniform weld, the current which
melts the steel needs to be constant. As the
I = welding rod scratches along the metal, the re-
sistance varies widely so the voltage must fluc-
tuate wildly to try to keep the current constant.
A PERFECT VOLTAGE SOURCE Obviously, if the welding rod is too far from the
metal, there will not be enough voltage to make
an arc jump to the metal. In this case the welding
RL = machine will be unable to produce a constant cur-
WHEN YOU SHORT rent.
A REAL BATTERY,
THE SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT IS LIMITED Notice that if you had a perfect current
BY THE BATTERY source it would be very easy to make a good, but
RESISTANCE, R. not perfect, voltage source. If the output current
THE RESISTANCE, R,
BECOMES VERY from a current source is pushed through a resis-
HOT. tor, a fixed voltage will appear across that re-
sistor in accordance with Ohm's law. If the re-
sistor has a very low resistance, then the voltage
A REAL BATTERY
source you have made will have a very low inter-
nal resistance.
Fig. 4-2 A perfect voltage source compared to a
battery. Ideal current source volt-ampere charac-
teristics

b. Current sources A volt-ampere characteristic for an ideal cur-

rent source is shown in Fig. 4-3. Notice that no

Current sources are ideal devices that will matter what the voltage is, the current remains
push a constant current through any load. Real constant. We are discussing all this because elec-
devices that try to mimic current sources have no tronic control devices usually have outputs that

+ 1

'cs

FIXED CURRENT LEVEL

TOTALLY INDEPENDENT
OF VOLTAGE
CURRENT
-V +V SOURCE
SYMBOL

-I

Fig. 4-3 The volt-ampere characteristic for an

ideal current source.
58
behave like current sources. This means that for a
given level of control voltage or control current
input, the current passing through the output
side of the device is proportional to the input cur-
rent and tends to be unrelated to the voltage
across the output circuit as a whole.
Having the output behave
of a control device
like a current source is desirable because this
means that the current output of an amplifier will
be independant of variations in the power supply.
For example, suppose there were 120 Hz ripple on
the DC power supply driving an amplifier. If the
output were a perfect current source, the output
current would contain no 120 Hz component at all
even though the voltage that causes the current
to flow is full of 120 Hz ripple!
Having the output of a control device
like a voltage source is also useful. This property
would insure that the voltage across the device
output would only be related to the control volt-
age or current input. This would make the output
voltage independent of supply voltage or a chang-
ing load. No single control device can do this but
operational amplifiers, which are a complex
cuit made from several transistors, can be wired
to achieve this.
Let's apply the idea of current sources to our
dam analogy. The output sides of real control
devices are wired in series with a power supply
which is analogous to the river or a reservoir. The
control device allows fixed amounts of current to
flow as determined by the control voltage or cur-
V
'out
>
CONTROL
CURRENT
I.N
BASE
\
Rbase
© l0UT
'J
>
Fig. 4-4 A simple circuit model for a transistor.
rent. In normal conditions the amount of water
coming through the dam is dictated by the
operator controlling the flood gate. The water
flow is not directly controlled by the amount of
water behind the dam. Obviously if there is a
drought and the reservoir is nearly empty, open-
ing the flood gates will not produce very much
water flow.
B. The Basic Transistor Amplifier
Bipolar transistors have a large current gain
which is called beta, the Greek letter (i. The out-
put current equals the control current times the
gain, beta.
I
out = w
The voltage which causes the output current
behave to flow must be supplied with an external power
supply. A
load resistor, Rl, is inserted between
the power supply and the transistor. Since the
current passing through the resistor is generated
by a current source, the voltage across the re-
sistor is a good voltage source. The voltage across
the resistor is also proportional to the input con-
cir- trol current.
The voltage across the load resistor makes a
convenient output for many applications. For ex-
ample, the voltage across the resistor could be
wired to the deflection plates of a cathode ray
tube in an oscilloscope. The voltage changes in
response to the control current and steers the
electron beam across the face of the oscilloscope
screen to display waveforms.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE SOURCE
Rload
ACROSS RESISTOR Vcc
POWER
SUPPLY
COLLECTOR
EMITTER
= l|
N ft
59
 In a stereo amplifier the load resistor would
be replaced with the loudspeaker itself. The
voltage across the loudspeaker and the current
through it provides the power needed to create
the sound.
Notice that the power supply voltage must
equal the sum of the voltage across the load plus
the voltage across the transistor.
Vpower supply = ^ load resistance
Since the power supply voltage never varies,
the voltage across the transistoris high when the
voltage across the load low and vice versa. It is
is
quite common to use the output voltage across
the transistor rather than the voltage across the
load resistor and we will cover these possibilities
in a later section.
all, if we had plotted infinite gain, the
First of
curve(s)would be off the graph, so a finite current
gain of 100 is assumed. To illustrate the control
that the input current has over the output, sev-
eral samples of volt-ampere curves are drawn to
show how they change with different levels of in-
put current.
A collection of representative curves like this
is called a family. Whether to have the family of
+ ^transistor curves extend into the negative area at the lower
left (—V and —I) is optional. Most real devices
have families in either the positive or negative
areas, but not both. They are usually turned off or
damaged by operation in the opposite polarity.
D. Vacuum Tubes
Triode tubes

C. The Ideal Transistor Volt-Ampere Character- We will mention vacuum tubes just in case
istic you ever have to fix an ancient radio. The triode
A volt-ampere characteristic for a hypothet- vacuum tube is constructed just like a vacuum

ical ideal control device is plotted in Fig. 4-5. To tube diode except that a sieve-like control grid is
understand it will require some explanation. placed between the plate and the cathode. The

+ 'out

OUTPUT
CURRENT
mA
600 6 mA ^
500 5 mA /

in
GAIN = 100 400 4 mA EQUALLY
"OUT = (100) l,
N .SPACED
300 3 mA i
'LEVELS OF
CONTROL
200 2 mA CURRENT

100 1 mA \

-V mA J
+V
-1 .100

-2. ^200
llN
-3_ _300
NEGATIVE .

CONTROL
CURRENT -4 ^400

-5. 500
r

-6. h 600

-I

Fig. 4-5 Hypothetical volt-ampere characteristic for an ideal control device. For many applications per-
formance in both the positive quadrant 1+ V and +1) and the negative quadrant (— V and —I) would not
be desirable. Therefore, the negative family of characteristics is shown dashed.
60
main current stream of electrons can be control- Pentode tubes
ledby placing small voltages on the grid which
can either turn off the stream or let it through.
Although there is a small control grid current, the However, pentode vacuum tubes have two
control variable is primarily voltage. A few volts more control grids and when they are biased with
change on the grid makes a very large change in the proper DC voltages, the pentode vacuum tube
the electron stream and turns the tube on or off. volt-ampere characteristics are very close to the
Triode vacuum vacuum tubes have very non- positive half of the ideal curves in Fig. 4-5. As we
ideal families of volt-ampere curves that do not shall see, the pentode vacuum tube behaves very
resemble either current sources or voltage much like an N-P-N bipolar transistor and the
sources. Instead, the family of curves
triode N-channel field effect transistor is even closer to
resembles a collection of ordinary resistors. the pentode vacuum tube.

r~N

Fig. 4-6 An assortment of vacuum tubes

61
 Modern vacuum tubes the action of transferring current through or
across a resistor. The idea was that the transistor
Vacuum tubes have practically disappeared isa sort of resistor that can vary its resistance to
from avionics made in the free world, but they are control the current flowing through it.
still used in very high power broadcast transmit-

ters. Vacuum tubes which operate on somewhat

The most common type of transistor is based
different principles, klystrons, magnetrons, and on a triple layer semiconductor structure, either
traveling wave tubes are still used in radar and N-P-N or P-N-P. Like a P-N junction diode, the
microwave systems. function of these transistors depends on both
kinds of current carriers, holes and electrons.
The Russians have continued to develop Because of the interaction of these two pathways
vacuum tubes while the Western world has gone or "poles," these transistors are called bipolar
to semiconductors. Modern Russian avionics are
transistors. Field effect transistors only involve
full of highly miniaturized vacuum tubes and the
one kind of carrier, either holes or electrons. Con-
performance is not very different from western are
sequently field effect transistors called
designs made with discrete transistors. However,
unipolar transistors.
integrated circuits can not be built with vacuum
tubes so the future of this technology is severely
limited.
The used the point contact
first transistors
principle which resembled the cat whisker diodes
E. The Transistor which served as detectors in crystal set radios.
Point contact transistors worked quite well but
The transistor is a direct descendent of the were unreliable and were quickly replaced by P-N
semiconductor diode, and was invented by Shock- junction bipolar transistors. Today P-N junction
ley, Bardeen, and Brattain at Bell Laboratories in transistors are slowly being replaced by field ef-
1947. The word transistor was supposed to imply fect transistors of various types.

Fig. 4-7 An assortment of transistors

62
 Josephson junction device emitter. If you put a small control current into
the base, has to come out somewhere. In normal
it
In the not too distant future, the Josephson circuit circumstances, the base current joins the
junction device may start replacing both of these collector-to-emitter current and comes out the
transistors for switching circuits in computers. emitter.
This is a very high speed transistor that operates
at extremely low temperatures. The complexity COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
of operating a circuit at near absolute zero,
lc
(—425° F) is offset by the advantages of very low
power consumption and extremely fast switch-
ing.
BASE BASE —
t"
/

3 \

these devices consume so little

Because :> EMITTER EMITTER
power, very high densities of computer circuitry 4

can be crammed into far less space than today's

room temperature integrated circuits. Because COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
they are so small, signals take less time to travel BASE
through them and calculations can be made more (N-P-N) BASE Y (P-N-P)

rapidly. It is inevitable that aircraft and

spacecraft will be among the first applications for EMITTER EMITTER
these super compact computers. The avionics
technician may have more problem keeping Fig. 4-8 N-P-N and P-N-P transistors and their
the
circuit symbols.
refrigeration equipment working than the com-
puter! Just as in diodes, whenever you are trying to
figure out which direction a current will flow
F. Bipolar Transistors through a transistor, just remember that the cur-
rent will flow from the more positive voltage
The bipolar transistor is a three layered down to the less positive voltage and that posi-
device in which the outer layers are one type of tive charge will always flow in the direction of the
semiconductor, either N or P, and the center layer arrow. Remember that positive to P conducts!
is the opposite type, P or N respectively.
G. How to Turn Off A Transistor
The outer layers of this sandwich are called
the emitter and the collector. In most applica- Let's start by turning off an N-P-N tran-
tions the output circuit path that we wish to con- sistor.To turn the transistor off it is only
trol is from the emitter to the collector. The necessary to make the voltage between the emit-
center layer, the base, is the control element that ter and base zero so that there will be no voltage
turns the main stream current on and off. This is to drive a control current into the base. This can
done by injecting electrons into the center layer be done by connecting the base to the emitter
or pulling them out, depending on whether the which insures that these two leads will have a
transistor is P-N-P or N-P-N, respectively. voltage difference of zero.

Before we explain this in detail, a lot can be
learned about these two different transistors just
by memorizing the circuit symbols. Note the
family resemblance to diodes in the barrier bar
and the arrowhead.
In the N-P-N configuration the arrowhead
points away from the barrier line. This arrowhead
indicates the direction of movement of positive
charge through the transistor. Primarily it shows
the direction of positive charge moving between
the collector and the emitter. It also shows the
direction of movement of charge from the base to
63
Since the base and emitter layers are wired
together, the emitter N layer is bypassed and the
circuit becomes equivalent to a back-biased P-N
diode. In other words, the transistor is turned off
because the N layer of a P-N diode faces the
positive end of the battery.
Because the transistor has a high gain, it is
not necessary to keep the base directly connected
to ground to keep it turned off. Connecting the
base to the emitter with even a very high resist-
ance, such as 100,000 ohms is often enough to
keep the transistor turned off.
 Rb

Fig. 4-9 Turning off an N-P-N transistor

H. How to Turn On A Transistor

Although the following configuration is

unusual, the transistor can be turned on by sim-
ply connecting the collector to the base. If this is
done the collector layer is bypassed and the tran- Vcc
sistor becomes a forward biased P-N diode. Since
only a small current is needed to turn on the tran-
sistor, a very high resistance, say 10,000 ohms,
may be enough to bypass the collector.
Fig. 4-11 Turning an N-P-N transistor on and
unusual for the control current to come
It is off
from the collector. Normally the current would
to emitter resistor were left out, the transistor
come from some other circuit, such as the sep-
would tend to stay on after the base current, lb,
arate battery and switch shown in Fig. 4-11.
was switched off.
Switch circuit The transistor is not only an ON and OFF
switch, it is also an electricity faucet with a wide
The switch circuit in Fig. 4-1 1 needs two base range of current control. The size of the collector
resistors.The one in series with the battery, Vt,, to emitter cuirent equals the gain of the tran-
limits the base current to a small value. The se- sistor times the base current, within practical
cond resistor connects the base to the emitter limits. Fig. 4-12 shows the family of volt-ampere
when the transistor is to be turned off. If the base characteristics for a real N-P-N transistor.

Rl

Fig. 4-10 Turning on an N-P-N transistor

64
 TYPICAL COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTICS
between the collector and emitter, V ce can be ,

TYPE 2N1479
50
significant even though the transistor is turned
40
CASE TEMPERATURE = 25° C full ON. This limitation is seen as the gap be-
1
30
tween the vertical current axis, (where V ce = 0)
JO and the family of plotted curves.
BASE MILLIAMPERES = 15

P-N-P Transistor
J 0.4 1
— 1

!—
!

10

-4
"> Now we will look at a P-N-P transistor. It is
4
•

3 / virtually the same as the N-P-N except that all

;
i

the polarities are now reversed.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

COLLECTOR TO EMITTER VOLTS In other words, the P-N-P transistor operates

in the negative voltage, negative current quad-
Fig. 4-12 Family of curves for the 2N1479 N-P-N
silicon transistor.
rant. It is usually destroyed when one attempts
to operate it in the positive voltage, positive cur-
Collector current rent quadrant. Positive to P conducts, so the col-
lector to base junction becomes forward biased
Notice how constant the collector current is and the base to emitter junction is not designed
for each value of base current. The collector cur- to withstand high reverse voltage.
rent almost independent of the voltage across
is

V ce For each of the base currents

the transistor, .

A family of P-N-P characteristic curves is

shown, to 50 mA, the transistor varies its resis-
seen in Fig. 4-14. It closely resembles the ne-
tance so that it will act like a current source.
gative half of our ideal control device char-
Equal increments in base current produce pro-
acteristic shown in Fig. 4-5.
portional changes in collector current; that is,

Ic sfHb. It may occur to you that if one could combine

the characteristics of an N-P-N transistor with
However, at high collector currents much those of a P-N-P transistor, you would closely ap-
more base current is needed to produce the same proach our "ideal" family of curves. This is in-
change. This means that (1 decreases at high cur-
deed done as we shall see in Section 7. Using the
rent levels and that real transistors are not
two kinds of transistors together is called a com-
perfectly linear.
plementary transistor amplifier and makes a very
efficient and low cost Hi-Fi amplifier.
The transistor cannot be turned on until the
voltage between the base and emitter at least ex- Earlier it was said that, except for the
ceeds the forward offset voltage of the base to P-N-P transistors were virtually the
polarities,
emitter junction, about 0.6 volts for a silicon tran- same as N-P-N transistors. For technical reasons
sistor. When the transistor is passing very high high speed, high power P-N-P transistors are
currents from collector to emitter, the voltage much harder to manufacture than equivalent

V CC
COLLECTOR
BASE

EMITTER

Fig. 4-13 The P-N-P transistor

65
 TYPICAL COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTICS How far this diffusion spreads into X and P
TYPE 2N2148 regions depends on how much current is flowing
COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT BASE INPUT
MOUNTING FLANGE TEMPERATURE = 25° C through the diode. The more forward current, the
wider this region of displaced minority carriers
becomes. If the base is made very thin, the
minority carriers can diffuse all the way across
BOUNDARY OF the base and "convert" the base layer to the same
g -4 "RECOMMENDED OPERATING" semiconductor type as the emitter and collector.
s 25 ^^ REGION.
O -2
Conversion of the base

-10 -15 -20 -25 -30 For example, to turn on an X-P-X transistor,
COLLECTOR TOEMITTER VOLTS a positive voltage is applied to the base so that

Fig. 4-14 The family of curves for the P-N-P the base to emitter junction will be forward bias-
2X2148 germanium transistor. (It is customary to ed. (Positive toP conducts.) Since a positive cur-
plot families of curves for P-N-P transistors with rent flowing from base to emitter, this is the
is

negative values upuard and to the right.) same as saying that electrons are flowing from
the emitter X material into the holes in the base P
N-P-N transistors. Consequently, the output region. The holes in the P region valence band are
stages of powerful amplifiers are nearly always quickly filled in with electrons.
N-P-N transistors.
As the emitter to base electron flow in-
/. Why Transistors Have Gain
creases, conduction band electrons from the emit-
ter begin to diffuse into the base P region conduc-
The way we described base currents bypass- tion band. are flowing in the P
Once electrons
ing the emitter or collector layers it must appear region conduction band, the P region is so nar-
to you that transistors can be made out of two row, it is easy for conduction band electrons to
P-X diodes wired back to back. Such a transistor diffuse all the way across the base without falling
would have no voltage or current gain and would into a hole: that is, without falling down into the
have little practical use. The transistor is useful valence energy band. These conduction band elec-
primarily because a small base current can turn trons can cross right over into the type X collec-
on a large collector to emitter current. tor where there is a large positive voltage to at-
tract them. And, since they are already in the con-
Transistor gain results because the base layer duction band, there is no energy cliff that they
is very thin, typically 5 to 25fi meters thick must climb to enter the collector.
(0.0002 to 0.001 inches). The idea is that a small
current into or out of the base can temporarily
convert the base layer into a material that is elec-
To summarize, this conversion in the base
region occurs only because the base is very thin.
trically similar to the collector and emitter. When
all three layers are electrically the same, either
As the base is made thicker and thicker, it takes
X-type or P-type, the resistance from collector to
more and more base current to diffuse minority

emitter will be quite low and the transistor will

carriers all the way across the base.
If the base
region were thick enough, there would be no sig-
turn on.
nificant difference between the transistor and two
diodes wired back to back. In other words, the
Carrier Diffusion
collector current would be no bigger than the base
In Section 2 we said that when a diode is for- current, so there would be no gain.
ward biased there is diffusion of minority carriers

in both directions across the junction. Base layer

In other words, holes diffuse from the P side, Now let's turn the N-P-N transistor off again.
where they are a majority, over into the X side This is done by putting a voltage on the base that
where they are a minority. Also, conduction band is negative with respect to the emitter. This back-

electrons diffuse from the N side, where they are a biases the base-to-emitter junction and stops the
majority, over into the P side where they are a flow of electrons into the base valence band. It
minority also stops the diffusion of electrons into the base
66
conduction band. As soon as the region of conduc- they are interchangeable. They are not. First, if

tion band electrons becomes narrower than the the emitter and collector are reversed, the gain
width of the base, the base will again be acting will be very low.
like aP-type semiconductor and the collector-to-
base junction will be back biased. Second, the true emitter-to-base junction is
small and could be easily damaged by heat. Tran-
The thinner the base layer is, the more sen- sistors are usually made so that the collector-to-
being overrun by conduction band
sitive it is to base junction is much larger than the base-to-
electrons from the emitter and the more current emitter junction. A small emitter is usually sur-
gain the transistor will have. Very thin base rounded by the base layer. The base, in turn, is
layers also enable the transistor to switch very usually surrounded by a large collector.
fast because relatively few electrons have to be
drawn into the base to turn on the transistor. The idea is that when minority carriers dif-
fuse across the base, a very large base-to-collector
On the other hand, very thin base layers are junction will give them plenty of opportunity to
more easily broken down by excess collector volt- enter the collector on their way toward the base.
age and damaged by heat. As a result, it is very The emitter is usually more doped than the collec-
difficult to build high speed, high voltage, high tor to provide lots of minority carriers to the
power transistors. base. However, this makes the base-emitter re-
verse breakdown voltage very low. Remember
As a rule, fast power transistors get around how extra doping lowered the zener breakdown
this to a degree by printing hundreds of small, voltage in zener diodes? Some examples of tran-
high speed transistors in parallel on the same sistor construction are shown in Fig. 4-18.
silicon sub strate. As seen through the magnify-
ing glass, these transistors resemble a comb
Alpha
where each of the "tines" represents dozens of
low power transistors lined up along side each
Transistor gain is directly related to the effi-
other.
ciency with which the collector "collects" current
Emitter "emitted" by the emitter. When current leaves
the emitter and enters the base region, as much as
Since the collector and emitter are the same possible should go to the collector. The fraction of
kind of semiconductor, you may have wondered if the total emitter current going to the collector is

ONCE THE BASE TO

EMITTER JUNCTION
HAS BEEN FORWARD
N BIASED, MOST
HIGH + ELECTRONS FLOW
Rl-
IE = »B + lc
VOLTAGE INTO THE COLLECTOR
ON COLLECTOR BECAUSE THEY ARE
ATTRACTED BY THE
HIGH POSITIVE VOLTAGE

tyyfc
SMALL
BASE- -^~ VB
VOLTAGE Vcc
COLLECTOR
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE

Fig. 4-15 A bipolar transistor has gain because

the base layer is very thin.

67
called alpha, the Greek letter a. Alpha generally This transistor is quite linear and the transfer
ranges between 0.90 and 0.99 which means that curve is quite close to being a straight line. Conse-
90 to 99 percent of the emitter current passes into quently, this particular transistor is recommend-
the collector. Alpha is directly related to the cur- ed for low distortion audio power amplifiers.
rent gain, beta.
TYPICAL TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC
TYPE 2N2148
COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT, BASE INPUT
MOUNTING FLANGE TEMPERATURE (T M f)
= 25° C
a = COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTS (V C e) = -2
£ -5
w
HI
OL-
ID -4
and ft
= Ql

lb s
<
<r -3
Substituting the expression for alpha into the
O
H-
O
expression for beta gives, LU
-2
o
u
-1
P=l-a
-10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
BASE MILLIAMPERES(Ib)

Beta or hfe Fig. 4-16 Transfer characteristic for the 2N2148

transistor

Sometimes the term "hfe " is used instead of J. Transistor Input Characteristics
beta. For most practical purposes hfe is the same
thing as ft, but it is defined for a particular We have talked about families of volt-ampere
collector-to-emitter voltage. characteristics for the transistor from the point
of view of the collector-to-emitter voltage and cur-
hfe is one of four "h-parameters" that are rent. We have not discussed the volt-ampere char-
often given for a transistor to help engineers acteristic of the base-to-emitter junction. Since
design circuits. With the four standard h para- this is just a P-N junction diode, the base-to-
meters, the engineer can draw a relatively simple emitter characteristic looks like a diode.
equivalent circuit for a particular transistor that
will allow him to calculate how the transistor will TYPICAL BASE CHARACTERISTIC
behave in a particular circuit. The equivalent cir- TYPE 2N2148
cuit is similar to Fig. 4-4, but includes the effect COMMON EMMITTER CIRCUIT, BASE INPUT
the output has on the input and the resistance of MOUNTING FLANGE TEMPERATURE = 25° C
COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTS = -2
the collector to emitter pathway. -50

Transfer characteristics LU -40

QC
LU
Q.
5 -30
The relationship between the base current
<
and the collector current is called the transfer ,_i
_i -20
characteristic. It can be approximated by the 2
LU
equation, I c = ft lb or given as a graph. Real tran- U3 -10
<
and the transfer
sistors are not perfectly linear m
characteristic cannot be expressed by a simple
-0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8
linear equation.
BASE-TO-EMITTER VOLTS

A transfer characteristic for the P-N-P ger- Fig. 4-17 Base characteristic for the 2N2148
manium 2N2148 transistor is shown in Fig. 4-16. transistor
68
 Because the 2N2148 is a germanium transis- 4. Collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage
tor, its base-to-emitter junction requires at least
0.2 volts to be turned on. By dividing the plotted There is a limit to how much voltage can be
voltage by the resulting base current, you can placed across the collector to emitter without
show that the forward resistance of this diode breaking down the collector-to-base junction.
junction ranges from about 32 ohms down to This is called the collector-to-emitter breakdown
about 11 ohms. voltage, BV ce There are three theoretical
.

mechanisms explaining why the transistor can

break down between collector and emitter.
K. Limitations in Transistor Performance

One is a zener breakdown of the collector-to-

1. Collector cutoff current base Another is called avalanche
junction.
multiplication. A
few electrons penetrating the
Since the transistor is closely related to the
P-N barrier can ionize the semiconductor. Once an
ionized path is formed, an "avalanche" of elec-
P-N junction diode, it has many of the same limi-
trons will follow.
tations. For example, when the transistor is turn-
ed off, a leakage current, called the collector
The third mechanism is called reach through.
cutoff current, I co still flows. It is analogous to
,

the leakage current that flows through a back

The idea is that the base is so thin that a large col-
lector voltage can directly act on the emitter and
biased diode and is in the range of 0.1 to 100
attract electrons (or holes) across the base.
microamperes. This leakage current results pri-
marily from the hole-electron pairs generated by
heat. So, if having a small leakage current is im-
Turn back to Fig. 4-12 and you will see that
for 1and 2 mA of base current, the collector cur-
portant, the transistor must be kept cool.
rent rises sharply as the collector voltage ap-
proaches 65 volts. The junction breakdown is oc-
2. Saturation voltage curing at 65 volts, and if very much current is
allowed to flow through the transistor, it will
Another limit in transistor performance is overheat and be destroyed.
the saturation voltage. When additional increases
in base current no longer produce further in- Small transistors generally have breakdown
creases in collector current, the transistor is said voltages in the range of 20 to 60 volts while large,
to be "saturated." This means that the transistor modern power transistors can have breakdown
is turned "on" as much as it can be turned on. voltages as high as 900 volts. The collector-to-
base breakdown voltage (called BV c b) is usually
measured between the collector and base with the
Real bipolar transistors have a significant emitter left unconnected. The breakdown voltage
collector to emitter voltage when turned full on between the collector and emitter, BV ce is usual- ,

and this is called the saturation voltage, V ce (sat). ly less than from collector to base because of the
For large silicon power transistors passing pulses reach through phenomenon.
of several amperes, the saturation voltage can be
30 volts or more. With a small germanium trans- 5. Power dissipation
istor, the saturation voltage can approach 0.2
volts for low currents. In Fig. 4-12, the family of curves is not plot-
ted over the entire area of the graph because the
transistor is likely to fail if it is operated off the
3. Maximum continuous collector current
curves shown for it. In Fig. 4-14 a dashed line is
shown around the family of characteristics to
Since there is a minimum collector to emitter show the boundary of the safe operating area.
voltage, the saturation voltage, there must be a
maximum collector current that can be permitted If you multiply the collector voltage, V ce ,

to flowcontinuously through the transistor times the collector current, I c at various points
,

without overheating it. This is called the max- all around that boundary you will find that the
,

imum continuous collector current and is com- power that results is roughly constant (V ce )(I c = )

parable to the maximum current rating of a diode. 50 watts. This is the maximum power that the
69
transistor can dissipate without overheating. In the grown type, the semiconductor crystal
This power can be anywhere from 35 milliwatts isformed by slowly pulling a crystal of semicon-
for an early 1958 germanium transistor to well ductor out of a pot of molten silicon or ger-
over 100 watts for a modern silicon power tran- manium. The N and P regions are created by add-
sistor. This maximum power is less if the oper- ing impurities during the crystalline growth pro-
ating temperature is high and greater if the tran- cess.
sistor is operated in a low temperature environ-
ment. The power dissipation of a transistor can 2. Alloy or fused construction
also be increased by bolting it to a large metal
heat sink. The alloy type is also called fused construc-
tion. This process starts with a thin wafer of
Modern transistor curves doped semiconductor which will later become the
base layer. Small "dots" of impurity for making
the collector and emitter are placed on either side
Fifteen years ago manufacturer's specifica-
of the wafer. The assembly is then heated until
tions nearly always included the collector-to-
the impurity melts, but the base layer does not
emitter, volt-ampere characteristics family and
melt. The impurity diffuses into the wafer until
sometimes a plot of the transfer and base volt-
there is only a tiny barrier of base material left in
ampere characteristics were given. Today the
the center.
transistors and the designers have become more
sophisticated and these curves are rarely seen in
The impurity converts regions of the base
specifications. Instead there are usually a variety
semiconductor to semiconductor of the opposite
of tables and curves that describe the transistor
type. The collector area is made much larger than
performance for the particular job the transistor
the emitter. This is done to encourage as much
was designed to do.
emitter current as possible to go to the collector
to insure high gain.
For example, switching transistors have
graphs of time needed to turn on and turn off the
3. Diffusion construction
transistor versus the collector current that is be-
ing switched. They also have graphs of the capac-
In the diffusion process one side of a semicon-
itance of the P-N junctions versus the reverse
ductor wafer is subjected to a gas containing N or
voltage bias across them. Junction capacitance is
P impurities which convert the surface of the
important because the transistor can't switch un-
semiconductor to N or P semiconductor. Using
til the charge stored in the capacitance is dis-
masks, which are something like photographic ne-
charged.
gatives, the diffusion is limited to certain areas of
the wafer.
If the transistor is intended as a radio fre-
quency amplifier, then curves are given for signal
By successive diffusions and masking, a
gain versus frequency, maximum gain versus fre-
three layer transistor can be diffused into the
quency, and transistor noise (noise figure) versus
semiconductor substrate. The surface of this
frequency and collector current. If the transistor
wafer is sealed with silicon dioxide which is glass.
is intended as an audio amplifier, curves are given
Using masks, aluminum is deposited on the ap-
for output power versus distortion. There are
propriate places to attach the leads. Since most
dozens of specialized kinds of bipolar transistors
operations are on the surface of a plane, these are
and each is described differently.
called planar transistors.

L. Transistor Fabrication
4. Epitaxial construction

1. Grown construction
The epitaxial growth process involves grow-
ing silicon crystaline layers on a substrate. A
Transistors are often named according to the wafer of silicon is placed in an oven and exposed
methods used to make them. There are four basic to a mixture of silicon tetrachloride gas and a gas
techniques for manufacturing transistors, diodes, containing the needed N or P impurity. The sil-
and other semiconductor devices. These methods icon tetrachloride breaks down in the heat and
are grown, alloy, diffusion, and epitaxial free silicon atoms are deposited on the crystal
substrate in a thin layer. The process resembles Fig. 4-18 illustrates the four fabrication
the way snow flakes grow in clouds by adding methods. The diffused planar epitaxial transistor
new water molecules to existing ice crystals. In is the newest and most complex technique. The
the same way that snow can trap smog particles, P+ and N+ regions are areas where the semicon-
N and P impurities can be trapped in the silicon ductor is very heavily doped with impurity. The
crystal in the desired concentrations. N+ regions are added because the aluminum con-
tact metal has a valence of +3 (3 holes) and tends
After the epitaxial process, the epitaxial to make P-N junction diodes wherever it touches
layer ismasked and diffused using the diffusion N material.
process. The planar diffusion and epitaxial pro-
cess are the basic technology for producing in- The P+ regions are diffused around the tran-
tegrated circuits where arrays of components are sistor to isolateit from other transistors which

diffused and deposited onto a single sheet of might be on the same chip. The idea is that the
silicon. P+ to N junction makes a permanent back biased
diode which prevents one transistor from interfer-
ing with another. If the transistor were discrete,
1 mm i.e., alone on the silicon chip, the P-l- regions
would not be needed.
C

1 Several of these fabrication methods can be

combined to produce diffused alloy devices, alloy-
emitter-epitaxial-base transistors, and so on. All
N
these methods produce transistors that perform
3 mm P 25 ^m
equally well at low frequencies and low voltages.
N
t The usual reason for exotic fabrication processes
is to improve high frequency performance and
high voltage ratings.
T ALLOY TRANSISTOR

M. Testing Transistors
GROWN TRANSISTOR
EO OB GLASS Transistors can fail and you need methods to
SI0 2
test them, both in and out of the circuit. If the
transistor is out of the circuit, lying free in your
hand, there are three basic ways to test it. 95% of
5 ^m;
the time you simply need a crude check to see if
ALUMINUM the transistor still has its two P-N junctions in-
METAL
tact. This is easily done with an ordinary ohm
meter.

DIFFUSED PLANAR TRANSISTOR

1. Ohm meter
T
c

Set the ohm meter to a high ohms range and

attach one test lead the base. Attach the other
///// lead to first the emitter and then the collector. If
|n+| N+ 1n+| > EPITAXIAL
1 1

VGROWN the P-N junctions are forward biased by this, you

p+ P+
LAYER will see a relatively low resistance indicated,
N-EPITAXIAL J
somewhere between 10 and 100 ohms. Now, re-
P-SUBSTRATE
verse the leads and if the two P-N junctions are
DIFFUSED PLANAR EPITAXIAL TRANSISTOR back biased, they should show a very high resist-
SUITABLE FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ance, at least 100,000 ohms or more. If the tran-
sistor has a serious defect, one or both of the two
Fig. 4-18 Transistor fabrication techniques junctions will have lost its diode characteristics.

71
 In small transistors the emitter wire is often
marked with a tiny metal flange that protrudes
from the case or a flat spot in the side of a plastic
case. In many transistors the leads are labeled
with the letters E, B, and C. If you still aren't
sure which lead is which, you will have to look
them up in the manufacturer's specifications.

2. Transistor curve tracer

A better way to test a transistor out of the

circuit is to use a transistor curve tracer. This in-
strument resembles an oscilloscope. It plots volt-
ampere characteristics on its screen and can be
used to measure other parameters such as break-
down voltages and switching speed. The data ob-
tained can be compared with the manufacturer's
specifications for the transistor. Some curve
tracers, such as the one in Fig. 4-21 can store the
characteristic curve for a transistor known to be
good so that it can be directly compared with the
transistor being tested.

Testing transistors out of the circuit is like

testing pilots out of an airplane. You can give

pilots written and oral exams and put them
through simulators, but you are never completely
Fig. 4-19 Testing transistors with an ohm meter certain of their performance until they fly the
airplane.
Identifying Leads
Curve tracers are rarely used in avionic repair
Transistors are mounted in a variety of cases shops. They are not only expensive, $5000, they
and it is often difficult to figure out which of the do not specifically test whether or not the tran-
three leads is the base. Some transistors have sistor will work in a particular circuit. The best
metal cases or metal tabs which serve as heat way to test a transistor is to substitute it into a
sinks. These metal tabs are usually connected working piece of equipment which is identical to
directly to the collector and in large power tran- the equipment in which you plan to use the tran-
sistors the metal case is the only collector connec- sistor.
tion.

METAL CASE
JS COLLECTOR
C

EMITTER
£_FLAT SPOT FLAT SPOT
. EMITTER SHOWS EMITTER
TAB

Fig. 4-20 Identifying transistor leads

72
 failby the failure of some other part in the circuit,
so don't assume that replacing a defective tran-
sistor is the end of your problem.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is a transistor or a vacuum tube sup-

posed to do? What properties would be
desirable for a bipolar transistor?

2. Why isn't amplifying an electronic signal

comparable to inflating a balloon?

3. What are the three kinds of gain? If the cur-

rent gain is less than one, how can there be a
power gain?

4. How can an amplifier be made to oscillate?

5. What does fast switching speed have to do

with the amount of power (heat) dissipated
in a transistor?

6. If a transistor amplifier is amplifying a con-

tinuously varying signal, like voice or
music, the transistor is dissipating power
Fig. 4-21 Tektronix model 577 curve tracer. This
almost the entire time that the signal is pre-
instrument plots volt-ampere characteristics of
sent. Why is this?
transistors and other semiconductor devices.

3. Maintenance manuals
7. What is meant by saying that the output of
a transistor or vacuum tube behaves like a
current source? Why is this an advantage?
Testing a transistor while it is installed in the
circuitmeans careful checking to be sure it is do- 8. The gain bandwidth product of a transistor
ing the job it was designed to do. The equipment
is 100,000,000. What current gain would
maintenance manuals help you do this in several you expect at 50 MHz and 100 MHz?
ways. There is usually a description of the circuit
and what the transistor is supposed to accom- 9. Referring to Fig. 4-4, it can be seen that
plish.
There are often photographs of oscilloscope V cc = Vce + load voltage.
waveforms of currents and voltages that should
be seen on the collector or emitter of a transistor. Suppose this transistor is amplifying a sine
If the waveforms on your oscilloscope don't re- wave. The amplified sine wave output is a
semble those illustrated in the manual, the tran- voltage taken between the collector and the
sistor may be to blame. emitter. The sine wave "zero" point is set to
be one half of the supply voltage, V cc Is the .

Of course, other parts of the circuit may

be at
fault rather than the transistor, so everything in
the circuit leading up to the transistor must also
be checked. Many maintenance manuals show DC
voltages that may be expected at hundreds of dif-
ferent places in the circuit.
If the voltages on a particular transistor are
different, it's possible that the transistor is to
blame. Quite often a failed transistor is made to
73
phase of the voltage across the load resistor
different from the phase of the sine wave
voltage across the transistor? Is the phase
of the sine wave current through the tran-
sistor different from the phase of the voltage
sine wave across the transistor? — across
the load?
10. Why can't a transistor be made by wiring
two P-N junction diodes together?
11. Why aren't the collector and emitter inter-
changeable?

12. Referring to Fig. 4-15, the emitter current

equals the sum of the collector current plus
the base current. Using this relationship and
the equations defining a and (1, show that

1- a

13. How could an ideal transistor dissipate zero

power while passing large currents?

14. What is a saturated transistor?

15. What is the safe operating area of a tran-

sistor?

16. How can an unmounted transistor be tested

with an ohm meter? What does this test fail
to tell you about the transistor?

17. What is the best way to test a transistor?

74
 SECTION V
AC Power Control Devices

In this section we are going to talk primarily If you try to use a transistor as the variable
about thyristors. These are electronic devices resistor in your control system,
it will be de-

used for controlling AC power. They can be stroyed when AC

voltage switches to the
the
thought of as faucets for alternating current. polarity opposite to what the transistor was
They can vary large AC currents without over- designed for. The transistor could be pro-
heating or wasting energy. tected by a diode in series with it. However,
You may be wondering why we need special one transistor could only turn on during one
devices to control AC power. Why can't large half of the sine wave cycle. A second, separate
bipolar transistors do the job? Circuits designed transistor would be needed to control the
around bipolar transistors could be used, but the other half of the sine wave. A transistorized
AC power control devices do it with so few parts AC control circuit would be complex and ex-
that transistors are rarely seen in AC power cir- pensive.
cuits.

A. Controlling Alternating Current The problem of a resistance dissipating too

much power while it is attenuating can be over-
Attenuation-by-resistance come by having the control device work as a
switch. Rather than have the control device
Suppose you wish to build a variable light spend all of its time turned part way on, like a
dimmer for the lights in your living room, or you resistor, it can spend part of its time all the way
need a variable heat control for a soldering iron, a ON and the rest of its time turned all the way
hair dryer, or an electric frying pan. This could be OFF. If the switching on and off is rapid enough,
done by placing some sort of variable resistor in the average power that passes to the lights or
series with the lights or the heating element that heater will be less, but the control device will not
you want to control. Unfortunately, this ap- dissipate any significant power. Remember we
proach has two basic problems: showed in the last section that a perfect switch
does not dissipate any energy because its re-
1. If the attenuator behaves like a simple re- sistance is either zero or infinite.
sistor, the attenuator is going to run very hot
because large amounts of energy will be dissi-
pated in it. If you cut the voltage across the The power delivered to the load will seem to
lights to half, the other half of the voltage will be continuous. After all, with AC power the cur-
heat the resistor. If a control like this were rent is already switching on and off 1 20 times per
mounted in the handle of a soldering gun or a second. Chopping the current into shorter incre-
hair dryer, the handle might become as hot as ments will not matter, especially if the basic fre-
the end you wish to heat! quency of the AC voltage can be preserved.

75
 Attenuation-by-switching matically trigger at a certain angle of the sine
wave. Now we will look at the devices designed to
Let's apply this principle of attenuation-by- do this.
switching to the light dimmer. Figs. 5-1 and 5-2 HIGH SPEED
show two basic designs of light dimmer. Fig. 5-1 ELECTRONIC SWITCH
dissipates the unwanted power in a variable X.
SWITCH
resistor which becomes hot. The voltage across
CLOSES
the load (the lights) is a sine wave like the
©,.Vs 120TIMES i
<
original, but it is decreased in amplitude. PER SECOND V L <LOAD RESISTANCE
> (LIGHTS)

X,_^ S EXCESS VOLTAGE

"^
. _ /HEATS RESISTANCE 180°
V
360°
7 \ t vs -
A /

AC
SUPPLY © VS vL
LOAD (LIGHTS)
1
,

ih l
SUPPLY VOLTAGE
J
LOAD VOLTAGE
D

Fig. 5-2 Attenuation by switching

+~ t

B. The Thyratron

The ancestor semiconductor AC power

of the
SUPPLY VOLTAGE LOAD VOLTAGE
devices is the thyratron.Thyratrons resemble
Fig. 5-1 Attenuation by resistance triode vacuum tubes but they contain a small
amount of ionizable gas such as argon, or mer-
In Fig. 5-2, the average voltage is attenuated cury vapor. Like the triode vacuum tube, the
by switching. The switch admits only a fraction thyratron has a heated cathode, a control grid,
(about each sine wave half cycle into the
1/2) of and a plate anode. When a trigger voltage is ap-
lights.This attenuates the average voltage be- plied to the control grid, a current flows from the
cause the area under the voltage curve is greatly cathode to the anode across the partial vacuum.
decreased.

A complete sine wave is 360° per cycle, so ELECTRONS STREAM FROM

each half cycle is 180°. The picture is drawn so -CATHODE TO PLATE
that the switch is conducting the second half of
each sine wave half cycle, about 90° out of a GLASS ENVELOPE
possible 180°. This "angle" is known as the con- FILAMENT
duction angle, cp. Icp and 4 are both ways of 1
HEATS
writing the Greek small letter phi.) The angle be- CATHODE
tween when the voltage rises and the switch be- PLATE +
gins to conduct is called the delay angle. (ANODE)
Therefore, the delay angle equals 180° — tp.
CATHODE
EMITS
Notice how the switching rate
synchroniz- is ELECTRONS
ed to the AC voltage so that the basic frequency DOT INDICATES
of the waveform is still 60 Hz. This means that IONIZABLE GAS
GRID IN TUBE
the AC will still work
transformers designed
in
for 60 Hz. This synchronized switching can be ac-
complished by having the switching device auto- Fig. 5-3 Thyratron circuit symbol and diagram
76
 However, unlike ordinary vacuum tubes, D. The P-N-P-N Diode
once the electrons start to flow through the grid,
the mercury vapor becomes ionized. The tube The P-N-P-N diode is a four layer sandwich of
glows a pretty purplish blue, and the grid loses N-type and P-type semiconductor. It is called a
control of the electron stream. The electrons will diode because it has onlv two terminals.
continue to stream from the cathode to plate until
the voltage on the anode is reduced to the point
where the ionization will be "extinguished" and
the current path through the ionized gas disap- HOLDING CURRENT
pears. Once the ionization is gone, the grid again ON -

acquires the ability to turn on the cathode to V. TU RNS

QN
plate current.
OFF -

REVERSE .75 VOLTS

To summarize, thyratrons are a switch that
CHARACTERISTIC
-Vfsv
can be turned full on by a small signal on the grid, FORWARD
IS LIKE A
SWITCHING
but cannot be turned off until the current flow NORMAL VOLTAGE
stops of its own accord. In other words, the plate
PN DIODE
voltage must drop to the point where the vapor -I — Vfbv
ionization is extinguished. FORWARD
BLOCKING
VOLTAGE
C. Thyristors Fig. 5-5 P-N-P-N diode characteristics

P-N-P-N diode volt-ampere characteristics

Inhonor of the thyratron, semiconductor
devices that behave like it are called thyristors.
They are functionally like the thyratron in that
once they are turned on by a control signal, they
can't be turned off by the control signal. The
main stream current must return to zero before
the gate or trigger can be reset.
The volt-ampere characteristic of this diode is
seen in Fig 5-6 The construction resembles two
P-N diodes in series so it is not surprising that the
volt- ampere characteristic is similar. In fact, the
reverse characteristic is identical to what you
would expect from two P-N diodes in series.

Thyristors have four or more N-type and p N P

P-type semiconductor layers. Their construction

and operation is related to bipolar transistors,
N P N
but can also be argued that their circuit sym-
it

bols and volt-ampere characteristics strongly

resemble ordinary silicon diodes.
ANODE

?*
They
There are four different types of thyristors.

triacs,
are silicon controlled rectifiers
P-N-P-N diode. They are all
diacs and the
(SCRs),
^ CATHODE

based on the P-N-P-N diode, therefore we will Fig. 5-6The P-N-P-N diode is equivalent to two
discuss this type first. complementary transistors wired together.

The forward characteristic is also similar, but

the P-N-P-N diode has difficulty starting to con-
CATHODE ANODE
duct. As the forward voltage is increased, the
diode does not conduct until a large voltage, call-
ed the forward switching voltage, is reached. This
CATHODE
€> ANODE voltage is typically 10 to 15 volts. After this
point the diode abruptly turns on. It passes a
large current and the voltage across it abruptly
Fig. 5-4 P-N-P-N diode symbol drops.
77
 We saw that bipolar transistors did not
behave two P-N diodes wired together be-
like
cause the thin base layer can be overrun by elec-
trons (or holes) from the emitter. In the same
way, the P-N-P-N diode behaves unexpectedly be-
cause the two center layers are very thin. This
device can be thought of as a P-N-P transistor
wired to an N-P-N transistor so that each base is
connected to the collector of the other.
P-N-P-N
CAPACITOR CHARGES TOWARD
BATTERY VOLTAGE, BUT P-N-P-N
CAPACITOR
AND DIODE .DIODE FIRES FIRST
VOLTAGE
FORWARD SWITCHING
VOLTAGE
CURRENT PULSES THROUGH
P-N-P-N DIODE
Fig. 5-7 Relaxation oscillator
Each of these transistors is forward biased
when collector current flows from the other tran-
turned off, it
sistor. If the transistors are initially
is easy to see why neither one wants to turn on.
There is nothing but leakage current from each
collector entering the two bases and this is quite
small.
However, as the voltage across the tran-
sistors becomes higher and higher, eventually the
leakage current will begin to turn on at least one
of the transistors. As soon as one begins to turn
on, its large collector current will surely turn on
the other. At this point the two transistors will
turn each other full on almost instantly. This ex-
plains the abrupt drop between the forward
switching voltage and the on state voltage.
what happens when you try to turn one of
So,
these devices off by decreasing the mainstream
current? As the current through the two tran-
DIODE sistors is decreased, eventually a point will be
reached where there is not enough collector cur-
rent to keep the other transistor turned full on.
As soon as one transistor is not getting enough
base current to stay full on, it will decrease the
base current of the other. Both transistors turn
each other OFF as abruptly as they were turned
on because this is a runaway situation. When the
P-N-P-N diode turns off, the voltage jumps up to
the forward blocking voltage which is usually
slightly lower than the forward switching volt-
age.
Relaxation oscillator
A P-N-P-N diode can be wired across a ca-
pacitor to build a relaxation oscillator. As seen in
Fig. 5-7, a simple RC circuit is charged with a bat-
tery.
The diode does not conduct until the forward
switching voltage is reached. Until this happens,
the diode is effectively out of the circuit. At this
point, the diode suddenly turns on and effectively
shorts out the capacitor. The charge stored in the
capacitor leaves through the diode so the voltage
across it falls. The capacitor soon discharges so
far that there is not enough current passing
through the diode to keep it turned on. The dioce
abruptly turns off and the voltage'' across the
capacitor begins to rise again toward the forward
switching voltage. The larger the resistance and
the larger the capacitance, the slower the oscilla-
tion cycle because more time is needed for the
capacitor to charge on each cycle.
3. Storing information
P-N-P-N diodes can also be used as memory
elements. In other words, these diodes can store
information. If the voltage across the diode has
not been higher than the forward switching volt-
age, the P-N-P-N diode can "remember" this fact,
by not being turned on.
78
 + o-
k

DC
SUPPLY

s: s: s: 51 s: s:
ON OFF OFF ON OFF ON
- O >---
f r r
STORED.
BINARY
NUMBER
"V
TO READ/WRITE
CIRCUITRY

Fig. 5-8 An P-N-P-N diode "memory. " Each P-N-P-N diode can "remember" one bit of information.

On the other hand, if the voltage has been on after it is turned on, but not so much current
higher than the forward switching voltage, the that unduly burden the power supply. In
it will

diode will remain turned on for weeks or months summary, each P-N-P-N diode can "remember"
provided that there is enough current flowing one bit of information and a number of them can
through it to keep it turned on. This minimum record a large binary number.
current is called the holding current.
if you had 24 diode memory cir-
For example,
A resistor in series with each diode insures cuits,you could remember a 7 digit telephone
that the diode will draw enough current to stay number. Computer memories have been built this
way, but transistor memory circuits are the most
common. As we shall see shortly, the most com-
mon use for P-N-P-N diodes is for turning on
NEON silicon controlled rectifiers.
BULB
45
VOLTS E. Inert Gas Lights and Voltage Regulators

Neon bulbs

X
NEON FLASHER
Just so you don't think we are completely off
the subject, neon gas light bulbs are often used to
turn on SCRs and triacs. They behave very much
like P-N-P-N diodes. The neon light is simply two
electrodes inside an evacuated glass envelope. A
small amount of neon provides the electrical
pathway once the voltage across the electrodes
+ > R ionizes the neon gas and lights the bulb.
INVERTER
10 CONVERTS
— VOLTS
12 VOLTS DC // The neon bulb resembles the P-N-P-N diode
TO must reach a high voltage before the gas
i

in that it
- 500 VOLTS DC
ionizes and begins to conduct. Once the gas
~c L_
ionizes, the voltage across it drops and the bulb
lights a lovely orange color. Neon bulbs are used
on everything from coffee makers
for pilot lights
STROBE LIGHT little power and
SSTfUBE to stereos. They consume very
when used with a series resistor, they can be
Fig. 5-9 Neon flasher and an aircraft strobe light operated directly off the 120 volt AC line.
79
 The 5-9) can be
relaxation oscillator (Fig. Electronic flashes for cameras generally use
built using a neon bulb in place of the P-N-P-N an audio frequency for the AC voltage and this
diode. Of course, the neon bulb lights up every accounts for the "squeal" that you hear while the
time it discharges the capacitor, so this circuit is strobe light is charging its capacitor. In sum-
an easy way to build a flashing light. Flashers mary, neon and xenon lights can be thought of as
like this have been used to mark road construc- self-triggering versions of the thyratron.
tion sites.
With neon and xenon gases there is a pro-
Neon flashers and strobe lights
nounced difference between the voltage needed to
ionize the gas and the voltage at which the gas is
Xenon is another inert gas and makes a

blue-white light when ionized. Xenon

extinguished and stops conducting. With combi-
brilliant
flashtubes are built like neon bulbs and are used nations of inert gases and special electrode
for aircraft strobe lights and electronic flashes for design, it is possible to build devices that have

cameras. very little difference between the ionizing voltage

(ignition voltage) and the extinguishing voltage.
A drawback to the neon and xenon flashers is
that the DC
power source must have quite a high Tubes like this were used for voltage regu-
voltage, 45 volts and much more for larger bulbs. lators and are still available in a variety of
Since an aircraft or a portable camera flash have voltages from 75 up to about 250 volts. These
battery voltages far less than this, an electronic voltage regulator tubes were used exactly the
inverter is used to convert the low DC voltage to way that zener diode voltage regulators are used
a high DC voltage to charge the capacitor. today. You may find them occasionally in old
equipment. They resemble vacuum tubes but can
The inverter consists of a transistor oscillator be recognized by their beautiful pink, blue, or pur-
which generates an AC voltage. The AC voltage ple glow.
is passed through a voltage step up transformer
to produce AC voltage. The high AC voltage is + ANODE a
CATHODE -
P N N
then rectified and filtered to make high DC
voltage.
6 GATE (TRIGGER)

>
+ ANODE CATHODE -

UNREGULATED GATE
DC VOLTAGE
REGULATED * CATHODE

>
2ENER
DIODE
DC VOLTAGE

">
+ANODE A GATE
TRANSISTOR EQUIVALENT OF AN SCR

> Fig. 5-11 The silicon controlled rectifier

VOLTAGE
DROPPING
RESISTOR F. Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)

Silicon controlled rectifiers are very much

like the thyratron in terms of what they do. They
VOLTAGE REGULATED
REGULATOR
are built like P-N-P-N diodes. The difference is
DC VOLTAGE
TUBE 75 TO 250 VOLTS that one of the two "bases" of the internal tran-
sistors is given a lead to the outside world. This
> ^ lead or control gate introduces a small control
current into the base of one of the transistors and
Fig. 5-10 Voltage regulator tubes are used like makes the device turn on at a lower voltage than
zener diode voltage regulators. it ordinarily would.
80
 1

X
SCR VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTIC ON STATE

HOLDING CURRENT
ON
h

OFF
-V

ZERO GATE
-I CURRENT

THE SCR CHARACTERISTIC IS LIKE THE

P-N-P-N DIODE EXCEPT THAT THE
FORWARD SWITCHING VOLTAGE MAY BE
REDUCED BY ADJUSTING THE GATE CURRENT

ENLARGED FORWARD BREAKOVER CHARACTERISTIC

Fig. 5-12 Silicon controlled rectifier volt-ampere characteristic

SCR volt-ampere characteristics would not fully illuminate a light which was
designed for both halves of the AC cycle. No mat-
The volt-ampere characteristic for an SCR is ter how high the gate current is, the SCR will still
seen in Fig. 5-12. When the control gate current is conduct only the positive half of the AC cycle.
zero, the characteristic is just like the P-N-P-N
diode. However, as more and more current is in- G. Controlling the SCR
troduced into the gate, the forward switching
voltage becomes lower and lower. When the gate The which provides the gate current
circuitry
current is very high, the entire volt-ampere char- for the SCR
can be simple or complicated depend-
acteristic is not very different from a silicon P-N ing on how much control is needed over the con-
diode. duction angle. The circuit shown in Fig. 5-13 can
turn the SCR completely off or completely on.
In Fig. 5-2 we showed an electronic switch
controlling both the positive and negative halves However, because the triggering current is
of the sine wave cycle. It should be clear from the derived from a sine wave, the SCR must trigger
volt-ampere curve for the SCR that it can only before or while the sine wave reaches its positive
turn on during positive half cycles. This means peak. The trigger current will never get any
that if an SCR were being used to control lights, higher than the positive peak, so if the SCR is go-
the lights would see pulsed DC current and not ing to turn on, it had better do it by then. Since
AC current. For some applications this is accep- the SCR is turned on before the 90° point if it
table. turns on at all, the SCR will remain on from at
least 90° to 180°. This means that the smallest
However, if the lights were designed for conduction angle available from this simple cir-
household AC, the rectified AC from a single SCR cuit is 90°. This is 25% of the complete AC cycle.
81
 Vload A
HIGH R
cp = 90° ANGLE

AC SUPPLY L\ -t
LOAD
RESISTOR

LOWR
cp = 180° ANGLE

-»»t
THE VARIABLE RESISTOR DETERMINES
WHETHER THE SCR FIRES AND WHAT
CONDUCTION ANGLE IT WILL HAVE
BETWEEN 90° and 180°. VERY HIGH
R KEEPS THE SCR OFF. (op = 0°)

Fig. 5-13 The simplest SCR control circuit

For many devices, such as soldering irons, pletely off) up to 180° which is full on for the
motors, or light bulbs, 25% or even 50% of the positive half of the AC cycle.
complete AC cycle is not enough to make it work
properly. For example, a light bulb will barely R-C integrator circuit
glow with 50% of the voltage, a motor may not
even turn over, and a soldering iron may be too An SCR triggered with an R-C integrator cir-

cool to melt solder. So 25% (or 50%) may be just
as good as full off in these applications.
For other applications it is desirable to vary
the conduction angle continuously from 0° (com-
cuit is seen in Fig. Because the voltage
5-14.
across a capacitor can't change quickly, this cir-
cuit will fire later than the one shown in Fig. 5-13.
The voltage across the capacitor is a sine wave,
but it lags the sine wave voltage across the SCR.

LINE
VOLTAGE

CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
LAGS BEHIND LINE
VOLTAGE AND TRIGGERS
SCR VERY LATE

WHEN R IS LOW,
CONDUCTION ANGLE
APPROACHES 180°

NARROW MINIMUM
CONDUCTION ANGLE,
ABOUT 45° WITH
HIGH R

Fig. 6-14 R-C triggering network for an SCR.

82
 This means that the sine wave on the gate will gate current that needed to fire the SCR. The
is
have its peak later and therefore it can trigger the circuit in Fig. 5-14
is temperature sensitive
SCR after the SCR sine wave has passed its peak. because the hotter the SCR becomes, the earlier it
This delayed sine wave is said to be phase shifted. fires and the larger the conduction angle be-
comes. If the SCR is controlling a heater, like a
Another way to look at this is that the R-C hair dryer, the heat from the dryer could make the
circuit an integrator. The capacitor is still
is SCR still hotter!
charging and its voltage is still increasing after
the sine wave has passed its peak voltage. By pro- This problem can be greatly improved by
per selection of values of R-C, the SCR can be turning the SCR on with a circuit that generates
made to fire after the sine wave has passed its a precise, short current pulse when the desired
peak. conduction angle is reached. This is preferable to
having the gate current build up gradually since
Now it is practical to vary the conduction you can't predict exactly how much current the
angle from about 45° up to nearly the full 180°. SCR will need to fire.

This is still short of the 0° to 180° that we would

like. The capacitor has the additional advantage The we studied in Figs.
relaxation oscillators
that it serves as a low pass filter which helps 5-7 and 5-9 make good pulse generators for this
make the SCR immune to triggering from short purpose. Whenever the P-N-P-N diode or neon
voltage spikes that may
be on the line due to bulb conduct, they pass a short, intense current
noises from the brushes of electric motors. pulse as they discharge the capacitor. If the gate
of the SCR is placed in series with the P-N-P-N
In the circuit of Fig. 5-14 the gate current diode, whenever the P-N-P-N diode fires it will
builds up gradually as the sine wave becomes turn on the SCR. A relaxation oscillator triggered
more and more positive. When the sine wave circuit is shown in Fig. 5-15.
voltage reaches the forward switching voltage
determined by the gate current, the SCR "fires." Ingition system
The current that triggers the SCR is a combina-
tion of the gate current plus the leakage current. A common application for the SCR is in
automobile ignition systems. As you probably
As we learned in the last section, the leakage know, the ordinary automobile ignition system
current in a transistor is primarily dependent on consists of breaker points, a high voltage trans-
the temperature of the transistor. The hotter it is, former, and a rotary switch (the distributor)
the more leakage current there is and the less which fires each spark plug in turn. See Fig. 5-16.

P-N-P-N DIODE LINE

FIRES SCR .VOLTAGE

VOLTAGE ACROSS
LINE AND P-N-P-N DIODE
SCR CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE

AC SUPPLY THIS-
<St
RESISTOR' VOLTAGE ACROSS
LIMITS" P-N-P-N DIODE
Rload
GATE AND CAPACITOR
CURRENT
A^V P-N-P-N DIODE X
K
SCR FIRES

Fig. 5-15 SCR half-wave relaxation oscillator control circuit

83
 HIGH VOLTAGE O
SECONDARY
+ 12V
10,000 VOLTS

o^ o

BREAKER rr . I! I .

W SPARK PLUGS
SPARK ^ /
POINTS

DISTRIBUTOR ASSEMBLY

Fig. 5-16 Ordinary automobile ignition system

Breaker points vent a sudden rise of voltage across the breaker

points because voltage can't change suddenly
To make a spark, 12 volts DCfrom the bat- across a capacitor. This prevents excessive spark-
tery is briefly switched to the primary of the ing at the breaker points so that they will not
transformer. The switch that does this, the burn out quickly.
breaker points, is part of the distributor.
Even with the capacitor, the sparking across
The distributor has a central shaft which is the breaker points erodes them and ordinary igni-
turned by the engine and closes and opens the tion systems are usually need of a tune-up. The
in
breaker points for each spark. When the switch capacitive discharge ignition system was devel-
closes, a current flows through the primary wind- oped to prevent sparks at the breaker points and
ing to ground. When the points open, the sudden to produce a bigger voltage across the spark
change in current through the transformer induc- plugs.
tance causes a huge voltage to appear across the
secondary winding of the transformer. Capacitive discharge system

This large voltage, typically 10,000 volts, The capacitive discharge system substitutes
causes a miniature lightning bolt, the spark, to an SCRfor the breaker points. Wear and tear on
jump across the tip of a spark plug. A rotary the breaker points is eliminated by not having
switch inside the distributor directs the spark sparks jump across the breaker contacts. Instead
current to the correct spark plug. The capacitor of the SCR operating directly off the 12 volt bat-
on the primary side of the transformer helps pre- tery supply, the SCR discharges a capacitor. This

DISTRIBUTOR ASSEMBLY
+ 12V
^vWV ^K
BREAKER
POINTS f\.
o-
INVERTER
CONVERTS
^i
12VOLTS DC Q o
TO
400 VOLTS DC
V

Fig. 5-17
y
Simplified capacitive discharge ignition system.
M
1
SPARK

M 1
 ROUTE OF POSITIVE ROUTE OF POSITIVE
CURRENT DURING CURRENT DURING
POSITIVE j NEGATIVE
HALF CYCLE / V HALF CYCLE

*5
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
LOAD
AC SUPPLY

5
Fig. 5-18 Full-wave SCR circuits

is done because the SCR must turn on a current positive half cycle. The positive current makes a
that will eventually return to zero so that the "Z" shaped path firstfrom left to right, then
SCR turn off by itself. Remember, the
will SCR from right to left as shown.
has no way to turn OFF a current.
Another way to control both halves of the
The capacitor could be charged with just the sine wave cycle is to use two SCRs in inverse
12 volt supply, but very high voltage sparks can parallel. The two SCRs are wired so that one of
be achieved by charging it with a high DC volt- them will always be in a position to conduct. The
age. Therefore, the capacitor is charged with an trigger circuit must be able to drive both SCRs
inverter just like the ones used in camera flashes which means that separate trigger signals of the
and strobe lights. The capacitor is charged to 200 proper polarities must be generated during both
or more volts. This gives a very large surge of cur- halves of the AC waveform. The two gates can
rent through the transformer primary and results not be connected together because the SCRs
in two or three times more spark voltage than or- would be damaged.
dinary ignitions systems. See Fig. 5-17

H. Controlling Full-Wave AC Power /. TRIA CS and DIA CS

A limitation of the SCR and thyratron is that

they only conduct in one direction. Fig. 5-18
shows two ways of conducting both halves of the
sine wave with SCRs. The upper one is the most
clever. In order for the SCR to conduct, the anode
must be positive. A bridge rectifier can ac-
complish this by routing positive current to the
anode on the negative half cycle as well as the
85
The TRIAC is a device which can be thought
of astwo SCRs wired in inverse parallel and
mounted in the same package. Actually, they are
made as a single semiconductor device with 5
layers. Unlike separate SCRs, both halves of the
sine wave cycle can be controlled with a single
gate signal.
 /
1
1 \
1 ,'
\ N /
\

o- TERMINAL N P N 1 1 n
#2 1
? GATE °
" - - •

/ \
\
/
P m^tiv-i'
/ O
\ TERMINAL #1
:1 /
^. _•>"

DASHED LINES SHOW SCRS BUILT INTO TRIAC

GATE
TERMINAL #2
TERMINAL #1

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

Fig. 5-19 The TRIAC can be thought of as two SCRs in inverse parallel.

The dashed lines surrounding the top and Earlier we developed an SCR firing circuit
bottom of the TRIAC construction diagram point which used a neon bulb or a P-N-P-N diode relaxa-
out that the device is essentially two SCRs in in- tion oscillator. This same circuit can be used to
verse parallel. The single gate contact manages to drive the TRIAC.
inject current into the center layers of both SCRs
by means of its strategic location. One P-N-P-N diode only
difficulty is that the
conducts current one direction so only one half
in
The TRIAC volt-ampere characteristic is of the sine wave would be triggered. This problem
seen in Fig. 5-20. It is really just two forward can be solved by using a neon bulb which can be
SCR characteristics back-to-back. ionized in both directions and therefore will drive
the TRIAC properly.

TERMINAL #2
POSITIVE
HIGH GATE
CURRENT
TRIAC

OFF
^xz
TERMINAL #2
NEGATIVE -I

Fig. 5-21 A relaxation oscillator phase control

Fig. 5-20 TRIAC volt-ampere characteristic circuit for a TRIAC.
86
 TRIAC
UM

DIAC CONSTRUCTION AC SUPPLY

DIAC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Fig. 5-22 The DIAC bi-directional switching DOUBLE R-C PHASE SHIFT NETWORKS
GIVE A VERY SMALL CONDUCTION ANGLE
diode

Fig. 5-24 TRIAC full-wave proportional power

The neon bulb does not have a large voltage
difference between when it is turned on and turn-
ed off. So, better turn-on pulses can be generated
using a P-N-P-N diode to discharge the capacitor.
P-N-P-N diodes can be used to drive a TRIAC if
two are used in inverse parallel. Naturally it
wasn't long before the need for double P-N-P-N
diodes was recognized and this creation was
ed the DIAC.
The advantage of the DIAC over the neon
bulb can be seen by comparing their volt-ampere
characteristics. The neon bulb does not switch so
completely from ON to OFF and the voltage drop
is not as great. As a result, the neon bulb does not
produce clean, abrupt turn-on pulses.
control circuit
shows a typical full wave AC con-
Fig. 5-24
trol circuit of the kind you would find in a hair
dryer or an electric drill. This full wave system ac-
complishes all the goals we outlined at the begin-
ning of the section. It is relatively cheap and sim-
call-
ple and it is not temperature sensitive. A very
wide conduction angle range, 15° to nearly 180°
on each half cycle, is achieved by using two R-C
phase shifting networks in series.
In theory, each R-C network could shift a sine
wave 90°, but in practice, as the phase shift ap-
proaches 90 °, the amplitude of the phase shifted
sine wave will approach zero. Because a certain

SUDDEN
90% DROP GRADUAL
50% DROP
DIAC IN VOLTAGE
IN VOLTAGE
NEON
BULB

-V -V
+V

-I -I

Fig. 5-23 DIAC and neon bulb volt-ampere characteristics.

ST
minimum amplitude is needed to trigger an SCR 10. What is the advantage of using relaxation
or TRIAC, the minimum conduction angle that oscillators to trigger thyristors?
can be achieved with a single R-C network is
about 45°. With two R-C networks in series, this 11. Why is a TRIAC easier to trigger than two
conduction angle can be as low as 15°. SCRs wired in inverse parallel?

QUESTIONS:

1. Why is high speed switching superior to re-

sistance as a means of attenuating AC cur-
rent?

2. Why are thyristors preferred over bipolar

transistors for controlling AC power?

3. What property do tunnel diodes share with

all the devices discussed in this chapter?

4. Why can't an SCR be used as a Hi-Fi am-

plifier?

5. What is an inverter?

6. In order to use an SCR in a DC circuit, what

requirement must be met?

7. Referring to Fig. 5-11, the gate of an SCR is

generally connected to the center layer clos-

est to the cathode. This is called a cathode

gate. Some SCRs also have an anode gate

connected to the type N center layer. How
would a trigger signal designed for the an-
ode gate differ from one intended for the
cathode gate?

8. Suppose the anode of an SCR is connected to

the cathode gate of the SCR by a low resist-
ance so that there is a large gate current
whenever positive voltage is on the anode.

What device will the volt-ampere character-

istic of this circuit resemble?

9. A simple control circuit for a TRIAC is

shown below. What conduction angle(s)
would you expect from high, medium and
low control resistance levels?

TRIAC

ft

R LOAD

CONTROL
RESISTANCE

88
 SECTION VI

FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTORS

A. Introduction put resistance is extremely high, virtually in-

Field effect transistors (FETs) have
portant advantages over bipolar transistors.
When produced as integrated circuits they are
finite,so that essentially zero current is required
to turn an FET on or off. When turned off, the
many im-
resistance they present to the current flow they
are controlling can be extremely high, 10 billion

cheaper than bipolar transistors because they use
far less silicon chip area and the circuits require
fewer parts to do the same job. Field effect tran-
sistors make it possible to power a digital watch
for a year with a battery the size of a pea. If your
digital watch used bipolar transistors, you might
need a knapsack to carry the battery.
ohms. When turned on, this output resistance can
be very low. When controlling small currents, the
voltage across the output can approach zero when
the transistor is turned on. We can summarize
these features by saying that the FET ap-
proaches a perfect voltage controlled switch and
wastes very little power.

FETs are relatively immune to changes in

temperature and are easy to use in analog circuits
with a minimum of biasing resistors. FETs
generate less radio noise during operation than
vacuum tubes. As a result,
bipolar transistors or
they are preferred for sensitive radio preampli-
fiers and mixers.

In digital circuits they may be used without

any resistors at all. This property makes them
perfect for integrated circuits where resistors are
awkward to "print." In FET integrated circuits,
FETs themselves are used in place of load
resistors and extremely complex circuits are
made from hundreds or thousands of FETs and
practically no resistors, capacitors, diodes or
other kinds of components.
Fig. 6-1 An assortment of field effect transistors
and ICs. FETs have one disadvantage that has kept
them from making bipolar transistors obsolete.
The major functional difference between They are slow and generally have much smaller
FETs and bipolar transistors is that they are gain-bandwidth products than bipolar transis-
voltage controlled not current controlled. The in- tors. This means that calculators, computer

89
memories, microprocessors, and a whole host of • N-CHANNEL
products made from FETs run more slowly than
equivalent devices made from bipolar transistors.

For example, a typical FET logic circuit can

SOURCE DRAIN
perform about 1 million operations per second, al- O O
though the latest models can exceed 4 million. In (ELECTRONS (ELECTRONS
contrast, some bipolar transistor digital circuits ENTER AT LEAVE AT
THIS END) THIS END)
can exceed 300 million operations per second.

Another disadvantage of FETs applies only

VOLTAGE ON GATE
to the metal-oxide-silicon FET (MOSFETsi and CONTROLS ELECTRON GATE
concerns the technician more than the engineer. FLOW
MOSFETs are very easily damaged by static
electricity. This means that when MOSFETs are
SOURCE DRAIN
installed or removed from circuits, they must be
handled carefully to avoid damaging them.

B. Junction Field Effect Transistors GATE

All field effect transistors are basically built

Fig. 6-2 Construction and symbol for an N-
around a single piece of type N or type P semicon-
channel junction FET iJFET).
ductor. This piece is called the channel. The cur-
rent that is being controlled by the transistor
channel on their way toward the positive side of
travels from one end of the channel to the other
without passing through any P-X junctions.
the DC
power supply. For a P-channel FET, the
source is where the holes enter the channel and
Technically, there are FET designs that do have
the drain is where the holes leave the channel on
modified P-N" junctions in the channel. However,
their way toward the negative side of the power
they don't act like P-X junctions because the elec-
supply.
trical carriers that pass through a FET channel
are all electrons if it is a type X channel or all
holes if it is a type P channel. Since only holes or Gate
electrons are involved, these transistors are call-

ed unipolar transistors.
The control lead for a FET is called a gate. In
one design of the X-channel junction FET. the
Because there is no official P-X junction
gate is actually two P-+- regions which surround
along the path of the channel, there is no oblig-
the main channel piece of semiconductor. The
atory 0.6 volt silicon P-X junction voltage drop.
gate forms two equal P-X junction diodes with
This is why the voltage across a turned-on FET
the channel, but channel current never passes
can approach zero. The lack of P-X junctions also
through the junctions. The gate is almost always
allows current to flow through the channel in
operated back biased so that the gate current,
both directions.
which is analogous to base current, is just the
leakage current through a back biased P-X diode.
Source and Drain
That is why the gate current is so low.

The two terminals of the FET at each end of The more strongly the P-X junction between
the channel are called the source and drain. The the gate and source is back biased, the more com-
source is where the majority carriers enter the pletely the FET is turned off. When a large
channel. The drain is where they leave the chan- voltage back biases the gate-to-channel junction,
nel the region in between the two gates becomes com-
pletely depleted of carriers.
For example, an X-channel FET the conduc-
in In the case of an X-channel device, a large
tion band electrons are the majority carriers. So negative gate voltage will completely strip the
the source is where electrons enter the semicon- X-channel of conduction band electrons and the
ductor and the drain is where electrons leave the channel will cease to be a conductor. This is called
90
pinching off the channel When the FET is turned N.CHANNEL
off, the leakage current is surprisingly small, a
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC
few nanoamperes or less. This is roughly one hun- I I

dredth of the leakage current of a silicon bipolar 1 Vgs = 0.2V

5
<
transistor. Junction FETs are also made with a E
single gate-to-channel junction design that is 1

-0.5V
suitable for production in integrated circuits. UJ \
oc
oc

o -1.0V
z I
X
< -1.5V J
I
oc
NEGATIVE TO
Rl
o I

-2.0V J
DOES NOT
-P
/ - 2.5V
CONDUCT ,. *

< -3.0V .•
1

10 20 30 40 50
ZZT" POWER SUPPLY Vds DRAIN-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

P-CHANNEL
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC
i

-0.2V
-0.7
BIASING AN NCHANNEL <
% -0.6
Vgs =
-0.5
oc
oc
-0.4
O + 0.2V
z
? -0.3
PLUS TO N DOES < > Rl < + 0.4V
NOT CONDUCT o -0.2 I

Q + 0.6V

^V 4 X '+1.2V ~ +1.0V" ^+0.8V

-0.1

* p
POM/PR SIIPPI Y
r=±= =4= =h=
I

J +
-5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40
Vds DRAIN-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
+

"* Fig. 6-4 Volt-ampere characteristics for P-chan-

nel and N-channel JFET's.

that the junction FET is operated with the P-N

BIASING AN P-CHANNEL junction back biased The curves of the char-
acteristic family are quite flat showing that the
Fig. 6-3 Back biasing the gate-to-channel P-N FET output a good current source that depends
is

junction of a JFET keeps it turned off
Turning the JFET On
Turning the JFET on can be done by merely
disconnecting the gate from any voltage or by
connecting it to the source. As can be seen in Fig.
6-4, a little more source-to-drain current can be
made to flow by placing a small amount (=0.2
volt) of forward bias on the gate as shown. Ac-
tually, this is still less than the 0.6 volts needed
to make the P-N junction conduct. So, we can say
91
far more on the control voltage than it does on the
supply voltage.
Looking again at the volt-ampere curves for
the JFETs you can see that there is a dramatic
limit to how much drain-to-source voltage the
transistors will tolerate before they break down.
Each curve in the family takes off straight up as
soon as the maximum drain-to-source voltage is
exceeded. This breakdown is comparable to a
zener breakdown in a diode in that it doesn't hurt
the JFET as long as it doesn't overheat.
 Wiring FETs in Circuits
Since the channel is a single "piece" of
semiconductor, you might be wondering if there
is any difference between the drain and the
source. Some FETs are built symmetrically so
that drain and the source are interchangeable. In
other words, you can wire it either way and it will
Current regulator diodes are made from junc-
tion field effect transistors wired internally to
hold the current constant. A resistance in series
with the source produces a voltage proportional
to the current flowing through the JFET. This
voltage is connected to the gate so that, the
higher the current through the diode, the more it
turns the JFET off.

work just fine.

However, some FETs are designed so that
+ i

most of the voltage drop across the transistor oc- DESTRUCTIVE

TYPICAL VOLT-AMPERE BREAKDOWN
curs at the drain end so this end is made physical- CHARACTERISTIC
ly larger. In this way the transistor can dissipate
more power than a symmetrical design.
Sometimes this is indicated by showing the gate Ireg
arrow closer to the source end of the symbol in- 2 mA CURRENT REGULATING
stead of centered between the source and drain. -V RANGE +V

REVERSE IS 25 50 75 100
If you have trouble remembering how to wire PRACTICALLY
A SHORT CIRCUIT VOLTS DC
FETs, remember that N-channel FETs are wired
with polarities like an N-P-N transistor and the
P-channel FETs are wired like a P-N-P transistor.
For you old timers, N-channel FETs are wired
like triode vacuum tubes.

C. Field Effect Current Regulator Diodes

Fig. 6-6 Field effect current regulator diode

Field effect current regulator diodes are made
from junction FETs. They are the functional op-
posite of zener diodes. As you recall, zener diodes
regulate voltageby holding the voltage across
them constant, while the current through them
varies widely. Current regulator diodes hold the
current through them constant while the voltage
across them some of them will
varies. In fact,
hold the current rock steady for over a 100 to
voltage variation.
Generally, the constant current that these re-
gulators pass very small, a few milliamperes.
is
However, several diodes can be put in parallel if
larger currents are needed. Because they are so
accurate, they are preferred over zener and
stabistor diodes as calibration reference stan-
dards for digital voltmeters. In a typical digital
multimeter a regulator diode is made to pass a
1 fixed current through a precision resistor. This
provides a standard voltage which is compared
against the unknown voltage.

9 ANODE
+ D. The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET
(MOSFET)
N-CHANNEL
JFET Metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOS-
FETs) were introduced in 1967. The name de-
scribes the gate construction of these transistors.
The gate is a thin layer of aluminum metal de-

posited on an insulating layer of silicon dioxide,

glass. The gate is designed like a tiny capacitor
with the semiconducting channel acting as one
CATHODE CATHODE side of the capacitor and metal gate as the other.

SYMBOL The glass of course serves as the dielectric in-

sulator. There is no such thing as the perfect in-
Fig. 6-5 Current regulator diode equivalent cir- sulator, but glass comes pretty close. The glass
cuit and symbol insulation means that the gate-to-channel resist-
92
ance is virtually infinite and the gate draws no will leave theN-type semiconductor in the chan-
current. The gate does have some capacitance, a nel.This process depletes the N-type semiconduc-
few picofarads, so it is necessary to charge and tor of conduction band electrons and turns the
discharge the capacitance to change the voltage transistor off.
on the gate.
The other mechanism for MOSFET operation
The gate insulator is very thin, one ten is called enhancement and is the opposite of
millionth of a meter, and subject to damage by
is depletion. If a voltage which has a polarity op-
voltages above 20 volts for small MOSFETs and posite to the one which caused depletion is put on
above 80 volts for large FETs. This doesn't sound the gate, the charges that gather in the channel
very serious until you realize that when the cur- will increase the number of majority carriers
rent is virtually zero, very little power is needed available for conduction. This increases the con-
to produce 80 volts or even 80,000 volts. If you ductivity of the channel and turns on the tran-
don't believe this, scuff your rubber soled shoes sistor.
on a wool rug and go touch a brass door knob. The
spark that jumps to the knob is propelled by sev-
eral thousand volts. If the door knob had been the
gate of a MOSFET, the gate insulator would have 1. Enhancement MOSFETs
been punctured instantly.
There are two basic kinds of MOS tran-
Channel cut off sistors, the enhancement mode MOSFETs and
the depletion mode MOSFETs. As the name im-
In the JFET, the channel is turned off by the enhancement mode MOSFETs use only the
plies,
charge depletion that occurs when the gate-to- enhancement mode operation. The gate voltage
channel P-N junction is back biased. In a induces majority
carriers into the channel
MOSFET the conductivity of the channel is in- semiconductor. In fact, the enhancement
creased or decreased by charging the capacitance MOSFET channels are induced into semiconduc-
between the gate and channel. In the depletion tor of the opposite type to the kind of channel
mechanism, majority carriers are removed from desired.
the channel in the same way they are in a junction
FET. As the gate-to-channel capacitance is charg- For example, conduction band electrons are
ed, an opposite charge will gather in the channel induced into P-type semiconductor to make the
on the opposite side of the insulator. channel into an N-channel MOSFET. As positive
voltage is applied to the gate of an N-channel
For example, if the MOSFET is an N-channel device, the first few electrons induced into the
type and electrons are forced onto the gate by a channel semiconductor must fill in the holes
negative voltage, an equal number of electrons already there in the P material. Once these holes

GLASS INSULATOR-
SOURCE GATE ALUMINUM CONTACTS
0.1m METER

P-CHANNEL IS
INDUCED IN
N-TYPE N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
SILICON SUBSTRATE

Fig. 6-7 P-channel enhancement type, MOSFET

93
are "filled,'' the induced electrons can begin to Hon mode MOSFET is different and you cannot
enter the conduction band to establish an N-type replace an enhancement mode MOSFET
with a
channel. The importance of this scheme is that it depletion mode MOSFET without redesigning
makes the transistor '"fail safe." In other words, the circuit.
whenever the gate voltage is zero, the transistor The depletion typeis a little more complex,
is turned off. but otherwise the construction is similar to the

enhancement type. The volt-ampere character-

Volt-ampere and transfer characteristics for istics for a depletion mode N-channel MOSFET
an N-channel enhancement MOSFET are shown are shown in figure 6-9.
in Fig. 6-8. For each output volt-ampere curve in
the family, a gate voltage, Vg S is given. It is im- , Once again the gate voltage, Vg S is labeled .

portant to notice that every gate voltage, from for each curve in the family of output character-
fully turned on to fully turned off, is the same istics. Note that when the gate voltage is zero, the
polarity. In this case, with an N-channel, they are depletion mode MOSFET is half turned on. This
all positive. If the transistor were P-channel, they is more easily seen in the typical C*typ") transfer

would all be negative. characteristicswhich straddle the zero voltage

point of gate to source voltage, Vg S A
the .

2. Depletion MOSFETs P-channel depletion mode MOSFET is just like

an N-channel, but all the pluses and minuses are
We are belaboring all this because the deple- reversed.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

20 16
v Bs = o VGS = 10V VBS = + 4V
<
£ 16
E
12
z qw
HI
CC
LU
CC
+ 2V
cc 12 DC
=> =3
o 8V o 8
z z
< - < VGS =
cc 1 V d
)

Q 1

1
1

Q
4
6V
—
I

a
-2V
3V |4V 5V

I
*— 1 1
_4V
2 4 6 8 10 4 8 12 16 20

Vds DRAIN-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VOLTS) vds drain-source voltage <volts>

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

20 20 I
<
I

- Unr VDS = = 10V Mt

E Vbs = =
Vbs = o
16 / 1 16
LU
DC
DC
/
/

D 12 cc 12 rYP_^
U EC
z 3
< O
(X 2 8
o <
/ M IN
cc
Q
S 4

2 4 6 8 10 -6-4-2 2 4 6

Vds DRAIN-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VOLTS) Vqs GATE-SOURCE VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Fig. 6-8 Volt-ampere unci transfer eharac- Fig. 6-9 Volt-ampere and transfer charac-
teristics for an N-channel, enhancement mode teristics for a depletion mode N-channel
MOSFET. MOSFET.
94
 SOURCE GATE DRAIN
O
i
1 m ">/////?////

m
N+ •
--
—
NTYPE
+ + +
r- J--i.
_ + N+

PSUBSTRATE NCHANNEL TURNED OFF

"BY INDUCED HOLES

Fig. 6-10 N-channel depletion type, MOSFET

Depletion mode MOSFETs operate in both fusing. The confusing part is the arrowhead
the depletion mode and the enhancement mode. which sometimes points in the "wrong" direction.
When fully turned on, they are adding majority And, of course, some symbols apply only to
carriers to the channel using the enhancement enhancement MOSFETs while others can be used
principle. In order to turn all the off, they way for both depletion and enhancement types. The
operate in the depletion mode and
take carriers semiconductor substrate that the MOSFET is
out of the channel. Having the depletion MOS- made on is occasionally brought out as a separate
FET gate voltage swing centered on zero volts lead but it is rarely attached anywhere other than
makes them ideal for amplifying small AC or the source lead. In most MOS transistors the
radio frequency signals. There is no need to bias substrate is internally connected to the source so
the signal to center the "zero" on some DC there is no need to worry about where to connect
voltage other than true zero volts. In the next sec- the substrate.
tion we will show how these two transistors are
actually wired in circuits. Fig. 6-11 shows the common circuit symbols
used for MOSFETs. The symbols on the right are
E. MOSFET Symbols only used for enhancement types, while the ones
on the left can be used for either. Sometimes the
It wouldn't be necessary to make a big deal gates are shown as "hooks" and other times they
about MOSFET symbols if they weren't so con- look like capacitor plates. No matter how they are

DEPLETION OR ENHANCEMENT ENHANCEMENT ONLY

A A
r
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN

GATE (
-—
~x GATE / ««"" "~\
I

GATE /
7\
\
\Jv
IT LU BSTRATEl
\ to
I
u
SOURCE sourceI SOURCE

P-CHANNEL MOSFET

DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN

GATE GATE

«K SOURCE
SUBSTRATE.

SOURCE' SOURCE

NCHANNEL MOSFET

Fig. 6-11 MOSFET symbols are confusing.

95
drawn, they at least give the idea that the gate A MOSFET can be used as a load resistor by
makes a capacitor with the channel. When the ar- simply wiring the gate to its own drain. The
rowhead is shown on the source lead, it means voltage drop from drain to source is enough to
that positive charge flows in the direction of the turn an enhancement MOSFET half on. This
arrowhead. This is logical since this makes it like gives the FET "resistor" about 4000 ohms
a bipolar transistor emitter. resistance when most of the supply voltage is
across it from drain to source.
Unfortunately, most diagrams of MOSFETs
you will seehave the arrowhead drawn on the Digital MOSFET circuits that are made
substrate, that is, on the lead in the middle. This almost entirely from N-channel MOSFETs are

shows the direction of the P-N junction between called NMOS integrated circutis. ICs made en-

the channel and the sub-strate. This P-N direction tirely from P-channel MOSFET's are called
is true enough. However, the substrate is wired to PMOS integrated circuits.
the source which makes the arrowhead point
toward the positive side of the power supply, not To show how PMOS and
use transis- NMOS
the direction of flow of positive current. In sum- tors in place of resistors, we are going to look at
mary, if the arrowhead is on the center substrate the simplest digital circuit, the binary inverter.
lead, follow the arrowhead as if current flowed in This circuit converts the binary number 1 into the
that direction and it will lead toward the positive binary number zero, or vice versa. In digital cir-
power supply. cuits the active transistors are always used as
switches. That is, they are either turned all the
F. NMOS and PMOS way on or all the way off. When a transistor is

turned on, it is usually to make a binary "0."

We said earlier that in MOSFET digital cir- When it is turned all the way off, it makes a
cuits the FETs themselves are used as load re- binary "1." Notice the high current level required
sistors because it ischeaper and easier than try- to maintain a "zero."
ing to integrate resistors into the circuit. The
semiconductor substrate on which an integrated Fig. 6-13 shows two inverter circuits which
circuit is made is either type N or type P, but it use enhancement MOSFETs for load resistors.
can not be both. It is possible to dope wells or Each "resistor" MOSFET has its gate connected
islands of the opposite kind of semiconductor into to its own drain to turn it half-on. Since the
the substrate, but it is easiest to make all one substrate is common to all transistors on the
kind of channel MOSFETs on the same sheet of chip, each transistor substrate cannot be in-
substrate. Therefore the "resistors" should also dividually wired to its own source. Therefore, all

be made of the same kind of channel FETs. substrates are shown wired to ground.

Vdd VOLTAGE
+ SUPPLY VOUT
OUTPUT
Vin Vdd
1 1
VOLTAGE INPUT LOAD RESISTOR
1 1

INPUT OUTPUT
'

> f D CURRENT
l

THROUGH RESISTOR
Nl .

> >

Fig. &12 Basic binary inverter

96
 The majority of the microprocessors and transistors themselves. The digital watch on your
microcomputers on the market are made from wrist and the calculator in your pocket are made
NMOS and PMOS circuits. The circuitry consists almost entirely from CMOS. They beat other
of vastnumbers of single kinds of MOSFETs ar- types of logic circuits in almost every respect ex-
ranged to make inverters, counters, memories, cept high speed. The advantage that makes a
and logic circuits for decoding computer instruc- digital watch practical is their low power con-
tions. sumption.

G. Complementary MOSFETs (CMOS) As long as a transistor is turned off, it is not

drawing any current and power consumption is

The almost non-existent DC gate current of a insignificant. But when a switching transistor
MOSFET and the ability to build them in both turns on, it draws at least a milliampere or so. If
N-channel and P-channel forms gave rise to com- thousands of transistors turn on at once to make
plementary MOSFET integrated circuits binary zeros, the power supply is going to have to
(CMOS). CMOS ICs are as remarkable as MOS deliver amperes to keep them all turned on.

Q - SUPPLY The conventional way of doing this is seen in

Fig. 6-13. A positive signal, a "1," turned on a
transistor. The drain-to-source voltage dropped
from high to low, making the output voltage drop
and the load current rise. While the transistor is
on, energy is being wasted in the load resistance,
even if the resistance happens to be a MOSFET.

Complementary MOSFET circuits solve this

problem by replacing the load resistor with a
complementary MOSFET which is the opposite
channel type as the original MOSFET being swit-
ched. This second MOSFET is turned on and off
by the same input signal. Since it is the comple-
ment, it responds to the input polarity the op-
posite way; it turns on whenever its complement
PMOS INVERTER turns off.

The output of the inverter is tied to the

drains of both transistors so the output is either
O + SUPPLY
connected to ground or the high side of the power
supply. In either case one transistor is always
turned off and significant source-to-drain current
never flows. A small "spike" of current flows
whenever the inverter makes a transition be-
tween high and low, but whenever the circuit is
quiet or "quiescent," the current through the in-
verter is just the leakage current. This leakage
current can be very small. An inverter as seen in
Fig. 6-14 draws less than 1 nanoampere
(0.000,000,001 ampere) when it is not actively
switching between high and low states. This ex-
plains how a battery the size of a pea can power
your watch for a year.

Just to reinforce the idea behind CMOS, we

NMOS INVERTER can compare a complementary pair of CMOS
transistors to a double pole, single throw relay.
Fig. 6-13 PMOS and NMOS inverter circuits The relay consists of two simple switches ac-
97
 Vdd
V

SOURCE
P-CHANNEL
I

1 1 1

VlN
'
DRAIN VOUT t
*~ /-\
i I >
vJ
" "
DRAIN i

4 N-CHANNEL '

V
i
t

>d
A JL
k
I i

I Id
SOURCE
t \£- TINY CURREN
SPIKES
-QUIESCENT CURRENT
1 NANO AMPERE

Fig. 6-14 Complementary MOSFET digital

inverter

tivated by the magnetic field from a voltage coil. cond gate can control the gain of the amplifier
The an iron lever arm which opens
field attracts just by varying a DC voltage on the second con-
and closes the two switches. The switches either trol gate. Because MOSFETs make very little
connect the output to ground or to the positive radio noise, they are preferred over bipolar tran-
supply. There is never an opportunity for current sistors for sensitive radio frequency amplifiers.
to travel from the positive supply to ground Dual gate MOSFETs are especially attractive for
through the switches. radio receiver circuits because a superhetrodyne
has many situations where it is desirable to
A
complementary binary inverter could also change the gain of an amplifier stage or multiply
be built with bipolar transistors. However, one signal times another.
bipolar transistors need 20 times more area to
"print" on a silicon chip and they need resistors /. Automatic Gain Control
and extra components to bias them properly.
These economic reasons further explain the An automatic gain control is a circuit that
widespread use of CMOS digital ICs. tries tokeep the signal level coming out of a
receiver constant, even though the signal
H. Dual Gate MOSFETs strength may be rising or fading. The output
audio signal from the receiver is rectified and
MOSFETs made with two control gates filtered to make a slowly varying DC signal which
allow two signals to control the source-to-drain is used to bias the second gate of a dual gate
current simultaneously. For example, if the MOSFET. The first gate is used to amplify the
MOSFET is being used as an amplifier, the se- signal while the second gate holds the average
signal level constant. Depending on the polar-
ities, it may be necessary to invert the control

signal before returning it to the second gate. By

IRON LEVER
OPERATES SWITCHES "invert" we mean turn a high voltage into a small
WHEN COIL IS
ENERGIZED voltage or vice versa.

HMMi^i
INPUT
OUTPUT
ONE SWITCH 2. Mixer Circuits
RELAY VOLTAGE OPENS WHEN
COIL EVER THE OTHER
SWITCH CLOSES
Another common application is in mixer cir-
> cuits. In superhetrodynes the local oscillator
signal is mixed with the incoming RF signal to
generate a new difference frequency which is the
Fig. &15 CMOS inverters can be compared to a intermediate frequency. The incoming RF signal
pairs of switches operated by a relay. is fed to one gate and the local oscillator signal is

98
fed to the second gate. The source-to-drain cur- SOURCE
rent is now the combination of the RF signal and o 1 c
-GLASS
the local oscillator frequency and contains the SI
new intermediate frequency component.

3. Local Oscillators

Dual gate MOSFETs are also commonly used I VN+ /// H+ J 1

for local For good superhetrodyne

oscillators. \
mixing, important to keep the local oscillator
it is V P
/// P
J
signal a constant level which does not vary over
N- / (LIGHTLY DOPED)
the frequency tuning range of the receiver. To
keep the oscillator level constant, one gate serves
as part of the oscillator feedback loop, while the N+
other is biased by a DC automatic gain control
signal derived from the local oscillator signal
itself. ^ DRAIN

Dual gate MOSFETs are becoming universal Fig. 6-16 A VMOS power transistor
low noise radio receivers. Since
in sophisticated,
most modern avionics receivers use them, you on. VMOS transistors are enhancement mode
will become very familiar with these versatile transistors so the layer(s) in the center are con-
transistors. verted to an N-channel when the device is turned
on. But when it is turned off, it behaves like a

/. VMOS Power Transistors reverse biased silicon diode which can tolerate
very high voltages without breaking down.
What does the "V" in VMOS stand for? The
"V" stands for "vertical current flow." It also Most VMOS power transistors still have a
describes the shape of a notch cut in the plane of limited gate-to-source breakdown voltage, only
the silicon chips that make up VMOS power tran- 80 but large ones can dissipate 80 watts or
volts,

sistors. more Others can tolerate large drain-to-

safely.
source voltages, 350 volts or more. Because the
The MOSFET devices we discussed above gate draws no DC current, they can be driven
directly by very low power circuits.
are not only very small in area, they have so little

depth on the silicon chip that they are practically

two dimensional. The source-to-drain current For example, a large VMOS transistor can be
flows horizontally through so little semiconduc- turned on and off with the voltage output from a
tor material, that they cannot dissipate much low power CMOS inverter. The catch is that the
heat without being damaged. A typical MOSFET VMOS gate in a large transistor has a high cap-
can dissipate about 0.2 watts or less. If the area acitance, 650 pf is typical. So for switching the

were greater, more heat dissipation could be VMOS rapidly, large currents must be jammed
achieved but a larger area of control gate would into and pulled out of this capacitance. A single

be needed. The transistors would be even slower, CMOS inverter cannot provide this much current
and there are technical difficulties in making and even several in parallel may not provide
large gate insulators uniform enough so that the enough. So, in practice, a VMOS transistor used
current does not concentrate at "hot spots." for high frequency, high power switching takes
about 1/10 the AC driving current that a bipolar
The problem is solved by putting the drain on power transistor would need to get the same per-
the bottom of the chip so that the source-to-drain formance.
current flows vertically instead of horizontally.
This greatly increases the volume of semiconduc- J. How to Protect MOS Transistors and
tor in which to dissipate the heat. The purpose of Integrated Circuits
the V notch is to propagate the effect of the gate
into the center of the silicon layers so that the The part of a MOSFET that is fragile is the
path between the source and drain can be turned dielectric insulation between the gate and the
99
channel. Since excess voltage can puncture this transistors are supplied with a small metal band
insulation, damage can be prevented by not al- crimped around the leads. If the gate is shorted to
lowing large voltages to be applied across the the drain and source, obviously the gate-to-source
gate-to-source or gate-to-drain. voltage can't rise.

When the MOSFET is installed in a circuit, MOSFET integrated circuits are sometimes
there is nearly always some resistance (conduc- supplied with the pins shorted with a thin metal
tive path) between the gate and the channel. This clip. More commonly they are supplied plugged

prevents a voltage build-up across the gate insu-
lation. So a MOSFET installed in a circuit is near-
ly always safe. The "nearly" can happen when
lightning strikes your building or the local elec-
tric lines. This is more common than you might
think and is a good reason to keep expensive
oscilloscopes and other equipment unplugged
when not in use, especially during the summer
thunderstorm season. In the author's experience,
lightning damage to test gear happens, and when
it occurs, it is usually the MOSFET components
that need replacing.
into a small piece of conductive black rubber
foam. The black color comes from carbon black
which is impregnated into the plastic or rubber
foam to make it conductive. As a general rule, if
the foam isn't black, it isn't conductive! Storing
ICs by sticking them in white styrofoam is pro-
bably worse than leaving them loose in a parts
drawer because the act of pressing them into in-
sulating foam may generate enough static elec-
tricity to damage them.

Lightning damage to ICs is rare, but static

electricity damage is common and is most likely
to occur when transistors or ICs are being han-
dled or installed in equipment. Static electricity is
usually generated by rubbing an object against
an insulator such as a rug or cloth. When two ob-
jects arerubbed together, and one or both of them
are insulators, charge is transferred from one to
the other. The direction of movement of the
charge depends on the particular materials.
Fig. 6-17 MOSFET ICs and transistors should
be stored with their leads shorted by metal clips
or conductive plastic foam.
For example, if you rub a piece of rubber with
a piece of fur, the rubber will become negatively
charged. If you rub a glass rod with a piece of silk, L. Installing MOSFETs in Circuits
the glass rod will become positively charged. In
either case the moving object acquires a large Ifyou are already seated at a bench, you are
voltage with respect to ground. Carelessly strok- up a charge than when you are
less likely to build
ing a MOSFET transistor's leads against a nylon walking around. However, if the MOSFETs have
shirt is an easy way to ruin it. the opportunity to be rubbed against insulating
surfaces, you may inadvertently charge them. To
A person in rubber soled shoes walking avoid this possiblity, it is desirable to have the
across a waxed floor over to his work bench car surface of the bench conductive and grounded. In
acquire as much as 15 kilovolts on his body. His some IC factories, the workers are even grounded
body has a capacitance of about 250 pf with re- by conductive straps worn around their wrists!
spect to ground. This capacitance can store only
0.03 joules of energy even at 15 kv, but the Before installing an IC or MOSFET in a
voltage is what is dangerous to MOSFETs. When socket, firstmake sure that the circuit is turned
he reaches over to touch an IC, a tiny spark may off. Even without static electricity, it is too easy
destroy the gate without him ever feeling a shock. to have a pin touch the wrong socket hole and
damage the IC. Before removing the IC from its
K Storing Loose MOSFET Devices package or foam protector, make an effort to
deliberately touch something grounded, like the
When storing loose MOSFET devices, al- metal bench or a metal chassis, then remove the
ways keep the leads shorted together. MOSFET IC from its conductive foam or metal clip. While
100
holding the device with one hand, use the other
hand to touch the circuit board or wiring of the
circuit in which you are installing the part. This
should discharge any static voltage difference
between you, the IC, and the circuit. Then insert
the device in its socket just as you would any IC.
In a wet, humid climate, damage due to static
electricity may be so unusual that you may decide
that all this is unnecessary. But if you are work-
ing in the Arizona desert, it can be a very expen-
Another form of built-in protection is an ar-
ray of diodes and a resistance which does not
allow the gate-to-source voltage to go below
ground or above the positive supply. This system
is used for inputs of CMOS integrated circuits.
The resistance indicated in the circuit is not a
discrete resistance as drawn, but is actually part
of the two diodes on either side of it. In spite of
these protection circuits, these integrated circuits
are still fragile and the protective steps outlined

n
earlier should be followed.
sive problem unless these precautions are taken.
ONE OF THE INVERTERS IN
M. Built-in MOSFET Protection THE CD4049 CMOS HEX + VDD
INVERTER IC.

MOSFET gates are frequently protected by

diode and resistance networks built right into the D2
IC or transistor. OUTPUT

A
simple built-in protection is a zener diode > —vWSA-
*

RESISTOR IS
connected from the gate to the substrate or
ACTUALLY PART
source. Whenever the gate voltage approaches its
breakdown voltage, the zener diode will conduct
and prevent the gate from being harmed. Many
OF DIODES D-(
>AND D 2
i
individually packaged MOS transistors are avail- 6 -vss
able with or without built-in zener protection.
Fig. 6-19 Diode/resistor input protection in a
CMOS inverter IC.
DRAIN
QUESTIONS:
GATE
> — SUBSTRATE 1. In what way is the input gate of an FET
V functionally different from the base of a

ZENER
S bipolar transistor?

DIODE
2. In bipolar transistors the current that is be-
BUILT INTO
N-CHANNEL MOSFET ing controlled by the transistor passes from
collector to emitter and passes through two
SOURCE
P-N junctions. In an FET the current that is
being controlled does not pass through any
functional P-N junctions and is therefore
"unipolar." Is this just interesting or is
DRAIN
there any advantage in having the output
GATE side of a transistor unipolar?
? i 1
1
i

3. How can a junction FET be called

L "unipolar" if it has a rectifying P-N junction

.
1

1 '

v\ \ in it? Doesn't this imply that both holes and

P-CHANNEL conduction band electrons are at work in the
MOSFET
WITH COMMON transistor?
SOURCE AND
SUBSTRATE
SOURCE
4. Suppose you needed a very accurate 2 volt
DC reference voltage for calibrating a
Fig. 6-18 Built-in zener protection for MOS tran- digital voltmeter. Using a poorly regulated
sistors. 10 volt power supply and a 2 milliampere
101
 current regulator diode, design a simple 14. What disadvantage is there in having zener
voltage source. You may assume that the diodes built into a MOSFET to protect it

voltmeter will not draw any appreciable cur- from static electricity?
rent.

5. Why does a MOSFET have higher input

resistance than a junction FET?

6. When repairing a radio circuit, it is frequent-

ly possible to replace one MOSFET
with
another similar MOSFET. Does it matter if
one is a depletion type and the other is an
enhancement type as long as they both have
the same current and voltage ratings and
the same kind of channel, N or P?

7. In an NMOS or PMOS logic circuit,

enhancement MOSFETs are used as resis-
tors by connecting the gate to the drain. If
you were designing an integrated circuit
with depletion mode MOSFETs, would you
still connect the gate to the drain to use the
depletion mode MOSFET as a resistor?

8. Why are dual gate MOSFETs especially

useful in superhetrodyne receivers?

9. You are stranded on Mars because the fuel

management computer in your lander mo-
dule has a faulty digital inverter made from
an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET
transistor. You proceed to fix the inverter
using an N-P-N bipolar transistor salvaged
from an old Viking lander. What changes
will be needed in the control gate circuit to
make the bipolar transistor compatible with
an inverter circuit like the one shown in Fig.
6-12?

10. In a complementary MOSFET inverter,

which of the two transistors is the inverter
and which is the load resistance?

11. When does a CMOS inverter draw signifi-

cant amounts of current?

12. What is there about the VMOS transistor

design that enables it to dissipate high
power safely. Do you think the VMOS tran-
sistors could be easily "printed" in with
other components in a complex integrated
circuit?

13. List four or five basic steps for installing a

MOSFET component that will help prevent
damage from static electricity.

102
 SECTION VII
Transistor Amplifiers

A. Amplifiers B. Impedance Matching

In this section we are going to describe how Before we can discuss the three basic con-
transistors are used in amplifiers. The word figurations for transistor amplifiers, you need to
"amplifier" is pretty general, but as you already understand impedance matching. Up until now
know, it means controlling a large signal with a we have talked about transistor amplifiers in
small signal. terms of the transistor controlling the current
through the load. Now we are going to look at
Amplifiers are used for a number of purposes. what role the resistance of the load plays in the ef-
They can amplify voltage, current, power, or all ficiency of the transfer of power to the load. The
three. Sometimes they are used in place of a transfer of power to the load is most efficient
transformer where a larger voltage or larger cur- when the impedance of the load is equal to the in-

rent signal is desired but more power is not im- ternal impedance of the power source.
portant. Sometimes amplifiers just serve as swit-
ches or relays. For instance, you might want to
switch large numbers of powerful lights on and
off for a disco light show or perhaps a price quota- VOLTAGE
tion display board in a stock exchange.
Rload
Sometimes an "amplifier" is just a current or OUTPUT
voltage regulator stage in a power supply. POWER

In the last section we saw how a junction FET

was used to build a current regulator diode. The
MAXIMUM
FET "amplified" its own drain-to-source current
POSSIBLE
to hold that current constant. Sometimes large OUTPUT
bipolar transistors are used as series regulators or POWER
ZERO POWER
parallel regulators to hold power supply voltage WHEN RL = °°

constant.

In a radio transmitter a powerful radio fre-

quency signal is generated and delivered to a

transmitting antenna. It is usually not practical

to generate the entire signal in one single elec-
Rl = Rsource
tronic operation. In most transmitters an oscil-
lator generates a very stable, low power RF sig- LOAD RESISTANCE. RL
nal which is then amplified a number of times to
reach the desired output power level. In this case, Fig. The optimum load resistance for
7-1

only the frequency of the original signal is transferring power to a load is reached when load
preserved by the amplifier. resistance equals source resistance.
103
1. Power Calculations 2. Resistance

To begin, we
review how power is
shall In Section 4 we talked about "perfect voltage
calculated: Power equals voltage times current. sources." If you could build such a thing, it would
have zero internal resistance so that it could sup-
P = V I ply unlimited current to low resistance loads.
Real power sources, such as amplifiers, always
Ohm's law is: V = I R have some internal resistance, even if it is just a
few ohms. Whenever the amplifier supplies cur-
If we substitute the Ohm's law expression for rent to a load, the current is also passing through
voltage into the power equation, we get: the resistance inside the amplifier. This resist
ance will dissipate power and produce heat. If the
P = ( I R ) I = I
2
R resistance inside the amplifier is larger than the
load resistance, more power will be wasted mak-
or, Power = (current) 2 X resistance ing hot transistors than will be delivered to the
load.
This last formula important because it
is

shows that power is more dependent on the size of Whenever the internal resistance of the
the current than the size of the resistance. For ex- voltage source becomes the dominant factor in
ample, if the resistance doubles, the power only limiting current to the load, there is no more ad-

doubles. But if the current doubles, the power vantage to be gained by using a smaller load
goes up 4 times. resistance in hopes of getting more current to
flow. So the two separate effects of load re
We already know that the extremes in load sistar.ce and internal resistance limiting current
resistance do not work for transferring power to a flow find their best compromise when the load
load. If the load resistance is zero ohms, a large resistance equals the internal resistance.
current will pass through the load, but nothing
+ 150 VOLTS
will slow it down and it will do no useful work. We
know that the voltage across the load will be zero
because the resistance is zero and you can't have

voltage across zero resistance. The power output

will be:

Power = (zero volts)(large current) = zero watts.

At the other extreme, if the load resistance is

infinitely large, the current through the load will

approach zero, so the transfer of power will again
be zero.

Power =

(large voltageKnearly zero current) £ zero watts 8Q

LOUDSPEAKER
From we can reason that the optimum
this
resistance for a load must be somewhere "half-
way" between these extremes, but why must it
equal the voltage source resistance?

Since power varies as the square of the cur-

rent, it follows that the load resistance should be

very low so that a large current will flow. rrn

However the resistance must not be so low that Fig. 7-2 A vacuum tube has high output im-
the power delivered is approaching zero along
pedence and needs an impedance matching trans-
with the resistance. The question is, what limits former to drive a low impedance speaker. Tran-
the current that the amplifier can deliver? sistors usually do not.
KM
 In most applications amplifiers must be C. Basic Transistor Amplifiers
carefully matched to the impedance of their loads.
Loudspeakers generally have about eight ohms Common Emitter Amplifiers
impedance. We call it impedance because there is
a lot of inductance in a loudspeaker. Transistor In all the examples of transistor amplifiers
stereo amplifiers can be designed to have about we have used so far, the emitter has been con-
that much output impedance. This makes it very nected to both the input and the output. As you
convenient to use loudspeakers directly as load might guess, an amplifier like this is called a com-
impedances. mon emitter amplifier. If a comparable amplifier
is built from a would be
field effect transistor, it
called a common
source amplifier. This configura-
tion seems the most straightforward and it is the
3. Impedance Matching Transformer most common way to use any of the amplifying
transistors.
Unfortunately, do not always tailor
loads
themselves to match the impedances of the am MEDIUM TO HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE
plifiers. In the bad old days, vacuum tubes had MEDIUM TO HIGH OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
much higher internal impedances, often thou INVERTED VOLTAGE OUTPUT
sands of ohms. For a vacuum tube to drive an
HIGH VOLTAGE GAIN
eight ohm speaker, it was necessary to match the
HIGH CURRENT GAIN
speaker to the amplifier by means of an im-
HIGH POWER GAIN
pedance matching transformer.

A transformer can convert a small AC volt

age to a large AC voltage at the expense of the
current, or it can convert a small AC current into
a large AC current at the expense of the voltage.
The latter was what was needed for the tube to
VouT
drive a loudspeaker. The power leaving a trans
former is the same or perhaps a little less than the
power entering a transformer. Unlike transistors,
transformers do not have power gain. All they
"transform" is the ratio of voltage to current.

rm
EMITTER COMMON TO
By altering the ratio of current to voltage, BOTH INPUT AND OUTPUT'
the transformer can appear to change the im-
pedance of a load. In other words, it can make a Fig. 7-3 The common emitter amplifier
3000 ohm tube "think" that an 8 ohm loud-
speaker is a 3000 ohm loudspeaker. From the The common emitter amplifier has a large
point of view of the loudspeaker, an impedance current gain, and because the current gain is high,
matching transformer can make the 3000 ohm it doesn't require very much base voltage to pro-

tube transfer power as though it were an "8 ohm duce a current large enough to control a very
vacuum tube." large current from collector-to-emitter. Since the
load resistance can be high and the power supply
voltage can be high, a common emitter amplifier
Impedance matching transfor-mers cost can have a large voltage gain. And, of course,
several dollars so this expense is usually large current and voltage gains mean that the
eliminated in a transistor stereo amplifier. Im- common emitter amplifier can have a large power
pedance matching of transmitter outputs to an gain. It is important to keep in mind that the
tennas is still a problem with transistors, common emitter amplifier is a voltage inverting
transformers, and L-C networks are used to do amplifier. The bigger the input voltage, the more
this. You will see examples of this at the end of the transistor turned on and the smaller the
is
this section. output voltage across the transistor becomes.
105
a. Output Resistance high resistance, then I ou t will be small and this
output power will be small. Nonetheless, it is this
An amplifier parameter that is important is small output current that is the whole purpose of
output resistance. This is the internal voltage the first amplifier.
source resistance we talked about earlier. In the
case of the common emitter amplifier, output re- The current going through the load resistor,
sistance is the resistance between the output lead RL does nothing useful except to change the
lt

and ground. So this is the resistance of the tran-
sistor from collector to emitter. The output resis-
tance of this amplifier can be high or low, depen-
ding on how much the transistor is turned on. If
the transistor is full on, the output resistance will
be quite low. On the other hand, if the transistor
is turned nearly off, the resistance can be quite
high. This is of course determined by the level of
the input current. High resistance outputs are
very good for producing high voltage signals, but
poor for producing high currrent signals.
voltage which drives the second amplifier, so the
second amplifier is a bonafide load on the first
amplifier. Since this new load is being driven by a
voltage source, the first amplifier must have an
output impedance. This new output impedance
must include the load resistor, Rl,i- because it is
part of the voltage source and not part of the new
load. From the point of view of the second
amplifier, the load resistor, RLi- is in parallel
with the resistance of the transistor. In summary,
when we talk about the output impedance of an
amplifier, we must think about where the power
is actually being delivered if we want to optimize

b. Common Emitter Amplifiers In Series the transfer of power.

demonstrates how two common emit-

Fig. 7-4 c. Input Impedance
ter amplifiers can be put in series to increase the
current or voltage gain, but the main point we Another important characteristic of ampli-
want to illustrate is that the output power of a fiers is the input impedance. The common emitter
transistor is not always exclusively delivered to amplifier is often built so that the base current is

the load resistance. limited by a high value base resistor, Rj. Because
this resistor usually has a high value, the input to
In Fig. 7-2 the load was a loudspeaker con- a common emitter amplifier can have quite a high
nected between the collector and the power supp- input resistance. The advantage of this is that the
ly,so there was no doubt where the power was be- input to this amplifier will draw very little cur-
ing delivered, but in Fig. 7-4, some power is rent and will not put much load on preceeding
diverted from the collector to drive the next amplifier stages. This means that very little
amplifier stage. It is true that if R3 and R4 have power is needed to drive the amplifier and if

«L1 <L2

y—yvw
N-P-N -

'out
» R3

>
VOUT
V.N

> ^> »
J ^
1st AMPLIFIER 2nd AMPLIFIER
Fig. 7-4 Two common emitter amplifiers in series. The load on the first amplifier is not really Rlj, it is
R-i Rj, and the second transistor.
106
necessary, several different amplifiers can be 1. Negative Feedback
driven by one preceding stage. This last situation
is unusual in audio or radio circuits, but common An important feature of the emitter follower
important to notice that a
in logic circuits. It is is that ithas built in negative feedback that tends
high input resistance causes the amplifier to have whenever it trys to turn
to turn off the transistor
a high output impedance! The transistor can't be on. In order to turn on a transistor, the voltage
turned full-on when the current into the base is from the base to emitter must exceed some thres
limited by very large impedances. hold so that base current will flow.

D. The Emitter Follower (Common Collector The input to the emitter follower amplifier
Amplifier) differs from the common emitter amplifier
because, in addition to the base-to-emitter
This amplifier configuration is similar to the threshold voltage, the input voltage must also ex-
common emitter but the load resistance is moved ceed the voltage across the load resistance. This
from the collector side of the transistor to the means that for a given level of input voltage, the
emitter side. transistor is much less likely to turn on. And,
when the transistor does turn on and current
As seen on a circuit diagram, the collector flows through the load resistor, this increases the
isn't common to both the input and the output, so threshold voltage that the ba*se-to-ground voltage
most people prefer to call this the emitter must exceed. In other words, it tends to turn the
The output of this amplifier follows the
follower. transistor right back off again. This is the same
emitter voltage because, as the transistor turns principle as the current regulator diode which is
on, the voltage across the load rises. Emitter made out of a JFET and a resistor in series with
follower amplifiers do not invert the input signal the source. Whenever current increases through
voltage. Common emitter amplifiers invert the in- the transistor, the extra voltage across the
put voltage because a turned on transistor has lit- resistor tends to turn the transistor back off
tle voltage across it. But in the emitter follower again.
amplifier, the output voltage is across the load.
Therefore, when the transistor is really turned on, In the emitter follower, the result of this feed-
large currents will make large voltages when they back is that the voltage across the output can
flow through the load resistor. So with the emit- never exceed the voltage across the input. In
ter follower, the output voltage is large when the other words, the voltage gain of an emitter
input voltage is large. follower amplifier is always less than one. On the
other hand, the current gain of an emitter
HIGHEST INPUT IMPEDANCE follower is as good or better than that of a com-
LOWEST OUTPUT IMPEDANCE mon emitter amplifier. Since the output signal
NON-INVERTING OUTPUT voltage is about the same as the input voltage,
NO VOLTAGE GAIN and the current gain can be very large, 50 or
E
HIGH CURRENT GAIN more, it is still possible to have a large power gain
+ gUPPLY
HIGH POWER GAIN approaching 50.

2. Input And Output Impedance

Emitter followers have the highest input im-

VOUT pedance of any of the three basic amplifier con-
figurations. The input current must not only go
through the base current limiting resistor, Ri,
and the transistor base-to-emitter junction, but it
must also go through the load resistor in order to
/777 arrive at the common lead or "ground." These
three impedances add together to produce a very
Fig. 7-5 The emitter follower (common collector
high input impedance.
amplifier)
107
 Finally, emitter followers have the lowest because the base-to-col lector voltage drop can be
output impedance of the three basic amplifier very large. Remember that it is the collector-to-
configurations. Like the common emitter ampli base junction where most of the voltage drop oc-
fier, this output impedance depends a great deal curs. Of all the amplifier configurations the com-
on the resistance in series with the base, Ri- The mon base configuration has the lowest input im-
smaller this resistance is, the more easily the pedance and the highest output impedance.
transistor turned on and the lower the tran-
is Because the output current and the input current
sistor resistance will be. This low output re- are essentially the same current, they are obvious-
sistance explains why this amplifier is often used ly in phase with each other.
in place of an impedance matching transformer; it
is very good for converting a high voltage, low LOWEST INPUT IMPEDANCE
current signal into a low voltage, high current HIGHEST OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
signal.
NON-INVERTING OUTPUT + VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE GAIN
SUPPLY
To summarize, emitter follower amplifiers
NO CURRENT GAIN
have three big advantages over common emitter
HIGH POWER GAIN > Rl
amplifiers. They have the highest input im-
pedance and the lowest output impedance of the
three basic amplifier configurations and they do
not invert the voltage signal. The chief disadvan- ' ' k *\ _
/ nTn /
tage is that they have no voltage gain, only cur-
rent gain. The output voltage is nearly, but not
quite as large as the input voltage.
VOUT

E. The Common Base Amplifier

This configuration is weird and you may find

it become used to However, it is com-
difficult to .
»
monly used as the final amplifier stage in modern rrn
radio transmitters, so there is no way to avoid LOAD CURRENT MUST PASS THROUGH THE
learning about it. INPUT SIGNAL VOLTAGE SOURCE RESISTANCE.

Fig. 7-6 The common base amplifier (grounded

We have always talked about the base as be-
base amplifier)
ing the control lead that accepts the input signal.
In Fig. 7-6 it looks as though the emitter is serv-
ing as the control lead! Actually the base current The circuit in Fig. 7-6 is simplified to make
is still determining how much current flows from the circuit easier understand. The load
to
collector to emitter, so the transistor is behaving resistance is connected between the power supply
as before. and collector, just like the common emitter cir-
cuit. The base is "common" to both the input and
Perhaps the simplest way to look at this am output and this gives the amplifier its name. This
plifier is that it is the opposite of the emitter amplifier is also known as the grounded base
follower in terms of what it does. This amplifier amplifier, which assumes that the base is actually
can be thought of as a voltage step-up trans- connected to ground.
former with high voltage gain but no current
gain. It also has good power gain because even In spite of the fact that the base is grounded,
though the current gain is less than one, the the emitter current is responsible for producing a
voltage gain can be very large. small base current which turns the collector-to-
emitter current on and off. Let's figure out what
In this amplifier, the current that flows into kind of input signal would be necessary to make
the input is the same current that flows through the transistor in Fig. 7-6 turn on. Since it is an
the load resistor, so there is no way that the cur- N-P-N transistor, the base must be positive with
rent can be amplified. Actually, it loses a little respect to the emitter in order for a base current
current to the base so the current gain is always to flow. If we put a big positive input signal on
less than one. The voltage gain can be very large the emitter, positive to N will not conduct and the
L08
transistor will remain off. However, if the signal base voltage several volts above ground, the tran-
on the emitter is negative with respect to ground, sistor will turn on when the input voltage is below
then the base will be positive with respect to the that of the base, but still above the level of
transistor emitter. Base current will flow and ground. If an input signal varies between the new
turn on the transistor. So as the circuit is drawn, base voltage and ground, it can control the tran-
a negative, or below ground signal is needed to sistor completely from full on to full off, provided
turn on the transistor. of course, that the new base voltage is high
enough. The new base voltage is established by
Now look at the output signal voltage
let's the voltage division across the resistors Ri and
which istaken off the collector. When the tran- R 2 The capacitor Ci holds the voltage across R 2
.

sistor is turned off, the output voltage will be constant so that the base voltage will stay cons-
equal to the supply voltage. But when the tran- tant even when there are sudden changes in the
sistor begins to turn on, the output voltage will input signal voltage, Vs .

drop downward. Notice that while the output

voltage is dropping downward, the input voltage Now look at the input and output impedances
on the emitter is also dropping downward, drop- of the common
base amplifier. Like any of the
ping down below ground, that is. So, even though amplifiers, the output current must complete the
the polarities are disturbing, the voltage signal is pathway from the supply voltage all the way
not inverted. down to ground. In this case the current flows
through the load resistor, through the transistor,
SUPPLY VOLTAGE and finally must flow through the input signal
9 +V CC source. In order for a large current to flow
through the load resistance, there can not be very
much resistance in the input source, R s because ,

the current must also pass through that barrier.

This is why the input driving source must have a
low impedance for this circuit to work well. If the
"source" must have a low impedance to transfer
power, then we can reason that the amplifier
must have a low input impedance to receive
power efficiently. Since the source impedance is
added onto the impedance of the transistor and
VOUT load resistor, this explains why this circuit has
the highest output impedance of any of the three
basic amplifier circuits.

F. Direct Coupled Transistor Amplifiers

rrn transistor will turn
ON WHEN V| N GOES Often two or more of the basic amplifiers are
THE CAPACITOR CHARGES B ELOW
UP TO THE VOLTAGE combined to produce a single amplifier with a dif-
AND
ACROSS R2
SERVES AS A BATTERY
TO HOLD THE BASE
VOLTAGE ABOVE GROUND
f— ferent combination of characteristics than can be
obtained from one of the three basic amplifiers.
Suppose a common emitter amplifier is needed
with ten times more gain than a single amplifier
Fig. 7-7 A practical common base amplifier can produce. One way to accomplish this is to put
two common emitter stages in series, like Fig.
Having the input signal outside the range of 7-6. But often the same goal can be achieved with

the power supply voltage would require a second,
below ground, power supply. The common base
amplifier can be modified so that the transistor
will turn on when the input signal is above
ground. A method of doing this is shown in Fig.
7-7. The network R lf R 2 and Ci can be thought of
,
as a rechargeable battery which is connected be
tween the base and ground. By establishing the
109
fewer parts by using a Darlington transistor.
Two or three transistors can be wired to-
gether so that the base of one transistor is driven
by the collector of another. The emitters are wired
together and the result is a device that can be
used like a normal transistor, but has extremely
high gain. Since the collector current of one tran-
sistor becomes the base current of another, two or
even three transistors can produce current gains
a high as 10,000 or more. Transistors wired this
way by the factory resemble ordinary transistors
but are called Darlington transistors.

-V cc

Q
Vout
PN-Ps

> VWVA
Vout

R2 Y J \ Y
N-P-N P-N-P
COMMON COMMON
EMITTER EMITTER
> >
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER Fig. 7-9 A direct coupled amplifier stage using
USING A DARLINGTON TRANSISTOR P-N-P and N-P-N transistors.

mon in switching applications where the output

does not have to be high fidelity or linear. The
distortion of an amplifier, its speed as a switch,
the power required to run it, and its frequency
response depend, not just on which transistor
lead is "common," but on where the transistor is

<2 operating on its volt-ampere characteristics.

G. Basic Field Effect Transistor Amplifiers

Before we look at biasing transistors for

TRIPLE TRANSISTOR
DARLINGTON
Fig. 7-8 Darlington transistor combinations
make a super high gain transistor.
Fig. 7-9 shows an amplifier stage that is a
combination of two common emitter stages in
which one transistor is N-P-N and the other is
P-N-P. This amplifier stage has much higher gain
than a single stage could have and it does not in-
vert the voltage signal. Moreover, it uses fewer
parts than two conventional common emitter
stages would. Many hybrid combinations like
this are possible between any of the three basic
amplifier designs and the use of complementary
transistors. We won't attempt to cover all the
possible combinations, but at least you won't be
surprised when you see a circuit like this in a
diagram. As a rule these hybrids are more com-
110
specific purposes, we will look at the three basic
FET amplifiers.
Fig. 7-10 shows MOSFET transistors, but
they could just as well be junction FETs. We can
summarize by saying that they are like the
bipolar versions, except that the names match
the FET terminals: common source, common
drain, and common gate amplifiers. The char-
acteristics of these amplifiers are also about the
same as the bipolar versions.
H. Alphabet Classification of Amplifiers
The "alphabet classification" of amplifier
designs is hard to remember, but it is widely used
and does give an indication of the amplifier
linearity and the intended use for the amplifier.
We have already classified transistor amplifiers
 in terms of which lead is common to both the in-
put and output terminals. These common classi-
fications tell us about input and output im-
pedances and current and voltage gains. Another
way to describe amplifiers is by the frequency
range they are designed to amplify. For example,
audio amplifiers generally cover a band of fre-
quencies from about 20 to 20,000 Hz. Video
amplifiers cover a wide band from about 60 Hz up
to about 5 MHz. Radio frequency amplifiers are
designed to amplify frequencies anywhere from a
few kHz up to thousands of MHz. Usually RF
amplifiers just amplify a single frequency, but

rm sometimes they are designed to amplify wide

COMMON-SOURCE CONFIGURATION FOR MOSFETs
bands. Amplifiers which can amplify wide bands
of frequencies are quite linear. That is, if an
amplifier is capable of amplifying many different
frequencies and the relative amplitude of each is
faithfully reproduced at the output, then the
amplifier has low distortion. On the other hand, a
tuned amplifier is designed to amplify just one
frequency and is very non-linear because any
other frequency will be greatly attenuated.

/. Linearity and Distortion

Before we go farther, let's look more closely

at signal waveforms. A
pure sine wave has only a
single frequency. It can be shown by lots of math
rrn and arm waving that any other alternating wave-
SOURCE FOLLOWER (COMMON DRAIN) CONFIGURATION form is composed of more than one frequency. For
example, a violin playing a single note sounds like
a "pure" tone. But if the sound is displayed on a
frequency spectrum analyzer, the sound is actual-
ly a combination of several frequencies, some of
Id SUBSTRATE
which are just as loud as the basic note the
Rl
violinist is playing! It is these overtones or har-
sN\W O +
monics which make a violin sound different from
a piano.

Fourier, a Frenchman, showed that any alter-

Vout nating waveform (AC) can be duplicated by the
sum of a number of pure sinewaves even though it
may take an unlimited number of them to pro-
duce a perfect copy of the original. In Fig. 7-11
the note "A" on a violin has 6 vertical bars. The
\ rm
\_ DRAINTO-SOURCE CURRENT MUST ALSO
stereo amplifier must be able to amplify each of
these six sine wave frequencies accurately with-
FLOW THROUGH INPUT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE, Rs
out changing the frequency or relative sizes of
any of them. If the amplifier fails to make a
COMMON GATE CONFIGURATION
perfect copy of any of these six signals, the
Fig. 7-10 Enhancement MOSFET basic ampli- amplifier is non-linear and is guilty of distortion.
fiers. Notice that if the distortion were carefully
engineered, it would be possible to make a piano
sound like a violin and vice versa!
Ill
 VIOLIN FREQUENCY SPECTRUM If the characteristic were perfectly linear, the
LU plot would be a straight line as is shown for a gain
O of 100. The slope of this line (the degree of
(hfe )

_i o O u o o
< z z z z z tilt) is equal to the transistor current gain. Distor-
a 2O o o o o o tion in the amplified signal will occur to the
HI — s 2 2 2 s
< 1.0- SZ cc cc degree that the line is not a straight line.
>
<o <
I
i CC
<
cc
< <
cc
<
a2 X X I X However, if we confine the amplification to the
,s- z cc
=> <
1
"O .c
c
1

-1 range 0.25 to 1.5 milliamperes of base current,

U. X CN ; 35 S
UJ
cc
n . 1
1
\
i
i
i
1
w
^* then the collector current will be a good reproduc-
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 tion of the base current, but it will be 120 times
880 1320 1760 2200
440H Z larger.
FREQUENCY-HERTZ
"A" IS NOTE
BEING PLAYED How can the input signal be confined to a cer-
tain range of base current? By definition alter-
PIANO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM nating current is symmetrical about the zero cur-
rent axis. It looks as though we could only am-
a.
plify part of the positive half of the sine wave
<
alternating current waveform. The input signal
1.0
can be moved to the center of the operating range
>
by adding a bias current to the input signal. This
is shown graphically in Fig. 7-13.
cc — I
1
J_ 1
_L 1

A 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

440H Z I

"A" IS NOTE FREQUENCY-HERTZ

BEING PLAYED COLLECTOR WAVEFORM
Fig. 7-11 Frequency spectra of a piano and violin

J. Class A Amplifier

The class A amplifier is an excellent design

for high fidelity applications. We saw earlier that
many transistors have volt-ampere characteris-
tics that are quite linear over a certain operating
range. This can be demonstrated by plotting base
current versus collector current. A graph like this
is called the transfer characteristic.

2N3724 NPN SILICON Fig. 7-13 Class A amplifier operation

TRANSISTOR
The bias is added by providing a fixed
amount of bias current that is always present
even when the amplifier is not processing a
signal. In the drawing we have added 0.75
milliampere to the base current. This means that
even when the amplifier is not actually amplify-
ing a signal, there will be a collector current of
about 90 milliamperes. This point is called the
quiescent current. The maximum input signal
would be limited to about 0.6 mA peak so that the
BASE CURRENT — b signal will stay within the most linear part of the
MILLIAMPERES
operating range.
Fig. 7-12 Collector current rcrsus base current
112
 The disadvantage of Class A is that the tran- Another feature of capacitor coupling is that
sistor always acts like a resistor and always dis- the capacitors can be coupled between any two
sipates power. Theoretically, Class A amplifiers DC voltage levels. The capacitors will charge to
could be as much as 25% efficient when amplify- those levels without changing the average DC
ing sine waves. In practice, the maximum useful voltages on either side of the capacitor. An
power that comes out of the amplifier is rarely amplifier that couples the AC signal in and out of
more than 10 or 20% of the power consumed. the transistor with load resistor and coupling
With the waveforms shown in Fig. 7-13, the effi- capacitor is called an RC coupled amplifier.
ciency is about 10%.
K. Class B Amplifiers

A class A common emitter audio amplifier
seen in Fig. 7-14. The bias current (0.75 mA) is
added to the base by means of the resistor R^.
Since Ri is always connected to the positive sup
ply, this bias is always there and is always turn-
ing the transistor at least part way on. The se-
cond resistor, R2, insures that the transistor can
turn off once it has turned on. The audio signal is
coupled into the base by means of the capacitor,
Ci.The output signal leaves the amplifier by
means of the capacitor, C2. These capacitors cou-
ple AC current in and out of the amplifier, but be
cause DC cannot pass through capacitors, the
average DC current that biases the amplifier is
not changed by the input signal. The AC coupled
through the capacitor temporarily raises and
lowers the input current as the AC alternates
polarity.
10 VOLTS
LOW RESISTANCE
NEEDED TO PASS THE
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR
CURRENT, =170MA
50Q = Rl
is All bipolar transistor amplifiers which are
made from one transistor and have a linear re
sponse characteristic (high fidelity) are class A
amplifiers. The disadvantage of class A is that
the transistor is on all the time and wastes power
and generates heat. Class B amplifiers are design-
ed to be more efficient than class A amplifiers.
They are almost always made from pairs of tran-
sistors which are biased so that each transistor
only amplifies one half of the AC signal wave
form. The two transistor outputs are then com-
bined again to produce the complete amplified
output. In this way zero collector current can
represent zero current in the original waveform.
Since the base and collector currents are zero
when the input signal is zero, power is not wasted
when the amplifier is not actually passing cur-
rent. For example, a battery powered radio con-
sumes more battery energy in its audio output
stage than all the rest of the receiver circuitry
combined. A class A amplifier in a battery
IS
powered radio would be high fidelity, but would
drain the batteries very quickly. In practice class
B amplifiers can deliver power to the loudspeaker
(or other load) with up to 50% efficiency.

Each transistor in a class B amplifier is

2N3724
1 M fd
> Vout
operating in the region of low base currents where
linearity can be fair, but is never excellent.
SILICON
BIG COUPLING However, both halves of the amplifier are distort-
CAPACITORS ing their respective halves of the signal the same
ARE NEEDED
TO PASS LOW way, but with opposite polarities. It turns out
AUDIO FREQUENCIES that most of the distortion is cancelled out when
the two half outputs are recombined to make a

* single output signal. The two transistors resem-

bletwo men sawing a log with a whip saw. One
pushes while the other pulls. For this reason
these amplifiers are often called push-pull
BASE-TO-EMITTER DC VOLTAGE
ISDETERMINED PRIMARILY BY amplifiers.
THE SILICON P-N JUNCTION POTENTIAL.

Fig. 7-14 A common emitter, class A, RC cou- There are twocommon ways to build a class
pled audio amplifier B The transformer design is the way it
amplifier.
used to be done with vacuum tubes and is still
found in transistor output stages. The signal to
113
be amplified must be split into signals which will
turn on the two transistors during opposite po-
larity halves of the cycles. This is easily done with
a transformer. The signal to be amplified is fed in-
to the primary. The transformer secondary is cen-
ter tapped and grounded. Since the polarity of the
signals at the opposite ends of the secondary are
always opposite, the two transistors will be turn-
ed on during alternate half cycles. Since the bases
are grounded through the transformer winding,
the average DC current through the bases will
average out to zero. The outputs of the two tran-
sistors are again recombined in another trans-
former. This time the load resistor has been
replaced by the two inductances of the two halves
BASES ARE GROUNDED
THROUGH TRANSFORMER
WINDING
"PUSH-PULL" TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS B AMPLIFIER
BASES ARE GROUNDED
THROUGH RESISTORS
N-PN
P-N-P
"PUSH-PULL" COMPLEMENTARY CLASS B AMPLIFIER
Fig. 7-15 Practical class
114
of the output transformer primary. The supply
voltage goes to the center of the transformer
primary so that it can supply both transistors
from the same point. Each transistor output cur-
rent produces a magnetic field in the output
transformer and the two fields combine to pro-
duce a single AC waveform which is induced into
the secondary.
Amore modern way of building class B am-
is to use complimentary transistors to
plifiers
make a complementary transistor amplifier. This
scheme resembles the CMOS FET logic inverter
we studied in the last section. When a signal goes
positive, it turns on one transistor but turns the
T
B amplifiers
 COLLECTOR CURRENT WAVEFORM

EXACTLY Vi OF THE —
ORIGINAL WAVEFORM
IS AMPLIFIED

Fig. 7-16 Class B amplifier operation

L. Class C Amplifier

other off. When the signal goes negative, the The class C amplifier is very non-linear and is
reverse happens. The two output signals are sum- intended for efficient power amplification where a
med at one point to make the single output wave- powerful signal is needed at a single frequency.
form. The two complementary transistors must Final amplifiers in radio transmitters are often
be carefully matched in their parameters so that class C. The official definition of a class C
they amplify equally but with opposite polarities. amplifier one where the collector current is zero
is

Even their distortion and non-linearity must be for most of the input sine wave cycle. The output
equal! Manufacturers make special mated pairs from the transistor is a "train" or series of short,
of transistors designed for this purpose. rounded, current pulses which have a repetition
rate equal to the desired frequency. Since these
pulses are not a perfect sine wave, they contain
Push-pull amplifiers can also be designed to many harmonics which are filtered out by the
run class A by biasing the bases. Class A push- tuned circuit (LC resonant circuit) in theoutput
pulls have the distortion cancelling advantages of circuit of the amplifier. In face, these harmonics
the class B and can exceed a single transistor are so prominent, that it is possible to filter out
Class A amplifier in linearity. Unfortunately they the basic frequency and produce useful power at
still waste power because both transistors are twice or three times the frequency of the fun-
always biased on. damental pulse rate!

115
 AMPLIFIER
QUIESCENT
POINT
(CANT BE
LOWER
THAN
ZERO)

TRANSISTOR IS ON
LESS THAN 50 %
OF THE TIME.

Fig. 7-1 7 Class C amplifier operation

SUPPLY VOLTAGE

DC AMMETER ANTENNA
(ADJUST Ci FOR LOAD
A ) MINIMUM
CURRENT)
SUPPLY
BYPASS
CAPACITOR ^C 3 \f

V in
IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
TRANSFORMER

EMITTER
Rl
RESISTOR

RF BYPASS
CAPACITOR
Fig. 7-18 A class C RF amplifier
116
 Fig. 7-17 shows how the class C transistor The class C amplifier is just like this. The
amplifier strongly biased so that the transistor
is oscillation in the tuned LC circuit must be sus-
conducts only during the high positive peaks of tained by carefully timed, short current pulses
the input RF sine wave. So much for the usual flowing through the transistor. Most of the time
class C amplifier expanation. the transistor is turned off, so most of the time it

isn't even in the circuit. In the same way the

A better way to look at tuned amplifiers is adult only contacts the child and swing for a
that the output circuit contains an tuned cir- LC small part of the swing travel. The voltage on the
cuit in which an oscillation has already been collector is continually varying up and down in a
established. The LC tuned circuit can be com- large sine wave even when the transistor is turn-
pared to a child's swing. The swing moves back ed off because connected to the oscillating LC
it is

and forth with a natural oscillation frequency circuit. Whenever the

collector voltage drops
which depends on the length of the rope and the toward the low side of the sine wave, the tran-
acceleration of gravity. If the child doesn't sistor turns on briefly and lets a short pulse of
"pump," the oscillation will eventually be current into the tuned circuit. Because the tran-
damped out (attenuated) by friction. In the LC sistor is on only when the collector-to-emitter
circuit the "friction" is resistance which voltage is low, the current flowing through the
dissipates the energy in the oscillation by conver- dynamic resistance of the transistor is low in ac-
ting it to heat. An adult pushing the swing can cordance with Ohm's law. Since current and volt-
sustain the oscillation with light pushes age are low, the power that is dissipated in the
whenever the swing reaches the extreme end of transistor as waste heat is low. The efficiency of
its travel. The pushes on the swing must be these amplifiers can be high, 65% or better in real
carefully timed. If the adult tries to push when amplifiers.
the swing is coming toward him, the oscillation
will be decreased instead of increased. If the If the input frequency isn't matched to the
pushes are somewhat out of phase, a large oscilla- natural oscillation frequency of the tuned circuit,
tion can still be sustained, but only at the expense the collector voltage and collector current will be
of a great deal of extra energy because much of it high simultaneously and the power consumed in
is being wasted. the transistor will be very high. When this hap-

COLLECTOR VOLTAGE COLLECTOR VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A

CLASS C AMPLIFIER

SINE WAVE
OSCILLATION IN
LC CIRCUIT

111 TRANSISTOR TURNS ON

-
a. ONLY WHEN COLLECTOR
z>
o VOLTAGE IS VERY LOW
cc
O
H-
TIME
O
LU _ CURRENT PULSE
^r
]

PUSHES LC
O OSCILLATOR "SWING"
o
TIME

INPUT POWER = AVERAGE OF VOLTAGE

[ j
TIMES

AVERAGE OF CURRENT E =j DURING CONDUCTION

CONDUCTION ANGLE = 25% OF 360° = 90° IN THIS EXAMPLE

Fig. 7-19 Graphs of collector voltage and current
in a class C amplifier.
117
pens, the output will still be the driving frequen-
cy of the pulses but a great deal of energy will be
expended to stifle the natural resonant frequency
of the tuned circuit. In vacuum tube amplifiers
you can actually tune the LC circuit to the driv-
ing frequency by watching the anode in the tube
go from red hot when out of resonance to a cool
black when resonance is reached! Transistors are
much more easily destroyed by overheating and
this is why vacuum tube amplifiers are still found
in transmitter output stages, especially in ama-
teur radio transmitters and large broadcast sta-
tions.
The proper indicator for tuning a class C
amplifier is a DC ammeter in series with the col-
lector power supply. The resonant frequency of
the L-C circuit is adjusted for minimum average
current flowing into the collector. Even though
the current is actually a series of short DC pulses,
the average of these pulses seen as a steady
is
drain of DC current from the power supply. In
order to tune the amplifier, the capacitor Ci is ad-
justed for minimum DC collector current. The
meter needle dips sharply when resonance is
reached so this process is called "dipping the
final."
Our drawings of voltage waveforms on the
C amplifiers has probably given
collectors of class
you the idea that it is practical to look at these
waveforms with an oscilloscope with RF ampli-
fiers. First, large transmitters often have over
500 volts on the plates of vacuum tubes and your
oscilloscope may not be able to tolerate that. The
second problem is that the probe often has a
significant capacitance with respect to ground.
This can range from 10 pf to 100 pf. If you put
this on the collector of a VHF RF amplifier or a
mixer in a high frequency receiver, this capac-
itance will add to the capacitance in the LC filter
and detune the circuit. If you do manage to get
the amplifier tuned with the scope probe in place,
it will no longer be tuned as soon as you remove
the probe. A low frequency receiver, such as an
ADF, may not be significantly affected by this.
In summary' the collector circuitry in
Class C amplifier is designed to meet three goals:
1. It filters or resonates the output signal by
means of an LC resonant circuit.
2. It indicates when the resonant circuit is
ed by means of a DC current meter.
3. It matches the output impedance of the
amplifier with the load which is often an
antenna.
All the basic features of a common emitter
Class C amplifier are illustrated in Fig. 7-18. In
the output circuit the LC resonant circuit con-
sists of Li and Ci. Ci is tunable so that the reso-
nant circuit can be tuned to the repetition rate of
the current pulses from the collector. The ampere
meter in between the LC circuit and the power
supply indicates when the DC current is mini-
mum and the LC circuit is properly tuned.
Like any amplifier, a transmitter output
stage should match the impedance of its load. In
Fig. 7-18 the load is a transmitting antenna and
these generally have an impedance between 50
and 300 ohms. This impedance is usually entirely
resistive because the antenna is also tuned to the
operating frequency. The antenna is resistive
because energy sent out into a properly tuned
antenna leaves the antenna permanently. The
antenna energy does not reflect back into the col-
lector circuit as it would if the antenna behaved
like an inductor or a capacitor. Saying it another
way, the antenna AC current does not lag or lead
the antenna AC voltage, but behaves like a re-
sistor in which the current is in phase with the
AC voltage.
In Fig. 7-18 the antenna impedance is match-
ed to the transistor impedance by means of an im-
pedance matching transformer. The inductor Li
is part of the L-C resonant circuit but is also the
primary of the impedance matching transformer.
It is important to realize that any change in the
impedance of the antenna will reflect back into
the resonant circuit and change the resonant fre-
quency. For example, suppose part of the antenna
were broken off or damaged by a windstorm. The
antenna resonant frequency will change and it
will behave more like an inductor or capacitor
than it did before, depending on how the antenna
was altered.
Now let's look at the input side of the circuit
the in Fig. 7-18 to see why the amplifier operates in
the class C mode. The input circuit design has at
least three goals:
1. Even though the input signal to the tran-
sistor may
be a sine wave, the sine wave
tun- signal must turn on the transistor only dur-
ing the highest, above ground voltage peaks
118
 of the sine wave. For an N-P-N transistor
these are the positive peaks. For a P-N-P tran-
sistor these are the negative peaks.
2. The input circuit should not waste a large
amount of power to drive it. That is, the input
current peaks should go into the base and not
heat up resistors.
3. The biasing system should decrease the
potential output power of the amplifier stage
as little as possible.
In Fig. 7-18 the base is connected to ground
by a radio frequency choke inductor (RFC). From
the point of view of the RF input driving signal,
the RFC a very high impedance, so the base
is
looks like it is isolated from ground. In other
words, the RFC doesn't attenuate the input
sine wave signal to the base. This satisfies the se-
cond However, from the point of view of DC
goal.
current, the base is grounded, through the radio
frequency choke. After all, chokes are just a coil
of copper wire. This means that any voltage on
the base which drives current into the base must
be greater than whatever DC voltage difference
there happens to be between the emitter and
ground.
Goal number one, turning on the transistor
just during voltage peaks, is accomplished by the
emitter resistor, R^ The current pulses going
through Rx are all in one direction. The voltage
across Ri is a sort of pulsating DC that resembles
the output of an unfiltered DC half wave power
supply of the kind we studied in Section 2. Just
like the half-wave power supplies, the DC can be
made more continuous by putting a large capac-
itor across the load. In this case the "load" is R\.
Now we have a fixed, DC voltage difference be-
tween the emitter and ground. The input voltage
must be greater than this voltage in order to turn
on the transistor. By using the correct resistance
for Rj, the transistor will turn on only during the
voltage peaks. And, because the emitter to
ground voltage depends on the collector current,
this "bias" voltage will adjust itself to the input
signal. A
very large input signal will try to turn
on the transistor over most of the input sine wave
cycle. But this will increase the collector current
which will make
a bigger emitter-to-ground volt-
age that the input sine wave voltage will have to
overcome. This is negative feedback just as we
discussed earlier for emitter follower amplifiers.
Goal number three, not sacrificing the poten-
tialoutput power of the transistor, is achieved by
capacitor C 2 If C 2 were omitted, the amplifier
.
would have two "loads;" the antenna, which is
where we want the power to go, and the emitter
resistor which gets hot and wastes useful power.
The capacitor holds the average emitter to
ground voltage down so that more of the supply
voltage can appear across the load and less ap-
pears across the resistor during the current
pulses.
The power supply by-passcapacitor, C3, has a
similar function to C2
holds the voltage across
. It
the power supply and meter constant so that
large pulses of current will not decrease the
voltage across the transistor and LC circuit. The
RF meter and power supply have inductance and re-
sistance in the wires that connect the circuit
together. This is part of the voltage source im-
pedance which limits the maximum current
pulses that the supply can deliver. Putting a by-
pass capacitor across the supply averages the
current from the power supply. Now much of the
peak current in the pulses can come from the
capacitor which recharges during the time inter-
vals when the transistor is turned off. The by-
pass capacitor must be as physically close to the
LC circuit as possible, otherwise it will not
"bypass" the resistance and inductance in the
wires.
Bear in mind that Fig. 7-18 is just one exam-
ple of a class C amplifier. Now that we have you
checked out on emitter resistor biasing, I hate to
mention that sometimes the emitter resistor is
omitted. In some amplifiers the base-to-
emitteremitter junction voltage provides enough
voltage offset to make the transistor operate in
class C without the emitter resistor. Often the
emitter resistance is so small, 0.05 ohms, there is
no need to bypass it with the emitter capacitor,
C2. Class C amplifiers can also be built from
VMOS FETs in common gate or common source
They can have "pi" or "T" output
configuration.
impedance matching networks. They can also be
biased by a separate power supply, like grand-
father's "C batteries" in his 1920 vacuum tube
radio. The only feature that all class C amplifiers
have in common is that the transistors or tubes
turn on less than 50% of the sine wave cycle.
119
M. Class AB Amplifiers tremely non-linear and can't be used directly for
generating RF power or linear amplification of
We could have covered this before class C, analog signals.
but if we had, you wouldn't understand why class
AB amplifiers are useful. Class AB amplifiers are O. Class E Amplifiers
tuned amplifiers, much like the class C amplifier.
They are biased halfway between class A and Class E amplifiers are a relatively new inven-
class B so that when driven by a sine wave, the tion (1970) and are not widely used. They can be
transistor conducts somewhere between 50% and used in most of the applications where class C
100% of the cycle. amplifiers are used. Class E amplifiers are a
tuned, non-linear, amplifier with most of features
AB amplifiers are more efficient than
Class of a class C amplifier. However, the transistor is

class A
but less efficient than class B or C. De-
pending on the percentage of time the transistor
is on, a typical class AB amplifier might achieve
25% efficiency. The advantage of class
it can operate over a fairly wide frequency range
with fair efficiency without being retuned every
time the frequency is shifted. Generally a radio
transmitter has several stages of amplification
between the oscillator which generates the basic
frequency and the final amplifier which drives the
antenna. Most of the power consumed by the
transmitter is consumed by the final amplifier, so
it is most important that this stage be as efficient
as possible. The low power "buffer" stages can be
class AB or even class A with little loss in overall
efficiency and a great gain in engineering and tu-
ning convenience.
Since the class AB turned on over
amplifier is
half the cycle, say 75%, on the tuned cir-
it relies
cuit to produce only 25% of the output sine wave.
If the output circuit is perfectly tuned to the in-
put sine wave frequency, the efficiency will be
less than that of a class C stage because current is
still flowing through the transistor during most
of the cycle, including parts of the cycle
collector-to-emitter voltage is rather high.
other hand, if the tuned output is off resonance, it
will not greatly reduce the efficiency because the
transistor was turned on most of the time
anyway.
N. Class D Amplifiers
You have already met the class
It is simply the use of a power transistor for a
switch. In other words, the transistor is either
turned full off or full on. Since the output is a
square wave, very little time is spent with current
flowing through the transistor, while significant
voltage is across the transistor.
turned fully on and off like a class D amplifier.
Because the transistor turns on and off like a
switch, the efficiency can approach 100% in real
AB is that amplifiers. Tiny transistors can deliver hundreds
of watts with this design. Of course, the catch is,
that if the amplifier ever goes out of tune, the low
power dissipation transistor would be instantly
destroyed.
Fig. 7-20 shows a circuit for a class E am-
plifier. The base is driven by a square wave so
that the output transistor operates as a switch.
Unlike the class C
amplifier, the voltage across
the transistor not just "low" when the tran-
is
sistor is on, the transistor is turned full on and is
saturated, or on the verge of saturation, the en-
tire time that current is passing through the tran-
sistor. The transistor current is used to "charge
up" the inductor, Li. In this respect the tran-
sistor resembles the breaker points in an auto-
mobile ignition system. Since the current passing
through an inductor cannot change instantly, the
current slowly increases over time as the tran-
sistor switch is kept closed. When the transistor
when the switch opens, the inductor will try to maintain
On the the current flow by producing a huge voltage.
This voltage appears across C\ and the diode.
This capacitor prevents the voltage from dam-
aging the transistor, just the way that a capacitor
prevents much of the sparking across the breaker
points in an automobile ignition. The diode
prevents a backward bias voltage from appearing
across the transistor from emitter to base.
Remember that the emitter to base junction is
D amplifier. easily broken down by reverse voltages. The
energy that was stored in the inductor, Lj. Li and
Ci form the tuned circuit and oscillate at the
desired frequency. The repetition rate (frequency)
of the square wave driving the transistor base
must be exactly tuned to the L[ — C\ resonance.
The efficiency It it is not, the transistor will come out of satura-

can approach 100';, but this "amplifier" is ex- tion and dissipate large amounts of power.
120
 Vcc
> + SUPPLY
VOLTAGE

SUPPLY
BYPASS
COUPLING
CAPACITOR

Vout

SINE WAVE OUTPUT

SQUARE WAVE
INPUT

IMPEDANCE-
MATCHING
TRANSFORMER
Fig. 7-20 Class E RF amplifier
The energy is transferred from the tuned cir- state of the transistor should be when there is no
cuit to the load by means coupling
of the signal to amplify.
capacitor C2 and the transformer TV C2 is just a
coupling capacitor that prevents DC current from AMPLIFIER
the power supply from traveling directly to CLASS TRANSISTOR RESTING STATE
ground. Without C2, you could not turn on the
amplifier without burning out Li, Tj, the power A half turned on
supply, or all three! Ti serves the same purpose
as the transformer in our Class C amplifier cir- AB 1/4 turned on
cuit. It matches the impedance of the load, Rl,
with the collector circuit as a whole. B turned off

P. Biasing Transistor Amplifiers C turned off so far that a large signal is

needed to overcome the bias and turn it

Biasing transistors establishes the resting on.

state of the transistor when it is not amplifying a
signal. The following is not intended to be a com- D turned off, like Class B or C. Some-
plete course on biasing transistors. There are so times transistor rests full on.
many kinds of transistors and so many classes
and configurations of amplifiers, it isn't practical E Like B or C.
to give more than a general outline. However,
there is a common pattern to transistor biasing. The second consideration for establishing
Ifyou can get the general idea, you will usually be these resting points is that not all transistors of a
able to figure out what you need to know. particular type are alike. When transistors are
manufactured, they are made in big batches of a
There are two considerations in setting up general class. Then they are sorted out into
the operating point of a transistor. First, the groups of each particular type, say 2N2222,
class of the amplifier determines what the resting 2N2148, and so on. The type number is assigned
121
 Rl

*
TRANSISTOR
>
FULL ON

Ij^Vc
> COMMON EMITTER >
AMPLIFIER

VALUES OF BASE
>- CURRENT (OR GATE
VOLTAGE)

TRANSISTOR
FULL OFF

(COLLECTOR OR
DRAIN VOLTAGE)
Vcc
SUPPLY
CLASS B VOLTAGE
BIAS POINT

Fig. 7-21 Load line drawn on transistor voltampere characteristic

on the basis of current gain, leakage current and resistance, Rl and the transistor is essentially
so on. Within each type number there is still out of the circuit. Therefore, the output voltage
variation, so a good biasing system must adapt to across the transistor will be the supply voltage
the differences. A related problem is that a hot and the current through the transistor will be vir-
transistor is easier to turn on than a cold tran- tually zero. This point is plotted on the voltage
sistor. Negative feedback is used to make the cir- line where current is zero and is seen on the lower
cuit behave the same even when transistors differ right hand corner of the curves.
or are overheated. We will look at establishing
the quiescent point first. When the transistor turns full on, its re-

sistance approaches zero and the current is as

Biasing transistors is most easily visualized large as it can become. How large can it be? If the
with a load line. The load line is just a straight transistor had zero resistance, the maximum cur-
line drawn on a transistor volt-ampere family of rent that could flow would be the supply voltage
curves to show where the transistor will operate divided by the load resistance, Rl-
in a particular circuit. Referring to Fig. 7-21, we
can plot the load line by looking at the extremes, Maximum transistor current = V cc Rl /

which are turned full on and turned full off. To

avoid confusion, let"s just think about a common This maximum is plotted on the col-
current
emitter amplifier. When the transistor is turned lector current where transistor voltage is
axis
off, the output of the common emitter amplifier is zero at the upper left. Now we have the ends of
connected to the power supply through the load our load line plotted and all the other possible
122
points of transistor operation are located on this Remember that with depletion type MOS-
line. If you want to operate off this line, you must FET transistors, when the gate voltage is zero,
use a different load resistor, a different power sup- the transistor approximately half on, so biasing
is
ply voltage, or both. a class A MOSFET amplifier can be
depletion
easy. Just connect the gate to the source with a
resistor. The resistance must be high enough so
that it is not too much load for the input voltage.
Q. Biasing Class A Amplifiers

NEGATIVE SUPPLY
Class A have the tran-
amplifiers usually
sistor biased dead center on the load line. This 9 -v dd
means that when no signal is on the amplifier, a
base current or gate voltage must be set up so
Vgale
that the transistor turned half on. To figure out
is
(DC) 2 VOLTS
what gate voltage or base current is needed, you
just read the base current or gate voltage that
corresponds to the center of the load line. (ENHANCEMENT >
> PCHANNEL
MOSFET)
NEGATIVE SUPPLY Vout

Rl
Id > *
/777
Vgate(DC).
IS ZERO
2 VOLTS FOR

* 'out
HALF TURNED ON'
> DEPLETION^
PCHANNEL
MOSFET J

GATE

> > VOLTAGE

/777

Fig. 7-23 Biasing an enhancement MOSFET

class A amplifier

Biasing a A enhancement type

class
MOSFET not so easy because its
amplifier is

gate voltage characteristic requires that an above

ground voltage (negative in the illustration) be
placed on the gate to turn it half on. This voltage
can be provided by two resistors in a voltage
divider network.
-v d
QUIESCENT
POINT
V UT WILL TRAVEL UP AND DOWN ON As you know, a class A bipolar transistor am-
THE LOAD LINE, BUT WILL REST AT plifier alsoneeds extra base current to turn the
THE QUIESCENT POINT.
transistor half on when the transistor is resting.
Fig. 7-22 Biasing a depletion MOSFET class A This extra current can also be provided by a sim-
amplifier ple pair of resistors in a voltage divider. One con-
123
nected to the supply voltage turns the transistor
half on. the second makes sure the transistor has
a way to turn off.
Now that we have the proper bias current
entering the base, what will happen if the tran-
sistor temperature increases? As the temperature
NEGATIVE VOLTAGE
increases, the gain of the transistor will increase
and the transistor will turn more "on." As the
quiescent point moves up the load line to the left,
the transistor will draw more current and dis-
sipate more heat. As the heat rises, so does the
temperature which will turn the transistor on
even more. If this process continues, it is possible
that the transistor will turn full on and may burn
itself up.

This calamity is called thermal runaway. This

is a very big deal with germanium transistors
BASE because germanium semiconductor is very tem-
CURRENT perature sensitive. It is much less a problem with
(DC) is

-3M a silicon transistors, but it is still necessary to take

Vou.
EMITTER RESISTOR
PROVIDES NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK TO HOLD
QUIESCENT POINT
CONSTANT
precautions. In Fig. 7-24 a relatively small emit-
ter resistance is added to the class A amplifier in
order to make the quiescent point more stable.
The emitter resistor provides a small amount of
negative feedback to turn the transistor back
toward the center of the load line when rising
temperature makes it drift upward to the left.

EMITTER RESISTOR
> The emitter resistor by-pass capacitor is large
BYPASS CAPACITOR and holds the voltage across the emitter resistor
HOLDS EMITTER TO quite constant. In this way the feedback voltage
COUPLING CAPACITOR GROUND VOLTAGE
ADMITS AC SIGNAL does not respond to the AC signal that is being
CONSTANT RELATIVE
BUT DOES NOT CHANGE amplified. The feedback voltage responds only to
TOV, n WHICH
DC BIAS VOLTAGE CHANGES RAPIDLY slow changes that try to raise or lower the quies-
cent point. Some of the circuit gain is lost by this
feedback. However, it makes the circuit behave

more consistently over temperature extremes.

When it is mass produced, the circuit gain will be
more consistent than the gains of the individual
transistors used in the circuit. Small emitter
resistors like this are especially common when
two or more transistors are run in parallel. They
help to make the transistors turn on equally even
BASE though one transistor may have more gain than
r CURRENTS another.

Atemperature compensated JFET class A

amplifier is seen in Fig. 7-25. Remember that

JFETs require large voltages below the source

voltage to turn them off. Zero volts between gate
and source will turn them almost full on. Gee
Whiz! This circuit is identical to Fig. 7-24! The
QUIESCENT differences between the two circuits are the sizes
POINT of the various resistors. Rj, RL >. R3. Because a
RiAND R 2 PROVIDE A large voltage below the source voltage is needed,
VOLTAGE WHICH PRODUCES A the source resistor, R3. must have a large
BASE CURRENT OF - 3M a AFTER
THE FEEDBACK FROM R E IS resistance develop the large voltage. This
to
TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT below-the-source voltage should be at least large
enough to turn off the transistor. The quiescent
Fig. 7-24 Biasing a bipolar transistor class A gate voltage for class A operation is also below
amplifier with negative feedback.
L24
the source voltage, but it still lies between the R. Static And Dynamic Amplifier Char-
supply voltage and ground. It can be firmly es- acteristics
tablished by a pair of voltage dividing resistors,
Ri and R2, where Ri is very much larger than R 2 . Throughout this section there have been ex-
Notice that if a bipolar transistor were plugged amples of capacitors and inductors in the circuits
into this circuit, it would turn off so completely that behave differently for the rapidly changing
that it would be operating class C, not class A. In AC signal than they do for the slowly changing
summary, the circuits shown in Figs. 7-24 and DC currents that establish the quiescent point.
7-25 could be biased to operate in classes A, AB, Examples include the emitter (and source) re-
B (one-half of a class B amplifier) or C with any sistor by-pass capacitors and input coupling
type of transistor. However, the values of Rj, R2 capacitors seen in Figs. 7-24 and 7-25. The radio
and R3 must be carefully selected in each case. frequency choke input and the LC resonant cir-
cuit in Fig. 7-18 and the impedance matching and
NEGATIVE SUPPLY
INPUT VOLTAGE signal inverting transformers in Fig. 7-15 are
COUPLING other examples. Even the characteristics of a
CAPACITOR transistor itself depend on whether you are
discussing DC or AC parameters. For example,
static transistor gain and dynamic transistor
gain are usually listed separately in transistor
specifications,even though they are usually very
Vout
similar.Because the components of an amplifier
> appear differently to DC and AC currents, it is as
SOURCE though there were two different amplifier circuits
RESISTOR in one. It is all the same circuit of course, but
BYPASS
CAPACITOR sometimes the behavior of an amplifier can be
better understood if the DC and AC aspects are
considered separately. To calculate the DC bias
> point, engineerssometimes redraw an amplifier
fjfy GROUND circuit without any inductors or capacitors.

GATE TO SOURCE DC Capacitors are simply left out and inductors

VOLTAGE IS +2 VOLTS. become ordinary wires. To consider the AC opera-
THISIS "BELOW" THE
tion, DC components like the power supply are
SOURCE VOLTAGE IN THE
NEGATIVE SENSE. E.G., conveniently left out and the transistor becomes
GROUND IS EVEN MORE an imaginary AC generator. If the power supply
"BELOW" THE SOURCE is "left out" of the circuit and becomes a wire, the
VOLTAGE, SAY +6 VOLTS
emitter follower configuration really does have
the collector common to input and output. How
PCHANNEL useful these procedures are for technicians is an
-Id JFET CHARACTERISTICS open question, but it is important to know the dif-
ference between static and dynamic amplifier
characteristics.

QUESTIONS:
GATE
VOLTAGE 1. In order to transfer power efficiently from
a voltage source into a resistor load, what
must be true about the voltage source and
the load resistance?

2. Suppose the resistance of the load is not

appropriate for agiven voltage source. Is
there anything that can be done to opti-
mize the transfer of power? Will your
Fig. 7-25 Temperature compensated class A answer to this question work with all
JFET amplifier. voltage sources?
125
3. In each of the three basic bipolar transistor 8. What does the degree of straightness of
amplifiers, what is the relationship be- the transfer characteristic of a transistor
tween input resistance and output resist- have to do with the amplifier distortion in
ance? In other words, if you change one, a class A or class B amplifier? What about
what will be the effect on the other? classes AB, C and E? Is there any way to
compensate for distortion that is built into
the transistor characteristic when it is

used in a linear amplifier?

What amplifier configuration can be used

in place of a voltage step-up transformer?
What amplifier configuration can be used A push-pull class B amplifier is built from
in place of a current step-up-transformer? complementary P-N-P and N-P-N transis-
tors. What properties should these tran-
sistors have in order to minimize distor-
tion?

In Fig. 7-4 one common emitter amplifier is

shown driving another. Since the load re-

sistor, RLi. is not the load where we wish 10. A class C amplifier is tuned by observing a
to deliver power, it follows that the resistor DC ammeter in the collector circuit. What
RLj should have the maximum resistance is adjusted to tune the amplifier? What
so it will not waste power. What two fac- happens if the amplifier is not tuned?
tors determine this maximum resistance?
Why is a 200 Megohm resistor unlikely to
work for RLi?
11. Explain the analogy between the class C
amplifier and an adult pushing a child on a
swing.

A large power transistor when wired in the

common emitter configuration has an out-
put impedance of 10 ohms. Now suppose
that it is desirable to use this transistor in
a class C amplifier to drive an antenna 12. Why is it use inefficient
preferable to
which has a 300 ohm
impedance. Would amplifiers like class A low power
in the
another amplifier configuration be more amplifier stages of a powerful transmitter?
desirable for driving the antenna? Which
one and why? Does this change the input
requirements?

13. A class D amplifier is used as a switch to

turn on a powerful solenoid. The solenoid
7. Suppose you are building an amateur radio in turn controls a hydraulic piston in auto-
transmitter with which you plan to change matic braking system for aircraft landing
frequencies frequently. Why are classes C gear. Four large transistors in parallel
or E undesirable for this application? What drive the solenoid. Each transistor has its
classes could you use and what penalties own resistor in the emitter circuit. Why do
must you pay for your decision not to use you suppose that these resistors are neces-
class C or class E? sary?

126
 HYDRAULIC
PISTON FLUID TO
BRAKES

WHEN TRANSISTORS FAIL THEY USUALLY BECOME

SHORT CIRCUITS. SO. FUSES IN SERIES WITH FOR CONVENIENCE
COLLECTORS ALLOW A TRANSISTOR TO FAIL AND BASE LINES ARE
TAKE ITSELF OUT OF THE CIRCUIT. SOMETIMES DRAWN
PASSING THROUGH
THE TRANSISTOR

BRAKE ON

BRAKE
OFF BRAKE OFF

4EQUAL EMITTER
RESISTORS

14. Referring to Fig. 7-21, where on the load 17. A stereo manufacturer plans to save
line is the bias point for class C amplifiers? money by building an entire monaural high
Explain your answer. fidelity amplifier from a single Darlington
transistor made from four individual tran-
15. Suppose you wish to bias a class B am- sistors. This single Darlington transistor
plifierusing a set of volt-ampere char- has a gain of 10,000,000. They plan to build
acteristics and a load line. Outline the a class A circuit like Fig. 7-24 but using the
steps you would follow using any transis- Darlington transistor. Vj n will come direct-
tor. Why is your amplifier likely to need ex-
ly from the needle cartridge (a kind of
tra power supplies if you use JFETs or
microphone) on the tone arm of the record
depletion type MOSFETs?
turntable. The output of the transistor will

16. The circuit in the drawing is a class A be a loudspeaker in place of Rl- Theo-
retically, the amplifier can be made to work
made from an enhancement
amplifier
beautifully. However, this design is a very
MOSFET. What is the advantage of con-
necting Ri to the drain instead of to the bad idea. Why?
positive power supply as it was in Fig.
7-23? 18. What thermal runaway? When is it like-
is

ly to happen and what can be done in the

+ SUPPLY
design of amplifiers to prevent it and
lessen its consequences?

RL id
19. What is the difference between static and
dynamic amplifier characteristics?

—MM
R1
I
> 20. You have been asked to build a power
amplifier to drive a heater to keep a bush
>-He /ENHANCEMENT^ Vout
NCHANNEL pilot's feet warm in darkest Alaska. A
\MOSFET block diagram of the heater circuit is
J
Vin R2
shown. The resistive heater elements run
off the aircraft battery and are tied to
ground at one end. The heater elements are
Together they
> >, 27
built into the pilot's boots.
 have a very low resistance and require a
large DC current to run them. The tem-
perature is controlled by thermistors built
into the boots. The temperature signal
from the thermistors goes to a feedback
amplifier circuit that compares the ther-
mistor voltage with a comparison voltage
that represents the proper temperature for
cozy feet, the output of this circuit is a
positive voltage signal which tells the
amplifier when to turn on the heater. Draw
a circuit diagram of your amplifier
(everything inside the square) and specify
the general type of transistor, the class of
the amplifier, the amplifier configuration,
and the kind of voltage input signal your
amplifier needs (AC, DC pulses, etc.)
Remember that we are interested in warm
pilot-feet, not warm transistors. A basic
principle from Section 5 may be useful.

COMPARISON VOLTAGE 9 +12 VOLTS

FEED BACK
AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SIGNAL TURNS POWER
ON HEATER AMPLIFIER
YOU MUST
DESIGN
/777
VOLTAGE REPRESENTS
ACTUAL TEMPERATURE
"K
RESISTANCE HEATER
IN PILOT'S BOOT

THERMISTOR MEASURES- S V
TEMPERATURE OF PILOT'S
FOOT.

128
 SECTION VIII

Sine Wave Oscillators

A. Introduction toward the center of the bottom of

ball will roll
the trough and will try to remain there. In other
Sine wave oscillators are basic to radio words, the center of the trough is stable. In con-
transmitters and superhetrodyne radio receivers. trast, if we roll the ball up onto the side of the
Sine wave oscillators are used in superhetrodyne trough and release it, it will always roll back
receivers as local oscillators. They are used in toward the center because the ball is unstable on
transmitters to generate the basic operating fre- the sides of the trough.
quency signal which is then amplified to produce
the high power signal which is sent to the anten- If we release the ball on the side of the
na. Transistor (and vacuum tube) oscillators are a trough, it will not only roll down to the center, it

variation of the amplifiers we discussed in the will overshoot and roll up the far side of the
last section.Tunnel diode oscillators are a form of trough. In fact, it will continue to roll back and
sine wave which uses some of the same
oscillator forth until all the original energy is dissipated by
principles we are going to cover in this chapter. It friction and the ball comes to rest in the center of
may be useful for you to review that portion of the trough. The friction that degrades or dis-
Section 3. sipates the amplitude of a sine wave oscillation is
called damping.
UNSTABLE
POINTS A TENNIS BALL

h/ \5 PLACED ON THE
ROUND
SIDES OF A
BOTTOMED TROUGH
Now, instead of looking at a cross section of
the round-bottomed trough, we will look at a long
WILL ROLL TO THE section of the trough as viewed from above. To
BOTTOM OF THE TROUGH complete the picture we will incline the trough
slightly downhill to the right. Now when we re-
lease the ball up on the side of the trough, it not

V STABLE
POINT
only rolls back and forth through the stable point
in the center of the trough, it rolls along the
trough, downhill to the right. The path of the ball
Fig. 8-1 B all-in-trough analogy for a sine wave seen from above is a sine wave. After the ball has
oscillator. traveled a distance down the trough, the ampli-
tude of the sine wave cycles will begin to die out
We will use a mechanical sine wave generator due to friction. This happens in any practical
to introduce you to sine wave oscillators. Picture oscillation system. The only way to keep the sine
a large, round-bottomed concrete ditch or metal wave amplitude constant is to inject a little ener-
trough. A tennis ball is placed on the edge or side gy into each sine wave cycle to keep the energy of
of the trough and allowed to roll down into it. The the ball or other oscillating system constant.
129
 BALL ROLLS DOWN TROUGH FROM
BOTTOM LINE OF
LEFT TO RIGHT WHILE IT OSCILLATES
TROUGH IS
BACK AND FORTH ACROSS THE TROUGH
QUIESCENT POINT

DOWN HILL
END OF
TROUGH

BALL RELEASED HERE

Fig. 8-2 A ball rolled down a trough can make a sine wave as seen from above.

Hopefully, gravity pulling the ball back back and forth across the trough are controlled
toward the center of the bottom of the trough by the acceleration of gravity and the physical
reminds you of a class A amplifier in which the size of the trough. If the trough were only two
quiescent point is in the center of the load line. feet wide, the ball might roll back and forth twice
a second. However, if we roll a bowling ball into a
Most sine wave oscillators are based on class culvert 20 feet across, the ball will take several
A amplifiers which amplify their own outputs. seconds to complete a single cycle. The lesson
The amplifier adds a little energy to each sine from this is that a sine wave oscillator must have
wave cycle to keep the oscillation energy constant two basic parts: an amplifier with positive feed-
and the sine wave amplitude uniform. Without back and a resonator or filter which determines
the amplifier, an electronic oscillation would be the frequency of the sine waves that will be pro-
damped out very quickly by the resistance in the duced.
wiring of the circuit.

An amplifier which amplifies its own output B. The Phase Shift Oscillator
is an example of positive feedback. We have
already discussed examples of negative feedback Fig. 8-3 shows a block diagram of a phase
in which some of the output is inverted and fed shift oscillator. The "tuned 180° phase shift" is
back into the input in a way that decreases the the resonator or filter we just spoke of. To explain
amplifier gain. That is, negative feedback makes it, let's first look at the amplifier itself. The
the output signal smaller than it would be with- amplifier is a voltage inverting type, which
out the feedback. In positive feedback, some of means that it is almost always a common emitter
the output is fed back into the input to make the or commonsource design. Since the amplifier in-
amplifier output larger instead of smaller. In the verts the input signal, the output of the amplifier
case of sine wave oscillators, it is this increase in will go down whenever the input goes up in volt-
gain that compensates for energy losses in the cir- age. If direct feedback were used so that the out-
cuit and keeps the sine wave amplitude high. put were directly coupled to the input, this would
be negative feedback. This is because the feed-
The wave generator has no
ball-in-trough sine back is the opposite polarity of the input. In order
positive feedback to maintain the oscillations, for this to be positive feedback and reinforce the
but it does have an oscillating system that is com- input, the output signal must be inverted before
parable to an LC tuned circuit or other electrical it is fed back into the input. Now when the input

resonator. The frequency of the ball's oscillations signal goes up, the feedback signal will go up too.

130
 + FEEDBACK

CLASS
A
AMPLIFIER

TUNED
180°
PHASE
THE TRIANGLE SHIFT
IS
A GENERAL SYMBOL
FOR "AMPLIFIER."

THE LITTLE CIRCLE

MEANS THAT IT
INVERTS THE VOLTAGE >
SINE WAVE OUTPUT
Fig. 8-3 Sine wave oscillator block diagram

Inverting the output signal is one of the pur- wave by 180°, it must be done in at least three
poses of the 180° phase shift. It takes sine waves steps, 60° with each RC circuit. The phase
and "turns them upside down." What it really shifting characteristic of an RC circuit is frequen-
does is delay the sine wave 1/2 cycle so that the in- cy dependent. In other words, the triple RC cir-
put to the amplifier and the output of the phase cuit won't shift any sine wave 180°, just a par-
shift network can go up simultaneously and go ticular frequency of sine wave. Consequently, the
down simultaneously. oscillator will oscillate at that certain frequency
where the total feedback phase shift, including
You are probably saying to yourself, "If you the amplifier, is 360°.
didn't want an inverted signal, why didn't you
use a non-inverting amplifier?" The reason is that An RCphase shift oscillator is shown in Fig.
resonator or filter networks usually invert the 8-4. The A amplifier happens to be a JFET,
class
signal and we are stuck with the 180° phase shift. but it could be any device with voltage gain. In-
Therefore, the amplifiermust compensate for this stead of RC integrating phase shift circuits, it
phase shift by re-inverting the signal. -* + FEEDBACK

If a non-inverting amplifier were used and the

phase shift network were omitted, the circuit
might oscillate, but the oscillation frequency
would be determined by the stray inductances
and capacitances in the circuit. There would be no
deliberate control over the oscillation frequency
and the frequency usually turns out to be very
high, tens of megacycles. Moreover, the frequen-
cy of the oscillation would be very unstable and
would change with temperature, the supply volt-
age and even mechanical vibration.

Remember in Section 5 we talked about the

need to delay the triggering sine wave so that the
SCR could be made to fire after the voltage peak
of the AC sine wave? If you recall, we used one or
two RC phase shifting circuits for this purpose. CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
We said that in a practical circuit, each RC circuit V_
could shift the sine wave over about 60°. If you 180° PHASE SHIFT
try for 90°, the phase shifted signal becomes
vanishingly small. Therefore, to delay the sine Fig. 8-4 RC phase shift oscillator
131
uses differentiating RC phase shift. In other Let's review the properties of an LC parallel
words, this circuit makes the voltage sine wave resonant circuit. When the voltage sine wave ap-
advance in phase rather than retard in phase. plied across an LC circuit matches the resonant
Either way you do it, it has the effect of inverting frequency, the impedance becomes very high, in-
the sine wave signal. This phase shifter is a high finite, and the circuit is neither capacitive nor in-
pass filter, since low frequencies can't get ductive. At resonance the LC circuit abruptly
through the capacitors. loses its phase shifting ability. Therefore, when
the oscillator operating at the resonant fre-
is

C. Resonant Circuit Oscillators quency, the LC circuit does not change the phase
of the transformer feedback. When the phase
Resonant circuit oscillators are a common shift of the transformer circuit is exactly 180°,
way to generate radio frequency sine wave sig- the oscillator is working on the desired frequency.
nals. The principle of an inverting amplifier driv-
ing the 180° phase shift network is the same.
X REACTANCE I

These unpopular for low, audio fre-

oscillators are A
ACTS LIKE AN
quencies because they would require large, expen- NDUCTOR
sive transformers. But they are very good for U
uj VOLTAGE
>z
generating radio frequencies because they may be IS ADVANCED,

tuned just by varying the single capacitor.

180° PHASE SHIFT

OCCURS ACROSS FREQUENCY
TRANSFORMER.
IF YOU WIRE
IT CORRECTLY
ujw
L-C CIRCUIT
> o
RESONANCE II
<o ACTS LIKE A CAPACITOR
DETERMINES Q. <
THE FREQUENCY < UJ VOLTAGE IS RETARDED
<J 0C WITH RESPECT
TO CURRENT

Fig. 8-6 A parallel LC resonant circuit

Now suppose that the oscillator frequency

begins to drop below the resonant frequency. As
you can see in Fig. 8-6. the LC circuit now acts in-
ductive and will begin to advance the voltage
with respect to the current. This phase change
speeds up the oscillation by changing the overall
phase shift from 360° to 270°. The entire feed-
back loop now has three phase shifts. The ampli-
Fig. 8-5 A resonant circuit oscillator fier inverted the signal and accounts for 180°
phase shift. The transformer action inverts the
As we saw in Section 7, the transformer is an signal and shifts it another 180°. The inductance
easy way to invert an AC signal and the induc- of the off resonance LC circuits shifts it forward
tance of one of the windings can be used as part of 90° for a total shift of 270°.
an LC resonant circuit. Just by wiring the
transformer correctly, we can invert the signal
180° + 180° - 90° = 270°
and provide the 180° phase shift. The LC reso-
nant circuit determines the resonant circuit fre-
quency by providing extra phase shift, either This forward shift makes the oscillation go
retarding the feedback or advancing it. whenever faster and soon returns it to the resonant frequen-
the oscillator frequency strays from the resonant cy which is the condition where the total shift is
frequency. exactly 360°.
132
 Nowsuppose the oscillator frequency drifts amplifier circuit and this phase shift is subject to
too high, the LC circuit suddenly acts like a changes too. All of the factors that
can alter a
capacitor and retards the voltage with respect to perfect 360° phase shift can contribute to an
the current. This gives a total shift of 360° plus unstable oscillator frequency.
90° for a total of 450°. This "slow" feedback
forces the oscillation frequency back down again The may not
fact that the transistor amplifier
until it matches the LC resonant frequency. As shift the signal exactly 180° implies that the LC
you can see, this circuit locks the oscillator fre- circuit and transformer may make up the dif-
quency into the LC resonant frequency and ference to produce a perfect 360° overall shift.
makes the oscillation frequency very stable. This implies that the LC resonant frequency may
not be exactly the same as the oscillator frequen-
There is always a "catch." In this circuit the cy, but is usually extremely close. The one fact
catch is that "pure" inductors can't be built. you may count on with all sine wave oscillator
There is always some resistance in the LC circuit. designs is that the overall shift will be 360°.
This resistance "blurs" the nice sharp resonant
point and may allow the oscillator frequency to
drift slightly. This idea is usually expressed with D. Colpitts And Hartley Oscillators
the idea of "Q," or quality of an inductor (or
other reactance.) In the transformer resonant circuit the
transformer and capacitor provided two separate
functions: the transformer inverted the voltage
reactance X
Q = resistance R
signal 180° and the LC combination resonant cir-
cuit modified this phase shift whenever the os-
cillator frequency drifted. The Colpitts and
where R is the resistance that we don't want and Hartley oscillators accomplish exactly the same
X is the impedance in ohms of the reactance that task using a "n" or pi network.
we do want.

X
can be the reactance of any component or Looking at the pi network it is not obvious
circuit,not just inductors. The higher the Q of the that these circuits do the same job because the
LC circuit as a whole, the more sharp the reso- two functions can not be visualized separately.
nant point will be and the more stable the oscil- Let's redraw the two pi networks as parallel reso-
lator frequency will be. Don't forget that the nant circuits in which "ground" is located mid-
other 180° of phase shift is in the transistor way between top and bottom of the LC circuits.

>

>

THIS RESONANT TRANSFORMER

CIRCUIT IS EQUIVALENT TO
THESE rr (PI) NETWORKS

Fig. 8-7 LC pi (n) networks can replace a tuned transformer.

133
 Cp

PARALLEL
LC
[NO GROUND
I SPECIFIED EQUIVALENT PI NETWORK
WITH GROUND SPECIFIED

Fig. 8-8 Pi networks can be equivalent to a parallel LC resonant circuit, but ground is specified.

The location of ground isn't specified for the From the third conclusion you can see how
simple LC circuit in Fig. 8-8, but is specified for the inverting action accomplished. Also, when
is
the two redrawn pi networks. Looking at these the pi network is ringing at its reasonant frequen-
diagrams we can conclude that: cy, the inductive and capactive phase shifts
abruptly disappear, just as we described earlier.

The pi networks must have a resonance point This is a little off the subject, but this is as
like a parallel LC circuit. good a time as any to mention that tuned trans-
formers are frequently replaced with pi LC net-
works. For example, Fig. 7-18 showed a transmit-
2. Neither end of the pi networks is grounded. ter class C RF amplifier driving an antenna. In
transmitters the tuned transformer is often re-
placed with a pi network. In fact, the values of L
The pi circuits are symmetrical, so when they and C do not have to be symmetrical and the pi
are resonating in the parallel mode, the op- network can even match two different imped-
posite polarity of voltage will appear at op- ances, just like a transformer with different
posite ends of the network. numbers of turns on the transformer windings.

-+ FEEDBACK + FEEDBACK

LARGE LARGE
COUPLING COUPLING
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

^ V J K.
v J ^ v J k. J
CLASS A PHASE SHIFT CLASS A
v
PHASE SHIFT
AMPLIFIER "n" NETWORK AMPLIFIER "n" NETWORK
Fig. 8-9 Colpitts RF oscillator Fig. 8-10 Hartley RF oscillator
134
 The Colpitts oscillator uses the pi network HALF OF COIL -Vcc
which has two capacitors and one inductor. The SERVES AS LOA CENTER TAP IS
circuit resembles the RC phase shift oscillator, "AC GROUNDED"
except that the pi network replaces the three RC TO SUPPLY VOLTAGE
circuits. To remember the difference between the COUPLING
Colpitts and Hartley oscillators, the Colpitts CAPACITOR
BLOCKS DC
oscillator uses the pi network which is a low pass
FROM V cc
filter. It passes low frequencies because low fre-
quencies can pass through the inductor, but high
frequencies are shunted to ground through the
capacitors.

The Hartley oscillator is practically the same

as the Colpitts, but uses two inductors and one
it

(or more) capacitors to form a pi network which is

a high pass filter. It is a high pass filter because
low frequencies are shunted to ground through
the inductors, Li and L2, while high frequencies
are conducted through the capacitor C2. The main
purpose of the capacitor Ci is to keep the DC on
the collector from being shorted to ground + FEEDBACK
through the inductor L^. This coupling capacitor,
Fig. 8-11 "Streamlined" Hartley oscillator
like the others indicated in the Hartley and Col-
pitts oscillators, are very large so that they pass
the oscillation frequency with negligible voltage you might realize that the oscillator is just an in-
drop. Their function is to pass the AC signal verting amplifier driving a phase shift feedback
voltage without passing DC current which would network!
effect the quiescent point or burden the power
supply unnecessarily. E. Crystal Oscillators

In the Hartley oscillator, one of the two
coupling capacitors can be eliminated by connect-
ing the inductors to the power supply terminal
(V cc instead of ground. Remember we said that
) each atom is arranged at specific angles to its
from the dynamic, AC point of view, the DC
voltage source is an "AC ground" at both ends of
the supply voltage and can be thought of as a
short circuit for small AC currents. Moreover, the
function of the load resistor can be accomplished
with one of the inductors, thus saving another
component. A streamlined Hartley oscillator is
seen in Fig. 8-11.
If it is desired to vary the frequency of a Col-
pitts or Hartley oscillator, this can be done by
Quartz rock is a clear, glass-like naturally oc-
curing form of silicon dioxide. Unlike ordinary
glass, it is a precise crystalline structure where
neighboring atoms. It is an excellent insulator
and electrons and holes are permanently trapped
in the crystal matrix. When thin wafers of this
crystal are subjected to radio frequency electric
fields (voltage), the trapped charge is attracted or
repelled. Because the charge is trapped in the
crystal, the charge can't flow toward the voltage.
Instead, the whole crystal bends toward the
voltage. The reverse is also true— if you bend a
quartz crystal, a voltage potential appears across
it. This effect is called the piezo electric effect and

varying the inductance or capacitance of the odd is more common than you think. Bones grow in

component in the pi network. For example, in the
Colpitts oscillator, the single inductance could be
a slug tuned coil. By screwing the powdered iron
slug in and out of the coil, the inductance can be
varied. By varying the capacitor C lt the resonant
frequency can be varied over 2 to 1 range. Out in
the real world, Colpitts and Hartley oscillators
are very common. However, the circuits are al-
most never drawn as clearly as here for fear that
135
thickness in response to excercise and muscle
growth. This process is controlled by subtle
voltages that appear on the surface of the bone
when bones are bent.
Getting back to radios, thin wafers of quartz
crystal can be made to mechanically and elec-
trically oscillate when a radio frequency sine
wave voltage is applied across the wafer. While
 X REACTANCE INFINITE
IMPEDANCE
WITHOUT
METAL
PLATES
CLAMPED
LU
> SERIES
RESONANCE
/ INDUCTANCE
OR CAPACITANCE
QUARTZ AROUND CRYSTAL O =ZERO
CRYSTAL WITH SPRING Q IMPEDANCE PARALLEL
Z
RESONANCE
FREQUENCY
-r c P

LU LU

II
<o
0. <
< LU
o cc
RELATIVELY
SMALL
RESISTANCE
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT OF A
CRYSTAL MOUNTED
BETWEEN METAL
PLATES

Fig. 8-12 Quartz crystal

the crystal is vibrating, the charge trapped in the where aircraft communication and navigation
crystal moves back and forth. From an electrical radios operate. Without crystals to provide fre-
point of view, the crystal behaves like a resonant quency standards, aircraft radio transmitters
By grinding thinner and thinner wafers of
circuit. would not stay on their assigned frequencies and
quartz crystal, higher and higher resonant fre- would be constantly be drifting off into other
quencies are obtained. nearbv channels.

Unfortunately for textbook writers, the Crystal oscillators can be built a variety of
quartz crystal does not behave like a simple series ways. Crystal controlled versions of the Hartley
or parallel LC resonance. The quartz crystal and Colpitts oscillators can be built by sub-
behaves like a combination of parallel and series stituting the crystal for an inductor in either cir-
resonance. However, these two resonant points cuit. The capacitor(s) in the pi circuit can then be
are extremely close together. Between the two given values that optimize the circuit for the reso-
resonant points is a very narrow region in which nant frequency of the crystal. Three common os-
the crystal behaves like an inductor. Everywhere cillator circuits are shown in Fig. 8-13. The first
else, the crystal acts like a capacitor. As you oscillator circuit is clearly based on the Colpitts
know, inductors shift an AC sine wave voltage plan, because the inductor has been directly
90° ahead of the current. In contrast, a capacitor replaced by the crystal.
shifts the voltage 90° behind the current. An in-
ductance and a capacitance can work together to The second circuit which uses the JFET is in-
produce the necessary 180° phase shift. The teresting because it relieson the capacitance be-
crystal will only behave like an inductor over an tween the drain and gate to provide the feedback
extremely narrow range of frequency. This means signal from output to input. This capacitance is
that when crystals are used as part of the phase the sum P-N junction capacitance plus the
of the
shift element in a feedback circuit, they shift the capacitance due to the proximity of the gate and
phase of the feedback correctly only at one drain wires. Strange as it seems, the use of this
specific frequency. This property gives the stray, unintentional capacitance is quite reliable
oscillator very little tendency to change its fre- and this same circuit is widely used with vacuum
quency as the transistor heats or the load on the tubes and bipolar transistors. This second circuit
oscillator changes. This frequency stability is can be shown to operate as a Hartley oscillator if
especially critical at very high radio frequencies you assume the crvstal to be an inductor and the
136
 drain circuit inductor to be the second inductor.
The stray capacitance provides the capacitor to
complete the pi network.

The third circuit is called a Pierce oscillator

and it is supposed to be related to the Colpitts
oscillator. The connection isn't obvious though
and perhaps better to look at the circuit as a
it is

parallel LC
circuit which provides positive feed-
back from collector to base.

F. The Armstrong Oscillator

The next two oscillator circuits are presented

with vacuum tubes because that is the way you
may see them on a radio-telephone license ex-
amination. Also, these are old circuits and you
will probably not find them in newly designed
equipment. The regenerative radio receiver is a
kind of early day radio receiver closely related to
the Armstrong oscillator. Up until 1979 the King
A CRYSTAL CONTROLLED COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Radio Company made an aircraft marker beacon
C STRAY VDD receiver that used the regenerative receiver prin-
ciple. The marker beacon is a 75 MHz radio bea-
+
C DRAIN GATE
con that is part of the instrument landing system
STRAY. UNINTENTIONAL
SI««I. UINIIN CIN IIUINHL
I
/p
CAPACITANCE IS THE^. I
(ILS). When the marker beacon can be received,
!""" Voul
FEEDBACK PATH !~~v the pilot knows that he is in the correct position
PCHANNEL
» to continue his final approach to the runway.
JFET
The Armstrong oscillator is very similar to
the transformer coupled oscillator in Fig. 8-5. The
f-i MIM7K volt-ampere characteristic of a vacuum tube re-
sembles that of a junction FET. When the grid is
biased to the same voltage as the cathode, this is
analogous to biasing a JFET so that the gate has
HIGHLY MODIFIED the same quiescent voltage as the source. One dif-
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR /7?7 ference between a vacuum tube and a JFET is
that a small but significant positive current flows
into the grid during operation. In Fig. 8-14 the
bias for the grid is established by the parallel
RFC
resistor and capacitor, Rg and Cg. This parallel
RC circuit is used the same way we have been
putting parallel RC circuits in series with the
Vout
emitters in bipolar transistor amplifiers. A DC
I N CHANNEL
> voltage appears across the resistor to establish
JFET the resting grid voltage. The capacitor Cg holds
this bias voltage constant.

The positive feedback from the plate to the

grid (analogous to feedback from the drain to the
gate) is accomplished with transformer coupling
PIERCE between L2 and Li. Notice that the dot markings
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR fTYj are reversed in order to produce the 180° phase
shift. Instead of resonating the oscillation on the

Fig. 8-13 Crystal oscillator circuits output side, this circuit tunes the oscillation on
137
 180°PHASE SHIFT COUPLING CAPACITOR
FEEDBACK BETWEEN PREVENTS DC CURRENT
L2 and Li FROM GOING TO GROUND

USED IN
R.F.C.
PLACE OF LOAD
RESISTOR

6 +VB
PLATE VOLTAGE
o - TYPICALLY 45 to 150 VOLTS

/777
Fig. 8-14 Tuned grid Armstrong oscillator

the input or grid side. Another feature of this cir- functions in a single circuit. First, it rectifies or
cuit is that the output taken off a third winding
is detects an amplitude modulated (AM) signal like
of the transformer on the input side. Of course a crystal set. Second, it amplifies the signal. And
there is no reason why a voltage signal could not third, adjusted so that it is self-oscillating,
if it is

be taken off the plate. it modulates morse code signals so that they

sound like the familiar musical dots and dashes.

G. The Regenerative Detector In a modern superhetrodyne radio receiver, all
these functions are performed better by several,
shows a regenerative detector radio
Fig. 8-15 separate transistor circuits all working together.
receiver which is very similar to the tuned grid However, in the early days of radio when a single
armstrong oscillator circuit we just looked at. vacuum tube cost a week's pay, a circuit like this
The regenerative detector accomplishes three was a boon to the budget. As late as 1960, if you
AMOUNT OF
FEEDBACK
IS VARIABLE

BYPASS CAPACITOR
GROUNDS R.F.
COMPONENTS HERE
BUT PASSES AUDIO
FREQUENCY TO HEADPHONES

HEADPHONES
CONVERT AUDIO
'FREQUENCY DC
CURRENT VARIATIONS
INTO SOUND

rm

rrn
Fig. 8-15 Regenerative detector radio receiver.
138
wanted to build a very small, sensitive, very high
frequency two-way radio (walkie-talkie), the re-
generative detector built with a miniature
vacuum tube was still the best way to do it.
In fact, many of these old walkie-talkie cir-
cuits used the same oscillator circuit to generate
the transmitted signal! Often a separate vacuum
tube audio amplifier amplified the received signal
when on "receive." When on "transmit," the
same audio amplifier amplified the microphone
signal and AM
modulated the transmitted signal.
These crude walkie-talkies really worked. One of
the author's fondest memories is standing on top
of the chimney with a home-built regenerative
walkie-talkie and talking to another ham 2000
miles away. Today there is no reason to endure
the difficulties of a regenerative receiver.
Miniaturized superhetrodynes and crystal con-
trolled transmitters can be built even for high fre-
quencies. The tiny aircraft emergency transmit-
ters which have 2-way voice capability on 121.5
MHz and 243 MHz illustrate the current tech-
nology.
In Section 2 we studied diode detectors and
crystal radio receivers. A crystal diode detects or
rectifies a radio AC waveform because it only con-
ducts current in one direction. A transistor or
tube amplifier can also detect or rectify an RF
signal by operating the amplifier as if it were half
of a class B amplifier. In this way, only one polari-
ty of the signal is amplified. An amplifier used as
a detector like this is called an active detector
because it amplifies as well as detects. If it is real-
ly operating class B, it is appropriate to call it a
linear active detector. Referring to Fig. 8-15, if we
ignore the feedback coil, L2, the regenerative
detector is basically an amplifier with a tuned LC
circuit on the input to select the desired station.
Notice that the radio frequency choke in the Arm-
strong oscillator has been replaced with a pair of
headphones. Headphones are inductive devices
which behave much like RF chokes electrically,
but also make sounds proportional to the changes
in DC current passing through them.
The positive feedback added to this am-
is
plifier circuit by the coil L2. As you might guess,
this makes the circuit oscillate at about the same
frequency that the tuned LC circuit is tuned to.
Notice the arrow which connects Li and L2. This
139
arrow signifies that the coupling between L^ and
L2 is variable. This control is called the regenera-
tion control. When the coupling between Lj and
L2 is very weak, the amplifier acts like an or-
dinary tuned amplifier serving as an active detec-
tor. As the feedback is increased by increasing
the coupling, the gain of the amplifier is increas-
ed. This makes the signal heard in the earphones
much louder than it would be without the feed-
back. When too much positive feedback is used,
the circuit begins to oscillate. When this happens
a voice signal becomes distorted and the back-
ground static becomes a high-pitched rushing
sound.
When morse code is received by a simple cry-
stal set or a simple superhetrodyne, it does not
sound musical. If the morse code signal is strong,
it just makes a thumping noise in the receiver
that is very hard to decode. When the code signal
is weak, it makes the background static go on and
off with a rhythmic pattern that is also difficult
to follow. However, when the code is mixed with
an RF signal from a separate oscillator, such as
that caused by an oscillating regenerative re-
ceiver, suddenly the morse code dots and dashes
are musical tones and are very distinct to the ear.
Modern superhetrodyne receivers generate a sep-
arate local oscillator signal called a beat frequen-
cy oscillator in order to make code readable. Even
the newest automatic direction finders for air-
craft are equipped with BFO circuits for reading
morse code.
Now that you are checked out on sine wave
oscillators, we regret to tell you that the inverting
amplifiers used in these oscillators are not always
class A. It is possible to make an amplifier os-
cillate even though the transistor is biased like
class B or C. It is still true that the purest sine
waves are generated with class A amplifiers
because these have the least distortion. In the
last section we saw that a class C amplifier can
produce a sine wave output even though the tran-
sistor is turned on only to make short current
pulses to sustain the ringing in the parallel LC
circuit. The oscillating is happening in the LC cir-
cuit and the transistor just "strikes the bell." A
class C oscillator can be thought of as a self-
excited class C amplifier in which the input cur-
rent pulses are derived from the sine wave oscilla-
tion in the output LC circuit.
 Sine wave oscillators, especially crystal con-
trolled ones, have very stable frequencies com-
pared to the oscillators we shall talk about next.
Even though sine waves are not needed for com-
puters and other digital circuits, digital circuits
are usually controlled with sine wave clock
oscillators because of the superior frequency
stability.

QUESTIONS: 6. Why are RC phase shift oscillators pre-

ferred for low frequency sine wave oscil-
1. What are the two basic elements of a sine lators?
wave oscillator?
7. Why does the oscillation occur at one
2. What two properties does the phase shift specific frequency in an RC phase shift sine
network have? wave oscillator?

What is the role of positive feedback in sine 8. Why are three separateRC phase shift cir-
wave oscillators? cuits needed to delay the sine wave 180°?

4. In order to work, an amplifier in a sine 9 Suppose you wished to vary the frequency
wave oscillator amplifies its own output. of the RC phase shift oscillator. What
This concept is easy enough to understand would be required to do this?
once it is started, but where does the input
come from when it is first turned on? Why 10. What would be the easiest way to vary the
doesn't the amplifier remain at its quies- frequency of the Hartley, transformer
cent point indefinitely? coupled, Armstrong, and Colpitts oscil-
lators.
5. Suppose an oscillator is observed to have
an extremely stable frequency. That is, 11. What is the advantage of a quartz crystal
there is very little tendency for the fre- oscillator? What property gives it this ad-
quency to drift with temperature or vibra- vantage?
tion. Suppose you could measure the exact
degrees of phase shift produced by the 12. What three functions does a regenerative
phase shift network for frequencies im- detector perform in one circuit? What are
mediately around the operating frequency regenerative detectors used for today?
of the oscillator. What would you expect to
find about the relationship between de- 13. What is an "active detector?'* What is a
grees of phase shift and frequency? "linear active detector?"

140
 SECTION IX

Square Wave Generators And

Bistable Circuits

A. Introduction tennis ball on top of the log. If there are no ir-

regularities on the surface of the log to keep the

In this section we
are going to study bistable ball from rolling, there is no reason to expect the
transistor circuits which have two stable oper- ball to stay on the top of the log. It is bound to
ating points; fully turned on and fully turned off. roll off in one direction or the other, but we have

The multivibrator and other bistable circuits are no way to predict which direction it will go. The
important in computer and digital circuits. The position on top of the log is unstable because the
multivibrator is a form of transistor oscillator ball will not remain there. Once the ball has reach-
which can be made to switch rapidly between its ed the ground we shall assume that the ground is
two stable states like the P-N-P-N diode and neon flat and sandy so that the ball will come to rest.
relaxation oscillators we described in Section 5. The positions on either side of the log are stable
The multivibrator is a simple way to generate because once the ball arrives, there is no tendency
square waves and is presently the most impor- for the ball to jump back up onto the log.
tant form of digital number counter and com-
puter temporary memory storage circuit. The tennis ball balanced on the log is an ex-
ample of positive feedback. If you set it carefully
A TENNIS BALL
PLACED ON TOP OF on top of the log, it slowly begins to roll off in one
A SMOOTH LOG CAN direction or the other. The farther it rolls from the
BE EXPECTED TO center, the faster it goes and the steeper the slope
UNSTABLE^ ROLL OFF IN ONE
it is traveling over. It is as though the original
POINT X* DIRECTION OR THE
OTHER slight deviation from the center multiplies itself
again and again until the ball has gone as far as it
can, into the sand.

In the last section we discussed sine wave

Fig. 9-1 Ball-on-log analogy for two-state tran-
sistor multivibrator
To introduce you to the bistable circuit,
about on curved
will return to tennis balls rolling
surfaces. This time we will use the conceptual op-
posite of a trough which is a solid cylinder. Sup-
pose a large, smooth log is lying on a sandy
beach. Now imagine that we attempt to balance a
oscillators which were based on amplifiers with a
single, stable quiescent point. Bistable circuits
like the multivibrator can also oscillate. Surely
you must be having misgivings about how a cir-
cuit with "stable operating points" can oscillate.
These operating points can't be very stable if the
circuit is incapable of remaining there. The
following observations may help you:
we
First,any circuit that is self-oscillating does
not remain at its "stable operating point(s)" for
any length of time, so perhaps it would be better
to call these "temporary stable points." Some
textbooks call these quasistable operating points.
141
 Second, the positive feedback path in free-
running oscillators from output to input is always
capacitive or transformer coupled so that there is
no direct DC feedback from output to input. If
you look back through the oscillators in Section 8,
you will see that not one of the transistor am-
plifiers has a direct DC connection between out-
put and input. Invariably the positive feedback
changes with time. A capacitor discharges, or an
inductor charges with current so that the feed-
back either disappears or changes its polarity. As
soon as the feedback ceases or changes, the sine
wave oscillator amplifier goes back toward its
quiescent point. In the case of a bistable os-
cillator circuit, the change in the feedback makes
the transistor go to its opposite "stable'" state.
B. The Multivibrator
Some multivibrators do not actually oscillate, but
will remain indefinitely in either of the two stable
states. These bistable multivibrators are usually
made from two direct coupled common emitter
amplifiers. The collector of each transistor is
directly coupled to the base of the opposite tran-
sistor. The result of this circuit is that whenever
one transistor turns on, this action turns the
other transistor
off.
ONLY ONE OF
THESE TRANSISTORS-
CAN BE ON (OR OFF)
AT ONE TIME.
WHENEVER ONE
SWITCHES ON. THE
OTHER SWITCHES
OFF.
Fig. 9-2 Bistable multivibrator
142
A common name for this circuit is the flip-
flop. One transistor flips while the other flops, we
presume. In any case, each of these two common
emitter amplifiers has a load resistance and an
output, V ou ti and V ou t2- Whenever V ou ti
goes high, the other output, V ou t2 goes low and
vice versa. Instead of V ou ti and V ou t2, the out-
puts of flip-flops are usually labeled "Q" and
"Q." The bar over the Q means that Q is the op-
posite of the output Q. In other words, Q is low
whenever Q is high and vice versa. For example,
you might find a lead on a circuit diagram marked
"Q of FF6." This means that the wire is the Q
output of the sixth flip-flop.
From the ball-on-log analogy, I hope you
have concluded that if these two transistors were
turned precisely half on, it would be a toss up as
to which output went high and which output went
low. The halfway point is unstable, and for most
applications should be as unstable as possible, so
that the circuit spends as little time as possible
half-turned on. Fig. 9-3 shows a typical bistable
transistor flip-flop.
The half-turned on condition is made more
unstable by the addition of speed up capacitors,
C\ and C2. These are relatively small capacitors
which are placed across the resistors driving the
transistor bases.
The capacitor across the base resistor of a
turned-on transistor is charged to a fairly high
voltage, nearly +V CC This is the difference be-
.
tween the opposite collector and the base. In con-
trast, the capacitor across the base resistor of a
turned off transistor discharges to a very low
voltage, nearly zero. This zero voltage is the dif-
ference between the collector-to-ground voltage
of the turned on transistor, which is about 0.6
volts, and the base-to-ground voltage of the turn-
ed off transistor, which is also about 0.6 volts.
When a transistor turnsoff, the capacitor on
its collector is discharged to zero volts and can't
charge instantly. Therefore, when the collector
voltage rises, the opposite end of the capacitor
tries to "pull" the opposite transistor base
voltage upward. Large currents flow from the
base into the capacitor and the transistor turns
on. Once the transistor is turned on, the current
through the resistor is enough to keep it turned
on indefinitely.
 SPEEDUP
+ V CC = 6 VOLTS CAPACITORS
O INSURE ABRUPT
SWITCHING NOTICE
WHERE
COLLECTOR
IS PULLED
DOWN BY
ZERO VOLTS
ON TRIGGER
WAVE FORM.

time

VERTICAL SCALE
IS 2 VOLTS PER
DIVISION.

HORIZONTAL SCALE
IS 0.5 MILLI-
Q OUTPUT
SECONDS PER WAVEFORM
DIVISION.

WAVEFORMS PHOTOGRAPHED ON AN OSCILLOSCOPE

Fig. 9-3 A practical bistable flip-flop

The opposite can be said about the capacitor
across the base resistor of the turned on tran-
sistor. This capacitor
charged to a high voltage.
is
When the opposite transistor turns on, the base
capacitor can't discharge instantly. Therefore,
the voltage on the base is "pushed down" below
143
the ground voltage. This turns that transistor off
was turned
as abruptly as the opposite transistor
on. Speed up capacitors make the switching be-
tween transistors states very quick and insure
that the voltage wave forms on the collectors, Q
and Q are square wave in form.
 In the past we have always added resistors
between the base and emitter to be sure that the
bipolar transistor has a source of current to turn
the transistor off once it has been turned on. The
speed up capacitors make this resistor unneces-
sary because the charge stored in the capacitor
will momentarily put a very low voltage on the
base, below the base-to-emitter voltage and turn
the transistor off. Whether the turn off current is
a current entering or leaving the base depends on
whether we are using P-N-P or X-P-X transistors.
So, since the capacitor does the turning off, we
may omit the base-to-emitter resistors.
In order for the bistable multivibrator to be
useful, we need a way to trigger the flip-flop to
make it change The two diodes connected
states.
to the collectors allow an external pulse to make
the flip-flop switch. As shown, a positive pulse is
introduced to both collectors simultaneously.
With the two diodes back-to-back, a current can't
travel from one collector to the other collector. Xo
matter what the polarity of one collector may be,
one of those two diodes will be facing the wrong
direction to let current flow from one collector to
the other. On the other hand, negative current
can flow into both collectors because the diodes
are pointing in that direction. To put another
way, positive current is free to leave both collec-
tors. Clever, huh?
To make the flip-flop change states, the input
voltage pulse pulls down the collector of which-
ever transistor is not already turned on. This hap-
pens whenever the trigger pulse waveform drops
back down to zero volts. The trigger pulse does
not pull the collector clear down to zero. It just
pulls it down far enough speed-up capac-
for the
itor to affect the base of the turned-on transistor.
The speed-up capacitor is charged up to nearly
the full collector voltage, Vcc- It can't discharge
instantly, so when the collector voltage is pulled
down slightly, the base end of the capac-itor will
try to push the base of the turned-on transistor
below zero volts. As soon as the base is driven
below its turn off voltage, about 0.6 volts, the
transistor turns off. When it turns off, the ca-
pacitor on that transistor's collector will pull up
the base of the formerly turned off transistor and
turn it on.
Notice what is happening to the turned-on
collector while the turned-off collector is being
pulled down. The answer is that nothing is hap-
pening because the turned-on collector has too
111
low a voltage for positive current to flow from the
collector into the trigger pulse network. Current
will flow only when the diode is forward biased to
allow the flow. The result is that only the collec-
tor with high voltage on it is affected. Moreover,
the effect happens only when the input pulse is
going down. The pulse must be on the way down
in order for it to push the speed-up capacitor
down and turn off the turned-on transistor.
An oscilloscope picture of the waveforms is
shown at the bottom of Fig. 9-3. The upper pic-
ture shows the trigger voltage pulses which are
applied to the diodes. The bottom picture shows
the waveform of either of the two collector out-
puts. First you should notice that the frequency
of the input pulses is twice as high as the longer
output pulses. Also notice the small artifact or
"dent" in the collector waveform when it is high.
This dent is the collector voltage being pulled
down a fraction of a volt when the trigger input
voltage is between the pulses. This
at zero volts
artifact is kept small by the 15K ohm resistor
which prevents large currents from flowing down
through the diode to zero volts. Without the
resistor, the turned-off collector voltage would be
pulled down to nearly zero volts.
The two basic lessons about triggered flip-
flops that you should learn from this example are:
1. The output pulses have half the frequency of
the input trigger pulses.
•2. The input trigger pulses make the flip-flop
switch only when the input trigger pulse is
going downward. It does not change state
while the trigger pulse is going up. As you
shall see shortly, responding to the end of the
pulse, rather than the beginning, is vital when
several flip-flops are put in series for use as
counters.
It may seem strange for the input to go to the
collectors in this circuit. In fact, other textbooks
are full of flip-flops that have the input pulse go-
ing to the bases. However, sending a single input
trigger pulse to both bases simultaneously is not
practical. This is because there is no significant
difference in voltage between a turned-on base
and a turned-off base. They are both pretty close
to 0.6 volts. Since both bases are getting the
same message simultaneously, both bases will try
to turn on or turn off together. Using the collec-
tors insures that only the side that is vulnerable
 PULSES TO BE COUNTED

time
\y 1 23456789 10 11 12

RISES ON FALLING
EDGE OF TRIGGER PULSE
01
h 1 1 1 1
f1
1's FF1

Q1 time

0123456789 10 11 12 "1"
LOGIC CIRCUIT
RECOGNIZES THE
COMBINATION OF
Q2 PULSES THAT
T2
MEAN 11 PULSES
1 1 +1 HAVE OCCURRED.
2's FF2 I

Q2 time
I

*"
123456789
' ' • ' '
* ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 '
i

10 11 12 "1'

03
1 1
A'T'ON THIS A ONE HERE
LINE MEANS THERE
4's FF3 MEANS 11
ARE NO 4's AT TOTAL PULSES
THE MOMENT
03 o 1
time 1 (ONE) + 1 (TWO) +
]
^ NO FOURS +
234 56789
1 1 1
| | | i i i
1 1
i 1
1 10 11 12 (EIGHT)= ELEVEN.
INBINARY NUMBERS.
ELEVEN = 1011
BINARY M
T4 Q4 INVERTER
1 t / /

8's 4's 2's1's

8s FF4

04 time
|

• • 1 i

234 567 89
i i i i i i i i i i i

1 10 11 12 "1"

Fig. 9-4 Flip-flops wired in series count pulses. Logic circuits look at all flip-flop outputs to recognize
any specific number of pulses.
to being switched gets the message, while the with two complete 40 transistor flip-flops costs
other side is not affected. about 50c. Moveover, they switch faster and
there is no pull-down artifact. The details will
The flip-flop circuit in Fig. 9-3 is relatively
have to wait for your digital electronics course.
simple and is made from about $1.50 worth of in-
dividual parts. However, the output waveforms C. Uses For The Bistable Flip-Flop
|
are not very clean due to the collector pull-down
artifact.Today, bistable flip-flops are nearly The flip-flop has two basic uses. It serves as a
always built in the form of integrated circuits. memory and as a counter or divider (Fig. 9-4). The
These integrated flip-flops may contain as many relationship between the trigger input pulses and
as 40 transistors to accomplish little more than what happens at Q or Q is what makes the flip-

what we have done here! On the other hand, an IC flop so useful. Each input pulse consists of a
145
voltage that rises suddenly, stops at a high point, and registers in the first flip-flop setting Qj high.
then comes back down. Since it goes up and The other three flip-flops at this point are un-
down, this two changes. Every time a trigger
is changed. A high on Qi means we have counted
pulse occurs, causes one of the flip-flop outputs
it from zero to one. The second trigger pulse comes
to go up only: in other words, one change. But a in and causes Qi to return to zero (low) while the
complete pulse consists of two changes of state. output of the second flip-flop rises to one (Q2 = 1).
Therefore, in order for a single up and down pulse Notice how the flip-flop responds only to the fall-
to emerge from the Q (or Q), output there must ing edge of an input pulse. We now have an elec-
have been two complete trigger pulses. In sum- trical representation of the binary number two or
mary, twice as many pulses go into the flip-flop as "10." The third pulse comes in and sets Qi high.
come out of the flip-flop. Now we have the binary number for three, "11,"
in which Qi = 1 and Q2 = 1. The fourth pulse sets
To use flip-flops as a pulse counter or divider, the first and second flip-flops back to zero and the
several flip-flops are wired in series as shown in third to 1. This gives us the binary number four,
Fig. 9-4. The output of one flip-flop is fed into the "100." If you continue, you will see that four
trigger input of another. Since the second flip-flop counters can count up to 15, then they return to
receives pulses from the first flip-flop, its output zero on the 16th pulse.
will be one pulse out for every 4 original trigger
pulses, three flip-flops can count to 8, four to 16, So, how can counters recognize specific
and so on. numbers not powers of two?
like eleven that are
Number recognition is done with logic circuits
If we are counting pulses that represent that examine all the Q outputs and look for
numbers, then zero is a legitimate number and specific combinations of highs and lows. For ex-
must be used to represent one of the 16 possible ample, to count to eleven the first flip-flop will be
states of 4 flip-flops. Let's follow the pulses high meaning a "one." The second flip-flop will be
through the flip-flops in Fig. 9-4 and see how high meaning that there is a "two" at the mo-
numbers are counted and recognized. We start ment. The third flip-flop will be low meaning that
with the number zero by setting all four flip-flops there is no "four" at present. The fourth flip-flop
to zero (Q = 0). The first trigger pulse comes in will be high meaning that there is an "eight." If

o +v cc

RL1 R L2

R1 R2
ii • AAAA- vVW « ii —
H(-
Cl C2

S SET
INPUT
RESET
INPUT

SET
n /777

SET
>
RESET
RESET >

Fig. 9-6 Set and Reset triggers for a bistable multivibrator.

l 16
we add up 1 plus two plus eight, we get eleven,
the number of input pulses so far.

Circuits like Fig. 9-4 are used in practically

all digitally tuned aircraft radios to set the fre-

quency channel. A crystal controlled oscillator

provides standard pulses which are counted as a
frequency standard. The digital tuning knob on
the front panel sets up the logic circuit to
recognize when the proper count is reached for vout
the desired receiving or transmitting frequency,
just as we did for the number eleven. This number
is compared with pulses derived from the actual
operating frequency of the receiver or transmit-
ter. If they are not equal, a feedback circuit ad-
VBASE2
justs the transmitter or receiver frequency up or = ZERO
down do match. More details about
until they VOLTS
counters are better left to your course on digital
electronics. THE SMALLER Rl 2 IS,
VOUT CiCHARGING THE MORE VERTICALLY
THROUGH R|_ 2 THIS VOLTAGE WILL RISE.
-

D. Bistable Flip-Flops as Memories k

Vcc-

The flip-flop can serve as a memory by re- LU

membering what state the output Q is in. By set- o

<
ting Q high or low and leaving it that way, the I-
_J
o
state of Q can be read back later. It is something >
like tying a string around your finger. The string a.
O Q2 Q2
itself doesn't remember anything, but hopefully i-
o
the presence of the string on your finger records UJ FULL ON FULL OFF
_l
—I
the fact that there was something that you o
a
wanted to remember. A single flip-flop doesn't IF IT WERE
remember very much, but if you have thousands NOT FOR THE
of flip-flops, the quantity of information that can BASE CONDUCTING,
WOULD CONTINUE C2
be stored in the form of binary numbers begins to
01 TURNS 02 TURNS TO CHARGE UP TO
be significant. 0N 0N +Vcc VOLTS.
VBASE2

Referring to our counter example in Fig. 9-4, T I

suppose that after eleven input pulses, there were
no more pulses after that. Assuming that the
power supply doesn't fail during the following BASE P-N
JUNCTION
months, the number eleven will remain "stored" VOLTAGE IS
in those counters in the form of the binary C2 DISCHARGING EXCEEDED, SO
number 1101.
TOWARD SUPPLY CURRENT FLOWS
VOLTAGE, V C c- INTO BASE AND
CURRENT ENTERS TRANSISTOR
In order to make the flip-flop useful as a C2 THROUGH R2- TURNS ON.
R2
memory, we need to be able to set Q high or low IS RL-

whenever we want. The trigger pulses in Fig. 9-3

Fig. 9-6 An astable multivibrator and voltage
just change Q each time,
they don't set it to a par-
waveforms
ticular state. Controlling the state of Q can be
done by separating the two diodes into separate
trigger lines. When comes in on the reset line, Q goes
a pulse
high, which means that Q goes low. If Q was
These trigger inputs are called set and reset. already low, then it stays there. If you can
When a positive pulse comes into the set trigger, remember that set makes Q a one, you will have
Q goes high or stays high if it is already high. the terminology conquered.
147
E. A stable Multivibrators
We still haven't explained how
vibrator can oscillate. Self-oscillating
vibrators are called free-running multivibrators
or astable multivibrators. The word "astable"
means not stable and can be remembered as ain 't
stable. They can be built several ways but the
most common circuit as shown in Fig. 9-6.
Each transistor biased partly on by the
is
resistors Ri and R2. However, these resistors are
usually large so that the current through them is
small and the majority of the current that turns
the transistors full on or full off comes from the
capacitors. In fact, the purpose of these resistors
is to discharge the capacitors and determine the
rate at which the multivibrator flips back and
forth. Understanding the details of this circuit is
not easy, so don't be surprised if you have to go
through this more than once.
Let's start by assuming that the transistor
on the turned full on. Then we will
right, Q2, is
follow the events on the voltage waveforms as
time passes from left to right. Individual tran-
sistors are often labeled with "Q" followed by a
number. This is easily confused with outputs of
multivibrators which are called "Q" with a
subscript or no number at all. To avoid this pro-
blem, we will call the output of this free-running
multivibrator "V ou t." We begin with
sistor on the turned on, so the voltage
right, Q2,
from collector to emitter is very- low, roughly 0.6
volts. The opposite transistor, Qi, is turned off
which means that the collector of Q will have a t
high voltage, V cc So at this point, the left side of
. The load
C2 is high and the right side is low. Therefore at
this time C2 will be charged up to a large voltage
with the left side positive. To be exact, this
voltage will be V cc — 0.6 volts.
Now, for reasons that we will get to shortly,
Qi abruptly switches full on. When this happens,
C2 can't discharge instantly, so the positive end
of C2 on the collector of Qi is now suddenly at the
collector saturation voltage: that is, about 0.6
volts or nearly zero. The negative end of C2 is now
pushed down below ground a voltage "distance'"
nearly equal to V cc . that the on times of the two transistors will dif-
The negative end of Cj is connected to the P
semiconductor base of the N-P-N transistor ()
Negative to P does not conduct, so current cannot
flow from the capacitor into the base of Q 2 For
the momentthe base of Q2 is out of the circuit.
The R2 is also connected to the negative
resistor
a multi- end of C2 and positive current is free to flow from
multi- V cc down through R2 to charge the right end of
C2 "up" to +V CC Looking at it another way, C2
.
is discharging toward having zero volts
first
across it. Then later, if it could, it would continue
to charge so that the right end of C2 would even-
tually reach +V CC However, before the right side
.
of C2 ever reaches +V CC it will exceed the silicon
,
P-N junction voltage, +0.6 volts, and will begin
conducting current into the base of Q2. This turns
on the transistor Q 2 and completes the discharg-
ing of C2. At this point, the right end of C2 is at
about 0.6 volts and the left end is also at roughly
+0.6 volts. The voltage across C2 is now about
zero volts.
The period of time that Q2 remained turned
off was determined by how quickly C2 charged (or
discharged if you prefer) to 0.6 volts on the base
of Q2. "Quick" is just a relative word, of course,
and if C2 and R2 have large values, this length of
time can be several seconds. As soon as Q2 turns
on, Ci is now jammed "below" zero volts and Ql
isturned off. Ci then begins to discharge until its
voltage rises high enough to turn on Q lf just as
we described for C2.
Now, let's look at how C2 recharges while Q2 is
turned on. Because the base of Q2 is conducting,
the tran- the right side of C2 is clamped to 0.6 volts and
can't be anything different until Qo turns off
again. As soon as Qi turns off, the left end of Co
will began to charge up toward +V CC The left.
end of C2 is charging through the resistor Rlj .
resistors are usually very much
smaller
than Ri and R2, so the capacitor charges very
quickly to V cc And of course, the collector vol-
.
tage of Q\ will rise at a rate determined by the
rate of charging. In fact, the faster the rate of re-
charging of the two capacitors, the more the col-
lector waveforms of both Qi and Qj will resemble
square waves.
Because each transistor in the multivibrator
has its ON time determined by a separate capac-
itor, the sizes of the capacitors can be different so
fer. Depending on which transistor collector is
used as an output, this can give a series of very
short positive pulses with long off times or a
series of very long positive pulses with very short
. off times.
US
F. Synchronized Astable Multivibrators
We have already seen how a bistable flip-flop
can be made to change states by an external trig-
ger pulse. When set or reset trigger pulses are ap-
plied to an astable flip-flop, it can make the
flop frequency speed up to match the trigger
pulses. If the astable natural frequency is slower
than the frequency of the pulses, the trigger
pulses will make the multivibrator change state
early and will synchronize the flip-flop to the trig-
ger pulses. One feature of the synchronized
astable flip-flop is that if the astable frequency is
very close to the trigger pulse frequency, you
don't need to have a synchronizing pulse on every
cycle. An occasional set or reset trigger pulse can
adjust the oscillator to keep it closely in step with
the master pulse. We shall describe a typical ap-
plication for synchronization shortly.
The astable multivibrator is a simple way to
generate a square voltage wave. However, FET
and bipolar integrated circuits are available in
flip-flops, logic circuits and "timers." All of these
can easily be wired to generate square waves with
less cost, fewer parts, or less current drain. Conse-
quently, you rarely see an astable multivibrator
built with individual parts in the most recent
TRANSFORMER PRIMARY WINDINGS
ESTABLISH THE OSCILLATION
FREQUENCY BY "STORING" CURRENT
TO KEEP THE OPPOSITE
TRANSISTOR TURNED ON.-
120 VOLTS
AC
Fig. 9-7 A transformer multivibrator can be
used to convert low voltage DC to high voltage
AC.
designs. There is one type of astable multi-
vibrator made from discrete parts which is still
widely used (Fig. 9-7).
This multivibrator is a power conversion cir-
flip- cuit which converts DC to AC. The circuit uses
the two halves of the primary winding of a
transformer in place of load resistors. The
collector-to-base coupling is done with a parallel
RC pair which perform exactly the same function
as those shown in the bistable amplifier flip-flop
in Fig. 9-3. But here the timing element is not the
capacitors, it is the inductance of the two halves
of the primary windings. In the capacitor con-
trolled multivibrator (Fig. 9-6) the discharging
capacitor determined when the off transistor
would turn on. In the inductance timed circuit the
current stored in the inductor bleeds away until
there is insufficient base current to keep the on
transistor turned on. When the on transistor
comes out of saturation, the inductance between
its collector and the power supply is fully charged
and ready to bleed current into the opposite tran-
sistor base to turn it on and keep it on for a while.
Whenever current is changing in either half of the
primary winding, an AC voltage, the output, will
appear on the secondary.
Multivibrators like this can be used to
generate an AC voltage from a low DC voltage.
For example, this could be an AC converter which
is plugged into the 12 volt DC cigarette lighter of
your car. An electric shaver designed for 120
volts AC can be connected across the secondary
winding and you can shave while driving to work.
An electric shaver is usually not very fussy
about whether the AC frequency is 50 cycles or
100 cycles per second. However a record player
usually depends on the frequency of the AC to
determine how fast the records will turn. If the
frequency is 100 cycles, baritone singers will
sound like Mickey Mouse. If the frequency is
much below 60 cycles, the recording will sound
like prehistoric monsters groaning in the swamp.
The problem is even more severe because the re-
sistance of the load, that is, the record player, will
be reflected back through the transformer to
become part of the LR circuit that is determining
the frequency. So the frequency will depend on
exactly how much current the load draws.
o -
One solution to this is to design the multi-
vibrator to run at a relatively low frequency, say
40 cycles. Then a separate timer circuit is added
149
 VOUT

TRIGGER
VOUT Q2 RETURNS
PULSE TURNS Q2 OFF TO ON
Q1 ON AND
Q2 0FF

THIS INTERVAL IS
DETERMINED BY
C1 AND R1

HELPS INSURE THAT

Q1 RESTS OFF
Fig. 9-8 A monostable multivibrator

which will produce frequency stable timing pulses
to synchronize the multivibrator to 60 cycles,
matter what the load may be. The pulses
make the multivibrator trigger "early'*
cycles even though the multivibrator astable
quency is inclined to wander between 30 and 50
cycles.
In another application, the AC voltage on the
secondary can be rectified and filtered to produce
DC at a much higher or lower voltage with little
loss of power. These are called DC to DC in-
verters. Simple inverters like this one are found in
the capacitive ignition discharge systems which
are discussed in Section five. The voltage desired
on the secondary must be designed into the cir-
cuit by the choice of winding ratios on the
transformer.
G. Monostable Multivibrators
Half of an astable multivibrator and half of a
bistable multivibrator can be combined to form a
monostable multivibrator. The purpose of this
circuit is to make voltage pulses longer. If you
feed in a very short trigger pulse, say one milli-
second long, the monostable multivibrator will
deliver one long pulse, say 10 or 1000 milli-
seconds duration.
Monostable multivibrators, also known as
no one shot multivibrators, are usually designed so
will that the output is low when the circuit is inactive.
at 60 Then when the trigger pulse comes in, the output
fre- voltage jumps up for a length of time determined
by the charging capacitor, Ci, and its resistor, R lt
as seen in Fig. 9-8. At the end of this period the
output falls again and waits for the next trigger
pulse.
There are thousands of applications for one
shot multivibrators, but their usefulness is not
obvious until you need one. For example, suppose
you are building an automatic machine which
packs one hundred oranges in each shipping box.
The oranges roll down a chute much too fast for
the eye to count. The oranges over a switch
roll
which makes a voltage pulse every time an orange
goes by. A series of flip-flop counters counts the
oranges and a logic circuit recognizes when 100
oranges have entered the box. When the count of
100 is reached, the logic circuit delivers a short
pulse signifying "100.*" So far, this is just like the
counter illustrated in Fig. 9-4. This pulse is sup-
posed to activate a large solenoid which releases a
trap door and redirects the stream of oranges to
an empty box. Unfortunately, the solenoid has
quite a lot of inductance and physical inertia due
to its mass. Before it can respond to the pulse, the
101st orange goes by and changes the count to
101. The logic circuit which recognizes the 100
150
 .^^SROU. TRAP
DOORS

SWITCH MAKES A VOLTAGE

PULSE FOR EACH ORANGE
THAT ROLLS OVER IT

V|N 1's

Fig. 9-9 Orange packing machine illustrates use of counting flip-flops and one-shot multivibrator.

count returns to zero before the trap door is able
to open. As seen in Fig. 9-9, a one shot is used to
make the 100 count pulse last long enough for the
solenoid to respond.
H. Schmitt Triggers, Zero Crossing Detectors,
and Comparators
Schmitt triggers, zero crossing detectors, and
comparators are not oscillators, but they are fre-
quently used with oscillators to make square
waves out of sine waves. Digital circuits in-
cluding computers are usually regulated with a
frequency-stable square wave called a clock pulse.
The clock is a sort of electronic drill sergeant

151
 HIGH GAIN
AMPLIFIER
CLIPS
SINE WAVE
OFF AT
V|N VOUT Vcc
i

SINE WAVE
INPUT
VlN
1/2

> OF
CLASS B
VOUT

AMPLIFIEF

SQUARE" WAVE OUTPUT

/7T7 /777

Fig. 9-10 A high gain amplifier serving as a zero crossing detector.

which counts cadence and keeps the various parts circuit takes drastic action and turns either full
of the circuit synchronized so that they don't in- on or full off. A compares one voltage
circuit that
terfere with each other. The usual way to gen- to another and switches full on or full off is called
erate pulses is to start with a crystal
clock a comparator. In general, comparators can com-
oscillator which produces sine waves. It might pare a voltage to any voltage within the range of
seem more efficient to begin with a relaxation the power supply. So the zero crossing detector is
oscillator or a multivibrator which produces just one special kind of comparator. By wiring a
square waves directly. However, these circuits comparator so that itcompares an input voltage
usually do not produce a stable enough frequency to zero volts, the comparator becomes a zero
standard. crossing detector.

Crystal controlled digital watches, for exam-
ple, use a crystal oscillator for a time standard.
After the sine wave has been made square, a long
series of flip-flop counters divides the square
wave down to second, minute, and hour intervals.
These numbers are recognized and displayed by
clock pulse controlled logic circuits.
A sine wave can be converted into a good
square wave by passing it through a very high
gain amplifier. Let's assume that the amplifier is
biased like class B so that only the positive half of
the sine wave is amplified. The amplifier has so
Positive feedback can improve the perfor-
mance of a zero crossing detector intwo ways.
First, it increases the apparent gain of the
amplifier and makes the square wave voltage
changes more rapid or vertical. In other words, it
makes the square waves more square. The second
advantage of positive feedback is that it makes
the conversion of sine waves to a square wave im-
mune to high frequency noise that may be riding
on the sine wave. A circuit built like the zero
crossing detector but with positive feedback is
ca'led a Schmitt trigger, named after the guy who
first built one with vacuum tubes.

much gain that, whenever the sine wave signal

goes the slightest bit positive, above the zero It is fairly easy to understand how positive
point, the amplifier will produce a high voltage. feedback can increase the gain of an amplifier.
As soon as the sine wave signal goes slightly Suppose the amplifier is a class A non-inverting
below the zero point, the transistor will turn full amplifierand the quiescent point places the
on causing the output to fall to the lowest voltage amplifier half turned on. As soon as the input
on the load line. An amplifier like this is called a signal rises slightly above the zero point, the out-
zero crossing detector. In effect, this circuit is put signal rises a large distance above the output
comparing the sine wave to zero. Every time the zero point. This is fed back directly to the input
sine wave departs from zero the slightest hit. the via the resistor Rf shown in Fig. 9-11. The feed-
L52
 SQUARE WAVES
MORE SQUARE
BECAUSE OF INCREASED
GAIN.

SQUARE WAVE
DELAYED IN
PHASE
NOTE SWITCHING POINTS
ABOVE AND BELOW ZERO
Fig. 9-11 The Schmitt trigger, a comparator with hysteresis.

back ispromptly amplified until the output goes the sine wave returns to the zero point from
as high as the power supply will allow. The re- below, the positive feedback will hold the output
verse is true for the below zero point, the output low until the input sine wave rises considerably
will be considerably below zero and feedback will above the zero point.
make the output go lower still. WHEN INPUT
SIGNAL GOES SCHMITT TRIGGER
Positive feedback introduces hysteresis into DOWN, TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC
Vqut OUTPUT
The word "hysteresis"
the circuit characteristic.
FOLLOWS
means that something is lagging or falling short -THIS PATH
HIGH STATE
of some expected level. In electronics it means
<
that the behavior of a circuit is late in responding
to rising or falling values of voltage, current, or o
>
sometimes magnetic flux in a transformer core. i-
rj
o. -WHEN INPUT
In the Schmitt trigger, "hysteresis" describes t-
z>
SIGNAL GOES
the partial latching effect that the positive feed- o UP, OUTPUT
back causes. In the multivibrator we have al- FOLLOWS THIS
ready seen the result of what a great deal of PATH.

positive feedback can do. Once the output leaves

dead center, it quickly moves to either of its two
stable states and stays there permanently. LOW STATE V|N

In the Schmitt trigger much less positive SWITCHING J 1

-SWITCHING
INPUT VOLTAGE

feedback is used so that when the input sine wave THRESHOLD THRESHOLD
GOING GOING
goes back below the zero point, the circuit is DOWN •ZERO"
UP
capable of responding by switching back to the POINT

other extreme. The important point here is that Fig. 9-12 Schmitt trigger hysteresis
the switching point is no longer zero volts. When
Because of the hysteresis, the Schmitt trig-
the input sine wave returns to zero, the positive
ger isn't really a zero crossing detector because it
feedback will still hold the Schmitt trigger swit-
doesn't switch at exactly zero volts. The average
ched as if the input were still above the zero point.
of the two switching thresholds is still zero so
The Schmitt trigger will not switch to a low
that if a sine wave is fed into it, the output will
voltage output again until the input sine wave
look like that of a zero crossing detector, but will
goes considerably below the zero point. Before
be delayed in phase by several degrees.
the trigger can switch, the input must exceed the
effect of the positive feedback which is holding To explain how the Schmitt trigger ignores
the output at the opposite extreme. This is the lag high frequency noise riding on a sine wave, let's
or hysteresis. After the sine wave has gone below feed a noisy sine wave into a zero crossing detec-
zero and switched, it will again have hysteresis or tor and a Schmitt trigger and compare the dif-
a lag when the sine wave comes back up. When ference.
153
 NOISE CAUSES
EXTRA PULSES

NOISE RIDING
ON SINE WAVE

THRESHOLD

rrn zero
CROSSING VOUT
DETECTOR
PHASE SHIFT
THRESHOLD DELAYS PULSES

L SCHMITT TRIGGER
ONLY RESPONDS
I
TO FIRST TIME
•PHASE SIGNAL GOES
SHIFT PAST THRESHOLD

t
VlN
V VlN
EXCEEDS
SCHMITT TRIGGER EXCEEDS
THRESHOLD
+
FIRST
THRESHOLD
TIME
FIRST
TIME

Fig. 9-13 Comparison of zero crossing detector and Schmitt trigger.

Because of the noise spikes on the sine wave,
the zero crossing detector responds several times
per sine wave cycle. Instead of the big sine wave
crossing the zero point just twice each complete
sine wave cycle, the signal may cross four or more
times because of the noise. The higher the noise
spikes, the more often they are liable to cross.
These extra crossings result in narrow, extra out-
put pulses which preceed and follow the desired
large pulses.
When the Schmitt trigger is given the same
signal, does not switch until the signal rises
it
above a relatively high threshold. Not only that,
it will ignore any further crossing changes until
the signal goes below a relatively low, below zero
threshold. Any noise on these signals will be ig-
nored unless the noise amplitude is so high that
noise peaks extend from the upper threshold all
the way down to the lower threshold. Notice that
the Schmitt trigger is a kind of filter that ignores
low amplitude noise, but responds to the biggest
signal as if the small signals weren't present.
/. Unijunction Transistor Oscillators
Yes, there is another kind of transistor we
haven't mentioned. The unijunction transistor is
a device that resembles the junction FET in its
construction and circuit symbol. Its volt-ampere
characteristic has roughly the same shape as that
of a tunnel diode, including the negative resist-
ance region. This makes it useful as an oscillator.
They do not work very well at high frequencies
and are not as reliable as other transistors. For
these reasons there is little to recommend them
over other ways of building oscillators. Still, you
may occasionally find one in the depths of
avionics instruments, so we did not want you to
be surprised.
A unijunction transistor (UJT) oscillator is
seen in Fig. 9-15. This circuit happens to be a
metronome for piano teachers, but practically all
UJT oscillators use the same circuit. In pulse cir-
cuits frequently the loudspeaker is replaced with
an inductor or load resistor. The capacitor, C, is

154
 + V CC

VOUT
V|N^-
*
BASIC AMPLIFIER SYMOBL
lb
(NON-INVERTING)
INPUT B1
Ve-
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE C N-TYPEUJT
> VOUT LL s\ss&'
— ^-?
|

L-vj r
TOCK!

> °c Kf
LOUDSPEAKER
COMPARISON
VOLTAGE SERVES AS
COMPARATOR SYMBOL LOAD
CAN ALSO BE OPERATIONAL rrn
INPUT AMPLIFIER
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE CAPACITOR CHARGES
CAPACITOR DISCHARGES
, THROUGH TRANSISTOR
CO.
OQ
GROUND IS
tu o yj io
ZERO Q. z 5 o S
VOLTAGE S:<Otl2
3 -> $ a.
/777 to I
COMPARATOR WIRED AS ZERO t

CROSSING DETECTOR CURRENT PULSES WHICH

OCCUR EVERYTIME
CAPACITOR DISCHARGES.
PULSES THROUGH
INPUT lb LOUDSPEAKER
MAKE NOISE.

/777
ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR
WIRED AS A SCHMITT TRIGGER

NOTE HYSTERESIS DRAWING Fig. 9-15 A unijunction transistor oscillator

ON AMPLIFIER SYMBOL
pulses give the metronome that "tock-tock-tock"
VOUT sound. To summarize, it works very much like a
VlN^ "> neon or P-N-P-N relaxation oscillator.

J. Integrated Timing Circuits

SYMBOL FOR SCHMITT TRIGGER

We now enter the wonderful world of inte-
Fig. 9-14 Symbols for amplifiers, comparators grated circuits. The NE555 timer integrated cir-
and Schmitt triggers. cuit (IC) contains circuits already discussed in
this section and it is used as a universal oscillator
charged by the variable resistor, R. When the which can generate square waves and sawtooth
UJT fires,discharges the capacitor suddenly
it waves (oscilloscope sweep waveforms) and can be
and causes a large current pulse to flow from the used as a monostable multivibrator. It can also
+ supply down through base 1 to base 2 and detect when a pulse is missing from a series of
through the loudspeaker to ground. These current equally spaced pulses. Some push button tele-
155
phones use this "timer" IC to generate the example, suppose your timing circuit is supposed
musical tones you hear when the buttons are to make square waves and it doesn't. You check
pressed to "dial" a number. This IC has so many to be sure that the IC has all the correct voltages
uses we could spend a section on it. and inputs that are supposed to make it perform.
If it has everything it needs, but refuses to work,
One of the advantages that makes ICs won- you remove the old one and replace it. There is no
derful that most of the nitty-gritty details like
is way to repair defective ICs, which is probably a
diodes, base resistors, and biasing are all hidden blessing.
away in the silicon chip. To repair a circuit which
uses "ICs," all you need to do is make sure that
each IC is doing the overall job assigned to it. For If you study the circuit diagram for the timer
you will notice some unfamiliar transistor sym-
bols. At the upper left a transistor is drawn with
itsbase connected backwards. A transistor at the
upper right has two emitters and two collectors.
When ICs are printed on a silicon chip, tran-
sistors are often built in unusual configurations
or have parts doubled. Fortunately, you don't
need to understand IC technology in detail unless
you are actually building ICs. It is enough to
understand that the block of circuitry which con-
tains the double-emitter transistor is a bistable
Fig. 9-16 NE555 integrated timer circuit. The IC flip-flop and behaves like the flip-flop you
package on the right contains two separate timer studied.
circuits.

+ v cc
o
il PIN 8

\ —/\4 RESET
THRESHOLD}—•
> — '^ OR
IKIUI
INHIBIT
CONTROL \ 5
VOLTAGE / *

RESET
BISTABLE OUTPUT
FLIP-
FLOP
}
SET

PIN 2

TRIGGER^) —•— <CAPACITOR

DISCHARGE
5k
U
PIN 1

rrn rrn
Fig. 9-18 Block diagram of the NE555 timer
156
157
 RESET IS the timer is much more precise, more versatile,
HELD HIGH TO more reliable and costs about 39c retail. This is
KEEP IT FROM
less than the price of a unijunction transistor, if
INTERFERING
you can find one for sale.

Like the UJT, the timer is sensitive to high

and low voltage stages that cause it to switch.
These two voltage levels are detected by the two
comparators. These comparators go full on or full
off when the input voltage rises above or below
the two switching thresholds. In the circuit
diagram you will see three 5K resistors in series
going from V cc to ground. The high and low
voltage thresholds are established by the high
2 TRIGGER INPUT and low end of the center 5K resistor. The out-
puts of the comparators go to the set and reset
triggers and cause the flip-flop to change state
"-pX. TT7 when these two voltage thresholds are crossed.
^HELPSTO

X /TT7 STABILIZE
UPPER VOLTAGE.
2/3 V cc
Because of the complexity, it has a number of in-
puts and outputs which are not needed for every
application.

CAPACITOR
In Fig. 9-19 the timer is wired as a square
VOLTAGE CAPACITOR CHARGES
^THROUGH R a + Rb
wave or pulse generator. A
R a + Rb.
resistance,
charges the capacitor, C. When the high voltage
CAPACITOR DISCHARGES threshold (2 3 of V cc is reached, the flip-flop
)

THROUGH Rb switches and the capacitor discharge transistor

inside the IC turns on, it is like a switch that
shorts pin 7 on the IC to ground. If R D is very
large (high resistance) then the voltage pulse on
the output stays low a long time because the
capacitor is discharged slowly. But if Rb is very
small, perhaps even zero ohms, then the output
pulse will be very short because the capacitor will
discharge quickly. In this case the timer will be
A VOUT (PIN 3)
operating just like the UJT oscillator above.

By not connecting the "trigger'* input, pin 2,

to the capacitor, C, the timer will not retrigger

itself and the oscillator will not be stable. Instead
it becomes a monostable multivibrator. A short
voltage pulse into the trigger input causes the
timer to make one long pulse on the output. The
length of the pulse is determined by the size of
Fig. 9-19 Astable square wave oscillator circuit. the resistance charging the capacitor. C.

The block diagram of the timing circuit re-

veals that consists of a bistable flip-flop, two
it QUESTIONS:
comparator amplifiers and a few more transistors
for discharging the timing capacitor, inhibiting 1. What are bistable (non-oscillating)
the timer (reset), and amplifying the output \i multivibrators used for?
together it has 23 transistors, two diodes, and 15
resistors. For complexity, the function of
all its 2. In what form is information stored in a
is really not much different
the circuit as a whole flip-flop memory cell? What happens when
than a single unijunction transistor. However, the circuit power is shut off?
1 58
 3. The trigger pulse input circuit in Fig. 9-3 12. What is a clock pulse? Why are they often
always makes the flip-flop change state. derived from sine wave oscillators?
How can this be since the trigger pulse is
applied to both transistors equally? 13. What is a zero crossing detector? What is
its response to a zero crossing?
4. In the flip-flop counter circuit shown in
Fig. 9-4, what would be the states of the 14. What is a comparator?
flip-flops during the 13th pulse? What
would be the states of the flip-flops just 15. How is a zero crossing detector improved
after the 13th pulse? by positive feedback?

5. In a typical astable multivibrator (Fig. 9-6) 16. Is it accurate to say that a Schmitt trigger
the bases are biased partly on by the re- is a kind of zero crossing detector?
sistors R\ and R2. Why aren't these
resistors connected to ground so that the 17. What is hysteresis?
transistors can be sure of turning off.

18. Is it possible for a Schmitt trigger to have

6. If the purpose of the astable oscillator is to too much positive feedback?
generate "square" waves, what must be
true about the relative sizes of the load 19. Why does a Schmitt trigger circuit symbol
resistances and the capacitor charging re- have an "S"-like symbol drawn on it?
sistances, R\ and R2. What is this symbol and what is its
significance?
7. If an astable multivibrator is synchronized
by a set trigger pulse, what happens if the 20. What is a unijunction transistor and what
trigger pulses occur at a slower rate than are they used for?
the natural, astable frequency of the flip-
flop? 21. What are some uses for the NE555 timer
integrated circuit?
8. Suppose an astable multivibrator (like Fig.
9-7) isused as a power inverter to convert 22. Why is a complicated circuit like the
12 volts DC to 6 volts DC. The transformer NE555 timer preferred over a nice simple
is wound so that the secondary AC voltage UJT?
is 6 volts RMS. This is andrectified
filtered toproduce 6 volts DC. Another 23. When repairing circuits containing ICs,
way to convert 12 volts DC to 6 volts DC why is usually enough to know the block
it

would be to use a 6 volt zener diode and a diagram of the integrated circuit? Why
dropping resistor. What is the advantage isn't it necessary and important to know
of the multivibrator circuit? What are the all the details of the circuitry inside the in-
advantages of the zener diode circuit? tegrated circuit?

9. What is the basic purpose of a monostable

multivibrator?

10. What two similar circuits are usually com-

bined to build one monostable multi-
vibrator?

11. Suppose the orange packing machine in

Fig. 9-9 were expanded so that it could load
10,000 oranges in boxes of 100 in a truck.
How many more flip-flops must be added
to the present string of flip-flops to enable
the circuit to count up to 10,000?

159
 SECTION X
Operational Amplifiers

A. Introduction 3. Perfect linearity

Operational Amplifiers, or op-amps for short, 4. Complete input-output isolation

are a high gain amplifier circuit that attempts to
achieve the perfect amplifier. They are called 5. Infinitely fast switching and unlimited slew
"operational" because they may
be wired to per- rate.
form mathematical operations on voltages and
currents. For example, the addition of voltages 6. Perfect current source or voltage source out-
means literally adding 3 volts to 2 volts to get 5 put.
volts. Circuits based on op-amps may be used for
subtraction, division, multiplication, taking Operational amplifiers can exceed the perfor-
logarithms, and solving differential equations. mance of single transistor amplifiers in every
aspect except the infinitely fast switching and
Operational amplifiers can also be used for unlimited slew rate.
practically any application in which transistors
Operational amplifier voltage gain is not in-
are used. They can be wired as high gain non-
inverting amplifiers or inverting amplifiers of
finite,but is extremely high, 100,000 or more.
almost any voltage or current gain desired. They Negative feedback through resistors is used to
can be used in sine wave oscillators, multi- adjust the gain to any level desired. Different
kinds of components in the feedback path such as
vibrators, Schmitt triggers, frequency filters, and
diodes and capacitors can produce the unusual
much more. Their primary limitation is that they
mathematical operations.
generally lack high frequency response. Today,
1980, they are rarely used above about 2 MHz. C. Differential Amplifiers
Nearly all op-amps today are in the form of in-
tegrated circuits and the cost per amplifier can be Operational amplifiers are very high gain,
as little as ten cents each. Entire books are writ- sophisticated differential amplifiers, so we can't
ten on particular uses for operational amplifiers, explain operational amplifiers without first ex-

so it is hard to do them justice in two sections. plaining differential amplifiers. The purpose of
the differential amplifier is to amplify the dif-
B. The Op-Amp— The Ideal Amplifier ference between two signals. For example, if one

input signal is 10 volts and the second input

In Section 4 we introduced the idea of an signal is 6 volts, the signal we wish to amplify is
ideal amplifier. We listed the following attributes the 4 volt difference between the two.
as being ideal for an amplifier.
Isn't amplifying the difference between
1. A perfect switch voltages like amplifying the hole in a donut? Who
cares, you ask! The difference between two sig-

2. Unlimited gain nals is important because not all important

161
 voltages are referenced to ground. For instance, You might imagine that a differential am-
suppose you want to amplify the voltage across plifierthat could handle 10,000 volt inputs and
one of the capacitors in an astable multivibrator only look at the small difference voltage would be
as in Fig. 9-6 in the last Section. Neither of the hard to build. You're right, it is difficult!
voltages at the ends of the capacitor are the
voltage across the capacitor. If you have the A large voltage that is common to both input

chance to build such a multivibrator in the lab, signals is called a common mode voltage. If this
you should try to look at the capacitor voltage common mode voltage is large, real differential

with an oscilloscope. You will find this is impossi- amplifiers have a hard time ignoring
it. This large

ble unless you have a two channel oscilloscope voltage will be partly amplified along with the
that can be set up as a differential amplifier. voltage difference. Therefore differential am-
plifiers have two voltage gains, the one we want,
Adiff- and the voltage gain that we don't want
VlNi>- that is amplifying the common mode voltage,

-> ^com- The usual way to rate the quality of a dif-

V1N2V ferential amplifier isby its common mode rejec-

V = AV (V|N-| - V|N2> tion ratio. This is thenumber you get when you
divide the differential voltage gain by the com-
DIFFERENCE VOLTAGE = Vi^ - V1N2 mon mode voltage gain.

Adiff
THECOMMON MODE VOLTAGE IS THE ARITHMETIC =
AVERAGE OF THE TWO INPUT SIGNALS Common Mode Rejection Ratio
A c om
VCOM = 1/2 (V1N1 + V|N2>

The emitter coupled difference amplifier is

Fig. 10-1 Differential amplifier symbols and pro-
perties
the most common
kind of differential amplifier.
Referring to Fig. 10-2, the emitter coupled dif-
As you know, voltage amplifiers have voltage ferential amplifier is made from two common

gain which means that the output is the input
voltage times the amplifier voltage gain, A v
V = Av
Differential voltage amplifiers
ference between two input voltages, Vjnl
emitter amplifiers that share the same emitter
.
resistor. Currents from both emitters flow down
through the emitter resistor. Therefore, the
(Vin)
voltage across the emitter resistor goes up when
either transistor begins to turn on. If two large in-
amplify the dif- put voltages are applied to the bases of both tran-
and sistors, the emitter resistor voltage will try to

Vin2- Therefore, turn both transistors off again by raising the

emitter-to-ground voltages. If either collector is

V = Av <V in i - V in2 )
taken as the output, the collector voltage will on-
ly change substantially when there is a big dif-
ference between the two input voltages.
A would ignore the
perfect differential amplifier
sizes of the two input voltages and just look at The bigger the emitter resistor is, the more
the difference between the voltages. Suppose the effective it is response to large
at cancelling the
amplifier had a voltage gain of 2. Therefore, if common mode voltages. The higher the emitter
V in i
= 10andV in2 = 6. resistance, the more dramatic the change of the
voltage will be between the emitters and the
V = 2 (10 - 6) = 2 (4) = 8 volts. below ground power supply, Y ee However, if the .

emitter resistance is too big, even the smallest

And if Vini = 10 ° and v in2 = 96, then emitter current will cause a voltage drop across
the resistor that is as big as the power supply
\
',, = 2 (100 - 96) = 8 volts. voltage. This extreme case would make any
change in the output voltage impossible.
And if Vin] = 10.000 volts and Vj n 9 = 9,996
volts. To get around this problem, practical dif-
ferential amplifiers replace the emitter resistor
V = 2 (10.000 - 9,9961 = 8 volts with a network of interconnected transistors and
162
 diodes that is a constant current source. An ex- amplifier on the positive input, the output will
ample of a complex current source can be found in not be inverted. A voltage gain of one is shown,
the operational amplifier in Fig. 10-4. This circuit but the gain could be any number. In Fig. 10-3 the
can be thought of as an automatic variable emit- signal on the non-inverting input is not inverted
ter resistor that varies its resistance in response or phase-shifted in the output.
to the size of the common mode voltage. Large
common mode voltages cause the resistance to If the inputs in Fig. 10-3 were reversed so
become very high. Small common mode voltages that the sine wave were fed into the inverting,
cause the resistance to stay very low. Using a cur- minus input, the signal would be taken off the col-
rent source instead of an emitter resistor, the lector of the same transistor. This means that the
common mode rejection ratio is usually 1000 or sine wave on the output will be 180° out of phase
higher. with the input. Whether the signal is inverted or
not at the output depends on which of the two
ABOVE GROUND transistor collectors the output is taken from.
POWER SUPPLY Sometimes differential amplifiers are
built so
REFERENCED TO
GROUND that the output signal can be taken off either or
both collectors. This configuration is called dif-
ferential outputs.

RLi «L 2
E. Operational Amplifier Design
VOUT
- INPUT * As we have said, operational amplifiers have
+ INPUT

->
/ <-
very high gain— the more gain the better. To
achieve this high gain, the transistors in Fig. 10-2
VlNi V|N2 / can be replaced with Darlington transistors.
A POSITIVE A POSITIVE INPUT
Usually two or more differential amplifiers are
INPUT ON THIS ON THIS SIDE MAKES
SIDEMAKES VOUT GO DOWN. put in series to increase the gain still further. This
VOUT GO UP is done using the two differential outputs to drive

ei "e2 the differential inputs of the next stage. The last

BOTH EMITTER CURRENTS amplifier of the operational amplifier is usually a

ADD TOGETHER ACROSS complementary class B stage. The class B stage
-V ee R e RAISING THE EMITTER is driven by a DC level translator network which
VOLTAGE OF BOTH insures that the two transistors in the class B
TRANSISTORS. output stage receive inputs of the proper polarity
BELOW GROUND and correct DC average voltage levels.
POWER SUPPLY
REFERENCED TO All the internal amplifier stages of an op-amp
GROUND
are direct coupled. There are no energy storage
Fig. 10-2 Symmetrical emitter coupled dif- components like capacitors or inductors in be-
ference amplifier tween the stages which would decrease the gain
at high or low frequencies. It is difficult to build
D. Inverting and Non-inverting Inputs capacitors into an integrated circuit and extreme-
ly difficult to make inductors. Therefore, in-
Notice in Fig. 10-2 that the two inputs are tegrated circuits are designed to avoid using
labeled plus and minus. This convention means these components, even if it means using a dozen
that when a signal on the positive input goes transistors to avoid using one capacitor.
positive with respect to the signal on the negative
input, the output will also go positive. In other From an applications point of view, the ad-
words, the polarity of the signal on the positive vantage of direct coupling is that the op-amp is a
input is not inverted. Suppose that the negative DC amplifier and will amplify DC voltage levels.
input of a differential amplifier is connected to a For example, let's say that we shunt an opera-
constant DC voltage, say +5 volts DC, and sup- tional amplifier with negative feedback so that it
pose the positive input is connected to a sine has a voltage gain of two. We use it to "amplify''
wave signal which has its zero point established a 1.5 volt flashlight battery so that the output is
at +5 volts. Since the sine wave is applied to the 3 volts DC. Because the battery voltage does not
163
 A SINE WAVE ON THE
NON-INVERTING INPUT YIELDS
A NON-INVERTED OUTPUT.

NOTICE THAT A +5 VOLT

DC SIGNAL IS COMMON
TO BOTH INPUTS SO IT
IS CANCELLED IN THE
OUTPUT.

Fig. 10-3 A signal on the non-inverting input is not inverted in the output.

change, the output remains at 3 volts indefinite-
ly. Not all signals that are worth amplifying
change rapidly like radio or audio signals. Some
signals, like temperature readings, barometric
pressure, or humidity, change slowly over hours
or days.
Before integrated circuits, building high gain
DC amplifiers was difficult because temperature
changes made the amplifier very unstable. As the
gains of individual transistors changed, the tran-
sistor outputs would drift up and down changing
the quiescent points. These changes in DC
voltage would be directly coupled to the next
stage where they would be amplified and fed to
the next stage. The result was that small changes
in voltage would be amplified until the last
amplifier stage would turn full on or full off
without any regard for the input signal.
In contrast, a high gain AC amplifier is easy
to make stable because the biasing of each of the
several transistor stages is independent. The DC
from one stage is not biasing the next stage
because the stages are separated from each other
by capacitors or transformers. As the quiescent
point of one transistor changes, it cannot pass
this change along to the next stage.
square wave signal at the output was propor-
tional to the DC level of the input DC signal. The
chopping consisted of turning the input to the
first stage on and off rapidly. After the square
wave had been greatly amplified, the output
square wave was then filtered to remove the AC
component much the way that low pass filters are
used to filter out the ripple in power supplies.
Integrated circuits made chopper stabiliza-
tion obsolete. Transistors made on the same
silicon chip can have extremely closely matched
gains and temperature characteristics. These
matched transistors are used in the circuit so that
changes with temperature will be cancelled by the
same changes occurring in identical transistors.
Another trick used to temperature stabilize tran-
sistor amplifiers is to put a diode between the
base and emitter. As the transistor heats and
tries to turn more on, the diode also heats and its
forward offset voltage decreases. This change
shunts more base current to the emitter and turns
the transistor back off again. Three examples of
thisbase diode technique can be found in the in-
tegrated operational amplifier circuit in Fig. 10-4.
Probably the most well known operational
amplifier is the type 741 integrated circuit. The

"MCI" prefix means that this circuit is the

In the old days, slowly changing DC signals Motorola Company version of the IC. The 741 op-
were usually amplified by chopper stabilized DC amp needs two power supplies, +V CC and — V ee .

amplifiers.The DC signal was "chopped" into a The output is designed to rest at a quiescent
square-wave-like AC signal that could be ampli- point of exactly zero volts. So if the operational
fied by AC amplifiers. The amplitude of the amplifier were used as a high fidelity amplifier,
164
 Many of the operational amplifiers are not as
(TYPICAL +12) fancy as the 741 and do not have an external null
offset adjustment. For example, the MC1558 con-
sists of two 741's in the same 8 pin IC package.
NON-INVERTING The MC4741 contains four 74 Is in a 14 pin
INPUT
package. In these IC's there are not enough pins
> OUTPUT to allow offset null leads for all of the individual

* operational amplifiers.

> INVERTING Some operational amplifiers, such as the

INPUT
LM324, are designed for use with a single power
supply. This means that "zero" must be defined
FFSET NULL ADJUSTS at some voltage half way between zero and V cc ,

OUTPUT TO EXACTLY just the way we did for the class A amplifier.
ZERO VOLTS WHEN
-V ee THERE IS NO SIGNAL.
Notice that the output of the 741 is a push-
(TYPICAL -12 VOLTS)
pull complementary amplifier. This allows the
NOTE THE output to change from a very high voltage, nearly
COMPLEMENTARY
CLASS B OUTPUT.
+V CC down to a very low voltage, nearly V ee
, ,

without ever having very large currents flow

directly from +V CC down to — V ee Large cur- .

rents are prohibited because only one of the two

output transistors needs to be turned full on at
one time. This is the same energy saving principle
INVERTING
INPUT we discussed in the CMOS inverter circuit. By
having the two transistors on at different times,
OFFSET the current through the two transistors is never
NULL great and is further limited by the two resistors
50 k
(25 and 50 ohms). A programmable operational
VEE
V_ amplifier has an input lead that allows the circuit
quiescent current to be tuned for minimum power
consumption for whatever power supply voltages
THE CURRENT SOURCE IS THE CIRCUITRY are being used.
AROUND THE OFFSET NULL INPUTS.
Frequency response in operational amplifiers
Fig. 10-4 MC1741 (741) operational amplifier
is measured in terms of slew rate. This just refers
diagram and circuit symbol
to how fast the voltage on the output can change.
For example, the slew rate of a 741 is 0.5 volts
the sine wave output signal would be symmet- change in one microsecond, or 0.5 V7 \i s. A newer,
rical about the zero voltage axis. For some ap- high speed version of the 741, the MCI 74 IS has a
plications, such as an amplifier for a thermocou- slew rate of 10V7 u s.
ple thermometer, the output must be adjusted to
exactly zero volts when the input is zero volts. To F. The Comparator
do this the 741 is equipped with an offset null
lead. "Offset" means a voltage set off to one side The best way to understand the operational
of zero and "null" means to set something to amplifier is how it is used. The simplest
to study
zero. This is done by means of a potentiometer use for an operational amplifier is to use it as a
wired to the op-amp as shown in Fig. 10-4. For comparator. By connecting the two inputs to dif-
many applications, such as a high fidelity ferent voltages, these two voltages can be com-
preamplifier, adjusting the zero to within a few pared. In other words, whenever one voltage is
thousandths of a volt is not important because bigger than the other, the op-amp will turn full on
the signal is AC and any offset will disappear or full off. This off-on switching action is often
across the coupling capacitors. used to control machinerv or circuits.

165
 REFERENCE VOLTAGE
A REPRESENTING THERMOSTAT
SETTING
70°
(5 VOLTS)
65°
60°
TA VOLTAGE REPRESENTING
ROOM TEMPERATURE
(5 VOLTS)
Fig. 10-5
For example, a comparator could be the heart
of a thermostatic control for a home
When the voltage representing room temperature
drops below a voltage representing the desired
room temperature, the comparator would switch
and turn on the furnace. The thermostat tem-
perature control is just a potentiometer which is
calibrated in degrees of temperature, but it pro-
duces reference voltages that are compared with
the voltage from an electronic thermometer.
When the positive (non-inverting) input is
connected to a more positive voltage than the
negative input (inverting input), the output
voltage will go full up to nearly V cc a high
positive voltage. If the inverting input is more
positive than the non-inverting input, the output
will drop to a low voltage, nearly the negative
supply voltage, — V ee Actually, comparators are
.
more likely to be used with just one power supply
since there is no need for the output to be bal-
anced half way on at exactly zero volts.
Comparators do not need to be balanced half
way on at zero volts when
the input signal dif-
ference is precisely zero. Also, they do not need
high linearity. As a result, special comparator in-
tegrated circuits are usually used for this purpose
instead of op-amps. These circuits are usually
simpler and cheaper than op-amps, and because
they have fewer parts, they often switch on and
off faster than the complex op-amps.
? +v cc
FURNACE
ON
FURNACE FURNACE
OFF OFF
rrn
A comparator used as a thermostat.
Fig. 10-6 shows a single IC which contains
furnace. ten comparators. These comparators can be used
to drive a bar graph voltmeter. The bar graph
voltmeter is simply ten lights lined up in a row or
column. The lights could be labeled in volts from
one volt up to ten volts, miles per hour, or any
other calibration. The lights are light emitting
diodes (LEDs) and each light is driven by its own
comparator. Each comparator is wired to look for
a specificvoltage: one volt, two volts, three
volts, and so on up to ten volts. These reference
voltages are obtained from a string of eleven
resistors in series. The voltage to be measured is
introduced to the positive inputs of all of these
,
comparators. All comparators whose reference
voltages are exceeded will turn on. As the column
of lights is activated, the visual effect resembles
the red column rising in a thermometer.
This voltmeter is rather crude, since it has
cnly ten steps. However, it is cheap and it is
beginning to be used for fuel gauges or other uses
where the quantity cannot be precisely measured.
If more precision is needed, two or more ICs can
be put in series to drive columns of 20 or 30
lights.
G. The Voltage Follower
Another simple use for the op-amp is a
voltage follower. The voltage follower is used for
matching high impedance sources to low imped-
166
 + 12 VOLTS DC

THE IC (DASHED LINE)

10 VOLTS CONTAINS 10 COMPARATORS
AND THE 10 RESISTORS
WHICH ARE THE REFERENCE
VOLTAGE STRING.

9 VOLTS

£>
8 VOLTS

/\_ £> W-

7 VOLTS /
•M- "\
=D>
6 VOLTS \l /

s>
7 VOLTS
5 VOLTS \l/
_/\
t>
4 VOLTS /
LIGHTS GO ON IN
W- > 7RESPONSE
t> TO 7 VOLTS INPUT.

3 VOLTS /

t> >r-

2 VOLTS \l /

=D>
1VOLT

3> / _j
/ I
\

/777 rrn
Fig. 10-6 A bar graph voltmeter which uses a single IC containing ten comparators.
167
ance loads. In Section 7 the emitter follower and negative feedback will stop the output from
source follower were used the same way. Suppose changing as soon as the difference voltage is
you had a signal with a large voltage but a high again zero.
source impedance. If you try to use this voltage
directly to drive a meter or an amplifier, the load The voltage gain of the voltage follower is

will draw too much current and voltage will sag
and become inaccurate or distorted. The voltage
follower configuration will amplify the signal cur-
rent but the output voltage will be identical to the
input. This circuit will provide whatever current
one. However, the current gain can be quite high
depending on the design of the op-amp and will
vary with the size of the load impedance. The load
on an operational amplifier can be from the out-
put to ground, the output to +V CC or even from ,

is needed, but the output voltage will always the output to — V ee This versatility is a major
.

"follow the input." reason why op-amps are so widely used.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK H. Precision Diode

Now here is a cute little circuit that is a slight

variation of the voltage follower. You may have
been bothered by the lack of a rectifying diode
with a break point at exactly zero volts. On the
other hand, maybe not! All the diodes we have
looked at so far either haver a voltage offset of 0.2
or 0.6 volts or do other strange things. In con-
trast, this diode is almost "perfect."

V|N = V
So A v = 1

Fig. 10-7 A voltage follower used to match a

high impedance source to a low impedance load.

Fig. 10-7shows an op-amp wired as a voltage - 0.6 +

follower. The output is wired directly to the VOLTS
negative input. This isan example of negative COMPENSATION
feedback. Whenever the output tries to rise, this
rise is coupled back to the input and tries to turn
the output back down again. Of course, if the out-
put falls below the positive input voltage, the
feedback will cause the output to rise again.
VOLT-
Ok
now, listen up! If you miss the next sen- AMPERE
SILICON DIODE
tence, you have missed 13 of the whole section. CHARACTERISTIC
FORWARD
In an operational amplifier circuit with negative CHARACTERISTIC
feedback, the extremely high gain will change the +V

output until the negative op-amp input voltage + 0.6 VOLTS

equals the positive op-amp input voltage. By the
definition of a differential amplifier, the output
voltage will be the difference between the positive
and negative input voltages multiplied times the
gain. Because of the way it is wired, the voltage
follower output voltage is the negative input
voltage. This means that whenever the positive
input tries to differ from the negative input, the Fig. 10S F
}
recision diode made with an op-amp.
L68
 This precision diode is made from an ordinary back at all, the voltage difference between the
silicon or germanium diode, but uses an opera- two inputs is zero. It is as though the two inputs
tional amplifier to cancel out the offset voltage. were connected together and they are shorted.
We know that this circuit has negative feedback This strange connection is called a virtual short

because circuitry connects the output with the in- circuit. Knowing that the voltage difference be-
verting input. Therefore, the amplifier will tween the two inputs is always zero and that the
change the output until the voltage on the ne- inputs draw no current is all you need to figure
gative input equals the voltage on the positive in- out what the amplifier is doing.
put. Because of the feedback, the op-amp will
assume the same voltage drop across it that is 1. Non-inverting amplifier with controlled gain
across the diode and cancel out the voltage offset.
Now tiny AC current signals can be rectified pre- The easiest way to understand how a ne-
gative feedback network determines the gain is to
cisely at zero volts. Notice that even the forward
start by looking at the output voltage. Then we
resistance of the real diode is largely compen-
sated and the resulting volt-ampere character-
will work our way back to the input. As drawn in

istic is an almost perfect rectifier. Of course this

Fig. 10-9, the output of the op-amp is 6 volts DC.

diode is still subject to the frequency, current,

The current flows from the 6 volts down to

and voltage limitations of the operational

ground through the 2K Q resistor and the 1KQ
amplifier and the real diode.
resistor. The voltage divides across these two
resistors. So,

/. Operational Amplifiers With Controlled

Voltage Gain R
Vin-
R + Rf
The input resistance to an op-amp, as
measured from either input to ground, is very
high. This is because the current source circuit
IK
that acts like an "emitter resistor" makes a large
Vin :
6 = — 6 = 2 volts
voltage drop between the emitter and — V ee . IK + 2K
Also, the P-N junctions of the transistors can not
conduct current from one input to the other, so This is consistent with the high gain and negative
the impedance between one input and the other is
feedback forcing the two inputs to have the same
quite high, ideally infinite. In op-amps made from
That is, zero volts difference
voltage, 2 volts. be-
FETs these input resistances really do approach tween the two op-amp inputs.
infinity.
Just to make sure you have the right idea,
Because of this large input resistance, the let'slook at a negative input signal to the same
current that flows into an op-amp input is very amplifier: the output voltage is —4.5 volts so
small. 0.1 microamperes is typical.These cur- positive current must flow from ground down to
rents can be ignored for the purpose of
cal- the —4.5 volts. As before, the voltage divides
culating voltage gain and predicting the overall across the resistors and the two input voltages
performance. You should consider the input should come out equal, —1.5 volts.
resistance to an op-amp as infinite. Therefore, no
current flows into an op-amp input. As a result,
the voltage on an op-amp input should not be R
Vin- =
determined by this current. Later we will see that R + Rf
the tiny input currents are important for balanc-
ing an op-amp output to zero volts. However,
from the point of view of the op-amp's assigned
task in the circuit, the input current is negligible.
IK 1
We saw in the voltage follower how the huge in" 4.5 = 4.5 = -1.5 volts
IK + 2K 3
voltage gain of the op-amp made the negative in-
put the same voltage as the positive input. The
gain of the op-amp is so high, that for all practical
purposes, whenever there is any negative feed-
169
 POSITIVE CURRENT FLOWS FROM 6 VOLTS, PAST V|N-.
AND DOWN TO
GROUND. ZERO.

VOLTS
rm

+ 6 VOLTS DC

6 -v ee

> Vo R + Rf
Av =
V|N +
rrn

p±
tr ]

Fig. 10-9 Non-inverting amplifier

POSITIVE CURRENT FLOWS FROM VOLTS. PAST V|N-.

AND DOWN TO
-4.5 VOLTS.

4.5 VOLTS

6 ~ v ee

> Vo = A v V| N

Vo = (3X-15) = -4.5 VOLTS

rrn
Fig. 10-10 Non-inverting amplifier with negative
input voltage.

We can summarize the gain of non-inverting 2. Inverting operational amplifiers with con-
amplifiers with the formula: trolled gain

R + Rf
Av = + Wiring the op-amp so that the output signal
R is is not very different, but the voltage
inverted
This formula is so basic to figuring out opera- gain changes because the two inputs are always
tional amplifier circuits, that you should either locked together at zero volts instead of at the in-
memorize it or be able to figure out the gain in a put voltage. In the inverting amplifier the pos-
few seconds using the reasoning process we just itive input is soldered to zero volts, so the
went through. negative input must follow it.
170
 POSITIVE CURRENT FLOWS FROM +2 VOLTS, POSITIVE CURRENT FLOWS FROM +3
PAST ZERO, AND VOLTS, PAST ZERO,
' DOWN TO -4 VOLTS. AND DOWN TO THE
R i
INPUT, -1.5 VOLTS
ZERO
V|N^> WW* 1K^
ZERO
VOLTS
+ 2 VOLTS VlN ) vAAAA-
>— 1.5 VOLTS 1KQ

n 77 ZERO >n
VOLTS rrn ZERO
V = -4 VOLTS VOLTS

V = + 3 VOLTS

Vo
VOLTAGE GAIN = = -2 -1.5 VOLTS
VlN I = = - 1.5 ma
1KQ
-Rf -<2K)
= -2 V = 3 VOLTS = i Rf = (1.5 ma)(2KQ)
R 1K

Fig. 10-12 Inverting amplifier with negative in-

Fig. 10-11 Inverting amplifier
put voltage.

In Fig. 10-11 the inverting amplifier is using Rf_

the same resistors as in the non-inverting am- Av = -
plifier, but the gain is less. Knowing that the two
R
inputs will be equal and zero, makes it easy to
J. Balancing Operational Amplifiers
figure out what the output will be. If we assume
that the input voltage is +2 volts DC, then this
If operational amplifiers are used for amplify-
voltage will force a current to flow down to zero
ing small DC voltages, then balancing the am-
volts through the 1KQ resistor. No current goes
plifier is very important. Balancing is adjusting
into the negative op-amp input because of the
the output voltage to zero volts DC when the in-
nearly infinite input impedance. Therefore the
put is at zero volts DC. Most quality oscillo-
current must keep right on flowing past zero
scopes have a DC balance control on the vertical
volts and into the 2k Q resistor. Since there is a 2
input amplifier. It is usually adjustable with a
volts drop across alKQ resistor, there must be a
screw driver from the front panel. If the scope is
4 volts drop across a 2K Q resistor. We already
not balanced, then the zero volt line will move up
know that this is an inverting amplifier, so the
or down dramatically when you change the sen-
output voltage must be negative when the input
sitivity range. If you put one volt into your
is positive. We also know that since the current is
oscilloscope and you think it is 5 volts because
going "past" zero volts, it must be headed
your amplifier was not balanced, then this error
toward a negative voltage. Therefore the output
could lead you to make a mistake.
voltage in this example must be —4 volts.

The currents flowing into the plus and minus

Let's tryagain using a negative input
it
voltage, —1.5 volts. We know that the negative
input terminal on the op-amp is zero, so a positive
current will flow from zero down to —1.5 volts
through the 1KQ resistor. Because of the huge
input resistance, no current comes out of the ne-
gative input terminal. Therefore, all of this cur-
rent, — 1.5 mA, came from the 2K Q resistor.
Since there is a 1.5 volts drop across a IK re-
sistor, there must be 3 volts across a 2KQ
resistor. We can summarize inverting amplifier
gains with the following formula:
171
inputs of the op-amp are insignificant for cal-
culating amplifier gain, but they are not insignifi-
cant for balancing the amplifier. Even though
these currents are tiny, the high gain of the
amplifier will greatly exaggerate any difference
between them. The difference between the input
currents is called the inpu+ current offset. The
null offsetadjustment used with the 741 and
other operational amplifiersis an internal com-
pensation for this imbalance of currents which
may or may not be enough to compensate for un-
equal DC input currents.
 To keep the amplifier quiescent point balanc-
ed at zero, the DC currents flowing into both in-
puts must be equal. To keep these currents equal,
the resistance between the inputs and ground
should be equal. This explains why there is often
a resistor in series with the positive input when
there would be no need for one if the op-amp real-
ly had an infinite input impedance. In most ap-
plications the input signal source is in series with
one of the input leads, so the resistance between
the input and ground should include the resis-
tures, 200 ° C below zero, and extremely high
temperatures up to the melting points of the
metals.
Sometimes the thermocouple voltage is read
directly by a sensitive voltmeter or galvano-
meter. This thermometer assembly is called a
pyrometer. The exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
meter in an aircraft is an example of this. An ad-
vantage of the thermocouple over the thermistor
is that it is self-powered. No other power source,

tance of the voltage source itself. These principles like the battery, is needed to run the thermocou-
are illustrated in the thermocouple amplifier ple. The ambient heat is enough to make the
discussed next. metals exchange charge and establish the ther-
mocouple voltage. Sometimes a temperature
K. A Thermocouple Amplifier meter reading is needed a great distance from the
thermocouple or perhaps the temperature reading
The thermocouple thermometer is a basic is needed at several locations at once. To do this,

electronic device that every technician should be
familiar with. When two different metals like cop-
per and iron are joined together, a tiny
voltage, typically 1 50
to millivolts, appears
across the junction. This voltage increases linear-
ly with temperature. A small thermocouple can-
not provide any significant power and it is dif-
ficult to measure this small voltage. Usually par-
ticular metal alloys are chosen which produce
large, linear voltage changes over the range of
temperatures needed. Unlike thermistors, ther-
mocouples can be used at extremely low tempera-
the thermocouple voltage must be amplified.
DC Fig. 10-13 shows an operational amplifier
used to amplify the DC level of a thermocouple
temperature sensor so that this DC level will be
able to drive an insensitive voltmeter. Depending
on how the voltage gain is adjusted, the voltage
output of the op-amp can either be the same as
the thermocouple itself, or many times larger.
The important thing is that the power output
from the operational amplifier can be very large.
Notice in the diagram how the amplifier has two

GAIN
CONTROL

,+ DC VOLTMETER
v) CALIBRATED AS
IRON WIRE "- A THERMOMETER
NULL
OFFSET
CONSTANT AN
METAL ALLOY
WIRE /7T7 6-12 VOLTS

TWO WIRES FUSED WHENEVER POSSIBLE. THE TWO INPUTS

TOGETHER TO MAKE SHOULD HAVE THE SAME RESISTANCE
A THERMOCOUPLE. TO GROUND SO THAT V WILL
TYPICAL THERMOCOUPLE EASILY BALANCE AT ZERO
RESISTANCE IS 10

Fig. 70-/.? Thermocouple amplifier

172
calibration controls; one to set the zero point and M. Op-Amp Output Impedance
a second one to adjust the gain. Ideally the input
should be shorted out to make a true zero voltage
when adjusting the null offset control. Now that we have discussed how voltage
gains are determined and how the output is
L. Single Power Supply Amplifiers balanced, we need to cover how these amplifiers
transfer power to their loads. The output re-

In the op-amps we have discussed so far, the sistance of an operational amplifier is low. In fact,
circuit is assumed
have two power supplies,
to the op-amp attempts to behave as though it had
+V CC and — V ee In addition, the ground is used
.
zero output resistance. This ideal voltage source
as a fixed reference point for zero volts. Because behavior was one of the goals of the "perfect
two separate power supplies can be expensive and amplifier" we discussed at the beginning of the
cumbersome, op-amp circuits are sometimes used section.
which require only one power supply.

The inverting amplifier in Fig. 10-14 de- In an ordinary voltage source, the internal
monstrates how a single power supply can be resistance is a fixed quantity. Whenever current
used if a new "zero reference point'" is established is drawn from this source, there will be a voltage
halfway between ground and +V CC As you can .
drop across this resistance and the voltage seen
see, a lot ofextra resistors and capacitors are across the terminals of this source will drop. As
needed to do this, but the circuit is basically the more and more current is drawn, the voltage will
same one as in Fig. 10-11. Another drawback of drop still more.
this circuit is that the use of coupling capacitors
in the input and output restricts the circuit to AC On the other hand, an operational amplifier
signals. The coupling capacitors are needed to much current as necessary so
will try to deliver as
translate between the different zero points used that output voltage will never fall below the
its

in the amplifier and the input and output. If the voltage determined by the input voltage and the
zero reference at the input and output were the feedback resistor. In other words, the op-amp
same, 1/2 of V cc then these capacitors could be
, automatically compensates for decreasing load
omitted and the amplifier would amplify very low resistance by supplying more and more current at
frequency or DC signals. virtually the same voltage.

COUPLING CAPACITORS
ADJUST THE AMPLIFIER
ZERO REFERENCE, 1/2 V cc TO .

THE REFERENCE POINT, ZERO, OF

THE INPUT AND OUTPUT-

NEW ZERO
POINT -^vout
REFERENCE
1/2 V CC

rrn
Fig. 10-14 Inverting AC amplifier with a single power supply.
173
POSITIVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE SWING NEGATIVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE SWING
VERSUS LOAD RESISTANCE versusLOAD RESISTANCE
-15
-14
a.
o.
-13
> -12
tu
a -10
<
-11 — <
' +15 V SUPPLIES

i-
-9.0 + 12V
o -an
>
K -/.o
=3 -fiO ±9 V
0.
1- -b.U
Z3
o -4.0
-3.0
+ 6 V
6
> -2.0
-1.0
200 500 700 1.0 k 2.0 k 5.0 k 10k 100 200 500 700 1.0 k 2.0 k 5.0 k 7.0 k 10 k
RL. LOAD RESISTANCE (OHMS) RL, LOAD RESISTANCE (OHMS)
Fig. 10-15 Maximum output voltage versus load resistance

'OUT V|N EQUALLY SPACED LEVELS

ma OF VOLTAGE
CONTROL.
_^V_
io- r
.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .1
9 +
8

VOLT-AMPERE 7
CHARACTERISTICS OF
A 741 OP-AMP 6
WIRED AS A VOLTAGE
AMPLIFIER WITH A 5
VOLTAGE GAIN OF 100
4

"V"
Vin NEGATIVE -I
CONTROL VOLTAGE
Fig. 10-16 Volt-ampere characteristic for an op-amp with a gain of 100.
174
 When we calculated voltage gains for am-
plifiers we assumed that output voltage
the
would be independent of the output resistance.
We assumed that, no matter what the load re-
sistance was, 10,000 ohms or 0.1 ohm, the op-amp
would generate enough load current so that the
output voltage would depend only on the input
voltage. It is not realistic to expect a tiny IC
smaller than a corn flake to produce hundreds of
amperes. There must be some load resistance at
which the op-amp can no longer supply enough
current. In practice the operational amplifier does
have an internal resistance and its ability to com-
pensate for big loads is ultimately limited by this
resistance. For example, according to the specif-
ication sheet, the 741 op-amp has a 75 ohm out-
put resistance.
Rather than asking what the output resis-
tance is, perhaps we should be asking how big a
load or how low a resistance can be put on an
operational amplifier without the output voltage
falling below what it ought to be? Fig. 10-15 is
two graphs showing the output voltage swing of
a 741 op-amp versus different load resistances.
Voltage swing refers to how far the voltage can
change away from zero in response to an input.
The limits of this swing are partly determined by
the power supply voltages and for this reason
there needs to be a separate curve for each power
supply voltage.
Curves for four different pairs of voltage sup-
operational amplifier is a sophisticated transistor
amplifier and through the use of negative feed-
back, the operational amplifier has an excellent
voltage source output with a programmable
voltage gain. Compare Fig. 10-16 with Fig. 4-5
and you will see that the op-amp does with
voltage what the "ideal transistor" is supposed
to do with current.
QUESTIONS:
1. Operational amplifiers are supposed to be
"ideal amplifiers." In what ways do op-
amps fall short of this goal?
2. What are differential amplifiers? What do
they have to do with operational am-
plifiers?
3. Using words instead of an equation, ex-
plainwhat is meant by the common mode
rejection ratio?
4. If the input voltage on a non-inverting in-
put of a differential amplifier goes up,
while the input voltage on the inverting in-
put stays the same, would the amplifier
output go up or down? If the differential
amplifier has differential outputs, what
would you expect these outputs to do?
5. Integrated circuit op-amps generally have
four or more direct coupled amplifier

plies are shown. As long as the load resistor is stages inside them. What is the advantage
greater than 1KQ, the maximum voltage swing of direct coupled amplifiers like this? What
is largely independent of the load resistance. This
makes them stable?

is reasonable because 75 ohms is pretty tiny com-

pared to 1000 ohms. But when the load gets down 6. What is a chopper stabilized DC am-
plifier?
to 100 ohms, 75 ohms is almost as large. The op-
amp is only able to compensate for this heavy
load over a small range, about 2 volts positive 7. Some op-amp ICs are equipped with offset
and negative. Notice that the voltage swing is What are they used for and why
null leads.

always less than the sum of +V CC and — V ee For .

don't all op-amps have them?
instance, with 12 volt supplies the output signal
can be only 11 volts positive and 10 volts ne- 8. What is a bar graph voltmeter?
gative.
9. What is a voltage follower used for? Why
In Sections 4 and 6 we looked at a lot of volt- do the positive and negative op-amp inputs
ampere diagrams for transistors. In all those con- have the same voltage?
trol devices the output appeared to be a current
source. Then later in Section 7 we saw that when 10. A precision diode circuit is shown in Fig.

these constant currents were forced to flow 10-8. Will this circuit work as well with a
through load resistors, the current source was germanium diode or does the offset voltage
converted to a fairly good voltage source in the compensation work only with silicon
various transistor amplifier configurations. The diodes?
175
11. When is there a "virtual short circuit" be- 20. When an op-amp is wired with negative
tween the two op-amp inputs? What does feedback, the output voltage depends al-
this virtual short circuit have to do with most entirely on the input voltage and the
the high gain of the op-amp? feedback resistor. What does this tell you
about the output impedance? What even-
tually limits the current output of the op-
12. When the op-amp
wired as an amplifier
is amp? What symptom or symptoms would

with a finite amount of gain, what does the tell you that the output load resistance is
current flowing into the op-amp input ter- too low?
minals have to do with this gain?

13. A non -in verting amplifier similar to Fig.

10-9 has a voltage gain of 7. If the resistor
"R" is 1KQ, what is the feedback
resistance. Rf? If the amplifier input
voltage is—2 volts, what will the output
voltage be? What kind of power supply
voltages would be needed to make it possi-
ble to amplify — 2 volts without distortion?

14. If the inputs to an inverting op-amp

amplifier always remain at zero volts and
they don't accept any input current, how
can the amplifier amplify voltage?

15. The feedback resistor in an inverting

amplifier like Fig. 10-11 is 5K Q. The input
resistor, R, is 2.5K Q. If the input voltage
is —3 volts, what will the output voltage
be?

16. What is the importance of the input offset

current?

17. Suppose you were to build a non-inverting

amplifier like the one in Fig. 10-9. You
notice that when Vj n is zero, the output
voltage is not quite zero. What can be done
to fix this problem?

18. What is a pyrometer?

19. The input and output of the amplifier in

Fig. 10-14 coupled with capacitors.
are
What are these capacitors for? Other than
extra cost, what is the disadvantage of
using coupling capacitors? What effect do
they have on very high frequency signals?
176
 SECTION XI

Applications for
Operational Amplifiers

A. Introduction

In this section we are going to cover more

operational amplifier circuits. Whenever possible,
examples of practical uses for these circuits will
be given. You shouldn't get the idea that these
op-amp circuits are the only way that these
various tasks can be accomplished. Cheap, IC op-
amps are relatively recent, 1970, and most of
these same circuits can be built using discrete
parts or with design philosophies that are quite
different. For example, TV set sweep circuits are Vo = (V|N2 - V|N-|)

used to illustrate a use for an op-amp integrator.

Don't be surprised if your particular TV set Rf 10K
Adiff = = 10
doesn't use op-amps in its sweep circuits. Most rT 1K
TV sets use multivibrators or tube or transistor Fig. 11-1 Operational amplifier used as a dif-
circuits that resemble relaxation oscillators to ac- ferential amplifier.
complish this same job.
C. Summing Amplifier

B. Operational Amplifiers as Differential Am- The inverting amplifier can be used to add
plifiers two or more different signals together. Several in-
put resistors can be fed into the same negative op-
The operational amplifier can be wired as a amp input. The negative input is at zero volts in
differential amplifier with controlled gain by com- the inverting amplifier and remains at zero volts
bining the inverting and non-inverting circuits in- because of the feedback. The current that flows
to one. The differential amplifier shown in Fig. through the feedback resistor is the sum of the
11-1 has a voltage gain of 10. The gain of this dif- several input currents through the input re-
ferential amplifier is: sistors. This is because virtually no current flows
into the negative op-amp input, so the currents all
join together in flowing through the feedback
1 resistor. The negative op-amp input is at zero
Adiff = -r— SO, Vo = (Vin2 " V in i) J !
Rl Ri volts and remains at zero, independent of the in-
put currents that are being added. Therefore the
several currents being added do not interfere with
each other.
177
 VOLTS
INVERTER
'TOTAL = Oa + 'b + «c)

V a + Vb + V c

rrn rm
Fig. 11-2 Operational adding circuit

OUTPUT t 1 D. Active Frequency Filters

db
HIGH PASS FILTER
A common use for operational amplifiers is
forlow frequency filtering. By "low" we mean
below 1 MHz. A typical application for this might
attenuate/i be a telephone number tone decoder for use with a
/ '
PASS push button telephone. With push button phones,
FREQUEN
J the telephone number is coded into a sequence of
musical tones. Therefore, at the telephone ex-
'V CUT OFF change, there must be sharp filters that separate
FREQUENCY one musical tone from another so that the
OUTPUT
db numbers may be recognized.
I

LOW PASS FREQUENCY

You are already familiar with using RC filters

ATTENUATE to attenuate high or low frequencies. If two or
PASS
FREQUENCY even three RC filters are put in series, the relative
attenuation of one frequency over another can be

FREQUENCY
V CUT OFF
dramatic. The frequency filtering characteristics
of high pass and low pass filters are shown in Fig.
Fig. 11-3 Frequency characteristics of high pass 11-3. A graph like this that shows the output of a
and low pass filters.
circuit in decibels versus the frequency of the
signal processing is called a Bode Plot and is
it is

named Mr. Bode. This graph shows how

after
Notice that the operational adder must be an some frequencies are passed or amplified while
inverting amplifier. If a similar circuit were at- others are suppressed or blocked.
tempted with the non-inverting amplifier, a large
input voltage on one of the input resistors would
change the voltage on the op-amp inputs. As one The closer the two frequencies are together,
adding input voltage changes, the voltage shift the more difficult is to attenuate one without
it

would change the currents received from the
other adding input resistors. These changes
would produce an error in the addition. If the
reversed polarity of an inverting amplifier output
is not acceptable, the best way to correct it is to
invert the signal again with a second inverting
amplifier that has a gain of one.
ITS
attenuating the other. Suppose several RC filters
are put in series to try to seperate two close fre-
quencies, for instance, 500 Hz and 450 Hz. By the
time the two signals have sufficiently different
amplitudes, the amplitudes of both signals will be
attenuated to the point where the desired signal
will be too weak to use.
 High pass and low pass active filters are very large, 2 or 3 at the most. If more gain is at-
shown in Fig. 11-4. An active frequency filter con- tempted, the amplifier becomes a poorly designed
sists of one or two RC filters incorporated into an phase shift sine wave oscillator, like the ones we
operational amplifier so that the desired signal is studied in Section 8. The exact frequency at
amplified at the same time it is filtered. Usually which the amplitude is cut off is determined by
the gain of these amplifiers R2 + R1/R1, is not the R and C time constant. Several of these filters
can be put in series to make the discrimination
between two frequencies very sharp.

When active filters are used in a circuit it is

important to have the output voltage, V ,

centered at zero volts so that the AC output

signal can swing positive and negative as widely

V|N as possible. This can be done by having both in-

puts of the operational amplifier tied to ground
(zero volts) with equal amounts of resistance.
This is easiest to see with the high pass filter
where Ri should equal R. In the low pass filter

the input resistance to the positive input is two

series resistors,both with resistance R. If the
V J\. NOTE: source impedance of Vj n is low, as it would be if
v Y
Vj n were the output of another op-amp, then
RC LOW RC LOW IF R + R =
R-i, V

PASS PASS WILL BE NICELY when the input voltage, Vi n is zero, the positive
,

BALANCED AT ZERO input will be grounded by a resistance of approx-

WHEN V|N IS ZERO
AND THE SOURCE imately 2R. This will satisfy the condition that
RESISTANCE OF
V|N IS ZERO.
LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER
NOTE:
IFR = R-i, V
WILL BE
NICELY D.C.
BALANCED
AT ZERO
WHEN V|N IS
ZERO. A

HIGH PASS

freq
/! 1

,L
V,N>—|f A i

l
LOW PASS

freq
i\
IfH

fv„ 1 BAND PASS

CR HIGH CR HIGH
PASS PASS freq
/! 1 v
HIGH PASS ACTIVE FILTER fL fH
THE "PASS BAND"
Fig. 11-4 A — Low pass active filter B— High
pass active filter Fig. 11-5 Band pass filter

179
the two inputs be grounded equally and the out- filters have done their work, the two signals are

put V will be nicely centered on zero. If the out- recombined in an operational adder.
put is not centered at zero, an AC signal at the
output may have the peaks of its sine waves clip-
ped off at either the positive or negative ex- E. The Logarithmic Amplifier
tremes.
By using silicon or germanium diodes as the
The low pass and high pass filters can be put negative feedback element in an inverting am-
in series so that their cut-off frequencies overlap plifier, it is possible to build an amplifier that has
and make a band pass filter. This means they will an output voltage equal to the natural logarithm
pass a narrow band of frequencies, but will ex- of the input voltage. A complex but similar cir-
clude all other frequencies. The telephone number cuit made with two op-amps can be used to take
recognizing circuit that responds to a specific the anti-natural-logarithm of the input voltage.
musical tone but ignores all other tones would be So what? Think back to those dull, sleepy spring
an example of this. days in the 10th grade when you learned about
logarithms. You will recall that logarithms can be
The low pass and high pass can be putfilters used to multiply, divide, take square roots, and
in parallel to form a notch filter. This filter raise numbers to exponential powers.
system excludes or suppresses a narrow band of
frequencies, but allows all other frequencies to
pass through without attenuation. After the two Back in Section 2 we discussed three defects
in the P-N junction that make it differ from an
"ideal diode." These defects were the forward off-
HIGH
PASS set voltage, the zener breakdown, and the forward
resistance. Our description of real diodes was
oversimplified. The forward resistance is not a
VlN
»H —*- Vo simple linear equation because this resistance is
>- OP-AMP
ADDER ? not constant and does not plot on a graph as a
1
—»

LOW
PASS

«L
SILICON
DIODE
1 1

' HIGH PASS

I 1

'/'
,rec^ A .06 +V
\J 1

,
OFFSET
fH
1

1
'

1
VOLTAGE
1 1
INTHE FORWARD
ZENER RESISTANCE REGION
BREAKDOWN THE VOLTAGE
VARIES AS THE
NATURAL LOGARITHM
i V OF THE CURRENT

V = K (0.6 VOLTS) In I

ADDER iyfc OUTPUT

WHERE K VARIES
WITH DIODE TEMPERATURE
Fig. 11-7 Diode volt-ampere characteristic
i V i

Fig. 11-6 Notch filter

180
straight line. We said that the forward char-
LOG
acteristic of a diode could be expressed by the
following linear equation: SYMBOL

V = I (Rforwardl + offset voltage

A more accurate equation for the voltage across a

diode is:
n
Vin)> ^W\A
V = K In I

where K is a factor that depends on the

diode temperature and the offset voltage.
INVERTER

By using a diode as the negative feedback ele-

rm VOUT = K ln(V|N)

ment an inverting amplifier, the output voltage

in
WHERE K IS A FACTOR WHICH
DEPENDS ON DIODE TEMPERATURE AND
will equal the natural logarithm of the current DIODE OFFSET VOLTAGE.
passing through the diode. The diode current is
proportional to the input voltage which drives a
Fig. 11-8 A logarithmic amplifier

current through the resistor R on its way toward

zero volts. Unfortunately, practical logarithmic
fed into the antilogarithmic amplifier, the output
amplifiers need more stages to keep the logarithm
function independent of temperature. of the antilogarithmic amplifier would be the
original signal. As you can see from the illustra-
tion, this circuit is much more complicated than
In order to perform mathematics with log- the log function. Not only is a second stage need-

arithms, it is necessary to find anti-logarithms as ed, but a current source circuit is needed to bias
well as logarithms. The circuit in Fig. 11-9 will the first op-amp. We shall not attempt the math
reverse the logarithm process. In other words, if and frantic arm waving needed to explain this cir-
the output from the logarithmic amplifier were cuit.

CURRENT
SOURCE ANTILOG
CIRCUIT
SYMBOL

^ VOUT

INVERTING

VOUT - -K' ln-1 (V|N)

WHERE K' IS ANOTHER FACTOR

WHICH DEPENDS ON DIODE TEMPERATURE

Fig. 11-9 An anti-logarithmic amplifier

181
 -(InX + lnY) =

ANTILOG AMPLIFIER
/777 INVERTS SIGN OF
SIGNAL, SO AN
^ J INVERTER IS NOT
NEEDED AFTER
ADDER THE INVERTING
ADDER CIRCUIT.
In x + In y = In xy
-
xy = In 1
(Inxy)

Fig. 11-10 A multiplier made from logarithmic and anti-logarithmic amplifiers.

In order to multiply two numbers together Division can be done in almost the same way.
using logarithms, first the numbers are converted To divide onenumber into another, the logarithm
to their logarithms. Then the logarithms are add- of the divisor is inverted. That is, the sign of the
ed together. The antilogarithm is then taken of divisor logarithm is changed from plus to minus
the sum of the logarithms. The result is the pro- before it is fed into the adder. We will illustrate
duct. division with a circuit that will calculate how
many hours of flying time an aircraft has for the
Given X and Y, find XY:
present rate of fuel flow.
log e X + loge Y = log e (XY)

so, XY =
antiloge (loge XY)
NOTE: The symbols loge and antilog e are
-1
equivalent to In and In respectively.
,

FUEL TO
ENGINE

-(Ln FUEL - Ln FLOW)

FUEL
= -In
VSAAS >
FL0W

ANTILOG
*
FUEL
m FLYING
FLOW TIME

ADDER CIRCUIT
Fig. 11-11 A flying time calculator circuit which divides fuel remaining in the tank by the rate of fuel
flow to the engine
1 o2
 The circuit in Fig. 11-11 is designed to pro-
duce a reading on how much flying time remains
at the present rate of fuel consumption. The
faster the engine is burning fuel, the shorter
period of time the fuel will last.
fuel remaining
fuel flow/minute gallons/minute
= minutes of flying time remaining.
The output of the circuit is a voltage
read on a voltmeter calibrated in minutes of
Thanks to multiplier integrated circuits, the
flying time circuit can be built using one
multiplier IC and one op-amp. Multiplier ICs
multiply two analog signals together. Voltage X
and voltage Y are fed into the multiplier and the
output is a voltage equal to X times Y. Usually
gallons the product is made smaller by a scale factor, say
1/10, so that the product will be less than the
power supply voltage. Without the scale factor, 5
volts times 10 volts would be 50 volts which
would need at least a 50 volt power supply. Since
which can be the multiplier can tolerate only 15 volts, scaling
the output down to less than 15 volts is essential.
fly-

ing time. To use the multiplier as a divider, the multiplier

IC is wired in series with the negative feedback
resistor of an inverting amplifier.
Referring to the circuit, the fuel tank gauge
and fuel flow meter both produce DC voltages
proportional to these quantities. The logarithm of
these voltages is taken, then the fuel flow F. Integrators and Differentiators
logarithm has its sign changed by an inverting
amplifier. In logarithms, this is equivalent to
The calculus mathematical operations of in-

tegration and differentiation can also be perform-

taking the reciprocal of the number. That is,
dividing the number into one. Then the two ed with op-amp circuits. These circuits are used in
logarithms are added together and the an- analog computers which are used to solve dif-
ferential equations. Integrator circuits, built with
tilogarithm is taken just as it was in the
or without op-amps, are also widely used for
multiplier circuit.
many non-mathematical chores in circuits. Pro-
fuel in tank -s- fuel flow = flying time bably the most common use for integrators is in
sweep circuits in TV's and oscilloscopes.

In (fuel in tank) — In (fuel flow) = In (flying time)

= -1 strange how a circuit as "simple'' as one

so, flying time In [In (flying time)] It is
resistor and one capacitor can have so many dif-
ferent properties and uses. It seems as though 1/4
XR2208 XY of the science of electronics is devoted to explain-
MULTIPLIER ing RC circuits! Electronic integrators and dif-
INTEGRATED ferentiators made with op-amps are other uses for
<> CIRCUIT
the existing RC circuit.

XR2208

multiplier (r Fig. 11-13 shows an RC integrator circuit. We

integrated!/ have already used the same circuit in Fig. 11-4 as
CIRCUIT
a low pass filter and in Section 5 it was a sine
wave phase shift delay circuit. All three of these
applications are just different ways of looking at
vz
> vVNAA
R1 ~7
the same
the capacitor
effect.
is
As you know,
related to
the voltage across
the current which
-Vz charges the capacitor. To use the mathematical
VY =
Vx terminology, the voltage across the capacitor is
rfn the integral of the current which charges the
capacitor. This same relationship can be express-
vx^- ed by saying that the current charging the ca-
pacitor is the derivative of the voltage across the
Fig. 11-12 A multiplier integrated circuit can capacitor.
also be used for division.
183
 VlN VOUT THE INTEGRAL OF A
VOUT = 1/c I dt

y —mv— t
^
4 l-SQUARE WAVE IS A
TRIANGLE WAVE

= time
c ufd
• time
| 1
i \ i / i '

1 N/ 2 ZSS 4 5
MILLISECONDS
MILLISECONDS
VOUT dt

R C = T
~jf(r •VOUT MUST BE VERY
(10KK1 Jd) = 10 MILLISECONDS MUCH SMALLER THAN
INORDER FOR THE INTEGRATION VinFOR ACCURACY
OF V|N TO BE ACCURATE. THE
RC TIME CONSTANT SHOULD BE AT
LEAST 10 TIMES 1 MILLISECOND.
Fig. 11-13 RC integrator circuit

The voltage across the capacitor is: season. A more mathematical way to look at in-
tegrals graph of the quantity being in-
is to plot a
cap -*«.
-o
ca P
.dt tegrated versus the variable that is changing. Ex-
amples would be inches of rainfall versus time in
days. Another would be the current charging the
The current charging the capacitor is:
capacitor plotted versus the time in seconds. The
total quantity of water or current delivered over a
—
dV cap period of time will be proportional to the area
J
cap
dt under the curve on the graph. Or to say it another
way, the integral of the rainfall over the rainy
In other words, differentiation and integration season is proportional to the depth of the water in
are opposite processes. the rainbarrel.

Unless you have spent a lot of time looking at The problem with simple RC integrators is
calculus squiggles. these symbols are more that the output voltage waveform must be very
frightening than useful. Perhaps a better way to much smaller than the input voltage waveform.
look at the integration circuit is that it produces a In other words, the RC time constant must be
voltage that is proportional to the quantity, of much longer than the cycle time or period of the
current that has flowed in (or out) through the waveform being integrated. This is because the
resistor. It issomething like a rainbarrel which voltage across the capacitor must not significant-
collect^ water from the roof of a house in the ly change the current that is charging the ca-
desert. The depth of water in the barrel is propor- pacitor. But in a simple RC integrator, the
tional to how much rain fell during the rainy voltage across the capacitor decreases the volt-

CAPACITOR WOULD CHARGE TO

Vin IN ABOUT 4 TIME CONSTANTS
VOUT
AV|N IF V|N WERE DC VOLTAGE.

V| N
^> ^/W^ ^>V UT

- time
-if c = 0.5 ..td
5 time

MILLISECONDS MILLISECONDS

RC = T
11K xO.5 ,fd) = 0.5 MILLISECONDS TRIANGLE WAVE IS
BADLY DISTORTED
Fig. 11-14 An RC integrator with too small a time constant.
1S4
 TRIANGLE WAVE IS LARGE BUT
INVERTED
AV|N

1K
Vin^> AW
ZERO VOLTS

6 - v ee
Fig. 11-15 Operational amplifier integrator

age across the resistor. Therefore this voltage in Fig. 11-15 is the same as the RC time constant
decreases the current charging the capacitor. in Fig. 11-14. However, because the voltage
This is comparable to the filling of the rain barrel across R depends only on V m the output ,

causing the rain to stop! waveform not distorted. Now the only limita-
is

tion on how high the output voltage can go with-

An operational amplifier integrator is shown out distorting the integral waveform are the
in Fig. 11-15. Because the positive input is tied to power supply voltages, +V CC and — V ee The out- .

ground and because the circuit has negative feed- put waveform is inverted but this could be cor-
back, the output will try to change the negative rected with a second amplifier with a gain of
op-amp input so that the positive op-amp input minus one.
and the negative op-amp input will have equal
voltages, zero. The current flowing into the in-
tegrator input will always be flowing toward zero
volts on the negative op-amp input. Because the G. Integrator Sweep Circuits
voltage across the input resistor R is only caused
by the input voltage, V m
the current that is
,

stored in the rain barrel capacitor C will depend Probably the most common use for electronic
on Vj n and will not depend on the voltage across integrators sweep circuits for TV sets and
is in
the capacitor. oscilloscopes. These circuits generate sawtooth-
shaped voltage or current waves which steer the
This is an inverting amplifier configuration, electron beam across the screen. The basis for
so if Vin is positive, then the capacitor will charge most sweep circuits is similar to the integration
to a negative voltage "below zero." If the of a square wave in Fig. 11-13. As the capacitor
capacitor starts out discharged, the voltage slowly charges with a small current, its voltage
across it will be zero. As the voltage across the gradually rises in a straight, linear voltage ramp.
capacitor grows higher and higher. The voltage If the capacitor or the resistor are too small, the
across the op-amp will have to increase equal capacitor will charge too quickly and the charg-
amounts in order to force the negative op-amp in- ing current will fall off. This will cause the
put to remain at zero volts. voltage to lose its straight, ramp-like charac-
teristic. We have already seen how using an in-
Using the operational amplifier to keep one verting operational amplifier can keep the charg-
end of R at zero volts, the voltage across the ing current constant and the output voltage a
capacitor no longer effects the current charging straight ramp.
the capacitor. Notice that the RC time constant
185
 A TRANSISTOR
SWITCH SHORTS
OUT CAPACITOR
TO RESTART
RAMP WAVEFORM.
/CO4016 CMOSA
VlN ^ IC SWITCH
J
SYNCHRONIZATION PULSES A
TO CLOSE SWITCH AND BEGIN A NEW -RAMP WAVEFORM
+ V CC -

SCAN-RAMP.

"RETRACE"
WHEN SWITCH
CLOSES. NEW
-Vee- RAMP STARTS WHEN
SWITCH OPENS

6-Vee
Fig. 11-16 A sweep circuit built with an op-amp integrator.

In the sweep circuit we are only interested in
the rising ramp portion of the output waveform.
The return or retrace back to the bottom of the
ramp should be as quick as possible. For this
reason, the ramp sweep circuit just integrates a
constant voltage until the ramp reaches the
desired high voltage. At this point the capacitor
is shorted out and the ramp abruptly returns to
zero. This retrace function is accomplished by a
switch across the capacitor which shorts it out
after the completion of each cycle. There is no
need to integrate a square wave because the
retrace portion is done with the shorting switch.
This switch could be a transistor or it could be the
output side of a monostable one-shot multi-
vibrator. A CMOS integrated circuit analog
switch would work as shown. In the case of a TV
set, the scanning sweep is triggered by pulses
that are derived from the transmitted TV picture
signal. These pulses tell the switch across the
capacitor when to turn on and start a new scan-
ning line.
A TV uses two sweep generators like this to
generate the horizontal and vertical sweep ramp
waveforms. The vertical sweep moves relatively
slowly, 60 times per second and produces one
sweep ramp per picture. The horizontal sweep
moves much more rapidly, 15,750 times per se-
cond and produces 262' t horizontal scanning
lines for every vertical scan of the picture.
186
Just to make it complicated, every other pic-
ture is shifted up one
half line so that the next
scan of 262 V2 lines will produce horizontal lines in
between the lines from the last picture. This in-
terlaced scanning fills in more detail and gives
the resolution of a 525 line picture. By vertically
scanning each picture twice instead of doing all
525 lines in one vertical scan, the picture flickers
less and seems more realistic.
The light and dark areas of the picture are
represented by high amplitude and low amplitude
signal strength in the amplitude modulated (AM)
TV signal. This radio signal is detected and con-
verted to a proportionately varying current. This
current is amplified and applied to the cathode of
the TV picture tube where the current becomes
the electron beam. The electron beam is accel-
erated toward the TV screen and, depending on
the strength of the radio signal at the moment,
thebeam makes light or dark areas as the beam
moves along each scanning line. If you have
forgotten how TV picture tubes work, review Fig.
1-7.
H. The Operational Differentiator
The operational differentiator is the same as
the integrator except that the resistor and ca-
pacitor are reversed. The voltage output is the
voltage across the resistor while the capacitor is
charging. Therefore, this voltage is proportional
 ANTENNA
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER

SUPERHETRODYNE FM
RECEIVER SOUND LOUDSPEAKER
DETECTOR

AM VPICTURE
PICTURE
DETECTOR
HORIZONTAL SYNCHRONIZATION
PULSES (262 VERTICAL SCAN)
/

LIGHT AND DARK INFORMATION

VPICTURE FOR BOTTOM 2 SCANNED LINES

VERTICAL
SYNCHRONIZTION
/LAI kfl/w W^
/M w\A /vVlA PULSE /\
SIMPLIFIED PICTURE SIGNAL WAVEFORM
HORIZONTAL
SYNC. PULSES
SYNCHRONIZATION
PULSE
HORIZONTAL
SEPARATOR
PULSES
VERTICAL
SYNC. PULSES
VIDEO
VERTICAL
AMPLIFIER
- H PULSES

VIDEO
AMPS ARE
USUALLY
C* CLASS A.
VERTICAL
1% SWEEP
AMPLIFIER
VERTICAL
SWEEP
GENERATOR
CIRCUIT
VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION
SWEEP RAMPS COIL

\ SCANNED
HORIZONTAL LINES
SWEEP
GENERATOR
CIRCUIT

HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION
SWEEP COIL
AMPLIFIER
L|QHT FR0M TV PICTURE
PREVIOUS TUBE
FRAME
FADING AWAY
Fig. 11-17 A block diagram of a TV set.
187
 to the current which is the first derivative of the
voltage across the capacitor. Did you get that? If
not, don't worry about it. Operational differen-
tiators are not very practical and
cient at accelerating the rocket. Therefore the
more and more too.
rate of acceleration increases
Problems like this would be extremely tedious to
are seldom used. solve by hand because you would have to figure
out all the new variables every second. Or to be

The differentiator is supposed to make a more accurate, the calculations should be re-
voltage at the output that is proportional to how peated every tiny fraction of a second.
fast the input voltage changes. Since it is sen-
sitive to the rate at which the input voltage The analog computer output simulating the
changes and not the amplitude of those signals, flight of the rocketwould be voltages rising and
even very small fast signals can make a huge out- falling.These voltages would represent increas-
put signal appear at the output. The result is that ing speed, decreasing fuel supply, and so on. The
the circuit goes crazy with the slightest bit of voltages would be graphed on oscilloscopes or
high frequency noise riding on the input signal. chart recorders and this performance data would
represent the "solution'* to the differential equa-
tion.
V,N> |f nMAA
Out in the real world, the digital computer is

rapidly taking over the solution of differential

equations. The computer solves the problem
} using the tedious, slow method that was too
cumbersome by hand. A digital computer is per-
fect for doing boring arithmetic at high speed, so
dV| N this approach to the problem is quite practical. A
rrn -
v major advantage of the digital approach is that
dt

Fig. 11-18 Operational differentiator V|N =(i|NPUTXR|N)

When needed, designers usual-

a differentiator is FEEDBACK RESISTOR
ly try to turn the circuitconcept around so that ISALSO LOAD RESISTOR-
they can use an integrator instead.

An analog computer is a collection of opera- ZERO

tional modules which can be wired
amplifier VOLTS
together with test leads to make up circuits com-
posed of op-amp integrators and amplifiers. This
computer is used to solve differential equations
by wiring up a circuit that simulates the equa-
tion. Differential equations contain differentials
or derivatives. In order to simulate them, the
whole equation is integrated several times until iLOAD = 'INPUT
the equation is all integrals and no derivatives.
Then the equivalent circuit is wired using in-
Fig. 11-19 A voltage-to-current converter
tegrators and the voltage waveforms are graphed
to find out how the equation behaves.
the calculations produce hard numbers and the
results are not wavyon a sheet of paper that
lines
Differential equations are problems that in- must be calibrated and converted into numbers.
volve lots of variables changing simultaneously.
For example, an analog computer simulating the All of the mathematical operations described
flight of a rocket would have to take into account in this section can be done by digital circuits to
that the rocket is going faster and faster every se- great precision. As digital circuits become
cond the engine is accelerating the rocket. The cheaper and cheaper, it is quite possible that
engine burns fuel so quickly that the rocket is analog mathematical circuits will become obso-
becoming lighter and lighter. Because the rocket lete. But while the digital circuits have become
is lighter, the engine becomes more and more effi- better and cheaper, so have the analog integrated
circuits.At present it appears that analog mathe-
matical circuits will continue to be used in simple
applications where the rest of the circuitry is
analog and only one or two calculations must be
made.
/. The Voltage-To-Current Converter
Occasionally there is a need for a circuit that
will convert a voltage to a proportional amount of
current. For example, 3 volts might be converted
to 3 amperes. This circuit is the op-amp equi-
valent of the grounded-base or grounded-gate
amplifier.Remember how the input voltage
source was below ground and supplied the output
current? The same principle is used here and if
you have forgotten, look back at Fig. 7-6.
In this circuit the feedback resistor and the
input resistor, Rf and Rj n are also the load on the
,
operational amplifier! Instead of the current go-
ing to an external, separate load, the load current
is the current that passes through the feedback
resistorand the input resistor. The intended load
and the feedback element are one and the same.
Notice that this circuit has no current gain
whatever. However, it can have a very large
voltage gain if the load resistor (Rf) is
larger than the input resistor, Rj n . The point
this circuit is that the currentthrough the load
will be whatever comes through input resistor on
its way what the load
to zero volts, regardless of
might The load can even be inductive or ca-
be.
pacitive. The load will receive that same current
whether it wants it or not! This circuit will jam
current through the load no matter what wierd
impedance characteristics the load may have.
This circuit is a current source controlled by an in-
put voltage.
An application for this might be the vertical
and horizontal sweep amplifiers in the TV set in
Fig. 11-17. Whenever a picture tube has a screen
larger than 5 inches, it is common practice to
steer the electron beam with magnetic deflection
coils. These coils are mounted in a donut-shaped
assembly called a deflection yoke. The yoke slips
over the thin neck of the picture tube and is
mounted just where the "bell" of the glass pic-
ture tube begins. The deflection coil has two pairs
of coils; one for vertical deflection and another for
horizontal deflection. Since it is the magnetic
field inside a coil that is steering the electron
beam, this field is generated by a ramp-shaped
current waveform passing through the coil. The
voltage across the coil is incidental to the process.
It is the current that is doing the steering. One
way to produce a ramp-shaped current is to start
with a ramp-shaped voltage and convert it to a
ramp-shaped current waveform.
Deflection coils are inductive and generally
have capacitance and resistance as well. The
voltage-to-current converter is ideal for jamming
straight current ramp waveforms through the
yoke. No matter how the yoke impedance will try
to distort the nice clean ramp shape, the op-amp
willnot take "no" for an answer and will see that
perfect current ramp waveforms pass through the
deflection yoke.
Fig. 11-20 shows a hypothetical sweep am-
plifier built from a voltage follower and a voltage-
to-current converter. Let's assume that the
voltage ramp
generated by the circuit in Fig.
is
11-16. This voltage ramp generator is not able to
supply enough current to drive a deflection yoke
for a big picture tube. Therefore, the current is
first amplified by a voltage follower to the level
needed without changing the perfect voltage
much ramp waveform. Then the voltage ramp is applied
to the voltage-to-current converter input, Rj n
of
.
The current through the resistor is alway propor-
tional to the voltage output of the voltage
follower because the current is always flowing to
zero volts. By means of negative feedback, the se-
cond op-amp will put whatever voltage is needed
across the deflection coil to force the same cur-
rent to flow through the inductance of the deflec-
tion coil and keep one end of the input resistor,
Rm , at zero volts.
As a practical note, the op-amps used for the
voltage follower and converter would have to be
high current ICs to drive a large deflection coil.
Cheaper op-amps could be used if the deflection
coil were driven through a current step-up
transformer. In that way, the op-amp would not
have to supply so much current directly to the
deflection coil. There are also techniques in which
the current and power capability of an op-amp
can be boosted by wiring an additional transistor
amplifier stage onto the op-amp output. The feed-
back loop is still maintained as if this additional
stage were part of the integrated circuit.
189
 A vload
V|N

VOLTAGE RAMP
WAVEFORM

V|N iLOAD
LOW IMPEDANCE
VOLTAGE RAMP CURRENT RAMP WAVEFORM
ACROSS R|N
/777
t
L R

DEFLECTION COIL
vVW^' LOAD
RlN

ZERO
VOLTS
HIGH CURRENT 'LOAD
GAIN OCCURS
HERE
VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT
CONVERTER HAS NO
CURRENT GAIN
Fig. 11-20 A sweep amplifier which converts voltage ramps to current ramps for driving a deflection
coil.

you have a chance, you should look at a TV

If the individual circuit modules are so easy and
repairbook and study some of the sweep circuits cheap to build, modern equipment remains com-
used in older TVs. You will find that the whole plicatedby using more and more simple modules
sweep generating process for each ramp wave- to accomplish more and more complicated tasks!
form is done with just three or four tubes or a
handful of transistors. In order to live with the in- QUESTIONS:
ductance of the deflection coil and the imperfec-
1. Why is the inverting amplifier configura-
tions of the tubes or transistors, the sweep cir-
tion used for the operational adding cir-
cuits usually have a confusing tangle of induc-
cuit?
tors, transformers, resistors, and capacitors sur-
rounding each tube or transistor. Each compo- 2. What is an active frequency filter?
nent seems to be busy compensating for the
shortcomings of the other parts. The result is an 3. What is a Bode plot?
orchestra of distorted waveforms that somehow
all come together in the deflection yoke to pro-
4. A high pass filter like the one Fig. 11-4 is
used to separate two close audio frequen-
duce the perfect ramp-shaped current needed to
cies. The filter does not attenuate the un-
produce an undistorted TV picture.
wanted frequency enough even though the
cut-off frequency is properly located for a
Modern circuit design like the op-amp design
maximum attenuation. How can the filter
we just discussed is much more straightforward.
be made sharper so that the unwanted fre-
Each circuit module does what it is supposed to
quency is eliminated?
do in a precise way with very few parts. The need
for compensating components and careful align- 5. If active filters like the ones in Fig. 11-4 are
ment is largely gone. Modern circuits based on in- built with voltage gain greater than 2 or 3
tegrated circuits are not only easier to design, they tend to oscillate. What three factors
they are easier to fix. Modern circuits have not in these circuits make self-oscillation possi-
yet liberated every application from these pro- ble? What is there about the design that
blems, but the trend is well established. Now that makes oscillation unlikely?
190
 6. How can low pass and high pass filters be 17. What do the voltage-to-current converter
combined to make a notch filter? and the inverting amplifier configuration
have in common? What characteristics do
7. How can low pass and high pass filters be
the grounded base amplifier and the volt-
combined to make a band pass filter?
age-to-current converter have in common?

8. What makes a logarithmic amplifier log-

18. The voltage waveform and current
arithmic?
waveform shown in
for a deflection coil are
Fig.11-20. How did the op-amp "know"
9. Using op-amps, logarithmic and anti- what this bizarre voltage waveform had to
logarithmic amplifiers, draw a circuit that
be in order to force a perfect ramp wave-
can raise a voltage to the third power. form through the complex impedance of
What simple change in this circuit could the deflection coil?
change the output to the cube root of the
input.
19. What op-amp configurations are similar to
the grounded emitter amplifier? Which op-
10. Suppose you were going to build a circuit amp configuration is similar to the com-
that would calculate instantaneous miles-
mon collector amplifier?
per-gallon for your car. A small DC gen-
erator driven by the speedometer cable
20. Back in Section 4, Fig. 4-5 showed an
produces a voltage that is proportional to
"ideal" volt-ampere characteristic for a
A fuel flow meter produces
miles-per-hour. bipolar transistor. Using as many op-amps
a DC voltage proportional to the gallons as needed, sketch a circuit that will simu-
per hour flowing into the engine. Draw a late this ideal bipolar transistor. Your cir-
circuit to perform the following calculation cuit should have a current gain of 100, The
using a multiplier IC: output should act like a current source con-
trolled by the input current. The input
voltage can be any voltages that are conve-
speed miles/hour miles
nient for you and the load can be located
fuel flow gallons/hour gallons anywhere that is convenient. (Hint: The
current delivered to the load resistor in
many op-amp configurations is determined
11. How is integration related to differentia- by the size of the load resistor because the

tion? output of the op-amp acts like a voltage

source and will supply all the current "ask-
12. Why a simple RC integrator inaccurate?
is ed for."
How does an op-amp integrator correct
this inaccuracy?

13. Why are operational differentiators usual-

ly impractical?

14. Referring to Fig. 11-15, sketch a graph of

the current flowing into the integrator.

15. What two applications for integrators were

described in the text? How could an inte-
grator be used to count the number of
short, equal voltage pulses occuring over a
period of several seconds or minutes?

16. What is meant by the "solution" to a dif-

ferential equation?

191
 SECTION XII

Power Supplies and

Voltage Regulators

A. Introduction

The power to run electronic circuits is rarely

m
directly available in the DC
voltages needed.
Even in battery powered equipment, the batteries
may start out with the correct voltages, but as
the battery is used, the voltage gradually falls
and the circuit performance falls with it. In this
section we are going to look at methods of re-
gulating DC voltage so that the circuits will
always receive a constant voltage supply, re-
gardless of what the actual source of the power is
doing. We will also look at methods of converting
voltages from high levels to low DC voltages. W
Power supplies are not the most glamorous
part of electronics, but every circuit has to have a
power supply, so we may as well grit our teeth
Fig. 12-1 An assortment of solid state voltage
and learn about them. I have met engineers who
regulators.
think power supplies are so fascinating that they
have made entire careers out of designing them.
From their point of view, a TV or a radar set is B. Power Supply Design Goals
just an excuse to use an exotic power supply. Per-
sonally, I can't get that excited about power sup- Power supplies have many design goals. The
plies and you probably can't either. However, power supply should provide a constant DC
they aren't dull, and thanks to the new integrated voltage with no noise or ripple.The voltage should
circuit voltage regulator devices, fancy power remain constant even though the load current
supplies are no longer hard to understand and may vary widely.
repair.
The power supply should have current
Much of what we are going to study, you limiting capability so that, if a short circuit oc-
have already been introduced to. A few of the curs in the load or even in the power supply itself,
principles will be entirely new. First we are going the electronics in the load and the power supply
to talk about simple series and parallel voltage will be damaged as little as possible. Generally
regulators. Then we'll discuss switching power this is done in two ways. First, a fuse or a small
supplies and regulator methods based on exotic circuit breaker usually protects the instrument as
kinds of power transformers. a whole. Second, the voltage regulator often con-
193
tains a current limiter circuit in addition to the C. Parallel Voltage Regulators
voltage regulation function. The current limiter
restricts the output current to the level the sup- Zener diode regulation of power supplies is an
ply can deliver safely. example of parallel regulation. The idea is that a
relatively high, unregulated DC voltage is divid-
It is also important that the power supply ed down to a lower, regulated DC voltage by
has no appreciable inductance or resistance as means of a resistive voltage divider. As you
seen by the circuits it is powering. This is very know, a voltage divider consists of two resis-
important for high frequency, high current elec- tances which span the power source. The load is
tronic loads such as radio transmitters. The out- usually placed across the divider resistance that
put voltage signal from a transmitter final am- has one end grounded. In the case of a parallel
plifier will be wasted across the power supply in- regulator, thegrounded resistance element varies
ductance and the output power will be dissipated itsresistance in order to hold the voltage across
uselessly in the supply internal resistance. the load constant. The zener diode is an example
of the variable resistive element that is in parallel
It is often desirable to electrically isolate the with the load.
electronics load from the power source. No, I
don't mean snipping power cord. I mean
off the
This circuit will do a good job of holding the
isolating the load from the power source so that
load voltage constant at the zener voltage, pro-
there is no voltage reference between the two.
vided that two circumstances remain true. First,
This is necessary whenever the output voltage DC
the input voltage must remain higher than
has no reference to ground. In other words,
the zener voltage so that the zener diode will re-
neither the positive or negative voltage terminals
main breakdown region. Second, the
in its zener
are grounded. is also important as a
Isolation
load must not draw so much current that the
safety feature so the AC
leakage voltage from the
voltage drop across the dropping resistor, R^, ex-
power source (usually 120 volts AC) is not present
ceeds the difference between the input voltage,
on the cabinet or in the electronics circuitry V and the zener voltage, V z
where it might be a risk to the operator.
m .

(i) (Rd) Vin - V 2

Finally, it is usually important to make the

power supply as small and lightweight as possi- The zener regulator is a practical, simple
ble. In order to do this, the power supply must be voltage regulator system as long as the load re-
very efficient so that very little heat needs to be quires only small currents or wasting power is not
dissipated by fans or heavy, finned aluminum important. The zener regulator wastes power in
heat sinks. As we shall see in this chapter, heroic both the dropping resistor and the zener diode. In
efforts are used to accomplish these goals. a typical application, only one third of the energy

vin
UNREGULATED V
/
DC VOLTAGE
Rd Vi
VOUT IS A
(LOW
RESISTANCE) CONSTANT VOLTAGE
AS LONG AS V|N > V Z ENER

THE TWO
ELEMENTS
OF A
RESISTIVE
VOLTAGE ^ ^"v ZENER RL
DIVIDER NETWORK^ DIODE CONDUCTS LOAD
AT VZENER RESISTANCE

> ^>
IF LOAD DRAWS TOO MUCH
CURRENT, THE VOLTAGE DROP
ACCROSS Rd WILL EXCEED V|N - Vz.
AND REGULATION WILL WILL BE LOST
Fig. 12-2 A zener diode regulator as an example of parallel voltage regulation.
194
 UNRECULATED
DC
VOLTAGE

ZENER
DIODE
SERVES
AS A
REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
FOR
THE
VOLTAGE VOUT = V Z
FOLLOWER J

RL
LOAD
RESISTANCE

/777
NOTE HOW THE
COMPLEMENTARY CLASS B
OUTPUT IS SERVING
AS A PARALLEL
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
rm WITH 2 ACTIVE
RESISTIVE ELEMENTS
Fig. 12-3 An op-amp voltage follower used as a voltage regulator.

drawn from the unregulated supply may go to the is "amplifying" a constant DC reference voltage.
load while two thirds is burned up in these re- The reference voltage comes from a zener diode,
sistances. just like Fig. 12-2. But now the dropping resistor,
Rd, is a very high resistance and the "load" on
Another way to build a parallel regulator is to the zener diode is the op-amp input which draws
replace the zener diode with a power transistor. essentially no current. Therefore, the zener diode
This transistor would be turned part way on or reference circuit consumes little power.
off in response to the load voltage so that its
behavior would be identical to the zener diode. This op-amp circuit could be classified as a
Such a regulator can be made more efficient by parallel regulatorbecause the typical op-amp out-
replacing both the zener diode and the dropping put stage a complementary class B transistor
is
resistor, Rd, with power transistors. By making amplifier. Ifyou follow the course of the majority
both of these resistive elements variable, the of the input current which eventually goes to the
resistance divider can be "tuned" for maximum load, it is going to get there by means of a
transfer of power to the load and minimum power resistive voltage divider consisting of two
burned up in the resistance divider. resistances— the "dropping resistor" is the re-
sistance of Qi and R lt and the "parallel resistor"
Fig. 12-3 demonstrates how an operational consists of Q2 and R2. In this example both the
amplifier voltage follower can be used as a dropping resistance and the parallel resistance
voltage regulator. As you recall, the voltage are active and vary to hold the load voltage cons-
follower will follow an input reference signal and tant. Since both resistors are active, the voltage
the output will behave like a voltage source. That divider can be "tuned" for maximum efficiency.
is,the output will attempt to provide all the cur- For example, if Vj n dropped toward the desired
rent "asked for" by the load resistance. Instead load voltage, Qi can turn nearly full on while Q2
of amplifying some interesting voltage signal, can turn nearly full off. This makes the divider as
such as a Beetle record, here the voltage regulator efficient as possible. Whereas, when one of the
195
resistance elements is fixed, the regulator is cuit. In Section 7 we learned that the emitter
always stuck with that energy and heat dissipa- follower has a voltage gain of about 1, but can

tion. have a large current gain. Functionally, this cir-

cuit behaves just like the voltage follower but is
Large op-amps capable of delivering amperes not as precise.
of current are available, but are not yet common.
These op-amps are generally hybrid circuits that
combine a small integrated circuit chip with In Fig. 12-5 the same series regulator is

power transistors in the same unit. The whole cir- shown used complete power supply. Notice
in a

cuit is potted in plastic so that it looks and acts as

how cleverly the emitter follower has been
if it were a single integrated circuit.
redrawn so that you would never recognize it as
an emitter follower. Starting from the left, this
D. The Series Voltage Regulator power supply is intended to be powered directly
from the household AC line, 120 volts AC. It con-
In the parallel regulator, power is dissipated tains a switch to turn it on. A fuse is used to pre-
in two resistive elements. The regulation can be vent spectacular damage to all the current-
more efficient by using the active transistor as carrying parts in the event that some part of the
the voltage dropping resistor and eliminating the power supply or the load were shorted. If the cur-
parallel resistor. For larger power supplies, rent drawn through the fuse is too high, the fuse
whenever the zener diode would have to dissipate will blow and the current to the rest of the circuit
more than a watt or two, the system generally will be automatically turned off. This supply also
used is the series regulator in which the active ele- uses a transformer to isolate the AC line from the
ment is in series with the load. In other words, the load and to convert the AC voltage an AC voltage
load becomes part of its own voltage divider cir- slightly higher than the desired regulated DC
cuit.Most of the solid state regulator devices voltage. A bridge rectifier converts the AC to
shown in Fig. 12-1 are actually series regulators unregulated DC voltage. The difference between
in which all the complex circuitry is contained in the regulated DC voltage and the unregulated DC
a neat little plastic or metal package that re- voltage is selected by the designer to allow for the
sembles an ordinary transistor. lowest AC line voltage that might be used with
the power supply. Frequently supplies like this
In Fig. 12-3 we showed a voltage follower are designed to operate at levels as low as 90 or
amplifying a zener diode reference voltage. Fig. 100 volts AC. It is also important that increases
12-4 shows a simple series regulator which is in line voltage can also be tolerated without parts
nothing more than an emitter follower transistor overheating. Supplies are often designed to tol-
amplifier amplifying a zener diode reference cir- erate 130 to 140 volts AC without overheating.

Vin)-
UNREGULATED
DC VOLTAGE
POWER TRANSISTOR
•PASS ELEMENT"
S VARIABLE RESISTANCE

REGULATED
DC REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
»-CAPACITOR
HELPS HOLD Vz
VOUT - Vz - 0.6 VOLTS
CONSTANT

>
^_ /Vbe WILL BE GREATER
v ~V
ZENER REFERENCE EMITTER
THAN 0.6 VOLTS FOR
VOLTAGE A LARGE SILICON
FOLLOWER I

^TRANSISTOR
Fig. 12-1 Simple scries voltage regulator
196
 FUSE BLOWS IF
HIGH CURRENT
DRAW EXCEEDS
SAFE LIMIT-

CAPACITORS HELP SERIES

FILTER OUT HIGH REGULATOR
FREQUENCY NOISE Rload,
RADIO OR
WHATEVER

ONOFF ISOLATION
SWITCH AND
STEP-DOWN
TRANSFORMER

~N^"
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER
AND
CAPACITOR
FILTER
Fig. 12-5 A complete AC power supply

E. Current Limiter Circuits

The fuse current limiter is crude since fuses

CURRENT LIMITING CIRCUIT
usually respond slowly. In the event that the
regulator output were shorted, it is quite likely / 1
that the pass transistor or some other part would CURENT
|

fail before the fuse had time to respond. A fancier SENSING

series regulator would be equipped with a max- RESISTOR
imum
that is
current limiter. This
added to the pass
is an additional circuit
transistor. A voltage
^^
lLOAD
reference diode, often another zener, is used to
detect when the power supply is delivering more
current than it can safely handle.

Rload
The supply in Fig. 12-6 shows a simple form
of current limiter circuit added to the series
regulator in Fig. 12-4. The output current is made
to pass through a current sensing resistor. This
resistor is a small value which will not ap-
preciably
mance. A
the voltage regulation perfor-
affect
zener diode is wired between the base
>^
and the positive output voltage. Except for the VZ 2 - 0.6 + lL
MAX (Rs)
small drop in voltage across the resistor R s these ,

Fig. 12-6 A series regulator with a simple cur-

two components have no effect on the voltage
rent limiter
regulation until too much current is drawn from

19'
the supply. When this occurs, the sum of the
voltage drop across the resistor, (iL x R s plus),
the base-to-emitter voltage becomes greater than
the zener voltage. When the zener voltage (V Z2 is
exceeded, it begins to conduct current away from
the base of the pass transistor. This steals base
current and the transistor can not turn on more
heavily. This limits the supply current to the level
at which the zener voltage was exceeded. It is de-
sirable to have R s as small as possible. Instead of
a zener diode, a stabistor diode is often used.
Fig. 12-7 looks more like series regulators
found out in the real world— complicated! The cir-
cuit uses the same basic principles used in Fig.
12-6, but the complexity improves the tempera-
ture stability and the degree of voltage regula-
tion. First, the pass transistor has been replaced
with two transistors, Qi and Q2 wired as a Darl-
ington transistor. A Darlington pass transistor
DARLINGTON PASS
"PREREGULATOR TRANSISTOR(S)
rrn
Fig. 12-7 A complex scries regulator with a transistor current limit circuit.
can be controlled with smaller currents and the
zener diode references and resistors do not have
to carry so much current. Second, the turn-on and
)
turn-off currents for the pass transistor(s) are
generated by two separate circuits. The pass
transistor is turned on by a current source circuit
made from a zener diode and a transistor, Q3.
This circuit is a P-N-P emitter follower amplifier
which provides a constant current to turn on the
base of Q2. The "load" of the emitter follower is
the fixed resistor, R c Because emitter followers
.
have a voltage gain of 1, the voltage across R c
will be whatever voltage is across the reference
voltage, V zl Therefore, the current through R c
.
will be a constant current. From the collector of
Q3 this same constant current passes on to the
base of Q2 to turn it on. If you get confused about
which way positive current is flowing, just follow
the arrowheads in the transistor symbols.
Q5 STEALS BASE CURRENT
FROM Q2 WHEN VOLTAGE
ACROSS R s RISES ABOVE
VBE-
Rload
•DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER"
TURNS OFF Q1 and Q2
AS VOUT RISES ABOVE
Vz2
198
 A separate circuit is used to control the out- Motorola LM109, LM209, and LM309 regulators
put voltage and generate base current to turn off are all basically the same But as
5 volt regulator.
Qi and Q2. This turn-off circuit does not effect Q2 you can see from the specifications, this regulator
until the output voltage is roughly the same or is available in two current ratings, 0.2 ampere, 1
greater than the zener reference voltage, V z2 . ampere, and several different temperature oper-
This zener voltage is usually about 1/2 of the ating ranges. The wider the temperature oper-
desired output voltage. When the output voltage ating range and the heavier the current rating,
exceeds the zener reference voltage, it becomes the higher the price for each regulator. Operating
possible for Q4 As current flows to
to turn on. at —55° C (67° F below zero) may not be impor-
ground through begins to turn off Q 2 The
Q4 , it . tant in your TV set, but it could be very impor-
exact voltage at which the output voltage is tant in your space ship. The metal case is design-
regulated can be adjusted by changing the cur- ed to dissipate heat, so it is convenient to ground
rent into the base of Q 4 This is done with the
. the metal case. Therefore, there are separate re-
potentiometer R a dj- By dividing the control of gulators designed for negative power supplies
the pass transistor into separate turn-on and which have the positive side gounded to the case.
turn-off circuits, the voltage regulation can be im- Positive voltage regulators have the negative
proved by a factor of 100 over the relatively crude side connected to the case.
circuit in Fig. 12-4.
When voltage regulators are used in any cir-
cuit, it isimportant that the wires between the
This circuit also has an improved current
regulator and the load be as short as possible. The
limiter system. The current limiter consists of
inductance in the wires going from the voltage
transistor Q5 and the current sensing resistor,
regulator to the load can be very significant.
R s The voltage drop sensing diode is the base-to-
.

emitter P-N junction of the transistor Q5.

When the load draws large current pulses, a large
voltage drop will occur across the inductance in
Whenever the voltage across the sensing resistor
the wires. This is a serious problem in digital cir-
rises above about 0.6 volts, the transistor Q5 will
cuits where binary numbers are being processed
turn on and steal base current away from the
at high speed. For instance, suppose a large
transistor Q 2 The sensing resistor can be smaller
.

number of binary circuits turn on simultaneously

than that used in Fig. 12-6 because only the base-
to-emitter junction voltage needs to be exceeded.
A smaller current sensing resistor means that the
voltage regulation will be more accurate and will
consume less energy. This regulator circuit is
complex, but if you think about the separate func-
tions of each of the four parts, it will not seem so
complicated.
F. Three Terminal Integrated
lators
If you thought the circuit in Fig. 12-7
complicated, just look at the innards of a typical
integrated circuit voltage regulator in Fig. 12-8.
to make "zeros." Altogether they will draw a
large current pulse. If enough zeros come on at
once, the combined pulse may be large enough to
make the supply voltage momentarily drop to
such a low voltage that a digital logic circuit may
confuse a "one" with a "zero." This could cause
the computer to make an error. If you have a
charge card, you know what a hassle a computer
error can cause. The small size of 3-terminal
Voltage Regu-
regulators makes
it practical to put voltage
regulators on each circuit board where
right
regulated voltage is needed. This gets rid of the
was
long wires and is usually better than using one
large, centrally located, regulated power supply.

Three terminal regulators can be used in dif-

As the name implies, the three terminal in-
ferent ways. They can regulate voltages larger
tegrated voltage regulators are integrated circuit
than the nominal voltage by using a resistive
series voltage regulators which have three exter-
voltage divider to produce a reference voltage
nal leads connecting them to the outside world.
equal to the actual regulator voltage. For exam-
They packaged in transistor cases and
are usually
ple, a 5 volt 3-terminal regulator can be used to
resemble ordinary power transistors. They con-
regulate 10 volts. The ten volt output is divided
tain complex temperature compensation and cur-
in half by a resistive divider so that the regulator
rent limiting circuitry. Three terminal regulators
has a 5 volt feedback signal. By making the
come in a wide variety of voltages and rated cur-
resistive divider variable, the regulated output
rents.The designer picks out the type that will
voltage can be varied over a large range.
supply the need of his particular circuit. The
199
 LM109
MONOLITHIC POSITIVE THREE TERMINAL •
LM209
FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATOR LM309
A versatile positive fixed + 5.0-volt regulator designed POSITIVE
for easy application as on on-card, local voltage VOLTAGE REGULATOR
regulator for digital logic systems. Current limiting and
thermal shutdown are provided to make the units ex-
tremely rugged.
In most applications only one external component, a
capacitor, is required in conjunction with the LM109
Series devices. Even this component may be omitted if
INPUT OUTPUT
the power-supply filter is not located an appreciaable K SUFFIX
distance from the regulator. METAL PACKAGE
• High Maximum Output Current — Over 1.0 Ampere in
CASE 11-01
(TO-3 TYPE) GROUND
—
TO-3 type Package Over 200mA in (BOTTOM
TO-39 type Package. VIEW)
• Minimum External Components Required
OUTPUT
2
• Internal Short-Circuit Protection 'NPUT /T\
1
( ° °) 3
• Internal Thermal Overload Protection
C S GROUND
• Excellent Line and Load Transient Rejection (BOTTOM VIEW)
H SUFFIX
• Designed for Use with Popular MDTL and MTTL Logic METAL PACKAGE
CASE 79
(TO-39)

ORDERING INFORMATION
Device Temperature Range Package
LM109H Tj = -55 = C lo +150'C Metal Can
CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC LM109K Tj = -55 C
=
lo + 15(FC Metal Power

y t t—« INPUT LM209H Tj = -55°C lo + 150=C Metal Can

LM209K Tj = -55°C lo +150 = C Metal Power
LM309H Tj = 0°C lo + 125°C Metal Can
LM309K Tj = 0=C lo +125°C Metal Power

TYPICAL APPLICATION
FIXED 5.0 V REGULATOR

OUTPUT 'NPUT 2 5V
LM109 -o —t—'OUTPUT
C1* C2
0.22 uF
39GROUND

-REEQUIRED IF REGULATOR IS LOCATED AN APPRECIABLE

DISTANCE FROM POWER SUPPLY FILTER.
ALTHOUGH NO OUTPUT CAPACITOR IS NEEDED FOR
STABILITY. IT DOES IMPROVE TRANSIENT RESPONSE.

Fig. 12-8 Motorola 3-terminal integrated voltage regulator

Because the 3-terminal regulator can be used Another common use for three terminal re-
to regulate the voltage across a load resistance, it gulators is to use them as control circuits for high
can also regulate the voltage across a fixed current series regulators. In Fig. 12-11 a 0.2
resistor. Since the resistor is fixed, the current ampere 5 volt regulator is shown controlling a 10
through the resistor will be fixed at a constant ampere pass transistor. Notice that this circuit
value. This current can then pass on to a load has no current limiting capability for the large
which needs to be driven by a current source. power transistor. A current limiting circuit like
200
 LM109
5 VOLT 5 VOLTS
REGULATOR AT UP TO
VlN POWER 10 AMPERES
TRANSISTOR

VlN
- 15
DC
>VOLTS
UNREGULATED
1

^VOUT
= 10
VOLTS
~ 10
UNREGULATED
v/

10 Q
y n *
10 ufd

3(CASE) 300 Q REGULATED /TT7

LM109K
5 VOLT
(200 Ma)
<>-*- 5 VOLTS
REFERENCE .22 M fd 3(CASE)

300 Q
Fig. 12-11 A
x rrn
3-terminal regulator used to control
a heavy current series voltage regulator.
> *
the one in Fig. 12-6 would have to be added if cur-
rrn
rent limiting were needed.
Fig. 12-9 A 3-terminal voltage regulator used to
regulate voltage larger than the rated voltage.
G. Energy Gap Voltage Standards
5 VOLT VOLTAGE
DROP ACROSS CURRENT
SENSE RESISTOR Sometimes the performance of a zener diode
or stabistor is not accurate enough for use in a
LM109
V|N^>- 5 VOLT
REGULATOR ^> precision power supply or as a voltage reference
for a precision voltmeter. The energy gap re-
ference is an integrated circuit based on the tran-
3(CASE) sistor circuit shown in Fig. 12-12.
iREG RL

In this circuit, the transistor at the left, Qi, is

used as simple forward diode. The collector is

^>
X
shorted to the base so that all that remains is the
> base-emitter junction. The "diode" at the left is
biased by current from the unregulated supply,
5 VOLTS through Rd- This develops a voltage across the
•REG =
base-to-emitter junction of about 0.6 volts. This
Fig. 12-10 A 3-terminal regulator used as a cur- voltage just barely turns on the second tran-
rent source. sistor, Q2. The current that flows through Q2 is
very tiny, but very constant. When this constant
UNREGULATED
VOLTAGE
->
> SMALL BUT
VERY CONSTANT
CURRENT. v CONSTANT
Rload f VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE (USUALLY
DROPPING MICROAMPERES)
RESISTOR
* J

y 02
Qi AND Q2 ARE
MADE SIMULTANEOUSLY
Vbe(i)SERVES
0.6
/ VBE =
VOLTS ^ THE SAME INTEGRATED
SO THEY ARE
CIRCUIT,
IN

AS A MATCHED CLOSELY MATCHED.

VOLTAGE REFERENCE
FOR Q2

rm
Fig. 12-12 Basic "energy gap' circuit
201
 NOTE ENERGY
GAP CIRCUIT
AT TOP CENTER

METAL CAN PACKAGE

«^-ro9
NOTE: PIN 2 CONNECTED TO CASE.
204 TOP VIEW
LM113H

Fig. 12-13 LM113 voltage reference integrated

circuit made by National Semiconductor Corp.

current is passed through a fixed load resistor, show up on the DC regulated output voltage. A
the result isa constant voltage. The reason this low pass filter that isdesigned to attenuate 120
circuit is so special is that these transistors are Hz ripple may not be very effective in getting rid
both part of an integrated circuit and are ex- of these spikes because these filters have a great
tremely closely matched. The temperature and deal of inductive reactance and resistance at high
gain characteristics of the two transistors are vir- frequencies. Also, the capacitance of filter
tually identical because they are manufactured capacitors actually decreases dramatically at
simultaneously. This circuit causes the tempera- high frequencies. The solution to this problem is
ture dependent characteristics of the two tran- to attenuate the high frequency spikes before the
sistors to cancel each other. AC is rectified.

The energy gap used to build the na-

circuit is The metal oxide varistor (MOV), is a semicon-
tional semiconductor LM113
energy gap voltage ductor resistor made of zinc oxide semiconductor
reference diode. The basic energy gap circuit is crystals. When the voltage across this specialized
located in the upper center of the diagram. The resistor becomes too high, the resistor breaks
reference voltage provided by the basic circuit is down and becomes quite a good conductor. The
amplified by separate turn-on and turn-off am- action of a varistor can be compared to a pair of
plifiers which drive an output transistor, Q9. The zener diodes wired back-to-back in series. When-
result is a circuit that acts like an almost ideal ever the AC voltage exceeds the breakdown volt-
zener diode or stabistor with a breakdown of 1.22 age, in either the positive or negative direction,
volts over a wide range of temperature and the varistor conducts and clips off the noise
voltage. It can handle from about 0.5 to 20 mA spike. The key difference between the zener
mA of current. It generates far less radio noise diodes and the varistor is the varistor switches on
than zener diodes so it is also preferred for extremely fast and can clip very short duration
regulators in radio receivers. In short, this device noise spikes. The varistor is connected directly
is the world's most accurate and complicated across an AC voltage, usually across the second-
zener diode. ary of a transformer.

H. Varistors
/. Switching Power Supplies
The varistor is a semiconductor device used
for clipping noise spikes off AC voltage. Heavy 1. Introduction
duty motors and relays can generate very large
voltage spikes which are impressed on the AC Switching power supplies can achieve all of
power line voltage. These noise spikes have such the power supply design goals and still be
a short duration and large amplitude that they lightweight and compact. The efficiency with
often pass right through a power supply and which they transfer power to the load can be very
 + 1

ductors do not dissipate any energy, the voltage

can be changed without power dissipation.
TYPICAL POSITIVE
MOV BREAKDOWN Switching power supplies accomplish two
VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTIC basic tasks. First, they convert the voltage level
from whatever the source may be to whatever is
needed. Second, they regulate the output DC
-200 voltage. Both of these functions are accomplished
in the same operation. In switching power sup-
+ 200
VOLTS plies designed to operate from an AC power
source, the switching function may also rectify
the AC and isolate the voltage output from the
main AC lines.
NEGATIVE
BREAKDOWN
To appreciate why switching power supplies
can be such a good deal, you need concrete ex-
-I
amples of what it takes to replace one. Suppose
you are a high-flying financial wizard and you
wish to install a stock exchange computer ter-
minal in your jet plane. The plane has a 28 volt
MOV
DC power system and the computer terminal
needs 5 volts DC at many amperes. There is a 23
volt difference between the average source volt
SYMBOL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT age and the voltage you need. If you use a series
VARISTORS ARE MADE SIMULATED WITH ZENER regulator it will work fine, but over 80% of the
BY GENERAL ELECTRIC DIODES. ACTUALLY, power consumed will be burned up in the series
CORPORATION. ZENER DIODES ARE TOO
SLOW TO DO THE JOB. pass transistors. This means that you will have to
use huge heat sinks and fins to get rid of hun-
Fig. 12-14 Varistor symbol, and volt-ampere
diagram.
dreds of watts of waste heat.

high, over 90% in real power supplies. These Another design approach would be to convert
power supplies are efficient because, unlike the the 28 volts DC to AC by means of chopper tran-
series voltage regulators, these supplies do not sistors, then pass the AC current through a
use a resistance to lower the unregulated voltage transformer to reduce the voltage down to the
to the regulated
voltage level. Instead, the vicinity of 5 volts. Of course, theAC must be rec-
unregulated DC voltage is chopped into AC. The tified and filtered to make DC. A DC inverter cir-
AC current is passed through an inductor or cuit similar to Fig. 9-7 could be used to do this
transformer to change the voltage level. Since in- but it would probably have to be more complex to

V|N
VOUT
+

BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE
VlN^
170 V-P
1 >V0UT
A
1 \ /
J
h
i \ i
•
^
120 VOLTS AC
RMS
NOISE
+
, ov
TO RECTIFER,
FILTER
REGULATOR
AND

>
y c BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE

Fig. 12-15 Varistor noise spike clipping action

203
work reliably in this application. At this point the
DC output voltage is still not regulated, so you
might use a series voltage regulator with a small
voltage drop to produce the regulated 5 volts. The
result is a fairly efficient, but cumbersome power
supply.
2. A voltage-reducing switching power supply
Ablock diagram for a voltage-reducing
switching power supply is shown in Fig. 12-16.
The voltage is reduced and regulated with five
basic circuit components: a switch, an inductor,
a diode, a capacitor, and a pulse width modulator.
First, the 28 volts DC is chopped into DC voltage
pulses by a transistor switch. These pulses drive
current ramps through the inductor to the stor-
age capacitor. The capacitor is large enough so
that it serves as an energy reservoir and the
voltage across the capacitor is relatively cons-
tant, even though it is being charged by a rapidly
varying current. The regulation and switching is
controlled by the pulse width modulator. This
"component'* is itself a complicated circuit and is
the brains of a switching power supply.
The pulse width modulator generates the DC
control pulses that turn the transistor switch on
and off. The width of the pulses generated by the
modulator is determined by the negative feed-
back from the output voltage. As the output volt-
age begins to fall, the pulse width modulator
makes the control pulses wider so that the tran-
sistor switch will let wider current pulses into the
inductor and capacitor. This will charge the stor-
age capacitor at a faster rate and the voltage
across the capacitor will rise. If the output vol-
tage rises too high, the pulse width modulator
will make narrower pulses so that the storage
capacitor is not charged at such a rapid rate.
The pulse width modulator principle re-
sembles the SCR and TRIAC light dimmers in
Section 5. Rather than dissipate the unwanted
voltage in a resistance, the current is let into the
load in short pulses so that the time average of
the transistor current delivers the desired energy.
In fact, SCR's serve as both the "switch'* and the
rectifiers in some switching power supplies that
are designed to operate directly from the AC
power line.

WIDTH OF PULSES
IS PROPORTIONAL TO
5 VOLTS.
VOUT
PULSE SWITCH
WIDTH CLOSED
MODULATOR DURING EACH
5 + PULSE
t

VOLTAGE AT TOP
OUTPUT VOLTAGE VL OF DIODE
HELD CONSTANT
BY CAPACITOR
28
VOUT VOLTS

I I
yisms&s 5
4>
VOLTS DC
DC

L I
INDUCTOR
TRANSISTOR
28 SWITCH + LARGE
VOLTS Rload
S
STORAGE
DIODE CONDUCTS CAPACITOR
"FREEWHEELING
DIODE
WHENEVER CURRENT THROUGH INDUCTOR
SWITCH OPENS. CHARGES CAPACITOR
>> CURRENT
RISES WHILE
SWITCH IS
CLOSED
MA/
DIODE CONDUCTS
WHILE INDUCTOR
DISCHARGES.
Fig 12-16 Diagram for a voltage-reducing switching power supply

204
 Although the filter capacitor must be
the inductor can be quite small because the
quency of the pulses is usually very high, 20 kHz
or higher. Very little inductance is needed to
make the necessary reactance at 20 kHz. If the
same circuit were operated at 60 Hz, the inductor
would have to have a formidable chunk of trans-
former iron to maintain the reactance for such
long half cycles. This principle of using high fre-
quency to make inductors and transformers light-
er is very wide spread. For example, electric rail-
ways can use 25 Hz AC current because there is
no shortage of steel in an electric locomotive. In
contrast 60 Hz is used for household AC systems
since no one would want to pay for a 5 pound, 25
Hz transformer in their table radio. Weight is
even more important on aircraft. Aircraft AC
power systems use 400 Hz so that transformers
and motors do not need so much iron. In some
missiles 1400 Hz AC power is used to cut weight
still more. The bad news about the use of the high
switching frequency is that it can generate noise
which can interfere with radio and computer cir-
cuitry.
3. The free wheeling diode
The diode between the top of the inductor and
ground needs a careful explanation. This diode is
often called a free wheeling diode. This refers to
the rachet-like action of this diode which keeps
the inductor current flowing in one direction into
the load and capacitor. If you are normal, you
didn't understand that explanation, so we will try
again: as you know, the current through an in-
ductor can not change instantly. This means that
when a constant voltage is applied to an inductor,
the current through the inductor will rise slowly
to produce a current ramp. In this case, when the
transistor switch closes, the current through the
inductor will rise slowly as the magnetic field of
the inductor is charged with energy and the in-
ductive reactance falls.
If a resistor had been used instead of an
ductor, the energy lost across this impedance
would be burned up as heat. The efficiency of the
switching power supply comes from being able to
use the energy stored in the magnetic field by
delivering it to the capacitor and the load. The op-
portunity to use this stored energy arises when
the switch opens and the inductor is left alone to
discharge energy into the capacitor and load.
large, Think
of the charged inductor as a battery
fre- that ready to deliver current to the load.
is
However, this "battery" must be properly wired
to the load during the time when the switch is
open. Since the current in an inductor cannot
change instantly, we know that the inductor cur-
rent will continue to flow in the same direction as
before. But like any battery, both ends of this
"battery" must be connected to the load to
deliver current to it. The diode therefore connects
the transistor switch end of the inductor to
ground so that the charging current can complete
its path.
Let's think about what would happen if the
free wheeling diode were left out. When the
switch opened, a huge voltage would appear
across the inductor. This voltage will become as
large as necessary to keep current flowing in the
same direction as before. This voltage easily
could be thousands of volts and could damage the
switching transistor. If the voltage did not suc-
ceed in breaking down the transistor, it would
find some other way to discharge itself. Inductors
do not remain charged indefinitely in the way
that charged capacitors are content to remain
charged. In any case the energy stored in the in-
ductor would have no way to pass into the load.
The supply efficiency would be very poor and
there would be no advantage over using a voltage
dropping resistor instead of an inductor. When-
ever a transistor has an inductive load, it is often
necessary to use a diode to protect the transistor
from the voltage that appears across the induc-
tive load when the transistor shuts off. The class
E amplifier circuit, Fig. 7-20, uses a diode in this
manner.
4. Pulse width modulators
The pulse width modulator converts a
voltage level into a series of pulses which have a
width which is related to the original voltage
level. This can be done with a voltage ramp
generator and a comparator. The comparator has
two inputs; the voltage ramp and the relatively
in- constant "error signal" voltage level derived
from the regulated output voltage. The "error
signal" is a voltage that represents the difference
between what the output voltage is and what we
would like it to be. The comparator makes a pulse
whenever the triangle shaped voltage is larger
than the error signal voltage level. Since the ramp
waveforms come to a point, the comparator out-
put pulses become narrower and narrower as the
205
error signal voltage becomes higher and higher. signal is the difference between the reference
In other words, the pulse width is inversely pro- voltage and the actual supply voltage multiplied
portional to the error voltage level. by the gain of the differential amplifier. The
reference voltage and the differential amplifier
gain are carefully chosen to locate the error signal
There are many ways
to build a pulse width
modulator. Fig. 12-17 one example. This circuit
is
on the voltage ramp triangle. As the load draws
current ranging from zero to the full rated
is made from circuits you have studied in pre-

vious sections. The voltage ramp generator is the amount, the error signal will travel smoothly
one we studied in the last section. The integrator down the ramp triangle and make wider pulses.
capacitor shorting switch is controlled by a
square wave so that the ramp signal is turned off This circuit is a half-wave pulse width
50% of the cycle. The square wave is generated modulator because the maximum width of each
by starting with a phase shift oscillator and mak- pulse is 50%
of the total cycle time. As we
only
ing a square wave by feeding the sine wave into a some kinds of switching power
shall see shortly,

comparator. As wired, the comparator makes a supplies use complementary pairs of half wave
positive pulse whenever the sine wave goes below waveforms for driving a push-pull amplifier
its zero point. We could have generated the switching system. The result is a full wave
square wave with an astable multivibrator, but switching system.
the frequency would not have been as stable.
As you might guess, a circuit as complex as a

The output from the voltage ramp generator pulse width modulator is available as an in-

is fed to a comparator to produce the final switch

tegrated circuit. The Silicon General Corporation

control pulses. When the load is drawing little or

makes the circuit used in Fig. 12-18. This par-

no current, the error voltage signal will rise so ticular integrated circuit is able to generatetwo
high that the pulses the comparator generates complementary half wave pulse width modulated
pulse trains. So it may be used in both full wave
will become as thin as hairs. When the load is

drawing the maximum allowable

and half-wave switching circuits. This power sup-
current, the
error voltage signal will be very close to the bot-
ply has three features not shown earlier in Fig.
12-16. First, a Darlington transistor
is used for
tom of the ramp triangles to generate pulses as
wide as possible. It is important that the error high gain in the switch function. Second, the
voltage never reach zero volts. Because if it did, pulse width modulator also contains a current
the comparator would stop generating pulses and limit circuit that is comparable in function to the

would just make one long, continuous turn-on ones we discussed earlier in conjunction with
signal. This would quickly burn up the switching series regulators. A sense resistor, 0.1 ohms is in

transistorls). series with the line from the 28 volt power supply.
A pair of current sense leads look at the voltage

The across this resistor. If the current becomes too

error signal is rather abstract. At first
glance you would think that if this modulator high, the switching pulses are kept skinny to

were going to regulate a 5 volt power supply, then restrict the amount of current the switching tran-
the voltage reference signal should be 5 volts DC. sistor is supplying to the inductor.
It seems reasonable that the regulation error
signal should be the difference betweenwhat the
supply voltage actually is and the 5 volts re- 5. Full wave switching power supplies
ference. But if this were so, the error voltage
would be "zero" whenever the supply voltage We will illustrate full wave switching power
equaled the reference voltage. We have already supplies by describing a supply designed to work
seen that zero will not work because the directly off the AC power line. A supply like this
switching transistors would always turn full-on. might be used to power a 500 watt radio trans-
mitter. This circuit accomplishes five different
When the system is regulating properly, the tasks:
error signal can be anywhere on the ramp triangle
waveform except at zero volts. What this is say- 1. It increases the average voltage level from
ing is that there must always be an error signal. 120 volts AC RMS to 300 volts DC. By using
Moreover, the error signal will he exaggerated by a step-up transformer, the same design could
the gain of the differentia] amplifier. The error also lower the voltage.
206
v 20 kHz SINE WAVE
REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
O +V CC

PHASE
SHIFT
OSCILLATOR

20 kHz
SQUARE WAVE

VOLTAGE
RAMP
GENERATOR

THE REFERENCE
VOLTAGE AND
DIFF. AMP. GAIN
ARE CHOSEN TO
PLACE THE ERROR
VOLTAGE ON THE
RAMP CORRECTLY.

SUPPLY OUTPUT
VOLTAGE

/ ERROR
I VOLTAGE
PULSE WIDTH IS INVERSELY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE ERROR
VOLTAGE LEVEL AND DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE OUTPUT
CURRENT LEVEL.
Fig. 12-17 Half-wave pulse width modulator

207
 2. It regulates the output voltage. When all the current pulses pass through in one
direction as they do in a half-wave system, then
3. It rectifies and filters the AC power. the permanently magnetized iron in the core is
unusable and is extra weight added to the power
4. It limits the current from the supply to a level supply. With a full wave system, the current
that can be delivered safely. pulses generate magnetic flux in both directions
and all the iron is remagnetized on every cycle.
5. It electrically isolates the AC power line from Since all the iron is generating useful magnetic
the DC power delivered to the load. fields, less weight of iron is needed.

Thanks to the dual outputs of most pulse

+ 28V
i^AA-
RETURN
Fig. 12-18 A power supply
practical switching
using the Silicon General SG2524 IC pulse width
modulator.
This full wave power supply must seem like a
Rube Goldberg machine. In spite of its complex-
ity, this power supply can be built far smaller
lighter than designs based on 60 Hz transformers
and series regulators. A
transformer that can
handle 20 watts at 60 Hz can often handle over
1000 watts when the AC frequency is raised to 20
kHz. A transformer is used in this circuit to raise
the average voltage level.
The full wave design also makes the trans-
former more efficient. By having the DC current
pulses pass through the primary windings in two
directions relative to the transformer, the trans-
former core is demagnetized on each half cycle.
Again, this allows less iron to be used in the
transformer. Any iron core becomes permanently
magnetized to some degree whenever a DC pulse
is passed through a winding around the core.
Although some iron cores do this less than
others, this problem is unavoidable. This char-
acteristic of a residual, permanent magnetism in
transformers is another example of hysteresis.
width modulator integrated circuits, full wave
designs are easy to build. Each of these control
pulse outputs produces pulses that are 180° out
z i 500 ^ of phase with each other. In other words, only one
output is producing a pulse at one time. In fact,
there are logic circuits inside the IC that make
certain that both pulses are never on at the same
time. If they were to come on simultaneously, the
switching transistors would energize both pri-
mary winding halves simultaneously. This would
cancel out the inductance of the primary winding
and the transistors would be shorted to ground.
1
GND They would conduct huge currents and be de-
0.1 Q
stroyed.
As was done in the half-wave circuit, the out-
put voltage and current are sampled by means of
a resistor network. A low resistance resistor in
series with the load senses the load current and
converts this into a voltage. The modulator con-
tains circuits that interpret the load current and
"decide" when the power supply is delivering too
much current. The output voltage is sampled by
and means of a resistive voltage divider. It would not
be practical to feed a 300 volt signal into a tiny in-
tegrated circuit, so the output voltage is scaled
down by the resistance divider so that, say 2-1/2
volts represents 300 volts.
J. Isolated Power Supplies and the Photo-
Isolator
Isolated power sources have no electrical
reference to ground or to other power sources. An
example power source would be a
of an isolated
flashlight suspended from the ceiling by a dry
cotton string. There is no way that electrical
energy from the flashlight battery can reach peo-
ple or circuits in the room unless a deliberate ef-
fort is made to connect two wires to the two bat-
tery terminals. Notice that one wire will not be
enough. Both wires must be connected in order to
get power out of an isolated power source.
'JOS
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209
 CONVENTIONAL With an isolated power system, the bathroom
GROUNDED power sockets are isolated from the rest of the
HOUSEHOLD
WIRING
house wiring with a transformer. The transformer
does not change the voltage, it just eliminates the
connection with ground. Now when the shaver
falls into the bathtub, the shaver may still be
shorted, but the current will have no interest in
traveling to the grounded drain and the bather
will not be seriously threatened.

ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
BUILT INTO WALL OF
GROUND BATHROOM.
REFERENCED

AC CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH

BATHER TO REACH GROUNDED
DRAIN.

Fig. 12-20 A danger of a ground referenced

power supply.

So what? Suppose that you are bathing your

sweaty (salty) body in a bath tub. The tub has the NOW WHEN SHAVER
usual ceramic construction with a grounded FALLS INTO TUB.
SHAVER MAY BE
metal drain pipe at one end. Some careless person SHORTED BY WATER.
has left an electric shaver on a shelf over the bath BUT NO CURRENT
tub. The shaver falls into the end of the tub op- FLOWS TO GROUND.
posite from the drain. The household AC power Fig. 12-21 An isolated AC power system for a
line is ground referenced. This means that the bathroom
current will flow from the AC power line to any
grounded object whenever a pathway is available. For safety reasons, power supplies some-
In the bathtub situation, the bather's body is the times have isolated outputs. This is common in
lowest resistance path between the shaver and medical equipment and is found in quality in-
the grounded metal drain. If enough of the AC struments of all kinds, especially test equipment
current passes through the vicinity of the heart and laboratory power supplies. In the laboratory,
on its way to the drain, the bather will be elect- isolated power supplies can be put in series to
rocuted. A couple hundred microamperes of AC make higher voltage sources. Either polarity of
through a healthy adult heart is all that is re- the supply output can be grounded without fear
quired to disrupt the orderly beating of the heart of ruining the power supply or having unexpected
and kill the bather. This disruption of the rhyth- currents flow to ground.
mic beating of the heart is called fibrillation.
As we have seen, the isolation transformer is
This risk can be prevented by using an iso- a simple way to achieve this isolation. If the
lated power system in which the AC current is power supply uses a transformer to change the
not referenced to ground. Some modern bath- voltage then the transformer can ac-
level,
rooms are equipped with an isolation power complish both purposes. Unfortunately, the full
transformer to make this accident very unlikelv. wave power supply we just looked at not only has
210
a transformer, it also has two feedback signals,
the output voltage and the output current. These
signals must be communicated back to
ferenced circuitry. If this feedback information
were returned to ground referenced circuits by or-
dinary wires, the isolation would be destroyed.
These wires would make a low impedance connec-
tion to one side of the output and both output ter-
minals would now have a definite voltage with
respect to ground.
conduction band creating holes and conduction
band electrons. The light falling on the base is
ground re- equivalent to base current turning the transistor
on. Sometimes the transistor base lead is brought
out separately. Grounding the base lead through
a base resistor helps the photo-transistor turn off
promptly for better high frequency response. Op-
tical isolators usually look like standard 8 pin in-
tegrated circuits. However, when the isolator is
designed to tolerate thousands of volts across it,
it is usually built as a short, round or square rod

Since both signals are voltages and not cur- about as thick as a pencil and two or more centi-
rents, they do not need to pass much current to meters long.
communicate this information. If high resist-
ances were placed in these feedback lines, say 10 In the full wave power supply application, the
million ohms, these resistors could not pass optical isolators used to transfer analog
are
significant current and should not effect the isola- voltage and current information from the output
tion. The trouble with this idea is that if a large back to the ground referenced pulse width mod-
voltage were placed across these feedback re- ulator. This implies that the photo-transistor
sistors, the voltages seen by the modulator IC must be operating as a class A linear amplifier.
would change. And besides, using one wire to Even if the photo-transistor end of the light con-
communicate a voltage level implies that there is nection happens to be linear, we know that the
a ground or some other return path for a voltage light emitting diode does not have a linear volt-
reference. To summarize, the feedback signal ampere characteristic. So it is no surprise that
would become confused with the common mode analog information will be distorted when it is
voltage between the isolated output and ground. passed through the optical isolator. Additional
Isolating these feedback signals so that they circuitry must be used to correct or calibrate the
communicate voltage levels with no ground re- distortion. If the analog information can be
ference is not a trivial problem. transmitted by the light in the form of on-off
signals, such as pulse width modulation, then the
PHOTO-
TRANSISTOR non-linearity will not be a problem. One way of
C
doing this is to use pulse width modulators which
Si LIGHT LIGHT EMITTING
turn the light on and off in pulses which have a
DIODE
width proportional to the voltage level being
S transmitted. An op-amp RC integrator can con-
B vert the pulse width modulation back to an
analog signal.

Fig. 12-22 Optical isolator K. Constant AC Voltage Transformers

A way to isolate electronic signals completely The only significant voltage regulation
is to use an optical isolator. These electronic techniques we have not covered are the constant
devices are usually made from a light emitting AC voltage transformers. These are highly
diode and a bipolar photo-transistor. These com- modified transformers which can vary the cou-
ponents are usually mounted at the ends of a pling between primary and secondary to hold the
short plastic tube so that the photo-transistor can secondary AC voltage constant. They not only
"see" the LED. When a small current passes regulate the voltage, they limit the AC current.
through the LED, it lights and the light turns on They are not used verv often, so we will keep this
the photo-transistor. Photo-transistors are usual- discussion brief. There are two major types of
ly bipolar silicon transistors. They are built with voltage regulating transformers: the ferro-
the base exposed so that light can alter the con- resonant transformer and the paraformer. Neither
ductivity of the base semiconductor. Electrons of these two devices is easy to understand, but at
are knocked out of the valence band and into the least try to get the general idea.
211
 ->• LOAD CURRENT REGULATED »
AC VOLTAGE

>
UNREGULATED
AC

>
PRIMARY uzuj u. 5 SECONDARY
120VOLTS AC, WINDING
^zZs
O^< _i
=
oc
u5o u. a
>

MAGNETIC
SHUNT ALLOWS THIS WINDING
SOME FLUX NOT GENERATES FLUX WHICH
TO LINK PRIMARY APPOSES PRIMARY FLUX
WITH SECONDARY

CAPACITOR DRAWS
A LARGE CURRENT
Fig. 12-23 Ferrore sonant AC voltage regulating transformer

Ferro-re sonant transformers are heavier than
conventional power transformers designed for the
same frequency, and it takes them two or more
sine wave cycles to react to transients in line
voltage or load. Nevertheless, they provide ex-
cellent voltage regulation. Less than 2% varia-
tion from 100 to 130 volts input voltage is
typical. Although much heavier, the AC output
from this transformer can be rectified and used as
a substitute for a high power, isolated, switching
power supply. The ferro-resonant power supply
design is far less complicated than an equivalent
switching design.
The general idea behind the ferro-resonant
transformer is that the magnetic coupling be-
tween the primary winding and the secondary
/finding is variable and is controlled by feedback
and by saturating the iron core. As more voltage
is applied to the primary winding, the coupling
between the secondary is reduced so that the
secondary AC voltage will remain constant. The
ferro-resonant transformer in Fig. 1L'-'J3 uses two
different ways of varying the magnetic coupling.
voltage. A compensating winding uses output
current as negative feedback to turn down the
magnetic flux from the primary winding.
When operating any significant
without
regulation, the transformer works in the usual
way. Magnetic flux generated by the primary
winding travels around the iron core where it in-
duces a similar AC voltage in the secondary wind-
ing. The magnetic shunt in the middle of the
transformer core enables some of the flux from
either the primary or secondary to "take a short
cut" and avoid going through the opposite wind-
ing. This shunt has an air gap which produces
enough magnetic resistance (reluctance) to the
flux so that not all the flux will be shorted out by
the shunt. If the shunt were solid and had no air
gap. nearly all the flux from either winding would
take that path and it would be impossible to
transfer power from the primary to the second-
ary.
The so-called resonant winding on the second-
ary side has a capacitor across
it so that a large

A so-called resonant winding saturates the secon- current will flow in this winding. Usually this
dary side of the core and reduces the secondary winding is not resonant, but just draws a large
2 1
 FLUX PATHS
INTERFERE AT
THE 4 CORNERS
WHERE THE CORES
JOIN
NOTE THAT THERE
NO MUTUAL FLUX
IS
LINKAGE BETWEEN
THE CORES
UNREGULATED
AC VOLTAGE
Fig. 12-24 Wanlass Electric Company
former" AC voltage regulator
current. This current generates a flux which ap-
poses the primary flux. The high current in this
winding saturates or "uses up" the iron on the
secondary side so that the primary flux finds less
magnetic resistance by taking the path through
the magnetic shunt. The more current that is
drawn from the true secondary winding, the less
current that is available for the resonant winding
loop. This situation diverts more flux back into
the secondary winding.
The compensating winding is a second re-
gulation component that reinforces the activity
of the resonant loop winding. As the primary
voltage rises, the secondary voltage tends to rise
too. When this happens, the current to the load
rises and this causes more current to flow
through the compensating winding. The compen-
sating winding is oriented on the primary side of
the transformer so that it cancels out magnetic
flux from the primary. In other words, the com-
pensating winding is a form of negative feedback
that turns off the primary if it starts to deliver
too much energy to the secondary. The compensa-
ting winding is also a current limiting circuit. If
the load tries to draw too much current, the com-
pensating winding will partially cancel out the
flux from the primary and shut off some of the
coupling to the secondary winding until a balance
between flux and current is reached.
213
2"C" CORES
MOUNTED 90°
EACH OTHER
SECONDARY
OSCILLATING
LC CIRCUIT
>
REGULATED
AC VOLTAGE
>
"Para-
The paraformer voltage regulator invented
by the Wanlass Electric Company is really dif-
ferent. This is a compact "transformer "that
regulates its own voltage and limits its own cur-
rent. Not only that, it acts like a "filter" and only
allows pure sine wave voltage to appear on the
paraformer secondary winding. The voltage
waveform on the primary winding can be a square
wave or a noisy sine wave but only pure sine
waves appear on the secondary winding. This
"transformer" makes RF filter capacitors or
varistors unnecessary because noise cant get
through it in either direction.
The paraformer is made from two thick, "C"
shaped iron cores. The cores are put together so
that the end of each arm of the "C" is spanning
the open end of the "C" of the other core. Primary
and secondary windings are put on each core, but
because of the weird core coupling, there is no
mutual inductance between the primary and se-
condary windingsl Instead, the energy is coupled
across from the primary to the secondary by a
phenomenon that is not found in other trans-
formers. The secondary inductance changes in
response to the primary current. As current rises
in the primary, flux from the primary enters the
secondary side of the paraformer. This flux in-
terferes with the flux from the secondary wind-
ing. Unlike a normal transformer, these flux flows
are always competing for the same iron. This
reduces the inductance of the secondary. Since QUESTIONS:
the energy stored in an inductor can not change
instantly, decreasing the inductance means that 1. List as many common goals of power
any current flowing in the secondary must in- supply design as you can.
crease in order for the energy to remain constant.
This surge of current is used to sustain an LC 2. A zener diode regulator is an example of
oscillation in the secondary circuit. what kind of regulator design?

3. Why zener diode regulators in

aren't
Fig. 12-2 used for highpower voltage
regulation? What role do they often play
The general idea is that the paraformer is a
in high power voltage regulators?
sine wave oscillator with an output AC voltage
that determined by the frequency of the oscilla-
is

tion. Acapacitor is placed across the secondary

4. Why are series regulators more efficient
than parallel regulators?
winding. The inductance of the secondary forms
an LC parallel resonant circuit with the ca-
pacitor. When the resonant frequency of the LC
5. What transistor amplifier configuration

circuit matches a dominant frequency in the

is most
like an op-amp voltage follower?

voltage on the primary, the secondary circuit

How can these two circuits be used as
voltage regulators?
oscillates. As long as the secondary winding is
oscillating, the AC voltage across the secondary
remains essentially constant and this is the AC 6. A transistorized series regulator can be
voltage regulation.
equipped with a current limiter circuit
by adding just two components. What
are these parts and what does each one
do?
When an LC circuit oscillates, the voltage
from the capacitor "charges*' the inductor with 7. What is a 3-terminal regulator? Why are

current. Then on the next half cycle, the inductor separate 3-terminal regulators made for
charges the capacitor with voltage. The amount positive and negative voltage regula-
of energy stored in the L and C must be equal. In tion?
any ordinary LC oscillation, the L is fixed. But in
this circuit, the frequency is fixed by the frequen- 8. How can a three-terminal voltage
cy of the voltage on the primary. The amount of regulator be used to build a current
energy the capacitor can store is fixed for a cer- source? If you needed to build a current
tain maximum (peak) voltage across it. It turns source to provide a large current, how
out that the peak voltage across the capacitor is would you decide what regulation volt-
fixed by the frequency. The inductance adapts to age the 3-terminal device would have?
provide current to the load and to deliver the fix-
ed amount of energy to the capacitor. 9. What is the relationship between power
supply size and weight versus energy ef-
ficiency?

10. Why might an energy gap voltage

As more and more current is drawn from the reference be used instead of an ordinary
secondary winding by the load, the voltage re- Zener diode?
mains constant until the oscillation quits When
the oscillation quits, the secondary voltage 1 1. What is a varistor?
vanishes and this is how the paraformer limits its
own current. All sine wave oscillators are like 1 2. What are the advantages of a switching
this. If the load takes too much current out ot the power supply? What are some disadvan-
oscillator, the slops. There are so
oscillation tages? For example, what problem
many advantages paraformers that they may
to would you expect to have if you used a
become very popular in the future. Hopefully switching power supply in a radio
someone will invent a good way to explain them! receiver
21 J
13. In the voltage-reducing switching power
supply in Fig. 12-16, what is the purpose
of the free-wheeling diode?

14. What is a pulse width modulator?

15. Why are high frequencies like 20 kHz

usually used for switching power sup-
plies?

16. What makes up the error signal in a

pulse width modulator for a switching
power supply?

17. In the pulse width modulator circuit in

Fig. 12-17, the error signal can never be
zero volts. Why not? What would hap-
pen if it did?

18. What advantages does a full-wave sup-

ply like the one in Fig. 12-19 have over a
half-wave switching supply like the one
in Fig. 12-18?

19. In general, what are photo-isolators

used for?

20. Why are power supplies in the lab-

oratory often isolated from ground?

21. What is a ferro-resonant transformer?

How does it limit the current that can be
drawn from the transformer secondary?

22. Why is it misleading to refer to a

paraformer as a "transformer?" What
advantage(s) does a paraformer have
that a ferro-resonant transformer does
not have?

215
 GLOSSARY
This glossary of terms is to give a ready analog circuit: A circuit that deals with a con-
reference to the meaning of some of the words tinuous range of voltages or currents. In con-
with which you may
not be familiar. These defini- trast, digital or binary circuits deal with non-
tions may from those of standard dic-
differ linear, full on or full off circuits which are never
tionaries, but are more in line with shop usage. part way on except while switching.

active detector: A linear amplifier biased like a analog computer: An array of a large number of
class B amplifier that detects and amplifies operational amplifiers which can be wired to
AM radio signals. Since only one polarity of simulate algebra or calculus equations. This
the waveform is amplified, the output signal is computer uses linear calculation methods. It
rectified. can not calculate using binary arithmetic or
digital logic methods.
active filter: A frequency filter made by incor-
porating an operational amplifier into a filter analog switch: An integrated circuit that can
network so that desired frequencies are am- turn analog signals on and off at very high
plified while unwanted frequencies are at- speeds under the control of voltage pulses.
tenuated. Other than the switching action, the switch
does not attenuate or distort the signal being
AF: Audio frequency, 20 Hz to about 20,000 controlled.
Hz.
AND circuit: A logic or digital circuit that gives
AGC: Automatic gain control a high output signal in response to a certain
number of simultaneous high input signals.
alloy transistors: A bipolar transistor made by
diffusing dots of impurity into both sides of a anode: An electrode or element of an electronic
semiconductor wafer to make the three layers, device which normally has a positive voltage
P-N-P or N-P-N. on it.

alpha, a: In bipolar transistors, alpha is a num- anti-logarithmic amplifier: An amplifier with an

ber that represents the fraction of the emitter output equal to the anti-logarithm of the input.
current that is the collector current, a = lute- When used with logarithmic amplifiers, they
in other words, the emitter current less the are used to multiply, divide, take square roots
base current equals the collector current. and perform other mathematical operations on
voltages.
alpha numeric display: Numbers or letters dis-
played by means of LED lights, liquid crystals, argon: An inert, but ionizable, gas that is used
or gas discharge tubes. These are used in in thyratrons and voltage regulator tubes.
calculators, watches, gasoline pumps, etc.
Armstrong oscillator: A transformer coupled
AM: Amplitude modulation sine wave oscillator in which the LC tuning is

accomplished on the input side of the amplifier

amplifier: A circuit that enlarges a current or instead of the output side.
voltage signal. Amplifier implies that the
signal power is increased. For example, a trans- astable multivibrator: A flip-flop or multivibra-
former cannot amplify, because it cannot in- tor that does not remain long in either of its
crease the power. quasistable points, but switches back and
forth in a square wave oscillation.
amplitude modulation: Impressing a relatively
low frequency signal onto a radio frequency atom: The basic unit of matter. Each kind of
sine wave by varying the RF sine wave atom has a positively charged nucleus sur-
amplitude so it follows the low frequency rounded by a specific number of negatively
signal. charged electrons.
217
audio amplifier (AF AMP): An amplifier design- beat frequency: The difference in frequency be-
ed to amplify frequencies between 20 and tween two radio or audio signals being mixed
20.000 Hz. Usually AF amplifiers are wide together. In a superhetrodyne receiver, the
band amplifiers and amplify most or all of the beat frequency is the intermediate frequency
frequencies in this band equally well. which is the difference between the local
oscillator frequency and the radio signal fre-
automatic gain control (AGC): A circuit in a quency.
radio receiver or other instrument which tries
to hold a signal at a relatively constant level. beat frequency oscillator (BFO): An oscillator
used in radio receivers to modulate morse code
avalanche multiplication: A mechanism for
signals with a musical tone so that they may
breakdown P-X junction voltage barriers in
of be decoded more easily.
transistors and diodes. Because of the high
voltage, thermally generated electron can
a
strike a atom so violently that it
crystal
beta, ft:
A number which is the current gain of a
transistor. Current gain is the collector current
ionizes. This produces more holes and electrons
divided by the base current.
which ionizes more crystal atoms until the P-N
barrier collapses.
bias: A DC voltage placed on an electronic de-
avionics: The electronics used in aircraft. vice to make it operate in some desirable part

of its volt-ampere characteristic.

backward bias: In diodes, a voltage is placed
across a diode so that the positive side is on the
binary numbers: A number system based on two
cathode, the negative side is on the anode, and numbers. 1 and 0. In digital circuits these
current cannot flow through the diode. numbers are represented by the two different
states, on and off.
backward diode: A tunnel rectifier

balanced operational amplifier: An amplifier

bipolar: Having two pathways. In bipolar trans-
built from an operational amplifier which has istors, it means a 3 layer transistor. X-P-X or
zero volts on the output when the input is zero P-N-P, which conducts current through both
volts. type X and type P semiconductor using both
holes and electrons. In other words, two

bandpass filter: A
which is designed to
filter
pathways are used.
pass a certain band or range of frequencies
while attenuating all other frequencies. bistablecircuits: A circuit which will remain
turned on or turned off for indefinitely long
bandwidth: A certain range or region of frequen- periods. Also, a tiro-state circuit.
cies that a device or filter is able to process.
This implies that frequencies outside the band
width will not be amplified or passed.
blanking pulse: A pulse generated in TV sets
and oscilloscopes to turn off the electron beam
when the beam is returning to the beginning of
bar graph voltmeter: A
voltmeter made from a
a new scanning line or a new picture frame.
column of lights. Each light is controlled by a
This eliminates the unwanted retrace line.
separate comparator circuit. As the voltage be-
ing measured rises, each comparator threshold
is exceeded in turn and the lights turn on one Bode plot: A graph of circuit output versus fre-
by one indicating the level of the voltage. quency. Bode plots are used to describe the fre-
quency response of filters, amplifiers, and
base: In bipolar transistors, the control element other devices that must respond to some input.
and central semiconductor layer m the tran-
sistor bridge rectifier: Four diodes arranged
rectifier
in a diamond-shaped produces full
circuit that
base characteristic: A graph ol base current ver- wave rectification without a transformer
sus base voltage for a bipolar transistor. secondary center tap.
218
cadmium sulfide: Semiconductor material used class C amplifier: An efficient, sharply tuned
to make photo-resistors. When light shines on transistor or tube amplifier biased so that the
these resistors, the resistance drops dramat- transistor is turned on for only a small fraction
ically.They are commonly used in automatic of the total sine wave cycle time.
door openers and camera light meters.

cathode: The element of an electronic device at

class D amplifier: A transistor amplifier used as
a switch for generating pulses, controlling
which electrons enter the device. In normal
operation the cathode has a negative voltage
relays, light, etcs. The transistor is operated
full on or full off, but not in between except
while the anode has a positive voltage. In
when switching.
vacuum tubes, the cathode is heated by a fila-
ment to cause electrons to leave the cathode
and enter the vacuum.
class E amplifier: A very efficient, sharply tuned
transistor or tube amplifier. The transistor is

cathode ray tube: Picture tube.tube A vacuum used like a switch and
turned full on or full
is

which accelerates electrons from a cathode on- off. Resonant circuitry converts the current

to a phosphorescent screen for displaying pic- pulses to RF sine wave AC.

tures, maps, or graphs.
clipper circuit: A diode or transistor circuit de-
channel: In field effect transistors, the current signed to conduct current when an input signal
that is being controlled passes through a voltage exceeds or drops below some specified
uniform piece of semiconductor called the level. The effect is to "clip off" the voltage
channel. waveform above or below that level. Also call-
ed a slicer or limiter circuit.
chopper: An electronic switch that turns a DC
signal on and off rapidly to make an AC signal CMOS: Complementary Metal Oxide Semicon-
with an amplitude proportional to the DC ductor field effect transistor integrated cir-
level. They are used in DC-to-DC inverters and
cuits. A
very energy efficient digital circuit
in chopper stabilized DC amplifiers.
design used in digital watches, calculators, etc.

clamp circuit: A circuit resembling a clipper

collector: Largest of the three semiconductor
that prevents a voltage from exceeding a limit.
Clamps used to protect some devices,
are often
layers of a bipolar transistor. The collector
gathers the majority carrier current from the
such as a power transistor that cannot tolerate
emitter after it has passed through the base
voltage above a certain limit.
layer.

class A amplifier: An untuned, linear transistor

collector cut-off current: A small leakage cur-
or tube amplifier in which the transistor or
rent that flows from collector to emitter in a
tube is biased to have its quiescent operating
bipolar transistor when it is supposed to be
point in the center of a linear portion of its op-
turned off.
erating range. Class A amplifiers are wide
band amplifiers. breakdown voltage (BV ce
collector-to-emitter ):

The collector-to-emitter voltage required to

class AB amplifier: A tuned amplifier which has breakdown a bipolar transistor and make it
some of the wide band linearity of a class A
pass current when it is supposed to be turned
amplifier and some of the efficiency of class B
off.
or C tuned amplifiers. It is often used as an in-
termediate amplifier stage in transmitters A sine wave oscillator which
Colpitts oscillator:
where not practical to retune the amplifier
it is used a pi network consisting of two capacitors
every time the frequency is shifted slightly. and one inductor as the feedback phase shift
network.
class B amplifier: A linear transistor or tube
amplifier which biased with its quiescent
is common base amplifier: A basic bipolar transis-
point just at cut Usually clasc B ampli-
off. tor amplifier configuration which has high
fiers are made from pairs of transistors so that voltage gain but no current gain. That is, the
each transistor amplifies one polarity of the output current essentially equals the input cur-
AC signal. rent.

219
common collector amplifier: A basic bipolar conduction angle: When thyristors are used to
transistor with high
amplifier configuration control AC power, the thyristor can be made to
current gain and no voltage gain. The input turn on only during certain angles of the sine
voltage and output voltage are essentially the wave voltage waveform. The on-time angle is
same. Also called an emitter follower amplifier. called the conduction angle.

common drain amplifier: A basic FET amplifier

conductor: A material that is a good electrical
conductor allows electrons to travel through it.
configuration with high current gain but no
from atom to atom, with little application of
voltage gain. Also called a source follower
voltage.
amplifier.

common emitter amplifier: A basic bipolar tran- constant voltage transformer: A ferro-resonant
sistor amplifier configuration with high cur- power transformer holds the AC voltage on its
rent gain and high voltage gain. secondary winding(s) constant. The "para-
former" is a transformer-like device which also
regulates the AC voltage on the secondary.
common gate amplifier: A basic field effect tran-
sistor amplifier configuration which has high
counter: A circuit that counts pulses of current
voltage gain but no current gain. Analogous to
or voltage. For example, a number of flip-flops
common base or grounded grid amplifiers.
can be wired in series so that each flip-flop trig-
gers the next in the series. The state of each
common mode rejection ratio: A measure of a flip-flop, on or off, records the number of input
differential amplifier's ability to reject com- pulses counted in binary numbers. Also called
mon mode voltages. It equals the gain of the a divider.
differential amplifier divided by the common
mode amplification gain.
crystal: A piece of quartz crystal mounted be-
between two electrodes. Electrically, this
common mode voltage: Voltage that is common device resembles a high Q. LC filter network.
to both inputs of a differential amplifier. In "crystal sets," the crystal is a piece of semi-
conductor used to make a crude diode.
common source amplifier: A field effect transis-
tor amplifier with high current gain and high crystal oscillator: A sine wave oscillator which
voltage gain. uses a quartz crystal as part of the phase shift
feedback path.
comparator: A circuit used to compare one volt-
age with another. When the voltage connected crystal set: Obsolete radio receiver constructed
to the positive input is greater, the output around a diode detector that is built from a
voltage goes high. When the voltage connected semiconductor crystal such as galena and a
to the negative input is greater, the output metal contact whisker. Crystal sets were usual-
goes low. ly powered by the radio signal itself which was
rectified and passed to a pair of sensitive ear-

complementary MOSFET (CMOS): A type of phones.

MOS field effect integrated circuit that is

made from both P-channel and N-channel current regulator diode: A very accurate current
FKTs. These digital circuits use very tittle
regulator built from a junction FET and a re-
power. These devices hold the current passing
sistor.
through them constant over a wide range of
voltage.
complementary transistor amplifier: A transis-
tor amplifier built from matched
push-pull
VI'A and P-N-P transistors. This amplifier current sensing resistor: A
low resistance in
can be operated class M without signal inver- series with a large current which is used to
ting transformers ^m\ is relatively inexpen- sense or measure the current by monitoring the
sive voltage drop across the resistance.
220
current source: A circuit or device that will DIAC: A 5 layer AC power control device used
deliver the same current into any resistance for triggering TRIACs. It makes a pulse of cur-
load. Theoretically a perfect current source rent whenever a threshold voltage is exceeded
would force the constant amount of current in either direction. It is the equivalent of 2 P-N-
through an infinite resistance— a practical im- P-N diodes in inverse parallel.
possibility.
differential amplifier: An amplifier that ampli-
damping: The attenuation or suppression of a fies the difference between two voltages.
sine wave oscillation by electrical resistance in
an oscillator or amplifier.
differential outputs: Some differential amplifiers
are equipped with two outputs, each of which
Darlington transistor: A way of wiring two or
represent the difference between the two input
more transistors together so that the resulting
signals, but the outputs have opposite signs.
circuit will act like a single, super high gain
transistor.
differentiator: An electronic circuit which pro-
DC amplifier: An amplifier that can amplify DC duces a voltage which is proportional to how
fast a current or voltage is changing. This con-
and slowly changing input voltages.
cept is basic to the mathematics of calculus.
These circuits are basically high pass filters.
DC-to-DC inverter: A circuit used for converting
a DC voltage level to another, higher or lower
DC voltage. It can also be used to produce a diffusion transistor: A transistor which is made
DC voltage of opposite polarity. by diffusing impurities into a semiconductor
wafer in layers. The diffusion is controlled by
deflection plates: Electrodes in some cathode masks. These are also called planar transistors.
ray tubes which steer the electron beam and
control its point of impact on the phosphor digital circuit: A circuit that works entirely
screen. with full on and full off bistable circuits.
Digital circuits never use continuous ranges of
deflection yoke: An assembly of four coils which voltages or currents as in analog circuits.
ismounted around the neck of larger cathode
ray tubes. The yoke steers the electron beam digital computer: A programmable calculating
and controls its point of impact on the phos- circuit that performs all operations using
phor screen. binary numbers in bistable circuits.

delay angle: When thyristors are used to control diode: An electronic device that allows electric
AC power, the thyristor can be made to delay current to flow in only one direction. More
turning on for a variable amount of time dur- generally, "diode" can refer to any non-linear
ing each half cycle of the sine wave half cycle. two electrodes or
electronic device with ter-
This delay is measured in degrees of angle. minals.

demodulation: Extraction of information which

dipping the final: The procedure of tuning a class
has been encoded onto an RF radio signal.
C amplifier for maximum efficiency using an
ammeter to measure the average DC collector
depletion type MOSFET: A MOS field effect
current.
transistor that uses both depletion and
enhancement mechanisms to turn the transis-
tor on and off. These transistors are turned
direct coupled amplifier: A transistor amplifier
which connected to other amplifier stages by
is
half on when the gate to source voltage is zero.
resistors or wires so that DC current can pass
from one stage to the next. The significance is
detector: A circuit used for demodulating the in-
that these amplifiers can amplify DC voltage
formation impressed on radio signals. Detector
or current levels.
is a general word and can mean a detector for

AM, FM, PWM, or other kinds of radio mo-

dulation. The word can also mean frequency distortion: Changes in a signal that make it dif-

conversion in a superhetrodyne receiver. ferent from the original signal.

221
divider circuit: A counter circuit, usually made energy gap voltage standard: An integrated cir-
from a series of flip-flops, each of which divides cuit which serves as a precision voltage
the number of pulses into it by two. reference and resembles a zener diode in the
way it is used.
doping: The addition of atoms of impurity into
a semiconductor crystal in order to introduce enhancement-type MOSFET: MOS field effect

holes or electrons into the crystal structure. transistor uses only the enhancement
that
mode to induce majority current carriers into
drain: One of the two terminals at the ends of the channel. Whenever there is no gate voltage,
the current channel in a field effect transistor. the transistor is turned off.
The drain is the end of the channel at which the
majority carriers leave the channel. epitaxial transistors: A process for making tran-
sistors in which gases containing silicon and
duty cycle: The percent of time that a circuit is impurities are exposed to a wafer of silicon so
turned on. that layers of semiconductor are grown on the
surface of the silicon wafer.
dymanic amplifier characteristics: The response
of an amplifier to fast AC signals. These char- error voltage: The
difference in voltage between
acteristics do not include the DC biasing, what a voltage should be and what it actually
leakage, maximum DC current or other static is. Often the error voltage just represents this

parameters. difference.

electric deflection: Use of voltage waveforms on family of curves: A group of volt-ampere char-
deflection electrodes to steer the electron beam acteristics for a transistor, tube, or other
in a cathode ray tube. device that shows how the device can be con-
trolled by some variable, such as base current,
electron:The negatively charged atomic particle grid voltage, etc.
that makes up electrical currents.
ferro-resonant transformer: A sophisticated AC
electron beam: A stream of electrons passing transformer that regulates the voltage on its
through a vacuum tube. "Beam" implies that own secondary winding(s).
the electrons are focused into a tight ray or
stream. FET: See field effect transistor.

electron gun: An assembly of anodes and a cath- fibrillation: The disruption of the orderly beat-
ode cathode ray tube that accelerates a
in a ing of the heart by an electric shock.
beam of electrons toward the phosphor screen.
Electron guns are also found in TV camera field effect transistor, FET: A monopolar trans-
tubes and X-ray tubes. istor made from a single piece of semiconduc-
tor, The current passing through
the channel.
emitter: The smaller two outer layers of
of the this channel can be turned on and off by an
a bipolar transistor which is built from 3 layers electric field generated by a control gate
of N and P semiconductor. The layer where ma- located on or around the channel.
jority carriers enter the transistor.
filament: A resistance heater in a light bulb or
emitter follower amplifier: A
basic bipolar trans- vacuum tube. In tubes, it heats the cathode
istor amplifier configuration with high current which releases electrons into the vacuum.
gain and unity voltage gain. Also called a com-
mon collector amplifier. final amplifier: The last amplifier in a string of
amplifiers in series. The output amplifier in a
emitter resistor by-pass capacitor: A capacitor transmitter, stereo, or other power generating
placed across an emitter resistor so that the circuit.
biasing effect of the emitter resistor will not be
affected by (he short term changes of the AC first detector: Another name for a mixer circuit
signal being amplified. in a superhetrodyne receiver.
2-2 -2
flip-flop: A multivibrator. A pair of transistors gain-bandwidth product: A measure of amplifier
or other amplifiers wired with positive feed- frequency response. In amplifiers, the product
back so that when one transistor turns on, the of the frequency times the gain at that frequen-
other is turned off. These bistable circuits can cy tends to be constant.
be used as square wave oscillators, memory
elements, and counters. gallium arsenide: A semiconductor material used
in light emitting diodes, Gunn diodes, and tun-
FM: Frequency modulation nel diodes.

forward bias: In diodes, a voltage placed across gallium phosphide: A semiconductor material
a diode so that the more positive side is on the used in light emitting diodes.
anode and the current is free to flow through
the diode. In transistors, a voltage on the base
gate: The control terminal of a silicon controlled
or gate that turns the transistor on.
rectifier or field effect transistor.

forward offset voltage: In P-N diodes, the

germanium: A semiconductor material some-
amount of voltage that must be applied across
times used to make transistors and diodes.
a diode in the forward direction in order for the
diode to begin to conduct current. In ideal
diodes, this offset would be zero. getter: A silvery deposit of metal on the inside
of vacuum tubes. This metal reacts with
free wheeling diode: A
diode used in a voltage residual traces of air and helps to preserve the
reducing switching power supply to allow the vacuum.
inductor current to flow continuously into the
load. grid: A control grid in a vacuum tube is a mesh-
like structure placed between the cathode and
frequency converter: A circuit that generates a the anode. Small voltages on the grid can con-
signal of a certain frequency in response to the trol the stream of electrons passing from the

presence of another frequency signal. In super- cathode to the anode.

hetrodyne receivers, the radio signal is "con-
verted" to a common "intermediate frequency"
signal with the original modulation transferred to
the new, intermediate frequency.
frequency modulation: Impressing a low fre-
quency signal onto a radio frequency sine wave
by varying the RF sine wave frequency back
and forth so that the frequency change follows
the low frequency signal.
grown transistors: A transistor which is made
by slowly pulling a crystal out of a molten
semiconductor while impurities are added to
the melt to provide the proper layers.
Gunn diode: A semiconductor device with a
negative resistance characteristic that occurs
at high voltages. Gunn diodes can be used to
generate high power microwave signals.

full wave rectifier: A

bridge or double rectifier
circuit that passes current to the load during
half-wave rectifier: A rectifier circuit in which
current is allowed to flow only during 1 2 of the
both positive and negative halves of the
voltage cycle.
AC cycle.

Hartley oscillator: A sine wave oscillator which

function generator: A test instrument that gen-
uses a pi network consisting of two inductors
erates voltage or current waveforms of various
and one capacitor in the feedback phase shift
types. Sine waves, pulses, square waves, and
network.
triangle waveforms are typical "functions"
generated.
heat sink: A large mass of metal or other ma-
gain: Amplification. The number of times that clamped to an electronic device, such as a
terial
voltage, power, or current are increased by an power transistor, to keep the temperature of
amplifier. the device constant.

223
Hf e The current gain of a bipolar transistor.
:
insulator: A is a poor conductor of
material that
One of the four "h parameters" used to make a electricity. Insulatorshave no free conduction
simple model of a transistor for calculating band electrons or valence band holes. These
values for transistor circuits. energy bands are so far apart in insulators,
that holes and electrons are not easily created.
high fidelity: In audio amplifiers, this means
integrated circuit: An entire circuit such as an
frequency response is linear over the entire
amplifier, flip-flop, or even a computer built on
audio spectrum.
a single wafer of silicon semiconductor.

high pass filter: A frequency filter which passes integrator: A circuit that sums a current or volt-
high frequencies and attenuates low frequen- age over time so that the final level reached
cies.
represents the total quantity of current or the
total effective time that voltage was applied to
holes: A missing electron in the valence energy
the circuit. This concept is basic to the mathe-
band of an atom. A hole can be filled by a matics of calculus. Integrators are basically
traveling electron and this makes it possible low pass filters.
for electrons to travel from atom to atom.
intermediate frequency (IF): In a superhetro-
hot carrier diode: Schottky diode. A rectifying
A dyne radio receiver, the RFis converted
signal
diode formed by depositing a metal anode on to a common intermediate frequency so that it
an N-type or pure semiconductor. The elec- may be amplified many times without tuning
trons moving across the Schottky junction each amplifier stage for each frequency receiv-
move faster than in P-N diodes and are said to ed.
be "hotter."
internal impedance: The resistance and reac-
hysteresis: The property of lagging or falling tance inside a circuit element. This impedance
short of some expected level in the response of limits the amount of current that can flow into

a circuit. In Schmitt triggers the lag is a or out of the circuit element.

voltage threshold that must be overcome be-
intrinsic semiconductor: Pure semiconductor
fore the circuit will respond. In transformers,
crystal with no impurity added.
the iron core becomes partly permanently
magnetized whenever the transformer is en- inverter: A circuit that reverses the polarity or
ergized. Before the flux can change to the op- sense of a signal. In digital electronics, an in-
posite direction, the permanent magnetism verter converts a high voltage "one" to a low
must be overcome. voltage "zero," or vice versa. In analog circuits
in inverting a signal means dividing the signal
into one; e.g., 4 volts become 1 4 volt. An in-
IF: Intermediate frequency as in superhetrodyne verter can also mean a power supply circuit
receivers. that converts DC voltage to AC voltage or to
some other DC voltage level.
image: An unwanted radio signal that can ap-
inverting amplifier input: Positive voltages
pear in an intermediate frequency amplifier
strip, if the incoming signal is not tuned selec-
applied to the inverting input of a differential

tively enough before mixing.

amplifier will cause the output voltage to go
down
input: The electrical entrance or port at which a isolated power supply: A power supply which
signal to be processed enters a circuit.
supplies a voltage output with no ground
reference.
input impedance: The impedance of the
internal
input of a circuit. This impedance is the load on isolation: In amplifiers, the degree to which the
the circuit delivering current or voltage to the output is kept separate from the input so there
input. It there is no inductance or capacitance, can be no unintentional feedback. In power
input impedance may be called input resist- systems, isolation means removing any re-
ance ference to ground from a voltage source.

224
isolation transformer: A transformer that re- local oscillator:An RF oscillator used to gen-
moves the ground or other voltage reference erate a signal which can be beat against (com-
from an AC voltage. bined with or mixed with) an incoming radio
signal so that the radio signal can be converted
JFET: Junction field effect transistor to the intermediate frequency in a superhetro-
dyne receiver.
Josephson junction devices: A thyristor-like de-
vice which operates at very low temperatures.
logarithmic amplifier: An amplifier with an out-
put voltage equal to the logarithm of the input
They switch super fast and efficiently and are
voltage. Logarithmic amplifiers are usually
expected to become important in computers in
the future.
made from one or more operational amplifiers
and a P-N diode provides the logarithmic char-
acteristic.
junction capacitance: P-N junctions are able to
store an electric charge in a manner com- logic circuit: A circuit that produces an output
parable to capacitors. This fact is used to ad- only when
a specified combination of input
vantage in varactors which are voltage vari- signals are present. Logic circuits are used to
able capacitors. recognize events or circumstances and take ap-
propriate action.
junction field effect transistor (JFET): A field
effect transistor which uses a back biased P-N low pass filter: A circuit that is designed to let
junction formed against the channel semicon- low frequency signals and DC pass through
ductor as a control gate. unimpeded while high frequency signals are at-
tenuated or eliminated. In power supplies, a
leakage current: A small unwanted current that filter that removes AC ripple and noise from
passes through a circuit element such as a DC voltage.
diode, transistor, transformer, or other compo-
nent. magnetic deflection: The use of deflection coils
to steer the electron beam in larger picture
LED: Light emitting diode tubes.

majority carrier: The current carrier most com-

light emitting diode, LED: A P-N junction diode
mon in a doped semiconductor. Holes are the
which gives off light when current passes
majority carrier in a P-type semiconductor.
through it in the forward direction. LEDs are
Electrons are the majority carrier in a N-type
usually made from gallium arsenide or gallium
semiconductor.
phosphide. They are used as colored lights and
to make colored alpha-numeric displays.
matched impedance: When a voltage source is
delivering power to a load, the most power (but
limiter: Another name for a clamp or clipper cir-
not necessarily the most energy) will be
cuit.
transferred to the load when the impedance in-
side the voltage source is matched to the im-
linear: An adjective meaning that the volt-am-
pedance of the load.
pere characteristic of a device plots as a
straight line on a graph. In math, an equation
memory circuit: A bistable circuit that can re-
. is linear if it contains the independent variable
main full on or full off indefinitely. Since it can
in the first power only and plotsas a straight
be set in either state at will, one bistable circuit
line. It could not contain X 3 vX. etc. ,

can be used to record one binary bit of informa-

tion.
load impedance: Any circuit that receives volt-
age or current from some other circuit is said
mercury vapor: An ionizable gas used in thyra-
to be a load impedance. The load is usually
ton tubes.
resistive, but can also have an inductive or
capacitive component as is commonly seen in microwave: Extremely high frequency radio
antennas, loudspeakers, motors, or other loads waves. Any radio wave above roughly 1000
driven by amplifiers or power supplies. megahertz.

225
minority carrier: The current carrier least com- neon bulb: A light bulb consisting of two elec-

mon in a particular doped semiconductor. Elec- trodes in a glass envelope containing a small
trons are the minority carrier in a P-type amount of neon gas. In electronics, neon bulbs
semiconductor. Holes are the minority carrier are used as pilot lights and as voltage trig-
in a N-type semiconductor. gered current pulse generators to turn on
thyristors.
mixer: A circuit for combining the incoming RF
signal with the local oscillator signal in a
superhetrodyne receiver. The purpose is to
NMOS: A type of integrated circuit made ex-

generate an intermediate frequency signal for

clusively from N-channel MOS field effect tran-
sistors. Used primarily for digital circuits.
amplification.

monopolar: Having one pathway. In field effect

non-inverting amplifier: An amplifier in which
transistors, the current being controlled passes
the output current or voltage increases when
through type-N or type-P semiconductor, but
the input current or voltage increases.
not both, i.e.. one pathway.

monostable multivibrator: A one shot multi- non-inverting amplifier input: Positive volt-
vibrator. A circuit that makes long pulses of a ages applied to this input of a differential
fixed length in response to a short trigger amplifier will cause the output voltage to go up
pulse. in a positive direction.

MOSFET: Metal oxide semiconductor field

effect transistor. A field effect transistor which non-linear: An adjective meaning that a device
uses a gate built like a capacitor with a layer of or mathematical function has a characteristic
silicon oxide (glass) insulator between the that does not plot in a straight line when plot-
metal gate and the channel. ted on a graph.

multiplier circuit: A circuit that multiplies one

notch filter: A frequency filter that attenuates
number times another. Analog multipliers
one frequency while letting all others above
multiply voltages or currents. Digital multi-
and below it pass.
pliers multiply binary numbers using arith-
metic methods.
N-P-N transistor: A bipolar transistor made
multivibrator: A flip-flop. A pair of transistors
from 3 layers of N-type and P-type semicon-
or other amplifiers wired with feedback so that -

ductor in the pattern "'N-P-N.' The collector is

when one transistor turns on, the other is turn-
biased positive in N-P-N transistors.
ed off. These bistable circuits are used as
square wave oscillators, counters, and as
memory elements. N-type semiconductor: Pure semiconductor
which has had impurity atoms added to in-
N-channel FET: A field effect transistor with troduce electrons into the crystalline structure.
the current carrying channel made out of an N-type impurities have valences of +5.
N-type semiconductor. The drain is biased
positive in N-channel FETs.
one-shot multivibrator: A circuit that makes
negative feedback: Using a signal from the out- long pulses of fixed length in response to a
put of an amplifier to cancel or attenuate the short trigger pulse. Also called a monostable
input signal so that the output signal is multivibrator.
decreased.

negative resistance: \ property of tunnel diodes, OP- AMP: Operational amplifier

(iunn diodes, and certain other tube and tran-
sistor circuits which is useful in oscillators and
amplifier^ \^
voltage increases, the current operational adder: A circuit used for adding two
th Ugh the resistance decreases instead of in- voltages together made with operational
.ceasing as n normal resistors
j
amplifiers.
226
operational amplifier: A complex transistor am-
plifier which
attempts to achieve infinite
voltage gain, zero output impedance, infinite
input impedance and other attributes of a
perfect amplifier. Op-amps are used in much
the same way as individual transistors and can
be used in practically any circuit that does not
involve high RF frequencies.
OR circuit: A logic (digital) circuit that gives a
high output signal in response to a high input
signal on any one of a number of input lines.
oscillator: A circuit that generates an AC signal
with no outside pattern to amplify. In con-
trast, an amplifier can generate an AC signal
only by amplifying a signal provided by some
other circuit.
oscilloscope: An instrument which displays
voltage waveforms on a screen. The display is
usually a graph of voltage or current versus
time.
output: The electrical exit or delivery port at
which a signal that has been processed is sent
on to the load or next stage of the circuit.
output impedance: The internal impedance of
the output of a circuit or voltage source. This
impedance is in series with the load impedance
and power is best transferred to the load when
load impedance is matched to output imped-
ance. If there is no inductance or capacitance,
this may be called output resistance.
paraformer: A transformer-like device that
gulates AC
voltage by means of an oscillating
secondary winding.
parallel voltage regulator: A voltage regulator
system which uses a dynamic resistance, such
as a zener diode, in parallel with the load and a
fixed resistor in series with the load. The two
resistances form a variable voltage divider to
hold load voltage constant.
pass transistor: The dynamic resistance in a
series voltage regulator that varies its
resistance to hold the load voltage constant.
P-channel FET: A field effect transistor with
the current carrying channel made out of
P-type semiconductor. The drain is biased
negative in P-channel FETs.
peak detector: A circuit designed to capture and
hold the highest voltage of a signal waveform
reached during a time interval. It could also be
a circuit that switches on at the occurrence of a
peak voltage, but does not actually save the
peak voltages.
pentode: A vacuum tube with five electrodes.
These are usually arranged concentrically from
the center in the following order: the cathode,
control grid, screen grid, suppressor gird, and
the plate or anode.
"perfect" diodes, or other circuit elements: A
fictional circuit element with no imperfections.
A way to explain what the circuit element is
supposed to do without getting bogged down
in explaining all of its short-comings.
phase shift oscillator: A sine wave oscillator
which is usually built from a class A inverting
linear amplifier which drives a 180° phase shift
network. The phase shifted signal is fed back
to the amplifier input as positive feedback.
photo-conductor: A semiconductor device that
changes its conductivity or resistance in re-
sponse to light.
photo-isolator: A device made from a light bulb
which
used to
and a photo-transistor is
transmit information by light beam from one
voltage level to another with no electrical con-
nection between the two circuits.
re-
photo-resistor: A semiconductor device usually
made from cadmium sulfide that decreases its
resistance when light falls on it.
photo-transistor: A bipolar transistor with the
base exposed to light so that light can create
current carriers in the semiconductor and turn
the transistor on.
Pierce oscillator: A sine wave oscillator which
uses a quartz crystal as part of the feedback
phase shift network.
piezo-electric effect: Trapped ions in a rigid cry-
stal produce a voltage across the crystal when
it is bent. This phenomenon is used in quartz
crystal frequency filters.
227
PIN diode: A diode designed
use as a voltage
for push-pull amplifiers: An amplifier made from
RF amplitude
variable resistor for controlling two transistors or tubes in which each tran-

in AGC circuits and other applications. It has sistor turns on during alternate half sine wave
three construction layers: P-type. mtrinsic, cycles.
and TV-type semiconductors.
PWM: See pulse width modulator.

plate:A name used for the positive anode in a

pyrometer: A temperature measuring instru-
vacuum tube.
ment consisting of a thermocouple and a sen-
sitive galvanometer.
PMOS: A type of integrated digital circuit which
is made exclusively from P-channel MOS field quantum: A packet of energy of light or other
effect transistors. electromagnetic energy released during the
change of energy state of an electron.
P-N junction: A boundary in a diode or tran-
sistor where P-type semiconductor is joined to
quiescent point: The operating point of a trans-
N-type semiconductor. The P-N junction is a istor or other device when it is not processing a
diode and only conducts in one direction:
signal. The resting voltage and current of a
positive to P conducts.
device in a particular circuit.
P-N-P-N diode: A four layer semiconductor
radio frequency amplifier (RF AMP): An ampli-
switch used to trigger thyristors. This device
fier designed to amplify signals with frequen-
turns full on and stays on whenever a certain
cies between about 20 kHz and thousands of
voltage threshold is exceeded.
megahertz. Usually RF amplifiers are tuned
P-N-P transistor: A bipolar transistor made and amplify a narrow band or single frequency
from three layers of N-type and P-type in this range.
semiconductor in the pattern "P-N-P." The col-
RC coupled amplifier: An AC amplifier in which
lector is biased negative in P-N-P transistors.
each amplifier stage is separated from pre-
ceeding and following stages by a high-pass
point contact transistor: The earliest form of
transistor, now obsolete. A piece of semicon-
RC filter.

ductor, the base, was contacted by two metal rectification: Converting AC current to DC cur-
electrodes to form emitter and collector junc- rent pulses by means of diodes.
tions.
rectifier: A diode or circuit acting like a diode
positive feedback: Using a signal from the out-
and used forconverting AC to DC.
put of an amplifier to reinforce the input signal
so that the output signal is increased. reflectance amplifier: An amplifier used in mic-
rowave receivers which is installed at one end
precision diode: A diode which rectifies at ex- of a dead-end microwave waveguide pipe.
actly zero volts and closely resembles an ideal Radio signals transmitted down the waveguide
diode. Precision diodes can be made with are "reflected" off the amplifier and made
operational amplifiers. stronger in the progess.

pre-regulator: A current source circuit used in regenerative detector: A self-oscillating ampli-

some series regulator circuits to generate the fier detector that detects AM radio signals and
turn-on current for the pass transistor. amplifies them. By increasing the feedback
coupling, called regenerative coupling, the cir-
P-type semiconductor: A pure semiconductor
cuit begins to oscillate and modulates the
which has has impurity added to introduce
received signal with an audible whistle. This is
holes into the crystalline structure. P-type im-
useful for receiving morse code signals.
purities have a valence of +3.
relaxation oscillator: An oscillator made from a
pulse width modulator: A circuit that produces capacitor and an electronic switch such as a
a pulse train with a duty cycle proportional to P-N-P-N diode. The switch turns on and shorts
a voltage level, i.e., the higher the voltage, the out the capacitor every time the voltage across
longer the pulses. the capacitor reaches some threshold voltage.

228
reset trigger: A pulse or input to a bistable cir- SCR: See silicon controlled rectifier
cuit such as a flip-flop that resets the output
voltage back to zero. If the output was already second detector: Another name for the de- AM
tector in a superhetrodyne receiver. The mixer
zero, the reset pulse will have no effect.
is called the first detector.

retrace: The return of a scanning beam in a cath-

semiconductor: Materials that are half way be-
ode ray tube to the beginning of a new scan-
tween good conductors and good insulators.
ning line or a new picture frame. If the electron
Semiconductors resemble insulators in that
beam is not blanked out, the retrace will pro- there are no holes or free electrons available for
duce an unwanted "retrace line" on the screen.
conduction. But the two energy bands are very
close together so small amounts of energy can
RF: Radio frequency
easily convert a semiconductor to either in-
sulator or conductor.
RFC or RF choke: A radio frequency choke. An
inductor which presents a high impedance to sensistor: A heavily doped semiconductor ma-
radio signals but passesDC current with little terial used to make a temperature measuring
resistance. device. Unlike thermistors, these devices in-
crease their resistance with increasing temper-
ripple: An unwanted AC signal riding on the top ature.
of a DC
voltage from a voltage supply. In full
i

wave circuits, the ripple is usually 120 Hz. In series voltage regulator: Voltage regulator which
half-wave rectifier circuits, ripple is 60 Hz. uses a transistor or other dynamic resistance
in series with the load to hold the voltage

safe operating area (SOA): The conditions of across the load constant.

current and voltage that are within the max-

set trigger: A pulse or input to a bistable circuit,
imum power dissipating capability of a tran- such as a flip-flop, that sets the output voltage
sistor or other device.
high. If the output is already high, the set trig-
ger will have no effect.
sample and hold circuit: A circuit that takes a
voltage reading or voltage sample on command silicon: The semiconductor element most widely
from a control pulse. The voltage level is usual-
used in transistors and integrated circuits.
ly stored in a small capacitor until needed.
silicon controlled (SCR): A thyristor
rectifier
saturation: In transistors, the condition of hav-
used for controlling AC
power. This is a half
ing the transistor turned on as much as possi- wave device that conducts current in only one
ble so that additional base current will not
direction. It has a gate or trigger lead which
cause more collector current to flow. In trans- turns it on.
formers, the iron core is saturated when addi-
tional primary current will not induce the core slew rate: The rate at which an analog circuit,
to generate more magnetic flux. such as an amplifier, can change its output
voltage or current.
saturation voltage V ce sa t): The
(
lowest possible
collector-to-emitter voltage of a bipolar tran- slicer: A clipper circuit that "clips off" a voltage
sistor when fully turned on. waveform when the input voltage exceeds or
falls below some threshold.
Schmitt trigger: A comparator with positive
feedback to give the circuit hysteresis. This SOA: Safe operating area of a transistor or other
gives the comparator different voltage thres- device.
holds for rising and falling voltages and results
in good immunity from high frequency noise. solar cell, silicon type: A P-N junction silicon
diode designed for generating electricity from
Schottky diodes: A diode made by depositing a sunlight.
metal anode onto a piece of N-type or pure
solid state circuits: Circuits having only trans-
semiconductor. These diodes have very low
istors, semiconductor diodes, and other devices
capacitance and low forward offset voltage.
which are not vacuum tubes.
Also called hot carrier diodes.
229
source: In field effect transistors, one of the two switching speed: The rate at which an electronic
ends of the current carrying channel. The switch can turn full on or full off. Switching
source is the end where the majority carriers speed is often defined as the time needed to go
enter the transistor. from less than I0 c"c on to 90 c "c on. or vice versa.

source follower amplifier: A basic FET amplifier tetrode: A vacuum tube with four electrodes,
configuration with high current gain and unity usually arranged concentrically starting from
voltage gain. That is, the output voltage the center: the cathode, control grid, screen
equals the input voltage. Also called a common grid, and the anode or plate.
drain amplifier.

speed-up capacitor: A capacitor across a cou- thermal runaway: Transistor gain increases with
pling resistor between two transistor amplifier temperature and rising temperature can make
a transistor turn more on. As the transistor
stages that makes the following stage switch
faster.
turns more on, it heats itself and turns on still
more. This process can cause the transistor to
stabistor: A voltage reference diode which is 'run away" and turn full on.

made from two or more silicon P-N junction

diodes in series. The voltage across the thermistor: A temperature measuring device
stabistor must exceed the combined forward made from a piece of semiconductor. The re-
offset voltages of the diodes before it will con- sistivity of thermistors decreases dramatically
duct. as the temperature increases.

static amplifier characteristics: The behavior of thermocouple: A temperature measuring device

an amplifier over long periods as it amplifies made by joining two dissimilar metals and
DC or slowly changing signals. measuring the tiny voltage that appears across
the junction.
step recovery diodes: AP-N junction silicon di-
ode similar to a varactor which is used for fre-
quency multiplication. three terminal voltage regulator: An inte-
grated circuit voltage regulator which has
substrate: The semiconductor wafer that inte- three external leads and usually physically
grated circuits are built on. resembles a transistor.

superhetrodyne: Most common radio receiver
design which converts the incoming radio
signal to an intermediate frequency. Most
amplification takes place at the intermediate
frequency so that each amplifier stage doesn't
thyratrons:An AC power control tube that re-
sembles a triode vacuum tube except that a
thyratron contains small amounts of ionizable
gas, usually mercury vapor or argon. In func-
tion, thyratrons resemble silicon controlled

need to be retuned every time a new station is rectifiers.

selected.

sweep circuit: A circuit that generates triangle-

thyristors: A semiconductor AC power control
device. Thyristors resemble transistors, but
shaped waveforms for steering electron beams
they are bistable and once turned on, they can-
across the screen of cathode ray tubes.
not be turned off until the current which is be-
ing controlled returns to zero. Types of thyris-
switch: Any device, whether mechanical or elec-
tors are SCRs, TRIACS. P-N-P-N diodes, and
tronic, that turns electrical current on and off.
DIACS
switching power supply: A high efficiency power
supply that changes voltage levels and A curve or an equation
transfer characteristic:
regulates load voltage. The "switchers use in- which explains how voltage or current, which
ductors or transformers to change the voltage is applied to the input of an amplifier or other
level. Feedback controls the energy content ot circuit is related to the output. In bipolar tran-
the current pulses passing through the induc- sistors, it is a graph of base current versus col-
tors by means ot pulse width modulators lector current.
230
transistor: A solid state control device in which valence: The number of electrons lost or gained
a small current (or small voltage in field effect by an atom during a chemical reaction.
transistors) can control a large current. Except
for the non-linear UJT, transistors can control valve: British word for vacuum tube.
current in either linear or non-linear applica-
tions. varactor: A P-N junction silicon diode designed
foruse as a voltage variable capacitor. When
TRF receiver: Tuned Radio Frequency receiver. diodes are back biased, their capacitance de-
A radio receiver which has several tuned creases with increasing back bias voltage.
stages of RF amplification prior to detection
and conversion to the audio signal or sound. varistor (MOV): A semiconductor device used
The disadvantage of this design is that each for clipping noise spikes off AC voltage. Also
RF stage must be retuned separately to tune in called metal oxide varistor.
another station on another frequency.
video amplifier: A wide band amplifier designed
TRIAC: A thyristor used for controlling AC for amplifying TV picture signals.
power. This is a full wave, non-linear device
that can conduct current in both directions. It virtual short circuit: Because of the high gain
has a gate or trigger terminal that turns it on. of an operational amplifier, negative feedback
drives the negative input terminal to the same
trigger pulse: A
voltage or current pulse used voltage as the positive input. The impedance
to change the state of a bistable device such as between the two inputs is nearly infinite, but
an SCR or a flip-flop. the two inputs act as though they were con-
nected by a "short circuit."
triode: The basic amplifying vacuum tube with
three electrodes. Starting from the center these
VMOS: Vertical Oxide Semiconductor
Metal
electrodes are arranged concentrically. They
These are power tran-
field effect transistors.
are a heated cathode, the control grid, and the
sistors which have extra power dissipation
plate or anode.
capability due to vertical current flow down
through the silicon wafer on which they are
tuned amplifier: An amplifier designed to am-
built.
plify one frequency and attenuate all others.

tunnel diode: Heavily doped P-N junction diode

voltage follower: A high current gain, unity
voltage gain amplifier made with an opera-
with a negative resistance region in its volt-
tional amplifier.
ampere characteristic. It may be used to make
RF oscillators and amplifiers.
voltage regulator tube: A vacuum tube-like de-
tunnel rectifier: A form of tunnel diode used to vice used for regulating voltage. It consists of
rectify very small AC signals. The forward con- an evacuated tube containing a small amount
duction voltage is zero volts. They are also call- of ionizable gas.When the gas is conducting,
ed "backward diodes" because what is normal- the voltage across the tube remains constant.
ly the forward offset voltage region, to = 0.6
volts, is used as the back bias region. voltage source: A circuit that is supposed to de-
liver aconstant voltage across any resistance
unijunction transistor (UJT): A switching tran- load. Theoretically, a perfect voltage source
sistor that resembles a JFET in construction would hold a constant voltage across zero re-
and circuit symbol. It is used in relaxation sistance, a practical impossibility.
oscillators and pulse generators.
volt-ampere characteristic: A graph of the volt-
unipolar transistors: Field effect transistors. age across a device versus the current through
the device showing its performance.
vacuum tube: An electronic control device in
which current flow across a vacuum is controll- wave guide: A metal pipe used to conduct micro-
ed by voltages on electrodes. wave radio signals.
231
Xenon: An inert, but ionizable, gas used in
high intensity white lights, strobe lights, and
camera flashes.

zener breakdown: When a P-N diode is reverse

biased with an increasing voltage, eventually a
negative voltage, the zener voltage, is reached
at which the diode abruptly yields and allows
current to flow at the zener voltage. If the cur-
rent through the diode is restricted, this is
reversible and does not destroy the diode.

zener diode: A voltage reference diode made

from a back biased P-N junction diode. The
diode is specially doped to provide a calibrated
zener breakdown voltage.

zero crossing detector: A circuit that can de-

tect when a voltage waveform passes through
zero volts. A comparator with one input con-
nected to zero volts can be used this way.

•>;v>
 Answers to
SECTION I 5.
1. The atom has a dense, positively charged
nucleus which is surrounded by shells, or
layers of negatively charged electrons. For
every positively charged proton in the nuc-
leus, there is a negatively charged electron
orbiting the nucleus. These electrons are
held in orbit around the nucleus by the at-
traction between the positive and negative
charges. The chemical and physical proper-
ties of atoms depend on the numbers of elec-
trons present in orbit around the nucleus.
2. One would expect lithium to be a metal
because it has one electron orbiting outside
the outermost filled shell. Lithium is a light-
weight, silver colored, electrically conduc-
tive metal. It isn't used to make things in
the everyday world because it reacts violent-
ly with water and is about as strong as but-
ter.
3. I'llbet you thought of krypton as a green,
glowing rock (its not). The outer shell of
krypton is filled. Therefore, krypton is a
chemically inert gas. Krypton is not a semi-
conductor, and one would not expect it to be
one. Ifit were a typical semiconductor, one
would expect it to have a valence of 4 so that
it could either give away 4 electrons or ac-
cept 4 electrons.
4. Electrons in the conduction band are free to
move around throughout the mass of mater-
ial. In the valence band, electrons are locked
into tight orbits around their atoms. They
can move from atom to atom only by mov-
ing over into an opening or hole in another
electron shell around another atom. Another
difference between valence band and con-
duction band electrons is that the conduc-
tion band electrons have more energy. In
order for a valence band electron to become
a conduction band electron, the valence
band electron must gain energy. However, it
is true that in a warm semiconductor these
two energy levels may overlap.
Study Questions
The essential difference between insulators
and semiconductors is that the insulators
have a huge energy difference between the
valence band and the conduction band. In a
pure insulator the conduction band has no
electrons for conduction and electrons can
not readily rise from the filled valence band
up to the conduction band. In a semiconduc-
tor it takes very little energy to raise elec-
trons from the valence band up to the con-
duction band. This produces holes and elec-
trons so that conduction can begin.
6. Conduction band electrons and holes can be
induced into a semiconductor by the applica-
tion of heat or light energy. Another way is
to introduce impurities into the crystal
matrix. These impurities have valences of 5
or 3 so that when they combine with the
semiconductor atoms which have a valence
many or one
of 4, there will either be one too
too few electrons in the crystal matrix. This
will produce either a conduction band elec-
tron or a hole, respectively.
7. When an ordinary metal is heated a few
degrees, the resistivity increases slightly
because the conduction band becomes more
congested as the conduction band electrons
move faster and collide more often. When a
semiconductor is heated equally, the resist-
ance drops dramatically because electrons
are forced out of the valence band and put
into the conduction band. This produces op-
portunity for conduction in both bands
where there had been little conduction be-
fore.
8. Semiconductors are so useful because they
can change their conductivity dramatically
with small changes in energy input. Amor-
phous carbon behaves like a metallic con-
ductor. All of the conductivity in amorphous
carbon occurs in the conduction band.
Heating the carbon does not bring extra
conduction electrons up from the valence
band. Therefore, subtle application of
energy cannot convert amorphous carbon
233
 from an insulator to a conductor and 4. Characteristics of the semiconductor diode
thereby turn electricity on and off. which are not like the "perfect diode"' are:

9. In order for electrons to flow from the

A. A forward resistance

cathode to the viewing screen of a picture

B. A forward offset voltage
tube, there must be a positively charged ac-
celerating anode to attract electrons away
C. Zener breakdown
from the negatively charged cathode. The
picture tube must be evacuated so that the
D. Reverse leakage current
electrons are free to leave the cathode. Final-
ly,the cathode must be heated so that the
E. Change in characteristics with tem-
conduction band electrons can be driven
perature
right off into the vacuum.

F. Other discrepancies will be discussed in

10. The resistance between the cathode and
the next section.
anode of an electron tube decreases as the
cathode is made hotter and hotter. This is 5. A. 120 ohms
because more and more electrons are kicked
off the cathode as it becomes heated.
B. 60 ohms

1 1 When the cathode is positively charged with

C. 0.006 watts of power
respect to the anode there is an absence of
conduction electrons on the cathode. Even 6. A. 30 watts of power
though the cathode is heated, there is no ac-
celerating electrode with a positive charge B. 1.6 ohm at 0.5 amperes
to attract them away from the cathode. As a
result, no current flows between the cathode C. 0.033 ohm at 30 amperes
and anode. What we are describing is a vac-
7. Jones was fired because the two diodes on
uum tube diode which only conducts in one
the left side of the diode bridge are shorted
direction.
directly across the two halves of the trans-
SECTION II former secondary. This means that during
the half cycle of voltage when the diodes
1. Increased temperature generates electron- conduct, they will appear as "short circuits''
hole pairs which increase conductivity. This across the transformer. They will draw huge
decreases the forward resistance and in- currents during this half cycle because there
creases the backward leakage as well. Since is only the small forward resistance to at-

the forward resistance at a given current tenuate the currents. If hundreds of am-
level is equal to the
forward offset voltage peres try to flow through diodes that are
divided by the current, a lower resistance only rated for the heat from a few amperes,
must mean that the offset voltage is lower the diodes will literally burn up and be
too. Manufacturers' data sheets confirm destroyed.
this.
8. It is possible that when the diodes in ques-
2. Conductivity through any conductive solid tion 18 are destroyed, they will be, in effect,
isproportional to the cross-sectional area of cut out of the circuit. This would convert the
the conductor. Since large diodes have more circuit to a conventional full wave rectifier
material, they also have a larger cross- using a transformer center tap as shown in
sectional area. Another way to look at this is Fig. 2-14. Provided the voltage from the
that more material offers more hole-electron transformer is correct for this circuit, it
pairs for current to travel across the diode. should work fine. It is possible, but very
unlikely, that the wire between the trans-
A. Both the relatively constant forward offset former center tap could have burned out
voltage and the zener voltage provide a con- before the diodes burned out. That would
stant voltage over a wide range of currents have converted the circuit to a conventional
passing through the diode. diode bridge rectifier like Fig. 2-15.
2;; i
 Jones is right. It will not burn up because 14. The AC signal has to be small enough so
the upper and lower pairs of diodes conduct that its maximum
negative peak voltage is
in opposite directions. There is no way lor less than the positive half of the switching
current to flow out of the secondary wind- square wave. Otherwise, when the two sig-
ing. On the other hand, it won't work either nals are added together during the "on"
because both sides of the pseudo "bridge' time period, the AC signal negative peaks
just direct positive current to the load. would dip so low that they would be clipped
There no way for negative current to get
is off by the diode. This would distort the
to the load. Saying it another way, there is waveform. The AC waveform is not rectified
no way for positive current to travel from by the diode because, when it is added to the
one side of the secondary, through the load, ON part of the square wave, the sum of the
and back to the opposite side of the secon- two waveforms is always positive with re-
dary to complete the circuit. spect to the diode cathode.
10. Jones TV commercial detector.
VOUT 15. A. An LC tuned circuit shorts out, at-
tenuates, all but the desired radio signal.

V - B. The detector rectifies the signal. This

produces a series of DC pulses occuring
at the radio frequency.

C. An RC filter smooths the RF (radio fre-

quency) pulses into a DC voltage which
varies up and down at the audio frequen-
cy.

D. The headphones discharge the filter

11.
capacitor and convert the DC current in-

to sound energy.

12. TV
AUDIO COMMERCIAL COMMERCIAL
V|N
VOLTAGE
REGULAR
r
>-*H ^ Vqut EXCEEDS
V THRESHOLD
PROGRAM BATTERY

V|N VOUT
-\ O
ELECTRONIC
SWITCH RESETS
CAPACITOR TO
ZERO AFTER
COMMERCIAL

13. > >

235
16. An AM detector and diode frequency con- SECTION III

verter are similar because:

1. The "battery" in a normal diode is the for-
ward offset voltage barrier. It prevents elec-
A. They both rectify an AM modulated
trons from passing through the diode until
radio signal.
the electrons acquire enough energy (volt-
age) to climb over the barrier. The barrier
B. The outputs from both rectifiers are
itself contains no energy. In the equivalent
passed to filters which eliminate the
circuit shown in Fig. 3-1, the "battery " is
radio signal and save the modulation fre-
shown in a series with a "perfect" diode. The
quency.
diode is back biased by the battery, so cur-
rent could not flow even if the battery were
An AM detector and diode frequency con- real.
verter as used in a superhetrodyne differ
because: 2. Since the stabistor diode is made from a
stack of several P-N silicon diodes, we can
A. The modulation extracted by the AM assume that 4.2 volts is some multiple of the
detector placed on the signal by the
is forward offset voltage, 0.6 volts. This im-
broadcast station, not the receiver itself. plies that there areseven P-N junctions in-
In the frequency converter the modula- side this stabistor.
tion is applied to the radio signal by
mixing the radio signal with a locally 3. Stabistors, high voltage rectifiers, and the
generated radio sine wave. panel of silicon solar cells (Fig. 3-4) all con-

sist of a large number of silicon diodes in

B. In the AM detector, modulation
the
which is extracted is an audio frequency
while in the frequency converter it is a
radio frequency.
C. The purpose of the frequency converter
in thesuperhetrodyne is to provide easy
tuning for a receiver with several high
Q, sharply tuned, amplifiers. The
detector does not participate in selec-
ting the particular radio signal.
17. The local oscillator is needed to beat with
the incoming radio signal to produce a cons-
tant difference frequency which can be de-
tected by the "mixer" and amplified by a
string of high gain amplifiers. The receiver
is tuned by shifting the frequency of the
local oscillator. Since the difference frequen-
cy that can be amplified by the IF amplifiers
is constant, the radio frequency that can be
received is shifted along with the local
oscillator frequency. Some antenna tuning is
needed to exclude signals that have the
same difference frequency with respect to
the local oscillator hut are above the local
oscillator frequency instead ot below it. This
tuning is not critical and some receivers just
use tixed band pass tillers that do not have
to he changed tor each station.
series.
4. Both silicon solar cells and light emitting
diodes are an application of the forward off-
set voltage barrier. In the case of LEDs,
electrons falling off this barrier during for-
ward conduction produce visible light. In
silicon solar cells, the energy of visible light
falling on the P-N junction raises electrons
AM from the valence band on the P side up to
the conduction band on the N side. These
electrons are trapped there by the forward
offset voltage barrier and therefore are
available for use in an external circuit.
5. In order to have a reverse (zener) breakdown
voltage in excess of 200 volts, several silicon
diodes must be connected in series. The for-
ward offset voltage is multiplied by the
number of P-N junctions present.
6. The zener breakdown voltage in a zener
diode is controlled by the amount of im-
purities added to the semiconductor. The
higher the impurity concentration, the lower
the zener breakdown voltage.
7. The voltage regulator will use a 5 volt zener
diode rated at greater than 2.27 watts, say 3
watts. The dropping resistor should be
about 9 ohms.
236
 8. When reverse biased, varactor diodes store 13. Tunnel rectifiers are used for rectifying very
charge in a way comparable to capacitors. small AC signals. They have a transition
The reverse voltage barrier prevents con- between conduction and non-conduction at
duction, just as the dielectric prevents con- zero volts. They are used with the direction
duction in a capacitor. Charge is stored of the P-N junction reversed from normal
because electrons are pushed into holes in diodes.
the P side of the junction and electrons are
removed from the N side. Unlike the conduc- 14. Tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes both have
negative resistance over a part of their for-
tion band electrons in the metal plates of a
capacitor, the holesand electrons in a P-N
ward conduction volt-ampere characteristic.
diode are very limited. As more and more
Tunnel diodes use very little energy and ex-
tremely low power supply voltage. Their
voltage is applied, the amount of charge
principle drawback is that the output signal
that can be stored, the capacitance, de-
is very small, hundredths of a volt. Gunn
creases. When
varactors are used in tuned
diode oscillators can produce high power
circuits,they are back biased with a DC
microwave pulses, but large power supplies
voltage through a very high resistance.
and cooling equipment needed. The decision
would probably be based on how much pow-
9. Any device that is nonlinear could be used er was needed.
as a frequency multiplier. Therefore every
device discussed in this section could
SECTION IV
theoretically be used for this purpose. 1. A transistor or vacuum tube is a kind of
Varactors are especially good for this variable resistor which is controlled by a
because they have low forward resistance small voltage or current. Using these de-
and the capacitance stores energy over most vices, a very small voltage or current can
Energy is dissipated in the for-
of the cycle. control a large current passing through the
ward resistance for only a small fraction of resistance. By using the voltage across a
the cycle so the efficiency is quite high. load resistor or across the device itself, the
output can be a large voltage controlled by a
10. PIN diodes are named for their construc-
very small voltage.
tion. They have three layers of semiconduc- 2. In amplification the original signal is not in-
tor; a layer of P-h a layer of intrinsic semi- creased in size. The original signal is used to
conductor, and a layer of N + semiconduc- control a tube or transistor which modulates
tor. They used for voltage variable
are a large stream of current to produce a new,
resistors and as high voltage rectifiers. larger signal which resembles the original.

11. Schottky barrier diodes are made from a 3. The 3 kinds of gain are voltage gain, current

metal anode bonded directly to a semicon- gain, and power gain. The power gain can be
ductor cathode. The P-N junction results large while the current gain is less than one
from metal atoms diffusing into the semi- if the voltage gain is very large.
conductor forming a very small P region. 4. When an amplifier amplifies its own output,
These diodes have very low capacitance, may However, the
the amplifier oscillate.
high switching speed and a very low forward
output must be at least partly in phase with
offset conduction voltage.
the input.

12. Zener diodes and tunnel diodes are both
heavily doped so that the zener breakdown
voltage is below what it would be if the
diode were optimum for conventional ap-
plications. Tunnel diodes have a zener break-
down of zero volts, but their S-shaped for-
ward conduction characteristic includes a
segment of negative resistance which allows
them to be used as oscillators and reflec-
tance amplifiers.
237
5. A good switching transistor dissipates very
little power when it is turned on or turned
off because the current is large when the
voltage is small and vice versa. However,
while the transistor is actually switching
from on to off, the current and voltage are
both high simultaneously and the power dis-
The longer the time in-
sipation will be high.
terval required to switch, the more heat that
will be dissipated during the interval.
 6. When amplifying an analog signal like 11. The physical design of the collector and
music, the amplifier output is a waveform emitter are quite different. The collector-to-
which has a continuously changing ampli- base junction is usually large so that it can
tude. Since the transistor is rarely turned all dissipate large amounts of heat and collect
the way on or all the way off, it is dis- as much current from the emitter as pos-
sipating power the entire time that the sible. Also, the emitter usually has much
music signal is present. more doping than the collector. This results
in a low reverse breakdown voltage between
the base and emitter.
7. A current source is a device that delivers a
I, Ir
constant current regardless of the voltage = =
12. Ie = Ic + lb- <* P
across it or the resistance of the load in lb
series with For each control voltage (or
it.

control current) the vacuum tube pentode

Divide the first equation through by Ic
(or transistor) outputs behave like current
.

sources because the output current flowing

through the devices are independent of the h = h + Ib = 1 + lb
Ic Ic Ic Ic
power supply voltage and load over a wide
operating range. This is an advantage be-
cause it makes the amplifier performance in-
a ft
sensitive to changes in power supply voltage
or load resistance.
^-1 = — a — a
^- = l
1

ft a a a a

The current gain is one at 100 MHz, by a

definition. At 50 MHz the current gain ft
= 1 - a

should be two, because (2) (50 MHz) = 100

MHz. 13. An ideal transistor would have zero
resistance when turned full on. Since the
resistance would be zero, the voltage across
9. The voltage across the load resistor will be
it (V ce would be zero.
) Even though the col-
180° out of phase with the voltage across
lector current is large, no power dissipation
the transistor. Because the sum
of these two
would result.
voltages is constant, one must be small
whenever the other is large. Since the same
current passes through both the load and
14. A saturated transistor is one that is turned
the transistor collector-to-emitter, these cur-
on as much as possible. That is, further in-
rents are obviously in phase. The voltage
creases in base current will not produce fur-
across the transistor will be out of phase
ther increases in collector current.
with the current through the transistor be-
cause the collector to emitter resistance is
changing while the load resistance is (nor-
mally) fixed. 15. The safe operating area of a transistor is

that area of the collector-to-emitter volt-

ampere characteristic which can be used
10. Transistor gain results from a very thin without exceeding the maximum continuous
base region which can be bridged by minori- power dissipation for the transistor.

ty carriers when the proper control current

is on the base. A "transistor" made by wir-

ing two P-N junction diodes together would 16. An ohm meter can be used to check whether
have no gain because there is no way to the two P-N junctions in a bipolar transistor
"turn on" the reversed collector to base are intact. This test does not tell you
junction. This junction can be bypassed by anything about the transistor gain, swit-
wiring the collector to the base, but this is ching speed, breakdown voltages and a host
not very useful. of other characteristics.
17. The best way to test a transistor is to install 9. Since the TRIAC is being triggered by a

it in the particular circuit in which you want sine wave that is in phase with the sine wave
it to operate, then test the circuit. across the TRIAC terminals, the TRIAC
must be triggered before the peak of the sine
SECTION V wave, if going to be triggered at all.
it is

When the resistanceis very low, the TRIAC

1. High speed switching is superior to re- will conduct for nearly the complete 360 cy-
sistance attenuating AC current be-
for cle. When the resistance is very high, the
cause a perfect switch does not dissipate TRIAC will not trigger at all so the conduc-
any energy and therefore runs cool. tion angle will be 0°. At intermediate
resistances the TRIAC conduction angle for
2. Thyristors are better than bipolar tran- both positive and negative half cycles will
sistors for controlling AC
power because range between 90 ° and nearly 180 °, if it con-
they are not damaged by reverse bias and ducts at all.
they are either fully turned on or fully turn-
10. The relaxation oscillator triggering circuits
ed off. There is no situation where a thy-
deliver a sudden pulse of current to the
ristor remains half on and dissipates large
thyristor gate which is sure to turn it on.
amounts of heat.
Other control circuits allow the gate current
to build up slowly and, because the leakage
3. Tunnel diodes and thyristors all share the
current is proportional to temperature, there
property of negative resistance. It is this
is no way to predict at exactly what angle
property that makes thyristors suitable for
the thryristor will fire. The relaxation
building relaxation oscillators.
oscillator therefore makes the firing angle
independent of temperature.
4. An SCR can't be used as a Hi-Fi or analog
amplifier because not possible to turn it
it is 11. A TRIAC can be triggered by positive and
part way two states, full on
on. It has only negative gate pulses that are applied to the
and full off. Also, once the SCR is turned on, same lead. With two separate SCR's wired
the gate loses control and cannot turn the in inverse parallel, the gate pulses for each
anode-to-cathode current off. With a char- must be electrically isolated from each other
acteristic like this, the SCR cannot follow a and therefore must be generated separately.
randomly varying analog signal.
SECTION VI
5. An inverter is a DC to DC converter. They 1. FET gates control the flow of current
are commonly used to convert a low DC through the output side of the transistor,
voltage from a battery up to a high DC just as bases do. In bipolar transistors the
voltage. Sometimes they also connect DC control variable is current. In an FET the
voltage to AC voltage. control variable is voltage and the current
that flows into the gate is virtually zero.
6. In order to use an SCR in a DC circuit, the
2. Since there are no functioning P-N junctions
circuit must be designed so that the anode
on the output side of a FET, there is no fixed
to cathode current will eventually turn itself
minimum voltage drop across a P-N junc-
off.This is necessary because the SCR can-
tion. The output voltage from drain to
not be turned off by the gate once it has
source can approach zero if the current is
been triggered.
low. With a bipolar transistor, the minimum
voltage is at least the forward P-N junction
7. An SCR trigger circuit which fires the SCR no matter how small the
voltage drop,
by means of an anode gate requires a
collector-to-emitter current may be.
negative polarity instead of a positive
because "positive to P con-
polarity. This is 3. The P-N junction in a JFET
between the is

ducts" and so does "negative to N." gate and channel. There are no P-N junc-
tions along the path between the drain and
8. An SCR with a large gate current has a volt- source. Since there is only one kind of ma-
ampere characteristic that resembles a P-N jority carrier in the channel, the JFET is a
silicon diode. unipolar device.
239
4. A simple, accurate 2 volt reference can be 7. You would probably connect the gate to the
made with just a current regulator diode source with a depletion transistor so that it
and a precision resistor as shown below. would be turned "half on." Connecting it to
the drain would turn it full on.

>
8. MOSFET transistors produce much less
electronic noise than do bipolar transistors.
2mA CURRENT
UNREGULATED REGULATOR DIODE This noise would be heard as hiss or static in
DC VOLTAGE a sensitive radio receiver and using MOS-
FETs can reduce this. Dual gate MOSFETs
10 VOLT
2
>
VOLTS
are ideal for receiver circuits that require
DC REGULATED one signal to control the level of another
1000Q signal or where one signal must be mixed
1* TOLERANCE with another signal. Three common applica-
tions are mixer, local oscillator, and AGC
> * amplifier.

5. The gate of a MOSFET is insulated from the

9. You will also need two resistors to properly
channel with a thin layer of glass. Since
bias the bipolar transistor. A turn-on
glass is an almost perfect insulator, the in-
resistor will be necessary to prevent the
put resistance for a MOSFET is almost in-
base from shunting too much current from
finite. The gate of a JFET is a back-biased
the input signal to ground. Remember that a
P-N diode and even the best diodes have at
MOSFET gate draws almost no current and
least 0.1 microampere of leakage current.
so it can be directly wired to the outputs of
Therefore the input impedance of a JFET is
preceeding stages. In contrast, a base is a
lower than that of a MOSFET.
P-N diode shorted to ground.

6. An enhancement MOSFET cannot replace a

depletion MOSFET unless the circuit is There is a family of bipolar logic circuits
redesigned so that the gate bias is ap- (DCTL) that directly couples bases to collec-
propriate. For example, when the depletion tors of the preceeding stages. However,
gate is zero (Vg S = 0), the transistor is half these circuits are run on very low voltage
turned on. When the enhancement gate volt- (1.5 volts) and have other severe restric-
age is zero, the transistor is turned off. tions.

+ SUPPLY

LOAD
BASE CURRENT RESISTANCE
LIMITING RESISTOR
1 1 1 1 1

OUTPUT
INPUT N-P-N
t

TURNOFF
RESISTOR

>
HI
240
10. This question was deliberately misleading. SECTION VII
Neither transistor is acting like a resistor
and both are acting like inverters. The tran- 1. The load resistance should equal the internal
resistance of the voltage source for optimum
sistors clamp the output to ground or to the
positive supply as appropriate. transfer of power. This is true of any voltage
source, including amplifiers. In batteries it

11. A CMOS inverter draws a small spike of cur-

is the best way to get power out of the bat-

rent whenever switches from high to low

it
tery right now, but it may not be the op-
or from low to high. It draws very little cur-
timum method for getting the maximum
rent when it is quiescent.
total energy out of the battery in the long
run.

12. The VMOS transistor has its drain on the

2. If the voltage source AC, a transformer is
is
bottom of the silicon chip. This forces the
a convenient way
match load impedance
to
current to flow vertically from top to bottom
to source impedance. However, if the source
and therefore it must traverse a large volme is a DC voltage and you are trying to trans-
of semiconductor. This disperses the heat fer DC power to a load resistance, then there
while a conventional MOSFET confines the is no easy way to change the voltage-to-
heat to the surface of the silicon. VMOS current ratio. Complex ways to do this effe-
FETs would be awkward to print in an in- ciently are DC-to-DC inverter circuits and
tegrated circuit with other components switching power supplies.
because wiring would have to be attached to
3. To make things simple, let's look at the out-
the bottom of the wafer. At present, IC's are
put impedance from the point of view of the
manufactured entirely on one side of a sil-
load resistor, Rl,. That is, we are matching
icon wafer.
RL to the rest of the circuit. We could also
look at from the point of view of "V ou t"
it
13. Install a MOSFET device using the follow-
as seen in Figs. 7-3, 7-5, and 7-6. but this
ing steps in order:
would be more complicated.
A. In the common emitter circuit, increas-
1. Make sure that the circuit in which you ing the input resistance (increasing Ri
intend to install a device is turned off. in Fig. 7-3) will increase the output im-
pedance. The transistor is turned more
toward off by smaller base currents and
2. Touch a grounded chassis or bench with
therefore has a higher resistance.
your hand.
B. In the common collector (emitter
follower) amplifier the load resistance is
3. Pick up the IC and remove it from the a portion of the input resistance. This is
protective foam. because the input current must go
through Ri, through the base to emitter
junction and through Rl- Therefore, in-
4. Touch the which you want to
circuitry in creasing Rl increases the total input
install the IC with the hand opposite the resistance. Conversely, if we make Rl
one holding the MOSFET. bigger, the transistor will be less likely
to turn on so the transistor resistance
and the circuit output resistance will be
5. Install the MOSFET device. higher.

C. In the common base configuration the

input voltage source must provide all
14. The disadvantage of having zener diode pro- the current that appears in the load re-
tection on a MOSFETgate is that it de- sistance. Therefore, the output resist-
grades the input isolation and will increase ance includes not only the transistor but
the input capacitance of the MOSFET. The also the input source resistance. As the
zener diode not only has a leakage current, it input source resistance increases, so
has some capacitance which is added to the does the output resistance, as seen by
input capacitance of the device. the load resistor.
241
4. The common base configuration can be used 7. Class C or class E amplifiers must be
as a voltage step-up transformer. The com- retuned each time the frequency is chang-
mon collector amplifier can be used as a cur- ed, even by a few kilocycles. On the other
rent step-up transformer. The common emit- hand, a class B amplifier can cover a wide
ter has both voltage and current gain and range of radio frequencies with fair effi-
therefore can be used as either. However, if ciency without retuning. The class B (or A
impedance matching is the main goal, then or AB) amplifiers will need bigger power
the common emitter amplifier is not the best supplies, better cooling for the amplifier,
choice. bigger transistors, and bigger power bills
from the power company for the same
5. In order for the transistor to use the full amount of transmitted power.
range of its transfer function, itmust have a
load resistor small enough to pass the max- 8. If a sine wave signal is amplified by a sup-

imum current encountered on the load line,

posedly linear amplifier which has a curved
MAX, some transfer characteristic, then the signal on
I
c MAX. In addition to Ic cur-
the output is a distorted sine wave. Ac-
rent must also be provided to drive the se-
cond amplifier stage in Fig. 7-4. An approx-
cording to Fourier's Theorem, this signal is
imate equation for the minumum load resis- no longer a pure sine wave and contains
tance in this circuit only is as follows: more than one frequency. The straighter
the transfer characteristic, the more ac-
curately a sine wave (or other waveform)
willbe reproduced in the output. Classes
AB, C, or E just produce power at one
desired frequency. Distortion in these
cc
RL = classes does not degrade the efficiency and
Ic MAX + lout can actually be useful by generating har-
monic frequencies. In a linear amplifier,
distortion can be greatly improved by a
V cc push-pull amplifier configuration since the
Ic MAX +f.
/ Vc.c. - 0.6 V^olt
T n a
distortion in the two transistors tends to
cancel out. Another method we did not
R; discussis the use of negative feedback

which tends to make transfer character-

istics less tilted (less gain), but straighter.

9. P-N-P and N-P-N transistors used to build

A very high resistance like 200 megohms is a complementarypush-pull amplifier
completely unable to supply the current should matched, not only for gain,
be
needed for the transistor to turn on and power dissipation, and other attributes,
follow its load line and supply current to the they should also have equal amounts of
following stage. distortion. In other words, their transfer
characteristics should be mirror images of
6. The common base amplifier is often used to each other.
drive high impedance loads since this con-
figuration has the highest output imped-
10. The resonant frequency of the LC circuit in
the collector circuit is adjusted for min-
ance. Even if the output impedance is not
imum DC current in a class C amplifier.
exactly 300 ohms, it will be most efficient
This can be done by changing the induc-
to match a high impedance output to a
tance, the capacitance, or possibly even the
high impedance load rather than rely on a
impedance of the load.
transformer to correct a large mismatch. It
may turn out that the amplifier stage driv- 1 1. The adult pushing the swing represents the
ing this final amplifier may not be able to transistor. The pushes that the adult gives
produce enough current to drive the com- to the child on the swing represent the low
mon base amplifier. Some sort of trans- voltage, high current pulses imparted to
former or matching circuit may be needed the LC circuit when the transistor turns
on the input side of the final amplifier. on.
242
 12. Most of the power consumed by a trans- Design a bias system that generates
mitter is consumed by the final amplifier that voltage or current so that the
so it pays to have this stage very efficient. amplifier is in this state whenever there
The penalty is that it must be tuned each is no signal to amplify.
time the transmitter frequency is changed.
It would be very inconvenient to tune each
stage of the amplifier in the transmitter
each time the frequency is changed be-
For JFETs or depletion MOSFETs. the gate
voltages needed to just turn off the tran-
cause there may be four or five stages in a
sistors will be below the voltages on the
high frequency transmitter. Since little
sources. Voltage sources must' be provided
power is lost, it is easiest to use wide-band,
to produce this bias voltage for each tran-
linear amplifier stages everywhere except
sistor.
the final amplifier.

13. The four emitter resistors insure that all

four transistors will share the load equally. 16. The circuit shown in question 100 is another
No two transistors have exactly the same example of negative feedback. When the
gain and one may turn on or off before the transistor turns on, the drain voltage goes
others. This may overload and destroy one down. This decreases the bias current
of the Once one fails, the
transistors. through Rj and R2 and tends to turn off the
others soon follow. In a class D am-
may transistor.
plifier the quiescent point is usually
located where the transistor(s) are turned
full off. This point is not critical, so ther- 17. A cheap amplifier as described would be no
mal runaway is not usually a problem. It is bargain. The Darlington configuration that
more likely with class A where the tran- is described has extremely high gain,
sistor is already half turned on. 10,000,000, and the slightest change in the
circuit will cause the quiescent point to
14. The class C
amplifier is biased so that the zoom to full on or full off. The slightest
transistor biased full off. On the load line
is change in temperature would upset the
this is the same place shown for class B. quiescent point. Even the sound level of the
The difference is that the class C amplifier music would change the power dissi-pated in
is biased so much that an input signal the transistors and would change the
must be much greater than some threshold temperature. The emitter resistance will
before the transistor can begin to turn on. help to stabilize the amplifier by decreasing
It is as though you turned off a water the gain. Unfortunately, if enough feedback
faucet with a wrench. Before you can turn is used to stabilize such a high gain
on the water again with you bare hand, you have enough
amplifier, the amplifier will not
will need the wrench to loosen the handle. gain to amplify from the mic-rophone level
to the loudspeaker level in one stage. This
15. Steps for biasing a class B transistor feat requires about 50 decibels of power
amplifier: gain. Another problem is that the bias
resistors and load resistance are connected
a. Plot the load line. Plot the supply to the same power supply. The slightest
voltage on the horizontal voltage axis. change in the power supply voltage or cur-
Plot the maximum possible collector or rent will be instantly sensed by the input
drain current on the current axis. through the bias resistors. Inductance in the
power supply leads may re-sult in positive

IMAX = V/R L feedback through the bias resistors and the

amplifier will probably oscillate all by itself.
b. Read off what base current or gate In summary, a properly designed Hi-Fi
voltage is needed to just barely turn off amplifier should achieve this much gain in
the transistor. several small steps rather than all at once.

243
18. Question 101 was an example of a potential SECTION VII
thermal runaway. As a transistor gets hot.
its gain increases which tends to turn on the 1. A sine wave oscillator usually consists of a
transistor more on for a given set of cir- voltage inverting amplifier and a tuned
cumstances. When the transistor turns on, phase shift network.
it may become hotter still and turn on even

more. Eventually the transistor may turn

full on and may even be damaged. Ger- 2. The phase shift network inverts the sine
manium transistors are more likely to do wave signal or delays the signal 180° in
this than silicon. Negative feedback and phase. The phase shift network also tunes or
good cooling are ways to combat this pro- filters the positive feedback so that only one
blem. frequency passed back to the input with
is

the correctphase shift. Sine wave os-

19. Static amplifier characteristics pertain to
cillators always settle down to a frequency
those parameters that establish the DC c
that gives a total of 360 phase shift around
resting state of the transistor. The dynamic the entire oscillator loop.
characteristics pertain to what happens
when the transistor is changing its state
rapidly; that is, when the transistor is ac- 3. Positive feedback is necessary to sustain the
tually amplifying a signal. oscillation. The signal that the ampli-fier
amplifies is derived from its own output.
20. We stated that high efficiency was a goal, so
the best three amplifier classes are C, E, and
D. C and E require an AC signal, usually 4. This brings to mind the old question about
RF, to drive them and elaborate resonant which came first, the chicken or the egg.
output circuits. These two approaches are Yes, it is possible that an oscillator might
probably too complex to be worth the ex- not be self-starting. Occasionally you might
pense. A class D amplifier is simple and effi- actually find an oscillator that sits at its
cient.The only complicated part is that the quiescent point and refuses to begin
input signal must be de-veloped so that the oscillating. However, if the amplifier has a
amplifier is pulsed full on and full off so that large voltage gain and the phase shift net-
the average heat produced achieves the work delivers a large positive feedback
desired temperature. This approach resem- signal, the circuit is bound to begin
bles the way we used SCRs and TRIACs in oscillating. Slight variations in the power
Section 5. But here there is no AC voltage to supply voltage will cause a tiny disturbance
turn off the SCR, so transistors are much at the input to the amplifier. This change
easier to use than an SCR. The emitter will be greatly exaggerated at the amplifier
follower configuration has the lowest output output. The magnified noise will be im-
resistance and so is best for the low mediately redelivered to the input and the
resistance heaters. Germanium power tran- oscillation is started. No matter what the
sistors have a lower saturation voltage than frequency of the noise, the phase shift net-
silicon transistors, so these will dissipate work will soon force the oscillation to con-
less power and will be more efficient. A form to the particular frequency that gives a
possible amplifier circuit is shown. perfect 360° phase shift.

AVERAGE ON TIME q +12 VOLTS

' DETERMINES
Vjn
ON ON y ON
V,r NPN GERMANIUM
POWER TRANSISTOR
>
OFF OFF OFF
9>>
rl heater
INPUT SIGNAL. TRANSISTOR
IS RAPIDLY TURNED FULL ON
AND FULL FF. >
24 i
 5. You would expect to find that the phase
shift will change very abruptly with very
small changes in frequency as the frequency
is shifted away from the actual oscil-lator
operating frequency.
6. RC phase shift oscillators are commonly us-
ed for low frequencies because they do not
require inductors. To operate at low, audio
frequencies, a Hartley or Colpitts oscillator
would need a very large, expensive inductor.
the detector is much larger than if the
detector were just a diode. When self-
oscillating, the regenerative detector
makes Morse code signals sound musical
so that they are easy to read. This circuit is
largely obsolete, but until recently it was
used one ILS marker beacon
in at least
receiver design. The three functions are
better performed by a superhetrodyne re-
ceiver with a separate oscillator for a beat
frequency oscillator (BFO).

7. The oscillation an RC phase shift

in 13. An active detector is an amplifier used as
oscillator occurs at one specific frequency an AM detector. It is biased as if it were

because the RC network only shifts one half of a class B amplifier so that it will am-

specific frequency exactly 180°. Other fre- plify only one polarity of the RF signal. If
quencies are shifted more or less than this the really does have a linear
amplifier
and this drives the oscillation back to the transfer characteristic like one half of a
frequency where there is a perfect 360° of class B amplifier, then the detector may be
total phase shift. called a "linear active detector."

8. Three separate RC phase shift circuits are SECTION IX

needed in an RC phase shift oscillator be-
cause it is only practical for each circuit to 1. Bistable, non-oscillating multivibrators
shift the sine wave about 60°. If you were to are commonly used for counters (also called
try to produce a 90 ° phase shift with each of dividers) and for temporary memories in
two RC circuits, the output feedback computers. They are also used in phase de-
voltage would be vanishingly small. tectors and a host of other minor circuit ap-
plications.
9. Ifyou want to vary the frequency of an RC
phase shift oscillator, ideally you should 2. A flip-flop stores information by maintain-
vary all three resistors simultaneously, ing the state of its Q or Q output over a
perhaps with a triple-decker potentio-meter. long period of time, that is, the output re-
mains high or low more or less permanent-
10. The Hartley, Armstrong, and transformer ly until it is deliberately changed by new
coupled oscillators can be tuned with a trigger pulses. When the power supply is

single variable capacitor. The Colpitts shut off, the information stored in flip-flop
oscillator could be tuned by a dual or ganged memories is lost.

variable capacitor. Alternatively, the Col-

pitts could be tuned by a single slug-tuned 3. The trigger pulse tries to turn on both tran-
coil. sistors. The transistor that is already turn-
ed on tends to remain on. However, the
11. The advantage of a quartz crystal oscillator transistor that is off, turns on and this ac-
is that the frequency is extremely stable. tion turns off the previously on transistor.
This is because the phase shift of this circuit This is because the gain of the transistor
element varies dramatically whenever the that switches produces a bigger signal
frequency starts to drift away from its reso- than the input trigger pulse.
nant frequency. Saying it another way, the
crystal has very little resistance in com- 4. Just after the 13th pulse the flip-flop out-

parison with its reactive impedance and puts would be thirteen: Qi = Q> = 0, Qa
1,

therefore is an extremely high Q circuit. = 1, Q4 = 1. During the 13th pulse the

counter is still registering twelve because
12. The regenerative detector performs three the counters respond to the falling edge of
functions. It detects an AM signal. It the pulses. Therefore, the outputs will be
amplifies the signal so that the output of Qj = o, Q2 = 0. Q3 = 1. and Q, = 1.

245
 5. The bases of astable multivibrators are 1 1 Seven more flip-flops are needed to count
usually turned off by charge stored in the up to 10,000.
capacitors so there is no need for a base to
ground The resistors Ri and R2 do
resistor. 12. A clock pulse is a very frequency stable
not pass enough current to the bases to square wave that is used to synchronize
keep them turned full on. and control digital circuits. They are often
derived from sine wave oscillators because
6. The load resistors must be very much these are usually more frequency stable
smaller than the capacitor discharging re- than square wave oscillators.
sistors, Ri and R2. The smaller the load
resistances, the faster the capacitors are 13. A zero crossing detector isa very high gain
recharged, the more swiftly the collector amplifier turns full on or full off
that
voltages will rise and the more square the whenever the input signal goes above or
square wave will be. below zero volts.

7. If the set trigger pulses are slower than the 14. A comparator is a high gain differential
natural frequency of the astable multi- amplifier with an inverting input and a
vibrator, the multivibrator will switch non-inverting input. The comparator turns
before the trigger pulse arrives. This full on or full off whenever one input
means that it will have already been set by voltage is higher than the other.
the time the set pulse arrives. Therefore,
the faster astable frequency will pre- 15. A zero crossing detector with positive feed-
dominate. In fact, the multivibrator will ig- back is a Schmitt trigger. The positive
nore all the set trigger pulses unless they feedback increases the gain and makes the
occur while the Q output is low, zero. square wave output more square. Also, it
changes the switching threshold so that it
8. The advantage of the multivibrator power does not switch until the input voltage ex-
inverter circuit is that it can be an efficient ceeds the thresholds above and below the
way to decrease or increase voltage with- zero voltage point. This makes the trigger
out wasting power. First the power is con- insensitive to low amplitude high frequen-
verted to square wave AC, then it is passed cy noise.
through a transformer to reduce the volt-
age. Finally the AC is rectified and filtered
to make DC. All these steps are efficient
16. The output of a Schmitt trigger looks like
the output of a zero crossing detector, but
and a 90% overall efficiency is typical. The
advantages of the zener diode voltage con- the square wave output is delayed in phase

version approach are that it is cheaper,
simpler, and physically smaller than the
multivibrator. Moreover, the zener diode
will regulate the voltage so that the output
will be 6 volts DC even though the input
voltage may vary from, say 15 volts DC
down to 7 volts DC. Assuming that the in-
put voltage is 12 volts DC, the power con-
version efficiency of the zener diode circuit
will be only about 30% or 40% because half
of the power will be dissipated in the drop-
ping resistor alone.
because the switching thresholds are no
longer at zero. Although the average of
these two thresholds is zero, it is no longer
actually detecting zero crossings.
17. Hysteresis is a lag or delay in the response
of some device like an electronic circuit. In
the case of the Schmitt trigger, the input
voltage must overcome the effect of the
positive feedback before the Schmitt trig-
ger responds. This lag in response is an ex-
ample of hysteresis.

9. Monostable multivibrators are used to

make pulses longer. 18. If a Schmitt trigger has too much positive
feedback, the input signal would not be
10. One shot multivibrators arc usually made able to overcome the feedback and the cir-
from one half <>t an astable multivibrator cuit would be permanently locked into full
and one half of a bistable multivibrator. on or full off states.
2 Hi
19. The "S" -like signdrawn on the Schmitt 3. This ratio is a way of rating how well dif-
trigger circuit symbol is a picture of the ferential amplifiers ignore common mode
transfer characteristic of a Schmitt trig- voltages. The common mode voltage inad-
ger; that is, V
ut graphed versus V This m . vertently affects the output voltage to
symbol illustrates the hysteresis of this cir- some degree and this error is called the
cuit. common mode voltage gain. The desired
voltage gain is the voltage gain caused by
20. A unijunction transistor is a transistor the difference voltage between the two in-
built something like a junction FET. They puts. The common mode voltage rejection
are largely obsolete but are occasionally ratio is the ratio of the desired voltage gain
used as oscillators to generate voltage or divided by the common mode voltage gain.
current pulses.
4. The output voltage of the differential
amplifier will rise. If the differential am-
21. The NE555 timer integrated circuit is used plifier has differential outputs, one output
for various oscillator related applications will go up while the other will go down. The
including: monostable multivibrator, plus and minus names on the inputs are
square wave generator, linear voltage based on the polarity sense of the output.
ramp generator (sawtooth wave generator) If the amplifier has two outputs, either in-
and missing pulse detector. put can be plus or minus, depending on
which of the differential outputs you are
referring to.
22. The NE555 presently cheaper than a
is

single unijunction transistor. It is more 5. Direct coupled amplifiers, also called DC

precise, more reliable, and more versatile. amplifiers, can amplify very slowly chang-
ing DC signals as well as AC signals. Op-
amps are stable because they are inte-
23. The inner workings of ICs are usually inac- grated circuits and the transistors are
cessible tomeasurements made with volt- closely matched in their temperature drift
meters, ammeters, or oscilloscopes. More- and gain characteristics. The op-amp is
over, there is no way to repair defective designed so that as one transistor drifts,
parts in an IC. Knowing all the details of another transistor will drift equally to com-
their inner construction is rarely helpful. pensate for the change. Also, the tran-
The block diagram of the IC will tell you sistors often have base-to-emitter diodes
what the IC as a whole is supposed to ac- which help control the gain over a wide
complish in the circuit. temperature range.

SECTION X
6. The chopper stablized DC amplifier is a
method of amplifying very low frequency
1. The greatest limitation of op-amps is that
or DC signals with a high frequency AC
they tend to be slower in switching time
and slew rate than individual transistors.
amplifier. The DC signal is chopped into
AC and amplified by several AC amplifier
This is reasonable since they are composed
stages. AC amplifiers are stable because
of several transistor amplifier stages in
each stage is DC isolated from the others.
series. Op-amps are not perfect in any
Finally, the AC signal is rectified and
respect, but except for switching speed,
filtered to restore the DC signal.
they greatly exceed the capabilities of in-
dividual transistors.
7. Offset null leads are connected to a center
tapped pot with the center tap connected
2. Differential amplify the dif-
amplifiers to — V ee The
. pot is used to balance the
ference between two input voltages. Opera- amplifier output to zero volts when the in-
tional amplifiers are a form of differential put is zero volts. This is only important
amplifier with extremely high voltage when very small signals are being ampli-
gain. fied, so many op-amps don't need them.

247
 8. A bar graph voltmeter is an array of ten or 13. Rf = 6KQ. The output voltage would be
more comparators, each ofwhich is wired — 14 volts. Large power supply voltages
to switch at a specific voltage. The com- much greater than ±14 volts would be
parators respond to a range of voltages ar- needed. If the op-amp were a 741, the
ranged in a linear or logarithmic scale. The power supply would have to be larger than
output of each comparator drives an LED is permissible to have such a large output

or other indicator. Voltage is measured by voltage.

observing how many of the comparators
have responded to voltage above their in-
dividual thresholds. 14. Theoretically, the amplifier would not
work if the inputs always stayed at precise-
ly zero volts. An input voltage causes a
small difference voltage between plus and
9. A voltage follower is used to amplify cur-
minus inputs that is quickly cancelled by
rent without changing the voltage of the
the negative feedback.
input signal. In other words, it matches
high impedance voltage sources to low im-
pedance loads without distorting the
original voltage. The negative op-amp in- 15. The output voltage will be +6 volts.
put has the same voltage as the output
because they are wired together. Whenever
the positive input attempts to rise above 16. The presence of an input offset current
the negative input, it makes a temporary means that the output will not equal zero
difference voltage. The huge op-amp gain when the input voltage is zero.
forces the output up until the negative in-
put is again equal to the positive op-amp
input. 17. Op-amps sometimes equipped with null
are
offset leads. These can be connected to a
potentiometer which can adjust the output
10. Any op-amp circuit with negative feed- to zero when the input is zero. Both op-amp
back will cause the output voltage to inputs should have equal resistance along
change until the negative input voltage is the pathways to ground so that the op-amp
again equal to the positive input voltage. will balance at zero. These pathways include
Therefore, the op-amp could compensate the source resistance of the input voltage.
for any diode offset voltage.

18. A pyrometer is a thermometer composed of

1 1. There is a virtual short circuit between the
two op-amp inputs whenever the circuit
has negative feedback. The short-circuit-
like condition will result whenever the
negative feedback coupling from output to
negative input is sufficiently strong so
that the negatively input voltage will be 19.
forced to equal the positive op-amp input.
The more gain the op-amp has, the less
feedback current is required to accomplish
a voltmeter galvanometer) and a ther-
(or
mocouple. The thermocouple consists of two
wires of dissimilar metals fused to-gether at
one end.
The capacitors are used to couple AC signals
which have a zero point at zero volts to the
amplifier which operates with its zero point
at 1/2 V cc These capacitors charge to
.

this. Weassume that the op-amp has in- whatever permanent DC voltage is present
finite gain which implies that any negative 1 2V
across them, CC in this case. As a result,
feedback will do the job. the amplifier can't be used for slowly chang-
ing DC signals because the ca-pacitors
would just adapt to the input signal and the
12. The current flowing into the op-amp inputs amplifier would never see the signal. High
isvery small and has no significant effect frequency signals are not attenuated or
on the amplifier circuit gain. distorted by the capacitors.
'J is
20. The op-amp with negative feedback behaves 5. These filters are similar to phase shift
almost as though it were a perfect voltage oscillators like the one in Fig. 8-4. They fre-
source with zero output resistance. The feed- quently have a voltage gain greater than
back largely compensates for the drop in one, a phase shift network, and positive feed-
output voltage caused by load current. The back. However, the amplifier is in the non-
op-amp does have output resist-ance and inverting configuration and the total loop
can't compensate for very large loads. One phase shift is unlikely to add up to an exact
symptom of too big a load is the op-amp will 360° at a frequency that is favored by the
overheat. The symptom dis-cussed in the RC filters.

text was that the output voltage will not be

able to reach the high levels that may be dic- 6. A notch filter passes every frequency except
tated by the input voltage. With heavy the frequencies narrow band called a
in
loads, the input voltage must remain very notch. The notch filter is made from a low
small so that the maximum voltage swing pass filter and a high pass filter in parallel.
for that load is not exceeded. The cut-off frequencies are arranged so they
are located on the upper and lower edges of
SECTION XI the notch band. The two filter outputs must
be combined using an operational adder to
1. In the adding circuit it is vital that all the in- make a composite signal.
put currents that are being added all flow
toward a point that is fixed at zero volts. 7. A band pass filter can be constructed by
The non-inverting amplifier does not have putting a high pass filter in series with a low
such a fixed point. If the non-inverting pass filter. The cut-off frequencies are
amplifier were used, each input current selected above and below the pass band so
could change the amplifier input voltage and that only a narrow band of frequencies can
produce an error in the addition. pass through both filters.

2. An active frequency filter is one or more RC

A logarithmic amplifier is an inverting
(orsometimes LC or LR) filter sections built
amplifier in which the feedback element is a
around an op-amp amplifier circuit which
forward biased P-N junction diode. P-N
compensates for the attenuation of the
diodes have a forward volt-ampere charac-
desired frequencies during the filtering pro-
teristic that is approximately V = In I.
cess.
Therefore, the voltage across the op-amp
between the negative input at zero volts and
3. A Bode plot is a graph of decibels of at-
the output will be a voltage proportional to
tenuation or gain versus frequency. It is us-
the natural logarithm of the voltage that
ed to describe the frequency response of
drove the current into the input resistor.
amplifiers, filters, servo mechanisms, etc.

4. Several identical active filters can be put in By changing the gain of the amplifier from 3
series to make a filter network more dis- to 1/3, the circuit can become a cube root
criminating. calculator.

1K 3K
VlN = X^> — loge
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^ V J
VOLTAGE GAIN OF -3
249
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VOLTMETER
CALIBRATED
rrn INMILES
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TO GALLONS/HOUR
FUEL
FLOW
METER

10. Division circuit for mile-per-gallon meter. 15. Integrators are used in sweep circuits and
analog computers. They could also be used
11. Integration and differentiation are opposite as a sequential pulse counting machine.

processes. Differentiation produces a Suppose a series of 18 equal pulses were

voltage that is proportional to the rate of
change of the input voltage. Integration pro-
duces a voltage that is proportional to how
long the input voltage remains high.
12. A simple RC integrator is inaccurate
because the voltage across the capacitor
decreases the voltage across the resistor.
This prevents the capacitor from charging
at the correct rate. An op-amp integrator
is
an inverting amplifier so the negative op-
applied randomly to the integrator over a
period of several seconds or minutes. A
well designed integrator would produce a
voltage precisely proportional to 18 pulses.
So, in effect, the integrator is adding up a
series of pulses.
16. A differential equation is a mathematical
explanation or prediction of how a process
with changing variables will progress with
time. A differential equation always con-

amp input remains at zero. This keeps the tains integrals, derivatives, or both. The
capacitor charging current through the solution to the equation can be another

resistor proportional only the

equation with no derivatives or integrals
to input
voltage. that gives a concrete statement of how
each variable actually changed. The solu-
13. Differentiators tend to be impractical tion that is obtained with an analog com-

because they are too sensitive to low am- puter is in the form of graphs which plot
plitude, high frequency noise. how each variable changed over the time
period.

14. The current flowing into the integrator

should have exactly the same waveform as 17. They are the same circuit except that the
the input voltage. inverting amplifier has a separate load.
250
 The grounded base amplifier and the volt- SECTION XII
age-to-current converter share the follow-
ing characteristics: 1 The goals of power supply design often in-
clude:
* A current gain of about 1

A. Rectifying AC to DC.
* A high voltage gain if the load has a
high impedance. B. Holding the output voltage level cons-
tant.
* A high power gain if the load has a
high resistance. C. Changing the RMS voltage level.

* A low input impedance. D. Limiting the current to the amount

that can be delivered safely.
* The input voltage and output voltage
have opposite polarities, assuming the E. Filtering out AC ripple or other noise.
grounded hose is at zero volts.
F. Isolating the supply output from
* Both circuits tend to have current ground.
source outputs.
G. Low supply inductance and resistance
to load current.
18. The negative feedback through the deflec-
tion coil insures that the voltage across the H. High efficiency.
op-amp compensate for the impedance
will
of the deflection coil and force the current I. Lightweight and small size.
ramp through the coil.
J. Reliability.
19. The inverting amplifier configuration is
comparable to the common emitter ampli- K. Low cost.
fier. The voltage follower is comparable to
the emitter follower or common collector
2. The zener regulator is an example of a
amplifier. parallel regulator.

20. The current gain is 100 because a 100 Q 3. Large zener diodes which are able to dis-
resistor draws 100 times more current than sipate more than a few watts are expensive
a 10K Q resistor. and rarely used. It is cheaper and more effi-

100 Q
10KQ
WW 10KQ Rload

"V
INVERTER WITH
V
VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT
VOLTAGE GAIN = 1 CONVERTER IS CURRENT
CURRENT GAIN = 100 SOURCE.

251
 cient to use zeners as voltage references for large, heavy heat sinks are not needed. If
a series regulator pass transistor or other an inefficient supply were allowed to run
voltage regulator design. hot, the transistors or other temperature
sensitive materials would be damaged.
4. In a parallel regulator energy is wasted in
two resistive elements. In a series regula- 10. Energy gap voltage references are more
tor, the load serves as part of the voltage temperature stable and than
accurate
divider, so there only one resistive, volt-
is
zener diodes. They are preferred for use in
age dropping element. precision voltmeters and precision regu-
lated power supplies.
5. Both the emitter follower amplifier and the
op-amp voltage follower can be used to am-
plify a voltage reference to make a voltage 11. A varistor is made of semicon-
a resistor

regulated source. They both have voltage ductor material. has accurate, sym-
It
metrical, positive and negative breakdown
gains of one, but high current gain that will
adapt to the needs of the load. voltages which resemble two zener diodes
wired in series. When wired across an AC
6. The current sense resistor is in series with voltage, the varistor switches on so abrupt-

the output current and the voltage across ly that it can be used to clip very short

it is proportional to this current. A zener

duration noise spikes off an AC sine wave
diode, base-to-emitter junction, or other voltage.

voltage reference device is placed across

the sense resistor voltage.
put current exceeds the design limit, the
voltage reference device conducts and
steals current from the base of the pass
transistor. This prevents the pass tran-
sistor from passing greater amounts of cur-
When the out- 12. Switching power supplies are extremely ef-
ficient,lightweight, and compact. Using in-
tegrated pulse width modulators, they can
be constructed with few parts, and they
often have built-in current limiting abil-
ities. If a switching power supply were

rent to the load. used to power a radio receiver, you could

expect to have radio noise interference
7. A 3-terminal regulator is a sophisticated from the high frequency AC switching
series regulator built as an integrated cir- waveform. Another disadvantage is that it
cuit. Separate 3-terminal regulators are requires a relatively complex circuit if an
built for positive and negative supplies isolated output is desired. Although swit-
because it is usually desirable to ground ching power supplies should run cool, they
the metal case to dissipate heat. A positive are more temperature sensitive than a
voltage regulator could be used to build a regulated supply based on a device like a
negative supply, but the case will have to ferro-resonant transformer which contains
be insulated from ground. no transistors.

8. A 3-terminal regulator can be used to build

a current source by connecting the output 13. The free-wheeling diode discharges the

and ground terminals across a fixed resis-

charged inductor into the load so that the
tor. The regulator will drive a fixed current
energy stored in the inductor is not wasted.
through the resistor and to other circuits
by holding the voltage across the re- 14. A pulse width modulator converts a DC
sistance constant. If a large current were voltage level into a pulse width modulated
needed, it would be inefficient and expen- pulse train. The width of the pulses is in-
sive to use a high voltage regulator. The versely proportional the DC voltage
to
regulator should have the lowest regula- level in the Fig. 12-17 system. In a swit-
tion voltage available. ching supply, the pulse width modulator
compares the output voltage with a re-
9. An efficient power supply runs cool be- ference voltage and generates control
cause it does not convert energy into heat. pulses to switch the transistors and keep
Since there is no heat to be dissipated. the output voltage constant.
252
15. High frequencies are used for switching
power supplies so that the inductor and
filter components in the supply can be as
small as possible.
16. The error signal is an amplified difference
voltage which is the difference between a
reference voltage and the actual output
voltage.
put current rises, it produces a flux that
counters the flux from the primary wind-
ing. This negative feedback reduces the
output current. Also, as the secondary side
of the core begins to saturate because of
high currents in the resonant winding and
the secondary winding, the inductance of
the secondary winding will fall. This will
also limit the current.

17. The error signal can never be zero volts

22. A paraformer is not an ordinary transfor-
because that would turn the pulse width
mer. The primary and secondary windings
modulator output on continuously. This
do not share a common flux path. Instead,
would turn the switching transistors on
magnetic field energy is forced to leave the
continuously. As soon as the inductors
primary flux path and join the secondary
were fully charged, all the voltage drop
flux path as the inductance of the second-
would be across the transistors and the
ary winding is changed by the current in
load. This would overheat the transistors
the primary. Because the secondary of the
and load very quickly.
paraformer is oscillating, it generates its
own waves which are independent of
sine
the waveforms on the primary. This means
18. A full wave system as shown is better
that noise on the primary voltage wave-
suited for driving a transformer so it can
form does not appear on the secondary-
be used for raising voltage levels. The full
voltage waveform.
wave system demagnetizes the transfor-
mer core on every half cycle. Less iron is
needed in the core and the inductive com-
ponent in the supply can be lighter and
smaller than in the half-wave design. As
drawn, the full wave system can be isolated
from ground.

19. Photo-isolators are useful for transmitting

information across a voltage difference
which is either unpredictable or varies in
size.The photo-isolator has an extremely
high impedance between the light and the
photo-transistor so that current can't pass
through it and it cannot compromise the
isolation.

20. By isolating the supply output from

ground, power supplies can be wired to-
gether in parallel or in series, or with either
polarity grounded.

21. A ferro-resonant transformer is a power

transformer which regulates its own AC
voltage and limits the current it can de-
liver. The output current passes through
the compensation winding which is located
on the primary side of the core. As the out-
253
 FINAL EXAMINATION
3. Electrons are able to leave the cathode and
STUDENT flow to the plate in a vacuum tube when:

GRADE _ A. The tube is evacuated and there is no air

to prevent conduction across the gap.

B. The cathode is heated.

C. The plate is positive with respect to the

cathode.

Select the BEST answer for each question. D. All of the above.

E. None of the above.

1. Semiconductors are important in electronics

because: 4. The following is true of all "diodes.

A. The valence energy band and the con- A. They all rectify AC to DC.
duction energy band are far apart in
semiconductors. B. They are always made from a semicon-
ductor.
B. Each atom always has a valence of +4.
so they react together to form stable C. They are all non-linear and have two
crystals. electrodes or terminals.

C. Vacuum tubes are obsolete. D. They all have a forward offset voltage.

D. Small applications of energy can convert E. They can never be used as the amplify-
semiconductors from insulators to con- ing device in oscillators or amplifiers.
ductors or vice versa.
F. All of the above.
E. Conduction by holes uses less voltage
than conduction in the conduction band.
5. Zener diodes:

2. Which semiconductor device depends on a A. Do not have a forward offest voltage.

P-N junction for its function?
B. Are never used in series voltage regula-

A. A thermocouple tors.

B. A thermistor C. Have nothing in common with tunnel

diodes.
C. A cadmium sulfide cell
D. Can never be used in place of stabistors.

D. A Gunn diode
E. Are most important for their backward
E. A varistor breakdown characteristics.

F. None of the above F. None of the above.

255
6. The saturation voltage in bipolar transis- 10. Depletion MOSFETs:
tors:
A. Is usually lower in germanium transis- A. Are turned half-on when the gate-to-
tors. source voltage is zero.
B. Is measured between the collector and
emitter. B. Have a thin silicon oxide gate insulator
C. Occurs when the transistor is turned full which is easily punctured by static elec-
on. tricity.

D. Is usually higher in large power transis-

tors. C. Sometimes have an external substrate
E. All of the above. lead, 4 leads total.

D. Are not always shown using exactly the

same symbol.

7. Which device is not capable of amplifying E. All of the above.

RF signals?
A. A triode vacuum tube
B. PIN diode 11. A CMOS digital circuit, such as a binary in-
C. Varactor verter, is extremely efficient because:
D. Common base amplifier
E. Tunnel diode A. The power supply current never travels
directly from +Y<id to ~~ ^ dd- except
during switching.

B. It is faster than bipolar transistor logic

8. Operational amplifiers are used for all the
circuits.
following mathematical operations except:
A. Integration
B. Division
C. Unlike PMOS and NMOS, no resistors
C. Taking of logarithms
are used, only FET transistors.

D. Addition and subtraction

E. Binarv arithmetic.
D. CMOS circuitry takes up
to 20 times
more area on the wafer than bi-
silicon
polar transistors and this keeps them
cooler.
9. An enhancement MOSFET has the advant-
age that it:
E. All of the above.
A. Can never be damaged by excess volt-
age.
-
12. An amplifier with high voltage gain and
B. Is "fail safe' and turns off when the high current gain is:
gate-to-source voltage is zero.

C. Can be handled with no special precau- A. The source follower

tions.
B. The voltage follower
D. Has lower gate capacitance than other
FETs. C. The common source amplifier

E. Can always be used as a direct replace-

ment for JFET transistors. D. The common collector amplifier

F. None of the above. E. The common gate amplifier

256
13. Which of the following transistor leads is 17. Which of the following is not true about dif-
normally biased with positive voltage? ferential amplifiers.

A. The P-N-P collector A. The output voltage equals the differen-

tial of the input; that is, the first de-
B. N-channel FET source rivative.

C. P-channel FET drain B. An operational amplifier is an example

of a differential amplifier.
D. The N-P-N collector
C. When the inverting input has a higher
14. Which transistor amplifier has the lowest in- voltage than the non-inverting input,
put impedance? the output goes down.

A. Common emitter amplifier D. The common mode voltage is the aver-

age of the two input voltages.
B. Common base amplifier
E. None of the above.
C. Source follower amplifier
18. An inverting op-amp is wired with a signal
D. Common collector amplifier input resistor of IK ohm and a negative
feed-back resistor of 4K ohm. What is the
E. Common cathode amplifier volt-age gain?

15. Beta A. -5
is:

A B. -3
A. letter in the Greek alphabet.

C. -4
B. The current gain of a bipolar transistor.

D. -1/4
C. The collector current divided by the
base current.
E. Infinity

D. For most practical purposes, the same

as Hfe .
19- Which of the following is not true about
operational amplifiers wired with negative
E. All of the above. feedback as in question 18.

16. Operational amplifiers can be used to build: A. The voltage gain will be finite.

A. Sine wave oscillators.

B. The input resistance of the inverting
amplifier will be nearly infinite

B. Schmitt triggers.
C. The two inputs will have virtually the
C. Comparators.
same voltage.

D. Linear amplifiers. D. The output resistance will act as if it

were zero over a wide range.

E. Zero crossing detectors.
E. The output will act like a voltage source
over a wide range.
F. All of the above.
257
20. Which device is unlikely to be used in a 24. Which of the following devices has a P-N
voltage regulator circuit. junction in its construction?

A. Stabistor
A. N-channelJFET

B. P-channel MOSFET
B. Bipolar transistor
C. N-channel MOSFET
C. Tunnel rectifier
D. Enhancement type MOSFET
D. Energy gap voltage reference E. Depletion type MOSFET
E. Field effect current regulator diode
25. The following classes of amplifiers are com-
monly used for high fidelity "stereo""
21. Two-state or bistable devices are not useful amplifiers.
for: A. First class and third class
A. AC power control
B. Classes A and B
B. Memory elements C. Classes A, AB, and B

C. Analog, wide-band amplifiers D. Classes A, C. and E

D. Digital logic circuits E. Classes AB. C. and E

E. Counters
F. Class A only

26. The following class(es) of amplifiers are com-

22. The device most likely to be used as a
monly used for amplifying radio signals.
substitute for the DIAC in a TRIAC power A. Classes A. B. C. and D
control circuit is:

A. A xenon flash tube B. Classes C, AB, and E

B. A neon bulb C. Classes A and B

D. Class D only
C. A PIN diode
E. Class C only
D. A P-N-P-N diode

E. A thyratron
27. When a Class C amplifier is properly tuned,
you would expect:
A. The music to be distorted.
23. Which of the following devices cannot be
used to build a relaxation oscillator? B. The plate to glow red hot in a tube
amplifier.
A. A DIAC
C. The plate or collector current to be
B. Unijunction transistor minimum.

C. P-N-P-N diode D. The collector or plate voltage waveform

to be the shape of perfect square waves.
D. Schottky diode
E. The collector voltage to be high while

E. Neon bulb the collector current is high.

28. The load line is: 31. Sine wave oscillators:

A. A straight line drawn on the volt- A. Are never used in the generation of
ampere characteristics of a device. square waves.

B. A graphical way of showing the voltage B. Are usually built from a non-inverting
across a device and the current through class A amplifier with a positive feed-
the device while it operates in a par- back path through a 180° phase-shift
ticular circuit. network.

C. A graph that shows the maximum C. Are most stable when the phase-shift
tolerable load for a transistor. changes most dramatically with fre-
quency.
D. All of the above.
D. Are often stablized with piezo-electric
E. None of the above. galena crystals.

F. A and B only E. Are basically a bistable circuit with two

quasistable operating points.

29. Thermal runaway in a class A amplifier can 32. Doping is:

be discouraged by:
A. A narcotic used by electronic techni-
A. Negative feedback to hold the gain cons- cians to relieve the frustration of their
tant with temperature. jobs.

B. Using a larger transistor. B. A refrigerant sprayed on electronic com-

ponents to cool them off and make inter-
C. Cooling the transistor. mittant circuits easier to find.

D. Using a Darlington transistor. C. A process of painting transistors.

E. All of the above. D. The addition of impurities to a semicon-

ductor to provide holes or conduction
F. A, B, and C only. band electrons.

E. A poor performance on an FCC exam.

30. Class D amplifiers:

33. Which amplifier is an inverting amplifier?

A. Are good for nothing.

A. Common emitter
B. Are good for analog amplification.

B. Emitter follower
C. Could be used for switching elements in
a switching power supply.
C. Common drain

D. Are used as tuned RF amplifiers.

D. Common base

E. None of the above.

E. Common gate
259
34. A Darlington transistor: 37. Which statement about sine wave oscil-

lators is false?

A. Is faster switching than bipolar tran-

sistors. A. Colpitts and Hartley circuits can be
modified to include a crystal in the feed-
B. Is two or more bipolar transistors wired back path.
directly together so that they may be
used as a single high gain transistor. B. Sometimes stray capacitance is used as
part of the feedback loop in sine wave
C. May only be used in common emitter oscillators.

configuration.
C. There is a total of 180° phase shift
D. Is a complimentary FET transistor. around the oscillator amplifier and feed-
back loop.
E. Is exceptionally cute.
D. A sine wave oscillator can be built with
a tunnel diode as the active amplifier ele-

ment.
35. Several P-N junction rectifying diodes con-
nected in series describes: E. Sometimes sine wave transistor oscil-
lators are biased like class B or C ampli-
A. Semiconductor high voltage rectifier fiers.
diodes.

B. Stabistor diodes. 38. The bistable flip-flop:

C. A 28 volt solar battery made from A. Can be used as a counter because it pro-
silicon solar cells. duces two output "Q" pulses for every
input pulse.
D. All of the above.
B. Can be used as a memory element in
E. None of the above. which each of the two transistors can
remember one bit of information for a
total of two bits per flip-flop.

36. A varactor could never be used to: C. Often has set and reset inputs which
always change the state of the Q output
A. Replace a variable capacitor. with every input pulse.

B. Tune an LC resonant circuit. D. Will oscillate at a frequency determined

by the speed-up capacitors.
C. Multiply frequency.
E. Will remain in either of its two stable
D. Amplify RF signals. states indefinitely.

E. None of the above. F. Onlv A, B. and E are true.

260
Answers to the Final Exam
1. D 20. C

2. F 21. C

3. D 22. B

4. C 23. D

5. E 24. A

6. E 25. B

7. B 26. B

8. E 27. C

9. B 28. F

10. E 29. F

11. A 30. C

12. C 31. C

13. D 32. D

14. B 33. A

15. E 34. B

16. F 35. D

17. A 36. E

18. C 37. C

19. B 38. E

261
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
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