doi:10.

1017/S0043933910000115

Small-scale Family Poultry

Production
Egg-Drop Syndrome ’76 in different bird
species in Nigeria – a review of the
epidemiology, economic losses, challenges
and prospect for management and control
W.S. EZEMA1*, J.A. NWANTA2, L.O. AKA3 and E.V. EZENDUKA2
1
Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria; 2Department of Veterinary Public Health and
Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria;
3
Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: wsezema@yahoo.com

Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 (EDS- 76) is a viral disease of laying birds characterized
by a sudden drop in egg production, failure to achieve peak production and the
laying of poor quality eggs. It has been reported to affect a wide range of birds
including turkeys and layers and is a major constraint to the profitability of egg
production in both commercial and village laying birds. This paper is a review of
the epidemiology of EDS-76 virus infection in various species of poultry in Nigeria,
with emphasis on the susceptibility of species, types and ages. Also examined are the
economic impacts, challenges and prospects of EDS-76 virus management and
control. This review will be of assistance in the formulation of an effective
strategy for proper management and control of the disease in the field.

Keywords: EDS-76 Virus; epidemiology; economic impact; challenges; prospects;

control; poultry

Introduction
The total poultry population in Nigeria has been estimated at about 150 million (RIM,
1992). Out of these, about 8.0% are exotic breeds and over 90% are rural poultry of
different species (Nwanta et al., 2006). David-West (1979) reported that about 90% of

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World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, March 2010
Received for publication February 26, 2009
Accepted for publication September 25, 2009 115
Review of Egg Drop Syndrome ’76 in birds in Nigeria: W.S. Ezema et al.

internal supply of poultry meat and 72.9% of that of eggs in Nigeria were contributed by
various rural poultry species compared to the 27.9% supply of exotic or commercial
poultry.
The first report of EDS-76 in Nigeria was made in 1980 (Nawathe and Abegunde,
1980) and since then the disease has been recognized as a potential threat to layer and
breeder flocks (Durojaiye and Adene, 1988; Durojaiye et al., 1991; El-Yuguda et al.,
2005). Serological evidence of EDS-76 has been reported in various poultry species
including chickens, ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys, geese and quails in Nigeria
(Durojaiye et al., 1991; El-Yuguda et al., 2005; Ezeibe et al., 2008; Ezema et al., 2008).
The economic losses due to EDS-76 virus infection in the Nigerian poultry industry
and elsewhere have been shown to be enormous. Nawathe and Abegunde (1980)
estimated an annual loss of about 20,000 tonnes of eggs in Nigeria due to the
disease, while McFerran et al. (1977), in their earlier studies on depressed egg
production syndrome in the Northern Ireland, reported 30% annual egg loss. Poultry
farmers and rural poultry owners in Nigeria complain of poor egg production and egg
quality in their laying birds. Most of the poultry keepers are ignorant of the existence of
EDS-76 virus infection. The vaccine against the disease is not popular. Egg EDS-76
occurs in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America but has not been reported in the U.S. or
Canada (McFerran et al., 1977). Respiratory disease in goslings has been reported only
from Hungary.
In Nigeria, emphasis has been on the control of viral diseases like Newcastle disease
(ND), Infectious bursal disease (IBD) and Avian Influenza without any attention being
given to the prevention and control of EDS-76 virus infection. This may probably be due
to the fact that the affected birds are apparently healthy (Ezema et al., 2008).
In this review paper, the epidemiology, economic losses of the disease as well as the
challenges and prospects for its management and control are discussed.

Epidemiology and pattern of EDS – 76 virus distribution in Nigeria

Egg drop syndrome (EDS) affecting the flocks of laying fowl is widely distributed and
outbreaks recorded in many countries of the world including Nigeria (Nawathe and
Abegunde, 1980). The aetiological agent of Egg drop syndrome (Atadenovirus) has
been isolated from the chickens during the 1980s and 1990s worldwide (McFerran
and Adair, 2003). Respiratory disease in goslings has been reported only from
Hungary (Ivanics et al., 2001). The EDS virus (EDSV) was described for the first
time in 1976 and has been reported to be vertically transmitted through eggs (Van
Eck et al., 1976). The EDSV or the antibodies against the virus have been detected
not only in hens but also in wild birds (Malkinson and Weisman, 1980), wild water fowl
(Schlor, 1980; Gulka et al., 1984) and pigeons (Durojaiye et al., 1991). In spite of the
fact that the disease outbreaks were recorded only in laying hens, it has been
demonstrated that ducks and geese were natural EDVS hosts (Schlor, 1980; Zsack et
al., 1982; Bartha and Meszaros, 1984; Brugh et al., 1984). The receptivity to the
infection and its transmission by contact has been observed in pheasants, guinea fowls
and quails (Zanella et al., 1980). The EDS outbreaks observed in the quail flocks, when
housed with infected chickens, resulted in a fall in egg production, an increase of the
number of the soft-shelled eggs, as well as the development of antibodies to the virus
(Das and Pradhan, 1992). The involvement of the EDSV in a severe respiratory disease in
young goslings was also reported (Ivanics et al., 2001). Occurrence of antibodies has also
been reported in non-poultry avian species such as gulls (Bartha et al., 1982), owls,
storks, swans (Kalita et al., 1980), sparrows and cattle egrets (Malkinson and Weisman,

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1980). Experimental infection investigations confirmed that turkeys can be infected by a

direct contact, the eye–drop and the combined intra-nasal and oral routes (Parsons et al.,
1980: Zanella et al., 1980; Kaleta et al., 2003), without any clinical signs of the infection.
However a naturally occurring egg drop syndrome infection in turkeys has been reported
in Croatia (Bidin et al., 2007). These species of birds play a crucial role in the
epidemiology of EDS–76 viruses.
EDSV has been detected in cloacal swabs between 3 and 10 days post-infection (Bidin
et al., 2007). A rapid humoral response is generated one week post-infection and
detectable antibody titres were found 28 weeks later (Bidin et al., 2007). Earliest
studies revealed that EDS-76 virus is a vertically transmitted infection with poor
horizontal spread especially in caged flocks (Van Eck et al., 1976; McFerran et al.,
1977; Cook and Darbyshire, 1980). These studies further showed that, following
infection in vivo, there was no excretion until onset of lay, when the unmasking of
the virus resulted in virus excretion and rapid spread. Horizontal transmission is
thought to be mainly by the oral route; Rhode Island Red hens were shown to
produce abnormal eggs from 10–24 days post inoculation. Birds infected vertically
can remain asymptomatic until they begin laying eggs.
EDS-76 virus can be found on fomites including water. Some outbreaks have been
attributed to contact with wild birds or water contaminated by faeces from wild birds.
Horizontal transmission has been reported to be possible by needles. Transmission via
insects is also possible (OIE report, 2006).
In Nigeria, Nawathe and Abegunde (1980) reported a relatively high incidence of
antibodies of EDS-76 virus in commercial farms in the Northern States of Nigeria.
Durojaiye et al. (1991) also reported EDS-76 virus in poultry and other avian species
in farms and markets in the Northern and Western States of Nigeria. Records of antibody
titres of 16–256 in 90% of farms with history of lowered egg production in Nsukka,
Enugu State of Nigeria by Ezeibe et al., (2008), suggests serological evidence of EDS-76
virus infection in Eastern States of Nigeria. A study conducted on locals chicken at
Nsukka zone of Enugu State of Nigeria, also revealed a prevalence of 32.98%.

Economic losses of EDS-76 in Nigeria

EDS-76 virus infection has been a threat to the poultry and other avian species all over
the world. In Nigeria, it has threatened the existence, survival and profitability of the
poultry industry, because at present there is no government policy to protect poultry
farms and rural poultry against the disease (Nawathe and Abegunde, 1980). Affected
laying hens have been reported to lay eggs that show loss of colour in pigmented eggs,
thin-shelled, soft-shelled and shell-less eggs (McFerran et al., 1978) quoted by Ezeala
(2007). The shells of the eggs produced may be rough or ‘chalky’ and may not attract
good price. The shell-less eggs, in some cases, may not always be found as they are
frequently consumed by the birds. Egg production usually drops up to 40% and such
birds, in most cases, never achieve peak production (McFerran et al., 1978; Baba et al.,
1998).
Nawathe and Abegunde (1980) gave an estimate of annual loss of about 20,000 tonnes
of eggs in Nigeria due to EDS-76 virus infection. McFerran et al. (1978), in early studies
on depressed egg production syndrome in the Northern Ireland, reported 30% annual egg
loss. In exposed flocks, failure to achieve predicted egg production target results in huge
losses of financial investment. Experimental Egg Drop Syndrome Infection studies
conducted by Adene et al. (1995) at pre- and early-laying stages in domestic fowls
showed delayed egg production, significantly lowered egg production and the

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appearance of malformed eggs in infected groups compared to uninfected flocks.

Unvaccinated flocks expressing anti-bodies to EDS-76 before lay, do not attain
expected peak lay performance, resulting in economic losses (McMullin, 2004).

Challenges and prospects for EDS-76 virus management and control

in Nigeria
Previous studies in Nigeria have shown serological evidence of EDS-76 virus in both
commercial and local poultry especially in the laying flocks that were apparently healthy
(Nawathe and Abegunde, 1980; Durojaiye et al., 1991; Ezema et al., 2008; Ezeibe et al.,
2008). EDS-76 virus infection has been shown to be the cause of over 80% of the cases
of poor egg production in Nigeria compared to other infections or environmental factors.
Heavy losses are recorded annually as a consequence of the type of husbandry and
management methods employed in the local and commercial poultry production.
Farmers in the poultry business complain of poor egg production by their laying hens
and are discouraged by the losses caused by the circulating EDS-76 virus. The majority
of poultry keepers in Nigeria are ignorant of the existence of the EDS-76 virus infection.
Therefore vaccination against the EDS-76 virus is not as common compared to other viral
diseases, such as Newcastle disease, Gumboro disease, etc. Some approaches have been
suggested for the management and control of EDS-76 virus infections: good hygiene and
vaccination. While hygienic measures are of limited use in the case of very small, free-
roaming flocks, they become increasingly important as soon as intensive farming is
undertaken. In this situation, all the measures applied to commercial farms such as
quarantine, cleaning and disinfections between batches, isolation of farms, limited
access to birds and personal hygiene become necessary. EDS–76 virus is resistant to
many commonly used disinfectants, but these can be effective if they are allowed to have
contact with the virus for prolonged periods. Potentially contaminated water should be
chlorinated before use. Composting infected chicken carcasses for 20 days completely
inactivates the virus.
Inactivated vaccines are available and have been reported to decrease virus shedding
(Baxendale et al., 1980). Vaccination using inactivated vaccines has been reported as an
effective method of preventing and controlling EDS–76 virus infection in both
commercial and local poultry (Kembi and Durojaiye, 1993; Baxendale et al., 1980),
but is rarely given priority in rural communities of Nigeria where the majority of poultry
are kept (Nwanta et al., 2006).
Inactivated vaccines administered intramuscularly have been reported to be effective in
the control of EDS–76 virus infection and protects poultry against losses in laying
performance and production of low quality eggs (Baxendale et al., 1980). Protection
against challenge was demonstrated in birds vaccinated with inactivated oil adjuvant
EDS-76 vaccine. Kembi and Durojaiye (1993) observed highest antibody responses in
chickens vaccinated with phenol inactivated vaccine compared to formalin and heat
treatment when they assessed their suitability as agents of inactivation of EDS-76
viruses for vaccination purpose. Field observation has shown that rural poultry owners
do not vaccinate their birds due to the fact that most conventional vaccines, including
EDS vaccines, are supplied in large doses of 200 which are too much considering the
small sizes of the village flocks (5–20 birds per household). Therefore it is difficult to
assemble all the local birds, from different households for vaccination. Furthermore the
cold storage required of the vaccines is a problem in both the urban and rural areas of
Nigeria where electricity supply is erratic or not available. Consequently, veterinarians

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have to carry vaccines in portable Coleman flasks for longest distances to the site where
vaccination will be carried out.
The system of poultry disease surveillance, reporting management and control in
Nigeria is still inefficient. EDS-76 virus infection status and sero-evaluation has not
yet been ascertained fully. Losses encountered due to EDS-76 virus infections in both
commercial and local birds demoralise farmers and, in some cases, discourages them
from reporting cases. This development makes epidemiological information and
enforcement of control measures against important poultry diseases very difficult. The
Pan African Programme For The Control Of Epizootics (PACE) in Nigeria has rarely
paid attention or given priority to the epidemiology and control of important poultry
diseases in commercial, village and wild birds. Poultry production, being a well known
business and is an important economic activity for urban and rural dwellers in Nigeria,
ought to be given priority in terms disease control. Unfortunately diseases, especially
ND, avian influenza and EDS-76, continue to be a major hindrance to the realisation of
the full potential of poultry production in Nigeria. Knowledge and understanding of the
prevailing status of this important poultry disease and the prevalence of the infection as
well as the factors responsible for the maintenance of the virus in circulation in Nigeria is
crucial for the formulation of appropriate policies and strategies for control. The control
of EDS–76 and other diseases in Nigeria will not only boost productivity of poultry
sector, but will also guarantee steady supply of animal protein to the human population
and generate income to the poultry owners.
Inactivated vaccines against EDS–76, though not yet adopted by most poultry farmers
in Nigeria for the protection of their flocks, have shown good results (Baxendale et al.,
1980; Kembi and Durojaiye, 1993) and are being used in the field. Awareness needs to be
raised among poultry farmers on the effectiveness of EDS–76 vaccines against both
losses in egg production and prevention of poor quality eggs being laid through
extension services delivery. Diagnostic centres should be strengthened and positioned
for proper disease diagnosis, treatment and control. Epidemiological surveillance on the
prevalence and mode of transmission of some common diseases of poultry including
EDS–76 virus infection is recommended. Veterinary personnel need to take advantage of
the improved transport facilities and effective communication systems in both urban and
rural areas to collect appropriate specimen from farms and households for sending to
suitably equipped diagnostic laboratories for analysis. This will overcome current
diagnostic problems and the result can then be transmitted to and collated by
appropriate agencies responsible for disease control.

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