CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION

Due to industrial revolution in the past century, most problems of uncritical

utilization of the energy resources have been challenged globally. The technical
growth of most of the countries is related to more energy consumption, higher
industrial improvement and less considered the efficient use of the sources of energy.

Nowadays world is facing the twin problems of fast exhaustion of fossil fuels
and environmental degradation. Hence, there is an urgent need to reduce dependence
on petroleum derived fuels for better economy and environment. Adaptation of bio-
origin unconventional fuels can address both these issues. These fuels are basically
non-petroleum and result in energy security and environmental benefits.

They are available either in one form or other for more than one hundred years.
Identification of alternative fuels for use in I.C. Engines has been subjected to studies
throughout the globe. Performance investigations have shown suitability of variety of
alternative fuels such as hydrogen, alcohols, biogas, producer gas and various types
of edible and non-edible oils. However, in Indian context, the bio-origin fuels like
alcohols, vegetable oils, and biogas can be used extensively and address the
problems related to fuel crises.

Diesel engines are the most efficient prime movers, from the point of view of
protecting global environment and concerns for long-term energy security it becomes
necessary to develop alternative fuels with properties comparable to petroleum based
fuels. Unlike rest of the world, India’s demand for diesel fuels is roughly six times that
of gasoline hence seeking alternative to mineral diesel is a natural choice.

Due to the oil embargo and subsequent War, it was very crucial problem of best
utilization of energy for both developed and developing countries. Then, it was the first
time that the crude petroleum importing nations stroked the shock when the oil
exporting countries bargained higher prices. This crucial energy crisis forced all the
countries to look for unconventional sources of energy (renewable energy) and
proficient utilization of energy. Then the focus of the country planners has been
changed to more efficiency, extra productivity and least production cost. This resulted
in an abrupt, long term and multi-aspect solution to the problems emerging from short
supplies and increased energy demands throughout the world.

Meanwhile the efficient energy conservation and management has become an

important action in industrial field as energy is considered as a major element in the
production cost. This positive approach has changed the pattern of energy use all over
the world. Hence the developed countries have shown raise in their productivity,
maintaining the unchanged energy consumption levels. Finally, it is the fact that the
renewable energy sources are equal important and relevant to the fast growth of
today’s world, mainly because these sources are available locally and cause lesser
emissions. The full-fledged use of these resources to a large extent can reduce
environmental pollution.

1.2. NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS

It is clear from the above deliberations that, nowadays India is facing the
twin problems of fast exhaustion of fossil fuels and environmental degradation. Hence,
there is an urgent need to reduce dependence on petroleum derived fuels for better
economy and environment. Adaptation of bio-origin unconventional fuels can address
both these issues. These fuels are basically non-petroleum and result in energy
security and environmental benefits. They are available either in one form or other for
more than one hundred years. Identification of alternative fuels for use in I.C. Engines
has been subjected to studies throughout the globe. Performance investigations have
shown suitability of variety of alternative fuels such as hydrogen, alcohols, biogas,
producer gas and various types of edible and non-edible oils. However, in Indian
context, the bio-origin fuels like alcohols, vegetable oils, and biogas can be used
extensively and address the problems related to fuel crises.

1.3. BIO-ENERGY
 Biomass energy, or “bioenergy”, is energy produced from recently living
organisms. There are three forms of bioenergy available with today’s technology: heat,
fuels, and electrical power. Farmers are potentially in a good position to utilize
bioenergy because they are already knowledgeable and well-equipped for the
production of biomass, including that which can produce energy. As consumers of
energy, farmers can produce and utilize bioenergy at the same location.

Bioenergy, primarily in the form of heat, has been produced for thousands of
years, providing a good precedent to build upon in planning for its use in agriculture.
This burning of the biomass or products from it is known as direct combustion. Direct
combustion is a comparatively efficient means of using bioenergy, due to its minimal
processing needs, the diversity of feedstock that can be used, relatively simple
equipment needs, and a relatively high rate of energy recovery. For most operations,
direct combustion is the only practical means of harnessing bioenergy. For some
select types of farming operations, anaerobic digestion and gasification of biomass
are also practical bioenergy technologies for on-farm use. On-farm production of
biodiesel from oil crops is also possible. This fact sheet will therefore focus primarily
on direct combustion and secondarily on anaerobic digestion, gasification, and
biodiesel production.

1.3.1. BIO-FUELS

The continuous increasing demand for energy and the decreasing petroleum
resources has led to the search for alternative fuel which is renewable and sustainable.
Vegetables oils are simplest route of biofuel utilization in direct injection compression
ignition engines however several operational and durability problems are encountered
while using straight vegetable oils in CI engines due to their high viscosity and low
volatility. Reduction of viscosity by blending or exhaust gas heating leads to savings
in chemical processing cost incurred on trans-esterification.

In the transportation and agriculture sector, various renewable liquid bio-fuels

derived from biological resources have proved to be good alternatives for fuels derived
from crude oils. For the problems of environmental degradation, energy security,
restricting imports, rural employment and agricultural economy, these bio- fuels are
gaining global acceptance as a solution. The most promising biofuel, and closest to
being competitive in current markets without subsidy, are ethanol, methanol, vegetable
oils and biodiesel. Ethanol is used as fuel or as oxygenate to gasoline. Biodiesel is a
derivative of vegetable oils and is made from virgin or used edible and non-edible
vegetable oils and animal fats through a chemical process named trans-esterification.
Biodiesel can be blended in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. Its higher Cetane
number increases the combustion even when blended in the petroleum diesel.

Several studies around the world revel that if biomass energy is used instead
of fossil fuels, there will be a net reduction in CO emissions and CO2 emissions. SO2
emissions from using biomass energy tend to be considerably lower because relevant
plants and trees contain only trace quantities of Sulphur compared to the considerably
higher emissions from coal, gasoline, and even some natural gas. This drop in SO2 is
accompanied by a fall in the level of the other traditional motor pollutant emissions
such as carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulates. However, there
is an increase in the release of nitrogen oxides and aldehydes.

1.4. LITERATURE SURVEY

Hossain. A.K et al (2012) tested a multi-cylinder water cooled CI engine with

karanja oil. The engine cooling water circuit and fuel supply systems were modified
such that hot coolant preheated the biodiesel prior to injection. Compared to fossil
diesel, the BSFC was 3% higher for the plant oils and the brake thermal efficiency was
almost similar which resulted in higher CO2 and NOx emissions.

Ibhanshu.V et al (2013) prepared blends of jatropha oil and ethanol of 5, 10,

15 and 20% by volume and the test results showed that properties are quite similar to
diesel fuel. It has been found that at part load condition, energy consumption of blends
of straight vegetable Jatropha Ethanol were insignificant. HC, CO emissions and
smoke opacity were reduced at part load condition.

Ashfaque Ahmed.S et al (2013) analyzed by blending the lemongrass oil with

diesel with different proportions and testing the performance of blended diesel. The
tests were carried out for raw lemongrass oil, 20% lemongrass oil, 40% lemongrass
oil, 80% with diesel. The performance was studied and it is concluded that, the
blending of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% at room temperature gives better fuel
consumption and also improves emission norms.

SenthilKumar.S et al (2012) investigated the performance and emission

characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel and blends of rubber seed oil
based bio-diesel compared to that of diesel. Engine performance with biodiesel does
not differ greatly from that of diesel fuel. The experimental results proved that the use
of rubber seed oil based biodiesel is viable alternative to diesel. Ibrahim Khalil Adam
(2016), In this study rubber seed/palm oil mixture at equal blend ratio was used to
produce biodiesel. Parametric effect on transesterification were studied using
response surface methodology.

Sivaganesan S and Chandrasekaran (2015) this study comprises about

diesel blended with turpentine oil which is used in Engine performance measurements.
Characteristics of emissions and combustion were analyzed before and after the
application of functional graded material coatings onto the piston crown of cylinder
head and valves. To acquire more improved engine performance, cylinder pressure
measurements were taken which provides direct comparison to cylinder pressure;
maximum pressure and heat release diagrams between are figured to exhibit the base
line which is coated with functional graded material.

Mathiarasi R et al (2017), discussed a study soap nut oil is used for the
production of fatty acid methyl ester by using a new catalyst. In this work the catalyst
employed for transesterification reaction was the residue collected from coal burnt
boilers from industries. Similar to wealth from waste the residue is completely utilized
as a catalyst in this study.

Yi-Hung Chen et al (2013) discussed a feasibility of biodiesel production from

soap nut oil was investigated with respect to the fuel properties and its blending
properties with diesel. Soap nut oil methyl esters had satisfactory fuel properties, in
addition, the oxidation stability of the Soap nut oil methyl esters satisfied the
requirements of the biodiesel specifications. Furthermore, the Soap nut oil methyl
esters was blended with diesel at various volumetric percentages and evaluated for
fuel properties in comparison with the relevant specifications.

Jyothi Phaneendra (2016) developing enthusiasm for biodiesel owing to the

closeness in its properties in contrast with those of diesel energizes. Diesel motors
worked on biodiesel have lower emissions of carbon monoxide gas, hydrocarbons,
particulate, and air toxics than once worked on petroleum-based fuel. Biodiesel, a
promising substitute as an option fuel has increased huge consideration because of
the anticipated shortness of traditional fuels and ecological concern. In the present
study soap nut seed oil is used as biodiesel. The soap nut seed oil is changed over
into soap nut oil methyl ester known as biodiesel. The physical properties of soap nut
seed oil, for example, density, flash point, Calorific value etc., were nearer to the
diesel. This oil is blended with the diesel as proportions of S5, S10, S15 is tested at
constant speeds in the diesel engine. Performance and emissions are calculated for
these blends of soap nut seed oil. There is a little improvement in results using the
blends and the emissions are also low compared to the diesel. The qualities got from
the soap nut oil methyl ester is firmly coordinated with the estimations of routine diesel
and can be utilized as a part of the current diesel motor with no adjustment.

Khandelwal Shikha (2012) discussed sustainable production of renewable

energy is being hotly debated globally since it is increasingly understood that first
generation biofuels, primarily produced from food crops and mostly oil seeds are
limited in their ability to achieve targets for biofuel production, climate change
mitigation and economic growth. These concerns have increased the interest in
developing second generation biofuels produced from non-food feed stocks such as
non-edible oils which potentially offer greatest opportunities in the longer term. A large
variety of plants that produce non-edible oils can be considered for biodiesel
production.

Tiwari (2015) discussed in developing country, India is in need of potential bio-

diesels that are derived from non-edible vegetable oils to minimize the dependency on
petro diesel, thus reducing the foreign expenditure on crude oil import, as well as to
meet the environmental concerns. For the reason, in the present work, feasibility of
soap nut bio-diesel as a potential alternate fuel for diesel engine, as well as engine
performance parameters of a single cylinder four stroke diesel engine using petro-
diesel and lean soap nut biodiesel blends with petro-diesel as engine fuels, were
experimentally investigated. The experimental investigation showed soap nut bio-
diesel to be a potential alternate fuel for diesel engine. Moreover, lean soap nut bio-
diesel blends exhibited satisfactory engine performance over the entire load range
with performance of 10% blend of soap nut bio-diesel with petro-diesel i.e. B10 being
marginally better than the petro-diesel as well as other blends.

Misra R.D and M.S. Murthy (2011) evaluate the performance and emission
characteristics of a single cylinder direct injection constant speed diesel engine with
Soapnut oil. Soapnut oil, a nonedible straight vegetable oil was blended with
petroleum diesel in various proportions to evaluate the performance and emission
characteristics of a single cylinder direct injection constant speed diesel engine.
Diesel and soap nut oil (10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) fuel blends were used to conduct
short-term engine performance and emission tests at varying loads in terms of 25%
load increments from no load to full loads. Tests were carried out for engine operation
and engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption, brake thermal
efficiency, and exhaust emissions like smoke, CO, UBHC, NOx, and O2 were
recorded. Among the blends SNO 10 has shown a better performance with respect to
BTE and BSEC. All blends have shown higher HC emissions after about 75% load.
SNO 10 and SNO 20 showed lower CO emissions at full load. NOx emission for all
blends was lower and SNO 40 blend achieved a 35% reduction in NOx emission. SNO
10% has an overall better performance with regards to both engine performance and
emission characteristics.

Matthias Franzreb (2012) discussed blends of biodiesels produced from soap

nut oil and high-oleic free fatty acids, which are potential non-edible oil feed stocks,
were investigated with respect to their fuel properties. The soap nut oil methyl esters
(SNME) had satisfactory fuel properties with the exception of its high cold filter
plugging point. In contrast, the biodiesel from the FFAs had favorable fuel properties
such as a low cold filter plugging point of −6 °C. The complementary blend of the
SNME and the FFA-based biodiesel at various weight ratios was studied to improve
the fuel properties. As a result, the biodiesel blend at a weight ratio of 70:30 can
successfully meet all the biodiesel specifications

Abdullahi Isiyaku Kankia (2014) discussed, effect of searching alternative

sources and based on experimental data, this review carries a better explanation on
Neem and Soap nut) oil a cheaply available non edible sources, stepping towards the
reduction of cost during the production and making as economically feasible model.
As non-edible oils were enriched in higher levels of free fatty acid content hence, a
two-step catalyzed methods is used in transesterification process for biodiesel
production. The comparison between the biodiesel produced from neem oil and soap
nut oil taken place on the basis of their physicochemical characteristics, economic
feasibility and ecofriendly nature. The efficiency of the biodiesel is further examined in
vehicle engine and an overview of gases emissions was noted. The physicochemical
properties from obtained biodiesel were under lined based on ASTM values. The
observed values of the biodiesel can be compared with the other oil. This review paper
mainly focuses on extraction of oil, biodiesel processing, physiochemical
characteristics and effect of different parameter on production of biodiesel.

Nitin Shrivastava (2014) discussed the comparative bench testing results of a

four stroke, four cylinder, direct injection, unmodified, naturally aspirated diesel engine
operating on karanja oil (KO) and its 2.5 vol%, 5 vol%, 7.5 vol% and 10 vol% blends
with ethanol (EKO), petrol (PKO) and both improving agents applied in equal
proportions as 50:50 vol% (EPKO).The purpose of this research is to examine the
effects of KO inclusion in Diesel fuel on the brake specific fuel consumption(bsfc) of a
Diesel engine, its brake thermal efficiency, brake mean effective pressure, mechanical
efficiency and volumetric efficiency. The brake specific fuel consumption at maximum
torque (517 g/kW h) for EPKO is higher by 13.8% relative to Diesel fuel. It is difficult
to determine the KO concentration in Diesel fuel that could be recognized as equally
good for all loads and speeds.

Rolvin S. DSilva (2015) discussed soap nut oil, cotton seed oil methyl ester
and diesel were blended in the proportion of 10:15:75 by volume to form a bio diesel
blend of B25. It has been observed that the calorific value is lower and viscosity is
higher for B25 as compared to diesel. The performance and emission characteristics
were studied using a variable compression ratio diesel engine test rig for three different
compression ratios of 17, 17.5 and 18. The results showed that the brake thermal
efficiency has increased by 5.2% at a compression ratio of 18 compared to the brake
thermal efficiency at a compression ratio of 17. Brake specific fuel consumption has
decreased by 4.7% with the increase in compression ratio. However, the brake thermal
efficiency for B25 is lower than that of diesel. It has been observed that the NOx
emissions are higher by 2% and hydrocarbon emissions and smoke opacity are lower
by 55.5% and 12.4% respectively for B25 as compared to diesel at full load.

1.5. OBJECTIVES

Owing to higher fossil fuel prices in the coming few years it becomes necessary
to search for an alternative fuel which must be clean, green and economical. The 2nd
Generation biofuels challenges a sustainable relaxation for whole world and for
upcoming generations, if explored efficiently. Biodiesel is a more attractive alternative
fuel source for diesel engines as they were well known in their renewability and non-
polluted emissions. But the major problem arises for the commercial use of biodiesel
is cost.

From the literature study, it is observed that many researchers have used
variety of biodiesel along with the conventional diesel fuel in the analysis of
combustion, performance and emission of a wide range of diesel engines with little or
without modification. In this project work, bio-fuel blends from pumpkin seed oil is
explored in its performance and emission characteristics in single cylinder diesel
engine to observe a substitute fuel by comparing the blended fuel results with base
pure diesel.

 To study the performance and emissions characteristics of pumpkin seed oil as

biodiesel on single cylinder VCR diesel engine.
 To study the performance and emissions characteristics of various blends (B10,
B20, B30) of pumpkin seed oil as biodiesel with cerium oxide additive.
 To find an alternative by comparing the results of pumpkin seed oil biodiesel
blends with base fuel performance and emissions characteristics.
 CHAPTER - 2
BIO-FUEL OF PUMPKIN SEED OIL AND ITS BLENDS

2.1. INTRODUCTION TO BIODIESEL

To tackle the pollution problem due to carbon emissions from automobiles, the
most suitable solution is using the biofuels produced from the food crops such as
jatropha, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, cotton seed oil and rubber seed oil in an efficient
and economical method. Now days the two major challenges to save the environment
from the global warming are the greenhouse gases emitted to atmosphere and the
related climate change every year worldwide. The solution includes the measuring of
the carbon footprint, investigation and reduction by enhancing energy efficiency and
followed by mitigating carbon emissions. The Department of Energy defines that, “The
Biodiesel is a domestically produced, renewable fuel that can be manufactured from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases”. Biodiesel has a number
of merits over other alternative fuels because it has the fuel properties similar to that
of the diesel fuel derived from petroleum. Many oil agencies use the biodiesel in the
place of diesel which is comparable with the other petroleum fuels in all the areas like
engine efficiency output power, up climbing and hauling etc. But at very cold
temperatures, the biodiesel will cloud and form gel like the conventional diesel.

2.2 ADVANTAGES OF BIO DIESEL

1. Biodiesel may be used as alternate or partial substitution to the fossil

diesel fuel.
2. The equipments such as pumps or compressor for fueling are not
necessary.
3. As an oxygenated fuel, the biodiesel leads to absolute combustion
and reduced emissions.
4. Eliminates the dependence on petroleum diesel fuel.
5. The flash point of the bio diesel is greater than 1500C, compared to
680C for petroleum diesel fuel, it is safe to store and transport.
 6. The life span of the engines is extended because of the lubricating
effect of the biodiesel.
7. Biodiesel emits fewer amounts of carbon gases in the form of carbon
dioxide.
8. Biodiesel produces lesser amount of carbon monoxide, Sulphur
dioxide, and unburned hydro carbon.
9. After preheating the biodiesel, it can be used in the diesel engines with
little or no modification.
10. The energy level of the biodiesel per gallon is same like the diesel fuel.

2.3. DISADVANTAGES OF BIO DIESEL

1. The biodiesel has high viscosity, reduced atomization, poor volatility

and lower oxidation stability.
2. The biodiesel leads to thermal cracking in CI engines and the
polymerization in combustion chamber leading to deposits in the
cylinder walls.
3. Due to the higher exhaust temperature, the NOx emissions are higher
when using the biodiesel as fuel.
4. The engine efficiency will be less as compared to diesel, due to
lesser energy content of biodiesel.
5. Since the biodiesel contains glycerin, the gum formation and sticking
of piston will occur during the extensive use.

2.4. CROPS USEFUL FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Biodiesel is produced through a series of physical and chemical processing of the

fruits, seeds, or parts of oil-containing plants. The first step usually involves the
extraction of the crude oil. This step may involve several different types of operations
or processes depending on the kind of feedstock. For example, the process of
extracting crude oil from jatropha may involve only one or two simple mechanical
operations whereas the process of extracting oil from coconut may involve many. The
detailed description of the various unit operations and processes involved in the
extraction of crude oil from different types of plant oils such as palm oil, soybean oil,
coconut oil and others is outside the scope of this book. However, the two main
processes for extracting oil from seed feedstock are mechanical press extraction and
solvent extraction. In mechanical press extraction, the oil seed feedstock (e.g.,
jatropha seed, sunflower seed, etc.) is first heated to about 110°F. The oil seed is then
crushed in a screw press. After most of the oil is removed, the remaining seed meal
can be used as an animal feed. The solvent process extracts more of the oil contained
in the oil seed feedstock but requires costlier equipment. The process uses a solvent
to dissolve the oil. After extraction, a distillation process separates the oil from the
solvent. The solvent condenses and can be recycled and reused in the process.
Solvent extraction produces vegetable oil with a higher degree of purity than the
mechanical press process.

The main characteristics of typical oil crops that have been found useful for biodiesel
production are summarized in the following paragraphs

Rapeseed and Canola:

Rapeseed adapts well to low fertility soils, but with high sulfur content. With a high oil
yield (40–50%), it may be grown as a winter-cover crop, allows double cultivation and
crop rotation. It is the most important raw material for biodiesel production in the
European Community. However, there were technological limitations for sowing and
harvesting in some Central and South American countries, mainly due to the lack of
adequate information about fertilization, seed handling, and storage (the seeds are
very small and require specialized agricultural machinery). Moreover, low prices in
comparison to wheat (its main competitor for crop rotation) and low production per unit
area have limited its use.

Rapeseed flour has high nutritional value, in comparison to soybean; it is used as a

protein supplement in cattle rations. Sometimes canola and rapeseed are considered
to be synonymous; canola (Canadian oil low acid) is the result of the genetic
modification of rapeseed in the past 40 years, in Canada, to reduce the content of
erucic acid and glucosinolates in rapeseed oil, which causes inconvenience when
used in animal and human consumption.
Canola oil is highly appreciated due to its high quality, and with olive oil, it is considered
as one of the best for cooking as it helps to reduce blood cholesterol levels.

Soybean:
It is a legume originating in East Asia. Depending on environmental conditions and
genetic varieties, the plants show wide variations in height. Leading soybean
producing countries are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, China, and India.

Biodiesel production form soybean yields other valuable sub-products in addition to

glycerin: soybean meal and pellets (used as food for livestock) and flour (which have
a high content of lecithin, a protein). Grain yield varies between 2,000 and 4,000
kg/hectare. Since the seeds are very rich in protein, oil content is around 18%.

Oil Palm:
Oil palm is a tropical plant that reaches a height of 20–25 m with a life cycle of about
25 years. Full production is reached 8 years after planting. Two kinds of oil are
obtained from the fruit: palm oil proper, from the pulp, and palm kernel oil, from the nut
of the fruit (after oil extraction, palm kernel cake is used as livestock food). Several
high oil-yield varieties have been developed. Indonesia and Malaysia are the leading
producers. International demand for palm oil has increased steadily during the past
years, the oil being used for cooking, and as a raw material for margarine production
and as an additive for butter and bakery products. It is important to remark that pure
palm oil is semisolid at room temperature (20–22_C), and in many applications is
mixed with other vegetable oils, sometimes partially hydrogenated.

Sunflower:
Sunflower ‘‘seeds’’ are really a fruit, the inedible wall (husk) surrounding the seed that
is in the kernel. The great importance of sunflower lies in the excellent quality of the
edible oil extracted from its seeds. It is highly regarded from the point of view of
nutritional quality, taste and flavor. Moreover, after oil extraction, the remaining cake
is used as a livestock feed. It must be noted that sunflower oil has a very low content
of linoleic acid, and therefore it may be stored for long periods.
Sunflower adapts well to adverse environmental conditions and does not require
specialized agricultural equipment and can be used for crop rotation with soybean and
corn. Oil yield of current hybrids is in the range 48–52%.

Peanut:
The quality of peanut is strongly affected by weather conditions during the harvest.
Peanuts are mainly used for human consumption, in the manufacture of peanut 10 2
Introduction to Biodiesel Production butter, and as an ingredient for confectionery and
other processed foods.

Peanuts of lower quality (including the rejects from the confectionery industry) are
used for oil production, which has a steady demand in the international market. Peanut
oil is used in blends for cooking and as a flavoring agent in the confectionery industry.
The flour left over, following oil extraction, is of high quality with high protein content;
in pellet form, it is used as a livestock feed.

Flax:
Flax is a plant of temperate climates, with blue flowers. Linen is made with the threads
from the stem of the plant and the oil from the seeds is called linseed oil, used in paint
manufacture. Flax seeds have nutritional value for human consumption since they are
a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids necessary for human health. Moreover, the
cake left over, following oil extraction, is used as a livestock feed.

The plant adapts well to a wide range of temperature and humidity; however, high
temperatures and plentiful rain do not favor high yields of seed and fiber. Flax seeds
contain between 30 and 48% of oil, and protein content is between 20 and 30%. It is
important to remark that linseed oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid
being from 40 to 68% of the total.

Safflower:
Safflower adapts well to dry environments. Although the grain yield per hectare is low,
the oil content of the seed is high, from 30 to 40%. Therefore, it has economic potential
for arid regions. Currently, safflower is used in oil and flour production and as bird feed.
There are two varieties, one rich in mono-unsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid) and the
other with a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid). Both
varieties have a low content of saturated fatty acids. The oil from safflower is of high
quality and low in cholesterol content. Other than being used for human consumption,
it is used in the manufacture of paints and other coating compounds, lacquers and
soaps.

Castor Seed:
The castor oil plant grows in tropical climates, with temperatures in the range 20–30
C; it cannot endure frost. It is important to note that once the seeds start germinating,
the temperature must not fall below 12 C. The plant needs a warm and humid period
in its vegetative phase and a dry season for ripening and harvesting.

It requires plenty of sunlight and adapts well to several varieties of soils. The total
rainfall during the growth cycle must be in the range 700–1,400 mm; although it is
resistant to drought, the castor oil plant needs at least 5 months of rain during the year.
Castor oil is a triglyceride, ricinolenic acid being the main constituent (about 90%). The
oil is non-edible and toxic owing to the presence of 1–5% of ricin, a toxic protein that
can be removed by cold pressing and filtering. The presence of hydroxyl groups in its
molecules makes it unusually polar as compared to other vegetable oils.

Tung:
Tung is a tree that adapts well to tropical and sub-tropical climates. The optimum
temperature for Tung is between 18 and 26C, with low yearly rainfall. During the
harvest season, the dry nuts fall off from the Tung tree and are collected from the
ground. Nut production starts 3 years after the planting. The oil from Tung nuts is non-
edible and used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes, especially for marine use.

Cotton:
Among non-foodstuffs, cotton is the most widely traded commodity. It is produced in
more than 80 countries and distributed worldwide. After the harvest, it may be traded
as raw cotton, fiber or seeds. In cotton mills, fiber and seeds are separated from raw
cotton. Cotton fiber is processed to produce fabric and thread, for use in the textile
industry. In addition, cotton oil and flour are obtained from the seed; the latter is rich
in protein and is used in livestock feed and after further processing, for human
consumption.

Jojoba:
Although jojoba can survive extreme drought, it requires irrigation to achieve an
economically viable yield. Jojoba needs a warm climate, but a cold spell is necessary
for the flowers to mature. Rainfall must be very low during the harvest season
(summer). The plant reaches its full productivity 10 years after planting. The oil from
jojoba is mainly used in the cosmetics industry; therefore, its market is quickly
saturated.

Jatropha:
Jatropha is a shrub that adapts well to arid environments. Jatropha curcas is the most
known variety; it requires little water or additional care; therefore, it is adequate for
warm regions with little fertility. Productivity may be reduced by irregular rainfall or
strong winds during the flowering season. Yield depends on climate, soil, rainfall and
treatment during sowing and harvesting. Jatropha plants become productive after 3 or
4 years, and their lifespan is about 50 years. Oil yield depends on the method of
extraction; it is 28–32% using presses and up to 52% by solvent extraction. Since the
seeds are toxic, jatropha oil is nonedible. The toxicity is due to the presence of curcasin
(a globulin) and jatrophic acid (as toxic as ricin).

Avocado:
Avocado is a tree between 5 and 15 m in height. The weight of the fruit is between
120 and 2.5 kg and the harvesting period varies from 5 to 15 months. The avocado
fruit matures after picking and not on the tree. Oil may be obtained from the fruit pulp
and pit. It has a high nutritional value, since it contains essential fatty acids, minerals,
protein and vitamins A, B6, C, D, and E. The content of saturated fatty acids in the
pulp of the fruit and in the oil is low; on the contrary, it is very high in mono-unsaturated
fatty acids (about 96% being oleic acid). The oil content of the fruit is in the range 12–
30%.

Microalgae:
Microalgae have great potential for biodiesel production, since the oil yield (in liters
per hectare) could be one to two orders of magnitude higher than that of other raw
materials. Oil content is usually from 20 to 50%, although in some species it can be
higher than 70% . However, it is important to note that not all microalgae are adequate
for biodiesel production. High levels of CO2, water, light, nutrients and mineral salts
are necessary for the growth of microalgae. Production processes take place in
raceway ponds and photobiological reactors.

Fig No: 2.1: Approximate oil yields for different crops

2.5. INTRODUCTION TO PUMPKIN SEED

Soapnuts are known worldwide by many names such as soapnuts, soapberry,

washing nuts. soap nutshells, wash shells, soapberry nut husk, Ritha nutshell, and
many more. Very simply, Soapnuts are the dried shells (or husks) from the soapberry
(or soap berry nut). These berries are the fruit from a quite unique tree species. These
shells contain a substance called saponine that produces a soaping effect.

Saponine is a 100% natural alternative to chemical laundry detergent and

cleansers. It can replace many chemical detergents such as those containing sodium
laureth sulphate (SLS) that are becoming well known by consumers for being a skin
irritant and health hazard. Soapnuts have been used for centuries throughout the world
as a laundry detergent, as soap for personal hygiene, and as a cleanser with a plethora
of other uses.

Fig No: 2.2: Pumpkin Farm

Soapnut is a handsome deciduous tree found in India. This tree belongs to the
main plant order Sapindaceae and family Sapindeae. The species is widely grown in
upper reaches of the Indo-Gangetic plains, Shivaliks and sub- Himalayan tracts at
altitudes from 200 to 1500 m. A grey smooth bark, peeling off in scales, leaves pinnate,
leaflets 2-3 pairs, length 6-13 cm, width 2-4 cm, terminal pair being the largest, flowers
white, polygamous, male flowers many, bisexual flowers few, all in the same
pubescent panicle, fruits fleshy drupes, light yellow when fruit mature and the pulp
becoming a saponaceous wrinkled rind on drying, seeds black. Blooms in May-June,
fruits mature in November. Based upon its high amount of 'soap' content and
consistency, the highest quality soapnut is Sapindus Mukorossi, which grows primarily
in northern India.

Local farmers and families harvest the prized soapberry fruit after it falls from
the tree. The seed is removed from the shell (or husk), and the shells are dried in the
sun using absolutely no chemical processing. No commercial manufacturing
processes are required in any way for the soap nut to become effective. The soap
nutshell is not altered in any way. Hence, Soapnuts are absolutely 100% natural,
unmodified dried fruit shells.

The outer shell of the soapnut contains a moderate sticky substance called

saponine - sapindoside etc. The shell contains about 4% saponine, 1.2-4％ Vitamin

C; and also some Hutin, kaempferol, quercetin and B-sitosterol. The seed contains fat
and protein; nutlet is eatable and oil squeezable up to 42% oil inside, which can be
good quality lubricant. Root, bark and leaves can be antipruritic and detumescent and
used for cough treatment.

Fig No: 2.3: Pumpkin seed

2.6. PUMPKIN SEED OIL AS BIO-DIESEL

 Transesterification is a chemical reaction used for the change of any vegetable
oil in to biodiesel. In the transesterification process, the vegetable oil is chemically
reacts with an alcohol like methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst.

2.6.1. TRANSESTRIFICATION OF OIL

Transesterification of natural glycerides with methanol to methyl-esters is a

technically important reaction that has been used extensively in the soap and
detergent manufacturing industry worldwide for many years. Almost all biodiesel is
produced in a similar chemical process using base catalyzed transesterification as it
is the most economical process, requiring only low temperatures and pressures while
producing a 98% conversion yield. The transesterification process is the reaction of a
triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol to form esters and glycerol. A triglyceride has a
glycerine molecule as its base with three long chain fatty acids attached. The
characteristics of the fat are determined by the nature of the fatty acids attached to the
glycerine. The nature of the fatty acids can, in turn, affect the characteristics of the
biodiesel.

During the esterification process, the triglyceride is reacted with alcohol in the
presence of a catalyst, usually a strong alkaline like sodium hydroxide. The alcohol
reacts with the fatty acids to form the mono-alkyl ester, or biodiesel, and crude glycerol.
In most production, methanol or ethanol is the alcohol used (methanol produces
methyl esters, ethanol produces ethyl esters) and is base catalyzed by either
potassium or sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide has been found more suitable
for the ethyl ester biodiesel production, but either base can be used for methyl ester
production.

The equation below shows the chemical process for methyl ester biodiesel.
The reaction between the fat or oil and the alcohol is a reversible reaction, so the
alcohol must be added in excess to drive the reaction towards the right and ensure
complete conversion.
 The products of the reaction are the biodiesel itself and glycerol. A successful
transesterification reaction is signified by the separation of the methyl ester (biodiesel)
and glycerol layers after the reaction time. The heavier co-product, glycerol, settles
out and may be sold as is or purified for use in other industries, e.g. pharmaceutical,
cosmetics, and detergents.

After the transesterification reaction and the separation of the crude heavy
glycerin phase, the producer is left with a crude light biodiesel phase. This crude
biodiesel requires some purification prior to use. Biodiesel has a viscosity similar to
petroleum diesel and can be used as an additive in formulations of diesel to increase
the lubricity. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with
petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines.

Biodiesel is a better solvent than petroleum diesel and has been known to break
down deposits of residue in the fuel lines of vehicles that have previously been run on
petroleum diesel. Fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick
transition to pure biodiesel is made, as biodiesel “cleans” the engine in the process. It
is, therefore, recommended to change the fuel filter within 600-800 miles after first
switching to a biodiesel blend.

2.7.1. REQUIREMENT OF ADDITIVES

Diesel oil is a fuel derived from petroleum and consists mainly of aliphatic
hydrocarbons containing 8- 28 carbon atoms with boiling points in the range of 130-
370°C. It is a blend of fractions of hydrocarbons heavier than those of the
hydrocarbons in gasoline and with a lower H/C mass ratio, which determines the high
emission of carbon compounds per unit of energy delivered to the engine. A reduction
in consumption and improvements in the quality of diesel oil have been the object of
study by various specialists, motivated by growing demands in the transport and
electric sectors. Several additives are added to perform specific functions. Additives
reduce emissions; improve fluid stability over a wider range of conditions; improve the
viscosity index, reducing the rate of viscosity change with temperature; and improve
ignition by reducing its delay time, flash point, and so forth. Diesel additives can be
classified according to the purpose for which they are designed. Pre flame additives
are designed to correct problems that occur prior to burning and include dispersants,
pour point depressants, and emulsifiers, which act as cleaning agents. Flame additives
are used to improve combustion efficiency in the combustion chamber, to increase
cetane number, to reduce the formation of carbon deposits, to avoid oxidation
reactions and contamination of fuel and filters clogging by rust, and to inhibit potential
explosions caused by changes in static electricity. Post flame additives are designed
to reduce carbon deposits in the engine, smoke, and emissions.

Fig No: 2.4: Cerium Oxide

2.7.2. ROLE OF CERIUM OXIDE (CeO2) IN BIODIESELS

Addition of cerium oxide to diesel cause significant reduction in number

weighted size distributions and light-off temperature and the oxidation rate was
increased significantly. Cerium oxide being a rare earth metal with dual valance state
existence has exceptional catalytic activity due to its oxygen buffering capability,
especially in the nanosized form. Hence when used as an additive in the diesel fuel it
leads to simultaneous reduction and oxidation of nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbon
emissions, respectively, from diesel engine.
 Table 2.1. Properties of Cerium Oxide
Molecular formula CeO2
Molar mass 172.115 g/mol
Appearance White or pale yellow solid, Slightly
Hygroscopy
Density 7.215 g/cm3
Melting point 2,400 °C (4,350 °F; 2,670 K)
Boiling point 3,500 °C (6,330 °F; 3,770 K)
Solubility in water Insoluble
Crystal structure Cubic (fluorite)

2.8. PREPARATION OF PUMPKIN SEED BIODIESEL

After transesterification the oil which we get has still higher viscosity to reduce
it the next step is blending. By blending the oil can be handled easily it is the main
purpose to reduce the volatility. In order to evaluate the biodiesel in the CI engine,
various blends of Soap nut seed oil and the conventional diesel has been prepared by
mixing with the different amounts of diesel and biodiesel. In this study the blends of
B10, B20 and B30 were prepared for testing.

Fig.No : 2.5: Pumpkin Seed Oil Sample

Biodiesel is available in a number of different blends. It can be used as a fuel

on its own (B100), or blended with diesel into B5, B10 etc. In this work, six different
blends are prepared as follows:
 Table 2.2. Composition of Blends
S.No Blends Diesel (Wt %) Biodiesel (Wt %) Cerium oxide (Wt %)

1 B10 90 10 -

2 B20 80 20 -

3 B30 70 30 -

4 B10+ CeO2 89 10 1

5 B20+ CeO2 79 20 1

6 B30+ CeO2 69 30 1

The blending of pumpkin seed biodiesel is mainly done by sonicating process.

Hielscher offers ultrasonic mixing reactors for the production of biodiesel at any
scale. The ultrasonic mixing improves mass transfer and reaction kinetics
leading to faster transesterification and higher yield. It saves excess methanol
and catalyst.

Sonicating is a process in which sound waves are used to agitate particles in

solution. Such disruptions can be used to mix solutions, speed the dissolution of a
solid into a liquid .

Sound is a wave made up of alternating regions of high and low pressure. As a

sound wave passes through particles, particles get experience moments of high
pressure separated by periods of low pressure (like at the top of a hill of a roller coaster
when particle feel ‘weightless’. The frequency of a sound wave is a measure of how
often the particles of a substance vibrate . The sound waves used in sonication are
usually ultrasound waves with frequencies above what you can hear (above 20 kHz
that is 20,000 cycles per second) and as frequency increases the strength of the
agitation increases. In solution, the particles vibrate because as they experience
cycles of pressure, microscopic vacuum bubbles form these bubbles called as cavity
and then collapse into solution, a process called cavitations. These vibrations can
disrupt molecular interactions (e.g. between molecules of water), break clumps of
particles apart, and lead to mixing.
 The frequency of the ultrasound energy produced by the Bioruptor and a probe
sonicator is equivalent (20 kHz). A generally accepted view is that ultrasound produces
gaseous cavitations in the liquid. This term describes the formation of small bubbles
from dissolved gases or vapors due to alteration of pressure. These bubbles are
capable of resonance vibration and produce vigorous eddying or micro streaming,
which is sufficient to break cells. Also, the fragmentation of DNA takes place as a
consequence of mechanical stress or shear from the bubbles.

With a probe sonicator, the micro streaming phenomenon is limited to the

vicinity of the probe, whereas for the Bioruptor, the whole volume of water present in
the tank is exposed to ultrasound energy. A metallic bar in contact with the sample
facilitates the transfer of the ultrasound inside the tubes. This metallic bar is not a
probe but “reflects” the ultrasound originated from the water bath and improves the
sample sonication efficiency by a patented resonance system. Produced in stainless
steel it is not prone to corrosion. Since we are doing the experiment for blending the
fuel in homogeneous manner on bioruptor. So let’s discuss about the brief description
of Bioruptor.
 CHAPTER-3

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF SOAP NUT OIL

3.1. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

A Single cylinder, constant speed, Direct Injection engine was used to evaluate the
engine performance and emission characteristics of plastic oil. The diesel runs under
different load conditions at a constant speed of 1800 rpm with the different plastic oil
proportions. The diesel engine was directly attached with an eddy current
dynamometer for varying the loads from no load (0%) to full load (100%). Based on
the engine power, the engine load is varied from no load condition of 0%, 25%, 50%,
75% and full load condition of 100%. The engine loads are varied manually with help
of an eddy current dynamometer. Air flow rate was measured with an air drum fitted
with a calibrated orifice and the fuel flow was measured using volumetric (calibrated
burette) method. For fuel flow measurement, two fuel tanks were used; one is filled
with pure diesel while esterified plastic oil is filled in another fuel tank. An AVL smoke
meter was attached for measuring the smoke opacity and exhaust gas temperatures.
The test rig was installed with AVL Indi micro software to obtain various readings and
results during operation. A five gas analyzer was used to measure the emission
characteristics such as UHC, CO, NOx, CO2 and O2 values from the exhaust gas. The
performance and emission tests were conducted at the compression ratio of 17.5 and
with rated power.

The test was carried out for different proportions of waste plastic oil blended
with the pure diesel fuel. The performance analysis of the engine at different rated
power was evaluated in terms of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), Brake
Thermal Efficiency (BTE) and emissions characteristics such as UHC, CO, CO2 and
NOx. The photographic view of the experimental set up used in this study.
 Fig.No: 3.1: Experimental Setup Layout

Table.3.1. Specifications of the Test Engine

Single Cylinder, 4 Stroke, Water Cooled
Engine Type Engine
Stoke 110mm, Bore 87.5mm, 661 cc
Power 5.20 kW @ 1500 rpm
Compression ratio 17.5
Injection variation 0-25 deg bTDC
Eddy current, Water cooled with Loading
Dynamometer
unit
15 lit, Duel compartment with fuel
Fuel tank
metering
 Fig.No:3.2: Experimental Set Up

3.2. EMISSION ANALYZER

Exhaust gas analyzer is used to find the NOx (ppm), CO(%vol), UBHC(ppm), CO2(%)
emission in the exhaust. The AVL smoke meter is used to measure the opacity of the
exhaust gases. Opacity is the extinction of light between light sources and receiver.
Opacity is measured in percentage. The Exhaust gas analyzer and smoke meter
 Fig.No:3.3: Emission Analyzer

3.3. AVL SMOKE METER

Fig.No:3.4: AVL Smoke Meter

Driven by emission regulations for internal combustion engines, the measurement

requirements regarding resolution and accuracy are getting higher. For some
applications, such as durability tests, reliability and robustness are an important factor.
The measurement challenges of engines with exhaust after treatment systems are
high pressures and temperatures at the exhaust sampling position combined with high
emission rates. Furthermore, engines emit hardly any soot after a diesel particle filter
which requires very low detection limits for particle measurement equipment in
addition.

The AVL Smoke Meter uses the filter paper method and measures the soot
concentration of the exhaust gas of diesel and GDI engines. The variable sampling
volume and thermal exhaust conditioning assures a wide applications range, e.g.
measurements during engine development or DPF calibration.

Fig.No:3.5: AVL Smoke Meter

3.4. PROPERTIES OF PUMPKIN SEED OIL

Various properties of pumpkin seed oil were tested and tabulated in Table 3.2.

Table.3.2. Properties of Pumpkin seed oil

Sl.No Property Value
1 Density 0.930g/cc
2 ̊
Kinematics viscosity@40 C 9.99cSt
3 Flash point by PMCC method 238 ̊C

4 Fire point by PMCC method 254 ̊C

 5 Calorific value 6978.953 cal/g

CALORIFIC VALUE:
Because of its chemical structure the alcohol molecules contains fixed oxygen.
This results in a lower calorific value than that of diesel fuel, is only a few percent’s
which may have an effect on volume consumption.

ENERGY DENSITY:
The low heat value of a fuel has a direct influence on the power output of the
engine. Methanol contains about 33% lesser energy than that for diesel fuel on a mass
basis. Blending ethanol with diesel lowers the volumetric energy density of the fuel in
proportion to the methanol content.

FLASH POINT:
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel will ignite when
exposed to an ignition source. The flash point of the fuel affects the shipping and
storage classification of fuels and the precautions that should be used in handling and
transporting the fuel. In general flash point measurements are typically dominated by
the fuel component in the blend with the lower flash point. The flash point of methanol
diesel blend fuels is mainly dominated by methanol.

FIRE POINT:
The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel
will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash
point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapour might not be
produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of material properties will only list
material flash be assumed to be about 10c higher than the flash points this is no
substitute for testing if the fire point is safety critical. Testing of the fire point is done
by open cup apparatus.

VISCOSITY:
 Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction
of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular make
up gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its
molecular makeup results in very little friction when its motion.
 CHAPTER - 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The test was carried out for different proportions of biofuel blended with the
pure diesel fuel. The performance analysis of the engine at different rated power was
evaluated in terms of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bSFC), Brake Thermal
Efficiency (BTE) and emissions characteristics such as HC, CO, CO 2 and NOx. The
performance and emission characteristics were discussed below.

4.1. PERFORMANCE OF BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

The performance of pumpkin seed biodiesel blends on the brake thermal efficiency for
various loads with respect to three ratios are shown in figure 4.1 and brake thermal
efficiency with cerium oxide as additive are shown below in the figure 4.2.

D100 B10 B20 B30

45

40

35
Brake Thermal Efficiency

30

25

20

15

10

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No : 4.1: Performance of Brake Thermal Efficiency by Pumpkin seed

blends
 D100 B10+CeO2 B20+CeO2 B30+CeO2

45

40

35
Brake Thermal Efficiency

30

25

20

15

10

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.2: Performance of Brake Thermal Efficiency by Pumpkin Seed

blends with CeO2

The performance of the brake thermal efficiency for different loads with blended fuel
at different ratios of diesel, pumpkin seed oil was shown in Fig No 4.1 and 4.2. The
higher viscosity of the blended fuel reduced the brake thermal efficiency and The
blended fuel was similar to that of the diesel performance. It is observed that, at
maximum load condition and it was only 2% variation from that of the pure diesel
performance.

4.2. PERFORMANCE OF SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

The performance of pumpkin seed biodiesel blends on the Specific Fuel Consumption
for various loads with respect to three ratios are shown in figure 4.3 and Specific Fuel
Consumption with cerium oxide as additive are shown below in the figure 4.4.
 D100 B10 B20 B30

3.5

2.5
SFC (kg/kWh)

1.5

0.5

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.3: Performance of Specific Fuel Consumption by Pumpkin Seed

blends

3
D100

2.5 B10+CeO2

2 B20+CeO2
SFC (kg/kWh)

1.5 B30+CeO2

0.5

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No : 4.4: Performance of Specific Fuel Consumption by Pumpkin Seed

blends with CeO2
The Specific fuel oil consumption of blended oil is slightly higher than diesel oil. From
the Fig No 4.3 and 4.4, it is derived that the diesel has a lower Specific fuel oil
consumption because of high calorific value, with blended fuel B10 the equivalent SFC
was very closer but higher than that for the pure diesel fuel. This was observed due to
the slightly lower calorific value and higher viscosity of the biofuel.

4.3. EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRO CARBON

The test was carried out for different proportions of biofuel blended with the pure diesel
fuel. The emissions characteristics of HC analyzed with and without nano additives
are shown in figure 4.5 and 4.6.

D100 B10 B20 B30

90

80

70
HC ppm

60

50

40
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No : 4.5: Emission Characteristics of HC by Pumpkin Seed blends

At different load conditions, the unburned hydrocarbon emission was lower for the
diesel fuel with respect to the blends of pumpkin seed oil as shown in Fig No 4.5 and
4.6. This is because of the higher calorific value of diesel and due to which less amount
of fuel was injected when compared to bio fuel. Because of oxygen enrich
environment, combustion is complete. Hence lower unburned hydrocarbon emission
was observed with diesel fuel.
 D100 B10+CeO2
B20+CeO2 B30+CeO2
80

70
HC ppm

60

50

40
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.6 Emission Characteristics of HC by Pumpkin Seed blends with

CeO2

4.4. EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON DI OXIDE

The emission test was carried out for different proportions of biofuel blended with the
pure diesel fuel. The emissions characteristics of CO2 analyzed with and without nano
additives are shown in figure 4.7 and 4.8.
 7

5
D100
CO2 %

B10
4
B20

3 B30

1
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No : 4.7: Emission Characteristics of CO2 by Pumpkin Seed blends

5
CO2 %

4 D100

B10+CeO2
3
B20+CeO2

B30+CeO2
2

1
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.8: Emission Characteristics of CO2 by Pumpkin Seed blends with
CeO2

The various Carbon Dioxide levels for varying blends were shown in Fig No 4.7 and
4.8. From the readings, it is inferred that emission of Caron dioxide is slightly higher
than pure diesel. The CO emission can be reduced by providing surplus oxygen in to
the combustion chamber. There by converting CO into CO 2 this is possible by
complete combustion.

4.5. EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON MONO OXIDE

The emission characteristics was carried out for different blends of biofuels with the
pure diesel fuel. The emissions characteristics of CO analyzed with and without cerium
oxide additives are shown in figure 4.9 and 4.10.

0.1 D100
B10
0.09
B20
0.08
B30
0.07
CO %

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.9: Emission Characteristics of CO by Pumpkin Seed blends

 0.1 D100
B10+CeO2
0.09
B20+CeO2
0.08
B30+CeO2
0.07
CO %

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.10: Emission Characteristics of CO by Pumpkin Seed blends with

CeO2

The various Carbon Monoxide emissions for varying blends were shown in Fig No 4.9
and 4.10 The Carbon Monoxide emissions from blended fuel are a bit more than the
normal diesel fuel at all loads. Diesel engines produce little amount of CO when
compared to NOx and particulate emission as the engine was not loaded.

4.6. EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF NITROGEN OXIDES

 1210

1010

810
D100
NOx ppm

B10
610
B20

410 B30

210

10
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.11: Emission Characteristics of NOX by Pumpkin Seed blends

1210

1010

810
NOx ppm

610 D100
B10+CeO2
410
B20+CeO2
B30+CeO2
210

10
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
LOAD

Fig. No: 4.12: Emission Characteristics of NOX by Pumpkin Seed blends with
CeO2
 The study of nitrogen oxide emission from diesel, pumpkin seed oil blends are
slightly lower than the pure diesel fuel performance at maximum loads and it was
shown in Fig No 4.11 and 4.12. Because of more air action, much elevated than
stoichiometric values, diesel engines produce more NOx at part load conditions and
at higher loads. Diesel has higher calorific value than that of pumpkin seed oil, so a
lesser amount of diesel was injected into the combustion chamber.
 CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION

Alternative fuels should be available at easily and at low cost, should be

atmosphere friendly and provide safe energy needs without compromising diesel
engine’s operational performance. In this work, bio fuel from pumpkin seed blends has
been attempted as an alternative fuel. The experiments were conducted without any
modification on the engine. CI engine performance tests were conducted with three
blend ratios of pumpkin seed oil with diesel. Based on the engine performance and
emission characteristic test of the soap nut oil an admirable substitute fuel which gives
better performance and similar emission characteristics results compared with base
pure diesel.
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