TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ALTIPLANO
(CENTRAL ANDES, BOLIVIA): A DETRITAL RECORD OF PLATEAU-MARGIN TECTONICS
B.K. HORTON1, B.A. HAMPTON 2, B.N. LAREAU 2, AND E. BALDELLÓN3
1 Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1567, U.S.A.
2 Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, U.S.A.
3 Servicio Nacional de Geologı́a y Minerı́a (SERGEOMIN), Casilla 2729, 1673 Calle Federico Zuazo, La Paz, Bolivia
e-mail: horton@ess.ucla.edu
ABSTRACT: The internally drained Altiplano plateau in the high-ele-
vation hinterland of the central Andes contains an extremely thick (up
to 12 km) succession of Tertiary nonmarine strata that recorded the
topographic evolution of eastern and western plateau margins. In this
study, temporal and spatial variations in detrital composition (based
on 113 sandstone thin sections and 31 conglomerate clast counts), com-
bined with sediment dispersal patterns and regional stratigraphic cor-
relations, help delineate the Tertiary history of Altiplano basin devel-
opment in relationship to thrust deformation and arc magmatism along
plateau margins.
Stratigraphic and provenance data suggest limited subsidence and
west-directed sediment dispersal during the early Tertiary history of
the Altiplano region. By late Eocene time, development of a rapidly
subsiding basin (probable foredeep) was underway, as recorded by ex-
tensive east-directed fluvial systems of the 3–6.5-km-thick Potoco For-
mation. Potoco compositional data are compatible with sediment sourc-
es in the incipient Western Cordillera and regions farther west, in-
cluding (1) a probable thrust-belt source terrane composed of Paleo-
zoic–Mesozoic strata and Precambrian granitic/gneissic basement and
(2) a subordinate magmatic-arc source terrane composed of Tertiary
volcanic rocks. Increased abundances of plagioclase grains and volca-
nic lithic fragments upsection indicate a progressively greater arc in-
fluence, due to either enhanced volcanism or eastward arc migration.
By late Oligocene time, west-directed fluvial and alluvial-fan systems
of the upper Potoco Formation and the ;3-km-thick Coniri Formation
reached the Altiplano basin, providing a minimum uplift age for the
backthrust belt along the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera. Pa-
leozoic-clast conglomerate and relatively quartz-rich sandstone con-
taining sedimentary and metasedimentary lithic fragments show un-
roofing of predominantly Paleozoic strata in the backthrust belt. Con-
tinued late Oligocene to Quaternary accumulation in the Altiplano re-
veals that the basin persisted as a depositional region during a
well-documented period of Neogene shortening and uplift in the An-
dean thrust belt farther east. This intra-orogenic (hinterland) deposi-
tion between eastern and western highs during ongoing shortening sug-
gests that the Altiplano basin existed as a crustal-scale piggyback basin,
possibly in an internally drained plateau-like geomorphic setting, since
;25 Ma.
Provenance data and independent structural and thermochrono-
logical evidence for spatially and temporally varying tectonic histories
along the eastern and western plateau margins imply that several
modes of basin development were active during growth of the Altipla-
no. Although flexural subsidence due to thrust loading along both pla-
teau margins, initially in the west and subsequently in the east, may
explain most Tertiary subsidence, possible closed-basin conditions due
to structural damming could have promoted additional sediment ac-
cumulation from late Oligocene to Quaternary time.
INTRODUCTION
Sedimentary basins exposed in orogenic interiors (hinterlands) can pro-
vide records of erosional denudation in the highest and most structurally
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 72, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER, 2002, P. 711–726
Copyright q 2002, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/02/072-711/$03.00
complex regions of mountain belts. For continental hinterland plateaus,
such as the Tibetan plateau of central Asia and Altiplano–Puna plateau of
the central Andes (the two largest elevated regions on Earth), provenance
studies may help resolve questions on the timing and magnitude of defor-
mation, magmatism, and erosion for both the margins and interiors of pla-
teaus. Such information may ultimately prove beneficial in constraining the
mechanisms of surface uplift in orogenic plateaus, an issue fundamental to
understanding mountain building in Tibet (Yin and Harrison 2000), the
Andes (Isacks 1988), and possible ancient plateau systems (Russo and Sil-
ver 1996; Chase et al. 1998).
Although compositional analyses of hinterland plateaus are limited, the
utility of provenance studies for the interiors of other orogenic systems has
been well established. For example, Mesozoic–early Tertiary hinterland
basins in the Canadian and Alaskan Cordillera provide accurate records of
Cordilleran thrust-belt development and episodes of terrane accretion along
the western margin of North America (Eisbacher et al. 1974; Ricketts et
al. 1992; Trop and Ridgway 1997; Johnsson 2000). Similarly, analyses of
large continental basins in central Asia north of the Tibetan plateau have
defined compositional records of Mesozoic through Cenozoic collisional
mountain building and associated unroofing of diverse accreted terranes
(Graham et al. 1993; Hendrix 2000; Shao et al. 2001). These studies sug-
gest, by analogy, that provenance investigations aimed at orogenic plateaus
may offer insight into the tectonic and sedimentary processes related to
plateau development.
In the Andes, numerous sedimentary basins occur within the high-ele-
vation interior of the orogenic belt. These basins include zones of modern
sediment accumulation as well as exposed fill of older Tertiary basins. The
Altiplano basin of the Bolivian central Andes is the most extensive (roughly
150,000 km 2), contains the thickest fill (up to 12 km), and is among the
highest (3.7 km average elevation) of the Andean hinterland basins (Ahlfeld
and Branisa 1960; Martinez 1980; Sempere et al. 1990a; Sempere et al.
1990b; Allmendinger et al. 1997). Previous studies have documented the
sedimentology, stratigraphy, and structure of several Andean hinterland ba-
sins, including basins in Ecuador (Hungerbühler et al. 1995; Steinmann et
al. 1999), Peru (Mégard et al. 1984; Marocco et al. 1995), and Argentina
(Vandervoort 1993; Vandervoort et al. 1995; Kraemer et al. 1999). How-
ever, the detailed depositional history, sediment source areas, structural
controls, and timing of uplift for the Altiplano remain poorly understood.
The goal of this investigation is to shed light on the structural and mag-
matic history of the Altiplano plateau margins on the basis of the Tertiary
provenance record, and in doing so, identify possible factors contributing
to the growth of the plateau and accumulation of an extremely thick Ter-
tiary succession. We present here an analysis of the composition, stratig-
raphy, and paleocurrent patterns of Paleocene to lower Miocene strata in
the northern and central Altiplano. Our study illustrates the temporal and
compositional variability associated with basin evolution in a high-eleva-
tion, orogenic plateau setting and may have implications for the tectono-
geomorphic conditions conducive to plateau development.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Altiplano occupies the hinterland of the Bolivian central Andes. It
consists of a 200-km-wide, internally drained, low-relief region at 3.7 km
712 B.K. HORTON ET AL.
elevation between two mountain ranges bearing peaks over 6 km high
(Isacks 1988). To the west is the narrow Western Cordillera, a modern
volcanic arc, and to the east is the extensive Eastern Cordillera, the uplifted
interior of the Andean thrust belt (Fig. 1).
The Altiplano exhibits an exceptionally thick (up to 12 km) succession
of Tertiary nonmarine strata (Ahlfeld and Branisa 1960; Martinez 1980;
Sempere et al. 1990a; Sempere et al. 1990b; Allmendinger et al. 1997).
Although numerous stratigraphic units have been identified (Evernden et
al. 1977; Suárez and Diaz 1996; Lamb and Hoke 1997), the basic Upper
Cretaceous through Cenozoic stratigraphy (Fig. 2) can be summarized brief-
ly as follows (Horton et al. 2001): (1) Maastrichtian to mid-Paleocene shal-
low marine and lacustrine carbonate, and distal fluvial siltstone and sand-
stone (El Molino and Santa Lucia formations, 250–900 m thick); (2) mostly
upper Eocene through Oligocene fluvial sandstone (Potoco Formation,
3000–6500 m thick); and (3) upper Oligocene to Quaternary fluvial and
alluvial-fan conglomerate (upper Oligocene–lower Miocene Coniri For-
mation) and overlying volcaniclastic section (numerous lower Miocene–
Quaternary stratigraphic units) (1000–4000 m total thickness). Age assign-
ments are based on magnetostratigraphy and mammal fossils from Upper
Cretaceous to mid-Paleocene El Molino and Santa Lucia strata (Marshall
et al. 1997; Sempere et al. 1997), late Eocene–Oligocene palynological ages
from the Potoco Formation (Horton et al. 2001), late Oligocene–Pliocene
40Ar/39Ar and K–Ar ages from interbedded volcanic rocks (Evernden et al.
1977; Lavenu et al. 1989; MacFadden et al. 1990; Marshall et al. 1992;
Kennan et al. 1995; MacFadden et al. 1995; Lamb and Hoke 1997; Kay
et al. 1998), and magnetostratigraphy of Oligocene–Miocene strata
(MacFadden et al. 1990; MacFadden et al. 1995; Kay et al. 1998; Roperch
et al. 1999). Available age constraints suggest that rocks of the upper Po-
toco Formation and lower Coniri Formation are age-equivalent strata. This
study focuses on the most complete exposures of the thick Paleocene to
lower Miocene succession represented by the Santa Lucia, Potoco, and
Coniri formations.
POTENTIAL SEDIMENT SOURCE AREAS
Possible sediment sources for the Altiplano basin include the narrow
Western Cordillera and Precordillera to the west and the extensive Eastern
Cordillera to the east (Fig. 1). The Western Cordillera is an 80-km-wide
mountain range forming a drainage divide along the Chile–Bolivia border.
The range stands 1–2 km above the surface of the Altiplano. Although
Neogene–Quaternary volcanic rocks and stratovolcanos cover most of the
Western Cordillera (Pareja et al. 1978; Isacks 1988; Marsh et al. 1992;
Reutter et al. 1994; Wörner et al. 2000a), several lines of evidence suggest
that Precambrian granitic and gneissic basement compose the bulk of the
range. Evidence includes xenoliths of granite and gneiss in Neogene ig-
neous rocks (Jiménez de Rı́os 1992), dated Precambrian granitic and
gneissic clasts in middle to upper Tertiary strata (Evernden et al. 1977;
Jiménez de Rı́os 1992), dated Precambrian gneiss and granite from drill-
hole samples (Fig. 1) (Lehmann 1978; Tosdal 1996), and limited surface
exposures of dated Precambrian rocks beneath the volcanic cover (Fig. 1)
(Troëng et al. 1994; Wörner et al. 2000b). Although these data provide
insight into the crustal composition of the Western Cordillera, the structural
relationships and pre-Neogene tectonic history of the region remain largely
inaccessible beneath the Neogene–Quaternary volcanic cover.
To the west of the Western Cordillera lies a 50-km-wide region at 2–4
km elevation called the Precordillera (Fig. 1). The Precordillera is com-
posed of Mesozoic arc-related sedimentary and igneous rocks, Paleozoic
strata, and Precambrian basement (Chong 1977; Chong and Reutter 1985;
Hartley et al. 1992; Scheuber and Reutter 1992; Reutter et al. 1994). Farther
west, Andean topography consists of a west-facing slope that, over a 50
km distance, drops uniformly in elevation down to a 1-km-high forearc
basin known as the Longitudinal Valley, Central Depression, or Pampa del
Tamuragal. The western Andean slope has been attributed to surface tilting
during post-early Miocene growth of a crustal-scale monocline (Mortimer
1981; Isacks 1988; Lamb et al. 1997; Wörner et al. 2000a). However, the
greatest magnitude of deformation in the Precordillera and western slope
is primarily of Late Cretaceous–Paleogene age. During this time, thrusting
and related strike-slip faulting accommodated several tens of kilometers of
east–west shortening (Chong 1977; Chong and Reutter 1985; Hammer-
schmidt et al. 1992; Hartley et al. 1992; Scheuber and Reutter 1992; Scheu-
ber et al. 1994; Kuhn and Reuther 1999; Arriagada et al. 2000).
On the opposite side of the Altiplano, the Eastern Cordillera forms a
200-km-wide zone of rugged topography with peak elevations up to 6.4
km (Fig. 1). A topographic divide near the western edge of the Eastern
Cordillera separates the Altiplano drainage system from river networks that
flow to the South American craton to the east. Paleozoic sedimentary and
low-grade metasedimentary rocks, primarily of clastic origin, dominate the
Eastern Cordillera (Pareja et al. 1978; Roeder 1988; Reutter et al. 1994;
Kley et al. 1997; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001). Carbonates are rare and
no Precambrian basement is exposed. In places, upper Miocene ignimbrites,
Neogene intrusions, and narrow synclinal belts of Cretaceous–Tertiary stra-
ta overlap or intrude the Paleozoic section (e.g., Gubbels 1993; Lamb et
al. 1997; Horton and DeCelles 2001). The Eastern Cordillera is a distinctive
belt of oppositely verging fold–thrust structures (Roeder 1988; Roeder and
Chamberlain 1995; Kley et al. 1997; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001). Along
the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera, a west-vergent backthrust belt
accommodated 100–150 km of roughly mid-Tertiary shortening (Roeder
and Chamberlain 1995; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001). To the east, the
east-vergent Andean thrust belt, which includes the central to eastern sector
of the Eastern Cordillera as well as the Subandean Zone farther east, ac-
commodated 100–150 km of primarily Neogene shortening (Roeder 1988;
Sheffels 1990; Roeder and Chamberlain 1995; Kley 1996; Baby et al. 1997;
Kley et al. 1997).
On the basis of the above descriptions, possible sediment sources for the
Altiplano basin include a western region composed of Precambrian base-
ment, Paleozoic–Mesozoic strata, and Tertiary igneous rocks, and an east-
ern region composed of primarily Paleozoic strata with limited amounts of
Mesozoic strata and Neogene igneous rocks. It should be emphasized that
the structural and topographic expression of the modern plateau margins
may be substantially different from their early to mid-Tertiary appearance.
In addition, given the large extent of Neogene volcanic cover, the modern
bulk-rock compositions at the surface of the Precordillera, the Western
Cordillera, and the Eastern Cordillera may not be accurate representations
of their early to mid-Tertiary composition.
METHODS
Our investigation centers on sandstone compositional data from petro-
graphic analyses (point counts), conglomerate compositional data from
clast counts, sedimentologic data derived from paleocurrent measurements
and facies analyses, and regional stratigraphic correlations.
Compositional data were collected from ten stratigraphic sections mea-
sured within a nearly continuous belt of Paleocene–Miocene exposures in
the northern and central Altiplano (Fig. 3). For sandstones, a standard pet-
rographic thin section from each sample, primarily medium-grained sand-
stone, was cut and stained for plagioclase and potassium feldspar. 113 thin
sections were analyzed using a modified Gazzi-Dickinson method of point
counting (Gazzi 1966; Dickinson 1970; Ingersoll et al. 1984). At least 400–
500 framework grains were identified per thin section. In cases of diage-
netic alteration (including compaction, partial alteration of feldspar to clay
minerals, and cementation), the original framework grains were recogniz-
able and identified as the original grain constituent. For these samples, lithic
fragments are represented primarily by volcanic grains (Fig. 4A), meta-
morphic and metasedimentary grains (Fig. 4B), mudrock and sandstone
grains (Fig. 4C), and minor amounts of carbonate grains (Fig. 4D). Pet-
rographic counting parameters (Table 1), raw point-count data (Appendix
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES
1, archived; see acknowledgments section), and recalculated detrital modes
(Table 2) are based on methods previously defined by Ingersoll et al. (1984)
and Dickinson (1985). Recalculated parameters are reported for Q-F-L,
Qm-P-K, and Lv-Lm-Ls ternary diagrams.
Conglomerates are typically clast-supported, moderately organized beds
containing subangular to subrounded pebbles to boulders. Clast counts were
performed on the outcrop at a stratigraphic spacing of roughly 100–150 m.
Each of the 31 conglomerate clast counts involved lithologic identification
of 100–125 clasts. Clast types include the following: granite; orthogneiss;
basalt; welded tuff; several varieties of quartz-rich, fine- to medium-grained
sandstone and quartzite; fossiliferous carbonate; laminated carbonate; mas-
sive vein quartz; chert; massive mudrock; and pebble–cobble conglomerate.
Sedimentological analyses, discussed in part by Horton et al. (2001),
were conducted to determine sediment dispersal patterns and ancient de-
positional systems for the Altiplano basin. Paleocurrent analyses, primarily
from measurements of trough-cross limbs in sandstone (method I of
713
FIG. 1.—Simplified geologic map of the
northern and central Altiplano (after Pareja et al.
1978) showing location of measured sections
within the northern (N), central (C), and
southern (S) study regions. Topographic margins
of the plateau are defined by the Western
Cordillera (along the Chile–Bolivia border) and
the Eastern Cordillera. Outcrop and drill-hole
locations of Precambrian basement after Wörner
et al. (2000b) and Lehmann (1978), respectively.
Large areas of Quaternary alluvium denote the
depositional surface of the modern Altiplano
basin. Stippled and shaded patterns represent
exposed Paleocene to lower Miocene strata of
the Altiplano basin. Inset map shows regional
setting within the central Andes, including
international borders (dashed lines), geological
zonations (labeled), elevated region over 3 km
high (shaded), and eastern mountain front of
Andean thrust belt (barbed line).
DeCelles et al. 1983) and clast imbrication in conglomerate, document
changes in paleoflow within the measured stratigraphic sections.
Stratigraphic correlations among the measured sections (Fig. 3) were
based on similar depositional ages, and, in the absence of age control,
diagnostic lithostratigraphic elements. The mid-Paleocene Santa Lucia For-
mation (Marshall et al. 1997; Sempere et al. 1997) provides a lower marker
unit that can be traced over large parts of the Altiplano. Red siltstone and
minor sandstone of the Santa Lucia Formation overlie the carbonate-rich
El Molino Formation and underlie a distinctive paleosol zone reported by
Horton et al. (2001) in the basal Potoco Formation (Figs. 2, 3). In areas
where the Santa Lucia is covered, lower correlations are based on either a
basal gypsum (Chuquichambi Member) of the Potoco Formation that yields
late Eocene palynomorph assemblages (Horton et al. 2001; Hampton 2002)
or the lowest east-derived conglomeratic deposits of the Coniri Formation
(Sempere et al. 1990b; LaReau and Horton 2000). Regional correlations of
upper stratigraphic intervals are based on the stratigraphically lowest vol-
714 B.K. HORTON ET AL.
FIG. 2.—Simplified Cenozoic stratigraphic framework for the northern and central
Altiplano. Ages are based on palynological assemblages, magnetostratigraphy, and
isotopic ages of tuffs (see text). Ruled area indicates zone of limited sediment ac-
cumulation and extensive paleosol development in the lowermost Potoco Formation
(after Horton et al. 2001). Dashed lines depict approximate boundaries between
partially age-equivalent strata (upper Potoco, Coniri, and Neogene–Quaternary vol-
caniclastic units).
canic tuffs, which have been dated at 25–23 Ma (Lavenu et al. 1989; Ken-
nan et al. 1995; Horton et al. 2001).
PROVENANCE RESULTS
Results are presented for 13 sandstone thin sections from the Santa Lucia
Formation (mid-Paleocene), 68 thin sections from west-derived deposits of
the Potoco Formation (upper Eocene–Oligocene), and 32 thin sections and
31 clast counts from east-derived deposits of the upper Potoco and Coniri
formations (upper Oligocene–lower Miocene).
In thin section, several framework grains have notable attributes of po-
tential use in provenance identification, including: microlitic to lathwork
volcanic fragments that show mainly intersertal texture with plagioclase
laths set in a brown glassy matrix (Lvm, Lvl) (Fig. 4A); phyllite and quartz-
mica schist fragments displaying a moderate to well-developed planar fab-
ric defined by elongate (commonly polycrystalline) quartz, aligned mica,
and in some cases, aligned hornblende (Lph, Lms, Qpt) (Fig. 4B); carbon-
ate lithic fragments containing allochems of bioclasts and coated grains
(Lca) (Fig. 4D); and microcline and perthitic potassium feldspar grains
exhibiting tartan (grid) twinning and albite lamellae (Kmp).
Although most conglomerate clasts cannot be identified confidently at
the formation level, granite and gneiss clasts can be attributed to Precam-
brian basement, fossiliferous carbonate and chert clasts to Permo–Carbon-
iferous units (e.g., Copacabana Formation), laminated carbonate clasts to
the Upper Cretaceous El Molino Formation, and mudrock clasts to the
Tertiary Potoco Formation. Clasts of conglomerate may be reworked from
the Tertiary Coniri Formation, the Carboniferous Ambo Group, or the Si-
lurian Cancañiri Formation (Sempere 1995; Suárez and Diaz 1996; Mc-
Quarrie and DeCelles 2001). The majority of sandstone and quartzite clasts
are of Paleozoic origin, mostly of Silurian–Devonian age. Whereas Devo-
nian sandstone and quartzite are generally yellow to red (e.g., the Sica Sica
and Vila Vila formations), Silurian sandstone and quartzite are primarily
gray to green (e.g., Catavi and Llallagua formations) (Suárez and Diaz
1996).
On the basis of over 2500 paleocurrent measurements, it is clear that
major sediment sources existed to both the east and west. Lithofacies anal-
yses indicate depositional processes associated with fluvial and, to a lesser
degree, alluvial-fan and lacustrine sedimentation (LaReau and Horton 2000;
Horton et al. 2001; Hampton 2002).
Within the exposed belt of Paleocene–Miocene rocks, three geographic
regions of differing lithostratigraphy and detrital composition have been
identified and are herein referred to as the southern, central, and northern
study regions (Figs. 1, 3). The southern region contains a diagnostic pa-
leosol interval in the basal Potoco Formation; the central region is distin-
guished by the greatest exposed thickness of the Potoco Formation, which
occurs in the Corque syncline; and the northern region contains exposures
of both the Potoco Formation and conglomeratic Coniri Formation (Fig.
3).
Southern Region
Description.—Measured sections 1–3 (Julchi, Maicoma, and Andamarca
sites) all exhibit striking upsection variations in sandstone composition
from the lower Santa Lucia Formation to the upper Potoco Formation (Fig.
5). At the base, 11 Santa Lucia samples define a generally quartzofeld-
spathic composition (Fig. 5A). Monocrystalline quartz (Fig. 5B) is the dom-
inant grain type and lithic fragments are mainly of sedimentary or meta-
sedimentary origin (Fig. 5C). The 17 Potoco sandstones sampled upsection
are dramatically richer in feldspar and lithic fragments (Fig. 5A). For these
feldsarenites to feldspathic litharenites, plagioclase is the dominant feldspar
(Fig. 5B) and volcanic grains represent the main lithic component (Fig.
5C).
Well-defined upsection trends are visible in all ternary diagrams (Fig.
5). The Q-F-L plots indicate an increase in feldspar for the lower Potoco
followed by an increase in lithic fragments for the middle to upper Potoco
(Fig. 5A). These variations are best displayed in Section 1 (Julchi site),
where the most complete stratigraphic section is preserved (Fig. 3). A de-
viation from these trends in Section 1 is marked by abrupt increases in
feldspar, conspicuously potassium feldspar, and metamorphic lithic frag-
ments for samples 10 and 11 (outlined areas in Fig. 5), which were taken
from the 1500–2500 m level (Fig. 3). In addition to Q-F-L trends, clear
upsection increases in plagioclase (Fig. 5B) and volcanic lithic fragments
(Fig. 5C) exist for all three sections.
Interpretation.—Paleocurrent data for Sections 1–3 (Horton et al. 2001)
indicate an eastern source for the Santa Lucia Formation and a western
source for the overlying Potoco Formation (Fig. 3). From the abundance
of Paleozoic sedimentary and low-grade metasedimentary strata in the East-
ern Cordillera (Fig. 1), the observed quartzofeldspathic Santa Lucia com-
positions are attributed to initial erosion of mostly Paleozoic rocks to the
east. In contrast, the feldspathic to lithofeldspathic Potoco sandstone com-
positions are considered the product of sediment transport from a mixed
basement and volcanic source terrane to the west in the incipient Western
Cordillera and regions farther west. The abrupt increase in feldspar and
metamorphic lithic fragments for samples 10 and 11 is tentatively attributed
to greater contribution from potassium-feldspar-bearing Precambrian base-
ment rocks to the west (Fig. 1). For upper stratigraphic levels, a volcanic-
arc sediment source is inferred based on the high amount of feldspar (most-
ly plagioclase) and lithic fragments (mostly volcanic fragments) (Fig. 5)
(e.g., Dickinson 1985; Marsaglia and Ingersoll 1992).
Central Region
Description.—West-derived Potoco deposits of Sections 5 and 6 (Chu-
quichambi and Turco sites) display large compositional variations in the
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES 715

FIG. 3.—Generalized stratigraphic sections of Paleocene–lower Miocene deposits from the northern, central, and southern study regions (locations are shown in Fig. 1).
Depicted features include thickness (km), basic lithology, paleocurrent data, and locations of sandstone point-count samples. Stratigraphic correlations are based on (1)
distinctive lithostratigraphic elements such as the top of the El Molino Formation (0 m level, Sections 1–4, 9), the top of the Santa Lucia Formation (Sections 1–4, 9), the
basal gypsum member of the Potoco Formation (Sections 5, 7, 8A), and basal conglomerate of the Coniri Formation (Sections 7, 8A, 8B), (2) palynological ages from the
Potoco Formation, and (3) published 25–23 Ma K–Ar ages for the stratigraphically lowest tuffs in overlying volcaniclastic deposits. See Horton et al. (2001) for facies
analyses and stratigraphic nomenclature.

west but limited variations in the east (Fig. 6). In the west, 22 samples
from Section 6 (Turco site, samples 51–72) show a diverse composition
and a well-defined upsection trend from quartzolithic to more feldspathic
sandstone (Fig. 6A). Basal sandstones in the west are rich in monocrystal-
line quartz (Fig. 6A, B) and contain metamorphic and sedimentary lithic
fragments (Fig. 6C). Intermediate sandstones exhibit an increase in potas-
sium feldspar (Fig. 6B) and volcanic lithic fragments (Fig. 6C). These
intermediate feldsarenites and lithic arkoses are from a coarse-grained in-
terval (Fig. 3; locally named Azurita conglomerate; Evernden et al. 1977;
Lamb and Hoke 1997) that also contains numerous cobble–boulder con-
glomerate beds dominated by clasts of granite and gneiss (Fig. 7). Upper
sandstones are feldsarenites to feldspathic litharenites containing greater
amounts of plagioclase, volcanic lithic fragments, and total lithic fragments
(Fig. 6).
In the east, distal equivalent strata from lower to intermediate Potoco
levels exhibit similar, but less pronounced, compositional trends. The 15
quartzolithic, quartzofeldspathic, and lithic arkosic samples from the lower
4200 m of Section 5 (Chuquichambi site, samples 29–43) are rich in mono-
crystalline quartz (Fig. 6A, B) and contain subordinate lithic fragments of
metamorphic, metasedimentary, and volcanic origin (Fig. 6C). Although
this suite shows upsection increases in feldspar (Fig. 6A, B) and volcanic
lithic fragments (Fig. 6C), the magnitude of these variations is substantially
less than observed to the west. Sediment dispersal patterns for the upper
stratigraphic levels of the eastern area (Fig. 3) indicate an eastern, rather
than western, source; therefore, compositional data for those strata are dis-
cussed below.
Interpretation.—In the central region, paleocurrent data indicate an ex-
clusively western sediment source for the western Potoco section and lower
716 B.K. HORTON ET AL.

FIG. 4.—Photomicrographs of sandstones from the Altiplano basin. A) Lathwork volcanic lithic fragment (Lvl). B) Phyllite lithic fragment (Lph). C) Mudrock lithic
fragment (Lmu) and monocrystalline quartz (Qm). D) Carbonate lithic fragment (Lca). Photos A and B were taken in plane-polarized light, photos C and D with crossed
polarizers.

to intermediate levels of the eastern Potoco section (Fig. 3; Horton et al.

2001; Hampton 2002). The quartzolithic sandstones (with metamorphic and
TABLE 1.—Parameters for sandstone point counts. sedimentary lithic fragments) characterizing the lowermost Potoco levels
(Fig. 6) are attributed to erosion of Paleozoic–Mesozoic sedimentary or
Symbol Grain Categories
Recalculated
Parameters
metasedimentary rocks and Precambrian gneiss to the west. Increases in
total feldspar, potassium feldspar, and volcanic lithic fragments for the
Qm Monocrystalline quartz Q–F–L:
Qp Polycrystalline quartz Q 5 Qm 1 Qp 1 Qpt 1 C
lower to intermediate Potoco section (Fig. 6) suggest increased exposure
Qpt Polycrystalline quartz with tectonic fabric F 5 P 1 Ksp 1 Kmp of Precambrian crystalline basement and growth of a volcanic arc through
C Chert L 5 Lv 1 Lm 1 Ls time. These trends coincide with the appearance of conglomerates bearing
P Plagioclase feldspar
Ksp Potassium feldspar Qm–P–K: granite and gneiss clasts (Fig. 7) derived from Precambrian basement rocks
Kmp Microcline and perthitic potassium feldspar Qm 5 Qm exposed in the Western Cordillera. Increased volcanic lithic fragments in-
Lvl Lathwork volcanic lithic fragments P5P
Lvm Microlitic volcanic lithic fragments K 5 Ksp 1 Kmp dicate that the volcanic arc progressively became an important sediment
Lms Schistose metamorphic lithic fragments source. A dominantly volcanic-arc sediment source is interpreted for the
Lph Phyllite lithic fragments Lv–Lm–Ls: upper Potoco levels in the west, where sandstones have a high proportion
Lss Sandstone lithic fragments Lv 5 Lvl 1 Lvm
Lmu Mudrock lithic fragments Lm 5 Lms 1 Lph of feldspar (mostly plagioclase) and lithic fragments (mostly volcanic frag-
Lca Carbonate lithic fragments Ls 5 Lss 1 Lmu 1 Lca ments) (Fig. 6). The proximal-to-distal change in composition from west
A Accessory minerals (dense minerals and micas)
to east, shown by more quartz-rich compositions to the east (Fig. 6), may
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES
be related to a combination of dilution by tributary drainage networks (e.g.,
DeCelles and Hertel 1989; Ingersoll et al. 1993) and rapid downstream
attrition by physical and chemical weathering of feldspar and lithic frag-
ments in either a tropical (e.g., Johnsson 1990) or an arid (e.g., Robinson
and Johnsson 1997) climate.
Northern Region
Description.—Sections 7, 9, and 10 (Corocoro, Berenguela, and Tia-
hauanacu) contain sandstones with limited lateral or upsection variations
in composition (Fig. 8). Two sandstone samples from the Santa Lucia For-
mation in the northernmost section (Section 9, samples 101, 102) define a
relatively quartzofeldspathic composition for the base of the succession
(Fig. 8A). Quartz grains are dominantly monocrystalline quartz (Fig. 8B),
plagioclase is the dominant feldspar (Fig. 8B), and lithic grains are mostly
metamorphic (Fig. 8C). Above the Santa Lucia Formation, 14 samples from
the Potoco Formation (samples 73–75, 103–113) indicate generally lithic
arkosic compositions for all three sections (Fig. 8A). Potoco sandstones
contain moderate amounts of feldspar, both plagioclase and potassium feld-
spar (Fig. 8B), and lithic fragments, principally volcanic fragments (Fig.
8C).
Interpretation.—The Potoco Formation was derived from a western
sediment source area, as indicated by regional paleocurrent measurements
(Fig. 3; Horton et al. 2001). Compared to most other Potoco sandstones
(Figs. 5, 6), the northern region contains higher amounts of potassium
feldspar. By analogy with elevated amounts of potassium feldspar in as-
sociation with granite and gneiss clasts in Section 6 (Turco site; described
above), this relationship can be attributed to a Precambrian granitic and
gneissic source to the west. Supporting evidence includes reported Precam-
brian clasts from Potoco-equivalent strata in the northern Altiplano (Ev-
ernden et al. 1977; Jiménez de Rı́os 1992) and Precambrian gneiss and
granite sampled from the base of a 2.8-km-deep drill hole (Fig. 1) (Leh-
mann 1978; Tosdal 1996). In addition to a crystalline basement source, a
volcanic-arc source is indicated by a moderate amount of volcanic lithic
fragments. In contrast to the southern and central regions, there are no well-
defined trends upsection, possibly suggesting a subequal importance of
basement and volcanic source terranes throughout Potoco deposition in the
north.
East-Derived Deposits
Description.—East-derived Potoco and Coniri sandstones from Sections
8A (Comanche) and 8B (Coniri) in the northern region and upper strati-
graphic levels of Section 5 (Chuquichambi) in the central region exhibit
generally quartzolithic and quartzofeldspathic compositions (Fig. 9A).
Monocrystalline quartz is the most common grain type (Fig. 9B). Lithic
components are dominantly sedimentary (mostly sandstone fragments) and
metamorphic (mostly phyllitic fragments) (Fig. 9C). Volcanic lithic frag-
ments are uncommon.
Conglomerate clast counts from the Coniri Formation are compatible
with observed sandstone compositions. The clasts are dominated by sand-
stone, quartzite, and carbonate, with subordinate amounts of vein quartz,
chert, mudrock, and conglomerate (Fig. 10).
Interpretation.—Paleocurrent data indicate an eastern sediment source
for the upper Potoco and Coniri formations in the eastern Altiplano (Fig.
3; LaReau and Horton 2000; Horton et al. 2001). Dominance of quartz and
lithic fragments in sandstone, and sedimentary clasts in conglomerate, sug-
gest that Paleozoic sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks in the Eastern
Cordillera were the primary source. Quartzite, sandstone, and shale domi-
nate the Paleozoic section; chert-bearing carbonate strata are generally lim-
ited to the Upper Permian (Sempere 1995; Suárez and Diaz 1996; Mc-
Quarrie and DeCelles 2001). Relative to west-derived Potoco deposits
(Figs. 5–8), the east-derived deposits exhibit greater compositional matu-
717
rity, as shown by more abundant quartz and less abundant feldspar and
lithic fragments, particularly volcanic fragments (Fig. 9). A general lack of
volcanic lithic fragments further suggests that Neogene igneous rocks ob-
served in the Eastern Cordillera were not emplaced or exposed at the sur-
face by early Miocene time.
SUMMARY OF SEDIMENT SOURCE AREAS
Provenance data indicate three principal sediment source areas during
Paleocene to early Miocene time: (1) a minor, mid-Paleocene source to the
east during Santa Lucia deposition; (2) a major western source of thrust-
belt-derived and arc-derived material that dominated the Altiplano during
late Eocene–Oligocene deposition of the Potoco Formation; and (3) a major
eastern source in the backthrust belt along the western flank of the Eastern
Cordillera active during deposition of upper Oligocene–lower Miocene stra-
ta (upper Potoco and Coniri formations). A map-view summary of sand-
stone point-count data and paleocurrent measurements for the Potoco and
Coniri formations (Fig. 11) reveals distinct differences in western versus
eastern sources.
(1) Paleocene Eastern Source.—For the Santa Lucia Formation, west-
directed paleocurrents (Fig. 3; Horton et al. 2001) and generally quartzo-
feldspathic sandstones containing sedimentary and metasedimentary lithic
fragments (Figs. 5, 8) are consistent with an eastern sediment source com-
posed primarily of Paleozoic strata. The regional occurrence of distal-flu-
vial Santa Lucia facies across the eastern Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera
(Sempere et al. 1997) suggests that the ultimate source was located several
hundred kilometers to the east. A lack of carbonate lithic fragments implies
that carbonates of the subjacent El Molino Formation were completely
buried by Santa Lucia strata and therefore not exposed at the surface. One
unresolved issue concerns the presence of volcanic lithic fragments in the
Santa Lucia Formation. There are no obvious candidates for volcanic
source areas to the east. Perhaps the most plausible explanation is that
volcanic grains were reworked from limited volcanic beds in Cretaceous
clastic units of the Eastern Cordillera (e.g., Sempere et al. 1997).
(2) Late Eocene–Oligocene Western Source.—For the Potoco Forma-
tion, east-directed paleocurrents (Fig. 3), granite and gneiss clasts (Fig. 7),
and sandstone compositions displaying moderate to high feldspathic and
lithic components (Figs. 5, 6, 8, 11) suggest that volcanic, sedimentary,
and crystalline basement rocks were exposed in uplifted areas to the west.
Independent evidence for Paleogene shortening in areas west of the Alti-
plano (discussed below) along with coarse conglomeratic facies in Section
6 (Fig. 3) suggest that a fairly proximal western thrust belt supplied detritus
from Paleozoic–Mesozoic strata and Precambrian basement to the Altiplano
basin. In addition, the presence of plagioclase and volcanic lithic fragments
reveals that a volcanic-arc source terrane existed to the west. An upsection
increase in volcanic lithic fragments and plagioclase grains (Figs. 5, 6) is
interpreted to indicate greater amounts of volcanic material in the source
area, due to either a larger volume of arc volcanism or eastward migration
of the central Andean volcanic arc.
(3) Late Oligocene–Early Miocene Eastern Source.—Paleocurrent
data for upper Oligocene–lower Miocene deposits of the upper Potoco and
Coniri formations (Fig. 3) indicate competing sediment source regions to
the east and west of the basin. In the eastern part of the Altiplano basin,
sandstone and conglomerate of the upper Potoco and Coniri formations
have relatively quartz-rich and sedimentary-rich detrital compositions (Figs.
9–11), consistent with erosion of a proximal source of Paleozoic sedimen-
tary rocks to the east in the Eastern Cordillera. The appearance of east-
derived detritus in the Altiplano during late Oligocene time provides a
minimum age for previously documented shortening (discussed below) in
the backthrust belt along the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera.
DISCUSSION
The modern Altiplano is distinguished by its high-elevation, low-relief
physiographic setting between two uplifted plateau margins. Therefore,
718 B.K. HORTON ET AL.

TABLE 2.—Recalculated modal point-count data for sandstones from the Altiplano*.

Q–F–L % Qm–P–K % Lv–Lm–Ls %

No. Sample m Level Q F L Qm P K Lv Lm Ls
1) Julchi: 198489S, 678079W
1 P11 288 74 13 13 83 16 1 44 14 42
2 P12 295 77 21 2 77 23 0 0 20 80
3 P14 334 88 12 0 88 12 0 0 0 100
4 P15 374 64 28 7 68 32 0 68 0 32
5 P16 422 39 41 20 47 53 0 93 5 1
6 P18 443 17 30 53 33 67 0 82 9 9
7 P22 616 18 39 43 30 63 6 94 2 5
8 P25 874 39 50 11 42 57 1 86 2 12
9 P28 1162 34 44 21 41 57 2 78 7 15
10 P31 1640 36 56 8 37 54 9 68 11 22
11 P34 2205 57 37 6 60 33 7 12 50 38
12 P39 2976 37 33 30 50 34 16 95 1 4
13 P41 3263 2 32 66 6 91 3 99 0 1
14 P44 3530 7 28 65 20 73 7 99 0 1
2) Maicoma: 198399S, 678049W
15 99SL1 82 77 12 11 85 14 1 40 20 40
16 99SL6 236 84 12 4 86 14 0 71 18 12
17 99SL7 264 83 12 4 86 13 2 21 37 42
18 99SL8 298 82 14 4 85 15 0 12 24 65
19 99PT2 410 73 24 3 74 26 0 57 29 14
20 99PT3 458 58 31 10 63 36 1 88 2 10
21 99PT4 482 51 35 14 58 41 1 92 3 5
22 99PT5 513 30 29 40 47 52 0 96 1 4
3) Andamarca: 188479S, 678319W
23 R99SL5 155 83 9 8 90 9 1 34 49 17
24 R99SL7 222 94 4 2 96 4 0 0 63 38
25 R99C2 227 92 5 3 95 5 0 0 46 54
26 R99P3 260 75 17 8 81 19 0 77 9 14
27 R99P4 292 60 34 6 63 36 1 79 11 11
28 ANQPT001 299 32 62 6 33 66 1 84 8 8
5) Chuquichambi: 178559S, 678509W
29 SS-5 390 86 7 8 93 4 3 0 70 30
30 TP425 575 85 9 6 90 4 6 0 46 54
31 SS-8 850 86 3 11 96 2 2 0 72 28
32 SS-9 1395 88 3 9 96 2 2 11 86 3
33 SS-12 1673 84 5 11 94 3 3 0 80 20
34 SS-13 2023 84 5 12 95 2 3 0 93 7
35 SS-16 2432 86 6 9 94 3 3 8 92 0
36 SS-19B 2942 80 6 14 93 3 4 0 100 0
37 SS-19 2947 89 4 8 95 2 2 0 100 0
38 SS-21 3667 80 14 6 83 10 7 26 52 22
39 SS-22B 3680 81 8 11 91 6 4 0 5 95
40 SS-22M 3682 63 15 22 79 11 10 8 38 54
41 SS-22NT 3695 62 18 20 74 14 13 76 4 20
42 SS-3870.EO 4020 84 11 5 87 8 5 0 90 10
43 SS-23 4190 81 11 9 88 5 8 18 76 6
44 SS-25 4554 81 13 6 85 4 12 0 88 13
45 SS-29 5316 77 11 12 83 7 11 0 82 18
46 SS-30 5696 77 8 16 89 0 10 0 97 3
47 SS-31A 5962 65 24 12 69 13 17 7 15 78
48 SS-33 6341 80 14 7 84 5 11 0 100 0
49 SS-35 6656 83 7 11 91 3 6 0 95 5
50 SS-36 6817 87 66 8 94 1 5 0 100 0
6) Turco: 188079S, 688109W
51 T1 8 84 2 14 97 2 2 0 67 33
52 T3 118 77 6 17 91 3 6 12 42 46
53 T6 297 73 11 16 86 10 5 13 71 17
54 T8 420 48 21 31 65 26 9 49 38 13
55 T10 616 54 21 25 69 24 7 30 55 15
56 9T11 728 72 19 9 77 13 9 44 38 18
57 T12 860 74 13 12 83 12 5 16 66 18
58 T14 1070 66 27 7 68 25 7 61 29 10
59 9T16 1260 59 32 8 63 27 9 77 8 15
60 T17 1380 59 28 13 64 31 5 45 43 12
61 T19 1648 61 25 14 68 23 10 51 43 6
62 T20 1850 58 26 17 67 28 5 58 26 16
63 9T21 1945 64 28 8 68 17 15 53 11 37
64 T22 2090 44 48 8 45 33 22 36 28 36
65 T24 2430 28 59 13 31 42 26 37 17 47
66 T25 2498 43 42 16 48 25 27 64 3 33
67 T28 2750 14 54 32 15 67 18 81 7 13
68 T30 3085 51 33 16 57 22 21 46 25 29
69 T32 3310 47 31 22 55 32 13 75 13 12
70 T34 3540 17 60 23 17 77 7 74 6 20
71 T36 3770 14 68 18 15 59 26 81 2 16
72 T38 4000 6 36 58 11 75 14 96 0 4
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES 719

TABLE 2.—Continued.

Q–F–L % Qm–P–K % Lv–Lm–Ls %

No. Sample m Level Q F L Qm P K Lv Lm Ls
7) Corocoro: 178139S, 688289W
73 PT00NB 50 66 26 8 71 23 6 50 25 25
74 PT001 364 63 27 10 68 23 9 57 25 18
75 PT002 493 29 46 25 35 55 10 96 1 3
8) Comanche: 168589S, 688259W
76 COM2 585 93 4 4 96 3 1 0 12 88
77 COM3 730 84 12 4 87 11 2 22 17 61
78 COM4 823 88 6 6 92 2 6 8 35 58
79 COM5 955 86 4 10 94 5 0 5 23 72
80 COM6 1145 78 4 18 95 5 0 2 17 81
8B) Coniri: 168479S, 688259W
81 Hy-1 1 78 11 11 87 3 10 37 6 57
82 Hy-75 75 67 14 19 82 4 14 34 4 62
83 C1-18 504 79 5 16 94 1 5 0 25 75
84 C1-63 549 79 6 15 93 1 5 0 19 81
85 C1-91 577 80 5 15 94 2 5 0 33 67
86 C1-230 716 75 4 20 94 1 4 0 21 79
87 C1-286 772 76 4 19 95 2 3 0 24 76
88 C1-386 872 80 4 16 95 0 4 0 30 70
89 C1-475 961 79 5 16 94 1 4 0 26 74
90 C1-494 980 77 7 17 92 2 6 0 26 74
91 C1-567 1053 76 5 19 93 2 5 5 28 67
92 C2-650 1136 75 5 20 94 2 4 0 26 74
93 C2-735 1221 78 5 17 93 4 3 0 30 70
94 C2-963 1449 85 3 12 96 3 1 0 62 38
95 C2-1025 1511 83 3 14 96 3 1 4 43.1 53
96 C2-1095 1581 83 5 12 94 4 2 0 53.3 47
97 C2-1300 1786 83 5 12 94 4 1 0 58.7 41
98 C3-1581 2067 82 4 13 95 3 2 0 76.5 24
99 C3-1775 2261 82 4 14 95 3 2 1 62.9 36
100 C3-1795 2281 86 3 11 97 2 1 0 56.1 44
9) Tiahuanacu: 168369S, 688559W
101 TSL1 20 80 15 5 81 19 0 27 64 9
102 997134 40 88 8 4 91 9 0 37 44 19
103 THC2 215 49 37 14 56 33 10 85 3 11
104 THC3 412 54 36 10 59 27 13 87 4 9
105 THC4 505 58 26 16 68 24 8 90 0 10
106 THC5 801 53 36 11 59 26 15 80 0 20
107 THC6 1095 54 27 20 66 25 9 69 1 30
108 THC7 1345 54 26 20 67 24 9 71 3 26
109 THC8 1453 52 30 18 62 22 16 74 1 25
10) Berenguela: 178179S, 698129W
110 BER1 5 57 20 23 73 4 23 78 3 19
111 BER2 30 71 15 14 80 6 14 60 27 13
112 BER3 70 60 27 13 67 22 11 88 5 7
113 BER4 80 58 25 17 69 9 22 76 3 21
* See Appendix 1 (archived) for raw point-count data.

determination of paleoelevation and plateau-margin tectonics will provide
a sound basis for interpreting plateau development. Although we mention
the paleoelevation issue below, our study focuses on the topographic evo-
lution of plateau margins. We present a tectonic reconstruction (Fig. 12)
that draws on the provenance data presented here and structural and ther-
mochronological data from previous studies. We find that magmatic-arc
and probable thrust-belt source terranes were of temporally and spatially
variable importance during basin evolution. Hence, we conclude that the
present geomorphic simplicity of the plateau belies the complexity exhib-
ited in the Tertiary record of provenance and presumably sediment accu-
mulation in the Altiplano basin.
Initial Conditions
Lower Tertiary strata provide information on the initial tectonogeo-
morphic conditions of the Altiplano region prior to plateau development.
Given the existence of marine fossils in the regionally extensive El Molino
Formation (Sempere et al. 1997), the Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera were
approximately at sea level during Late Cretaceous–early Paleocene time.
We consider the El Molino and overlying mid-Paleocene Santa Lucia For-
mation to be good records of pre-plateau conditions. Provenance data (Figs.
3, 5, 8) indicate that distal-fluvial Santa Lucia strata were derived from a
distant eastern source composed predominantly of Paleozoic clastic rocks
(Fig. 12A). Although regionally extensive, the Santa Lucia Formation is
quite thin (50–300 m) in the Altiplano. We suggest that the Santa Lucia
and El Molino formations were deposited in a zone of regional Late Cre-
taceous to mid-Paleocene subsidence (Fig. 12A). Accumulation occurred
within a broad zone that may have been located between a flexurally in-
duced forebulge to the west and the Brazilian shield to the east (Horton
and DeCelles 1997; Horton et al. 2001). Alternatively, deposition may have
been above a formerly active Cretaceous rift system (Welsink et al. 1995).
Support for the flexural loading hypothesis is provided by evidence of Late
Cretaceous–Paleocene shortening and possible foredeep conditions to the
west in the Precordillera (Fig. 12A) (discussed below and by Horton et al.
2001). In either case, it is unlikely that there was significant Late Creta-
ceous–Paleocene topography or mountain building associated with the dis-
tal eastern sediment source.
Western Plateau Margin
Provenance data for the western plateau margin indicate initial unroofing
of a composite sediment source consisting of a probable thrust belt with
720 B.K. HORTON ET AL.
minor magmatic-arc contributions, followed by unroofing of a single mag-
matic-arc source (Figs. 3, 5–8, 11). Late Eocene–Oligocene denudation in
this region resulted in deposition of up to 6.5 km of fluvial strata (Potoco
Formation) in the Altiplano basin (Fig. 12B). Continued Neogene erosion
along the western margin facilitated deposition of several more kilometers
of strata.
Evidence for Late Cretaceous–Eocene shortening in a probable fold–thrust
belt in the Precordillera region (presently 50 km west of the Western Cor-
dillera axis) includes mapped contractional structures (Chong 1977; Chong
and Reutter 1985; Hammerschmidt et al. 1992; Scheuber and Reutter 1992;
Scheuber et al. 1994; Amilibia et al. 1999; Nicolas et al. 1999) and complex,
paleomagnetically determined (vertical-axis) block rotations attributable to
shortening and related (possibly conjugate) strike-slip deformation (Hartley
et al. 1992; Kuhn and Reuther 1999; Arriagada et al. 2000; Roperch et al.
2000a; Roperch et al. 2000b). Identification of shallow ramp–flat thrust sys-
tems (Hartley et al. 1992) and broad-wavelength folds with inferred detach-
ments at 8–10 km depth (Chong 1977; Chong and Reutter 1985; Scheuber
and Reutter 1992) are similar to structural geometries observed in the Andean
thrust belt east of the Altiplano (Roeder 1988; Kley et al. 1997; Horton 1998).
Precambrian basement is involved in most structures and both east-vergent
and west-vergent geometries are present. Similar east-vergent and west-ver-
gent, basement-involved structures imaged seismically in the Western Cor-
dillera and western Altiplano (Lamb and Hoke 1997; Rochat et al. 1998;
McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001) may also have been active during this time.
Thermochronological data from Precambrian basement in the Western Cor-
dillera include U–Pb zircon ages and 40Ar/39Ar and K–Ar hornblende ages
indicative of Middle Proterozoic and early Paleozoic metamorphism in this
part of the Arequipa–Antofalla cratonic block (Tosdal 1996; Wörner et al.
2000b). To our knowledge, the low-temperature cooling history of the crys-
talline basement has not been studied.
FIG. 5.—Ternary diagrams for 11 Santa Lucia
and 17 Potoco sandstone samples from the
southern region. Note the distinct compositional
difference between the Santa Lucia and Potoco
samples, and clear upsection trends (arrows)
toward greater feldspar (particularly plagioclase)
and lithic fragments (particularly volcanic
fragments). Outlined samples for Section 1
(Julchi site) denote abrupt increase in feldspar
(particularly potassium feldspar) and
metamorphic lithic fragments (see text for
discussion). Stratigraphic levels for samples are
shown in Fig. 3 and Table 2.
We propose that a Paleogene east-vergent thrust belt in the Precordillera
and Western Cordillera acted both as a sediment source and a topographic
load to an early foreland basin in the Altiplano (Fig. 12B) (Mortimer 1981;
Sempere et al. 1990a; Horton et al. 2001). This interpretation predicts that
the low-temperature cooling history related to Paleogene denudation should
be recorded in areas west of the Altiplano. However, this record may be
largely obscured by subsequent arc magmatism. On the basis of increasing
amounts of arc-derived detritus in Altiplano basin fill (Figs. 5, 6, 8), we
speculate that thrusting west of the Altiplano diminished by late Oligocene
time. This hypothesis is supported by the majority of paleomagnetic data,
which indicate limited Neogene rotation in areas west of the Altiplano (e.g.,
Kuhn and Reuther 1999; Arriagada et al. 2000; Roperch et al. 2000a; Ro-
perch et al. 2000b), although Hartley et al. (1992) report post–early Mio-
cene vertical-axis rotations locally in the Precordillera.
Long-term eastward migration of the Mesozoic–Cenozoic magmatic-arc
system is well documented in the central Andes (James 1971; Scheuber and
Reutter 1992; Scheuber et al. 1994; Allmendinger et al. 1997; Wörner et al.
2000a). Dated volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks indicate that the arc was
centered on the Precordillera during Paleogene time (Hammerschmidt et al.
1992; Scheuber and Reutter 1992; Scheuber et al. 1994). From a summary
of central Andean magmatic activity by Allmendinger et al. (1997, their fig.
9), arc magmatism commenced in the Western Cordillera during late Oli-
gocene time. Late Oligocene–early Miocene igneous rocks are widely dis-
tributed from the Precordillera to Eastern Cordillera, suggesting a broad zone
of arc magmatism at this time (Fig. 12B) (Jordan and Gardeweg 1989; Scheu-
ber and Reutter 1992; Allmendinger et al. 1997).
Eastern Plateau Margin
For the eastern margin of the Altiplano, provenance data indicate middle
to late Tertiary unroofing of a contractional belt composed principally of
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES
FIG. 6.—Ternary diagrams for 37 Potoco sandstone samples from the central re-
gion. For Section 6 (Turco), note the clear upsection trends (arrows) toward greater
feldspar (particularly plagioclase) and lithic fragments (particularly volcanic frag-
ments). Distal-equivalent strata in Section 5 (Chuquichambi) to the east exhibit a
minor trend toward more feldspathic and lithic compositions. Stratigraphic levels
for samples are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 2.
Paleozoic clastic rocks (Figs. 3, 9, 10). Late Oligocene–early Miocene un-
roofing of this belt generated over 3 km of fluvial and alluvial-fan strata
(upper Potoco and Coniri formations) in the Altiplano (Fig. 12C). This
erosion was largely contemporaneous with continued erosion along the
western plateau margin.
A west-vergent backthrust belt (the ‘‘Huarina fold–thrust belt’’) in the
western part of the Eastern Cordillera has been recognized by several work-
ers (e.g., Roeder 1988; Sempere et al. 1990b). The amount of Tertiary
shortening in this belt is estimated to be 100–150 km (Roeder and Cham-
berlain 1995; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001). The timing of shortening is
not well constrained, but thermochronological evidence for rapid middle–
late Eocene cooling (Benjamin et al. 1987; McBride et al. 1987; Farrar et
al. 1988; Masek et al. 1994; Lamb and Hoke 1997; McQuarrie and De-
Celles 2001) suggests that uplift-related denudation was underway by 45–
40 Ma. Syndepositional shortening during late Oligocene–early Miocene
time is indicated by seismically imaged growth structures in basin fill of
the eastern Altiplano (Lamb and Hoke 1997, their fig. 9; McQuarrie and
DeCelles 2001, their fig. 12). On the basis of the ages of overlapping,
slightly deformed strata, shortening in the backthrust belt terminated during
early Miocene time (Sempere et al. 1990b; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001).
From available timing constraints, a west-directed thrust load could have
721
FIG. 7.—Clast composition data for the Potoco conglomeratic interval in the cen-
tral region, 1730–2470 m level of Section 6 (Turco site). See Figures 1 and 3 for
location.
contributed to Altiplano subsidence as early as middle–late Eocene time
(Fig. 12). However, our provenance data for the Altiplano basin do not
show evidence of an eastern sediment source until late Oligocene time. For
this reason, we consider late Oligocene time to be a minimum age of initial
uplift in the Eastern Cordillera. This age represents the arrival of westward-
prograding alluvial deposystems in the Altiplano study area. Although pro-
gradation rates are unknown, rates of ;30 km/Myr have been determined
for case studies in the Himalayan foreland basin (Burbank et al. 1988;
Brozovic and Burbank 2000). If similar rates were to apply to the Altiplano
basin, then the required 50–100 km of westward progradation may have
taken as little as 2–3 million years. Alternatively, if progradation rates were
substantially lower, then the estimate of initial Eastern Cordillera uplift
could be pushed back to Eocene time. More chronological data are required
to assess fully the age of earliest deformation in the Eastern Cordillera.
Concerning a possible igneous provenance, we note that the youngest
deposits analyzed in our study are of early Miocene age. Because the prov-
enance data do not show any distinctive appearance of an igneous source
area to the east, the erosional record of Neogene volcanic and intrusive
rocks in the western part of the Eastern Cordillera (Gubbels 1993; Lamb
et al. 1997) must be mostly post–early Miocene.
Modes of Basin Development
On the basis of the variable topographic evolution of the Altiplano pla-
teau margins, we suggest that different modes of basin development (i.e.,
mechanisms of basin subsidence) may have been in operation during the
Tertiary (Fig. 12). For early to mid-Tertiary time, we interpret a causal
relationship between plateau-margin shortening and basin subsidence. Late
Cretaceous–Eocene shortening in a probable east-vergent thrust belt in the
Precordillera and Western Cordillera would have produced a thrust load
along the western margin of the Altiplano (Fig. 12B). Similarly, late Oli-
gocene–early Miocene (and possibly earlier) shortening in a west-vergent
backthrust belt in the western part of the Eastern Cordillera would have
produced a thrust load along the opposite side of the Altiplano (Fig. 12C).
Although not a major contributor to Altiplano loading, primarily Neogene
shortening and uplift in the east-vergent Andean thrust belt (east of the
backthrust belt) (Roeder 1988; Sheffels 1990; Roeder and Chamberlain
1995; Kley 1996; Baby et al. 1997; Kley et al. 1997) was concurrent with
continued Altiplano deposition. Given the spatial and temporal link be-
tween basin development and upper-crustal shortening, we suggest that the
long-term history of the Altiplano basin be viewed as the development of
a crustal-scale piggyback basin (e.g., Rochat et al. 1999; McQuarrie and
DeCelles 2001).
Given that shortening drives the greatest component of crustal thickening
722 B.K. HORTON ET AL.
in the central Andes (Isacks 1988; Sheffels 1990), maintenance of Airy
isostatic balance (as presently observed across the Altiplano and its mar-
gins; Beck et al. 1996) would require that surface uplift accompanied Ter-
tiary shortening. Because the bulk of shortening along plateau margins was
apparently complete by early Miocene time (McQuarrie and DeCelles
2001), most surface uplift should have taken place by that time. This simple
rationale, however, conflicts with recent paleoelevation analyses based on
paleobotanical data (Gregory-Wodzicki 2000) that suggest greater than half
(;2 km) of the surface uplift in the Altiplano region since 10 Ma. Clearly,
further investigation of the Tertiary paleoelevation record is warranted.
Finally, we call attention to the extreme topographic loading required to
FIG. 8.—Ternary diagrams for 2 Santa Lucia
and 14 Potoco sandstone samples from the
northern region. Note the compositional
difference between Santa Lucia and Potoco
samples. Potoco data do not exhibit well-defined
upsection or lateral variations in composition.
Stratigraphic levels for samples are shown in
Fig. 3 and Table 2.
generate 12 km of Tertiary flexural subsidence in the Altiplano. Based on
simple 2-D calculations (Turcotte and Schubert 1982), two extensive to-
pographic loads (each 2.25–3 km high by 100–150 km long in cross sec-
tion) on opposing sides of the basin could explain 7 km of late Eocene to
early Miocene sediment accumulation for a low- to moderate-strength crust
(13.5–20 km effective elastic thickness) (Hampton 2002). In lieu of purely
flexurally driven subsidence, we hypothesize that additional modes of sed-
iment accumulation have played a role in basin development. One obvious
possibility is that phases of Tertiary extension may have affected the Al-
tiplano (e.g., Martinez 1980; Sébrier et al. 1988; Rochat et al. 1998; All-
mendinger et al. 1997). However, the structural evidence for normal fault-
FIG. 9.—Ternary diagrams for 14 east-derived
Potoco and 18 east-derived Coniri sandstone
samples from the central region (upper level of
Section 5) and northern region (Sections 8A,
8B). Note the difference in composition from the
majority of west-derived sandstone samples
(Figs. 5, 6, 8). Data do not exhibit well-defined
upsection variations in composition. Stratigraphic
levels for samples are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 2.
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES
FIG. 10.—Clast composition data for the Coniri conglomerate in the northern
region, Section 8B (Coniri site). Note the difference in composition from west-
derived conglomerate (Fig. 7). See Figures 1 and 3 for location.
723
ing is not compelling. In fact, contractional deformation appears to have
dominated the middle to upper crust of the Altiplano throughout the Ter-
tiary (e.g., Lamb and Hoke 1997; McQuarrie and DeCelles 2001). Another
possible mechanism is thermal subsidence (e.g., Jordan and Alonso 1987),
possibly related to cooling after extensive Miocene magmatism across the
region. We propose that a third alternative, simple sediment ponding in a
closed depositional area due to drainage blockage by structural sills (e.g.,
Coney et al. 1996; Métivier et al. 1998; Rochat et al. 1999), can explain
accumulation and preservation of several hundred to a few thousand meters
of sediment in the Altiplano. We consider this a particularly viable expla-
nation for deposition during middle Miocene–Quaternary time when there
were apparently few major faults active along plateau margins capable of
driving significant tectonic subsidence (Lamb and Hoke 1997; McQuarrie
and DeCelles 2001). Because our provenance data indicate topographic
expression of an eastern sediment source by late Oligocene time, we pro-
pose that growth of an eastern structural sill may have triggered internal
drainage by ;25 Ma. This mode of sediment accumulation would have
supplemented any flexurally driven subsidence related to plateau-margin
thrust loading (Fig. 12C). Without a more exhaustive sedimentologic and
provenance dataset spanning the entire Altiplano, however, we cannot rule
FIG. 11.—Map-view summary of sandstone
point-count data and paleocurrent data for the
Potoco and Coniri formations. The map outline
corresponds approximately to the map in Fig. 1.
In the Q-F-L ternary diagrams, irregular filled
areas represent the approximate range of
compositions for sandstone samples from the
indicated stratigraphic section (Figs. 5, 6, 8, 9).
Note the substantial compositional difference
between west-derived and east-derived deposits.
Arrows represent mean paleocurrent directions
for entire measured sections or indicated
stratigraphic intervals. Dotted lines define
Paleocene–lower Miocene outcrop belts, and
dashed lines indicate the present margins of the
Altiplano (from Fig. 1).
724 B.K. HORTON ET AL.

FIG. 12.—Schematic reconstructions of Altiplano basin development. The top row shows map-view reconstructions based on provenance data (the map outline corresponds
approximately to the map in Fig. 1). The bottom row shows interpretive, unrestored regional cross sections based on provenance, structural, and thermochronological data
(see text for discussion). A) Mid-Paleocene deposition of a thin succession of east-derived Santa Lucia Formation in eastern Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera concurrent
with contractional deformation and foredeep development in the Precordillera. At this time, depositional systems derived from a probable thrust belt to the west did not
reach the Altiplano. B) Late Eocene–Oligocene deposition across Altiplano of the thick Potoco Formation derived from a thrust belt and volcanic arc to the west (Western
Cordillera and Precordillera). Question marks and dashed thrust faults convey uncertainty in initial age of shortening-related uplift in Eastern Cordillera. C) Late Oligocene–
Miocene deposition of uppermost Potoco and Coniri formations derived primarily from a west-vergent backthrust belt in the Eastern Cordillera. Coeval west-derived
volcaniclastic units are limited to the westernmost Altiplano and signify erosion of a volcanic arc to the west (Western Cordillera). Neogene deposition in the Altiplano is
synchronous with shortening in the east-vergent Andean thrust belt (central Eastern Cordillera to Subandean Zone) and foreland-basin development in the Chaco Plain.

out the possibility that a few drainage systems may have escaped eastward
from the Altiplano since late Oligocene time. Nevertheless, late Oligocene
to Quaternary internal drainage in the Altiplano is an attractive possibility
because it could generate a net increase in mean surface elevation, possibly
on the order of several hundred to over a thousand meters, by simple
sediment accumulation.
CONCLUSIONS
Temporal and spatial variations in sandstone and conglomerate compo-
sition within the Altiplano basin help define the Tertiary history of basin
filling in relationship to the topographic development of eastern and west-
ern plateau margins. After limited mid-Paleocene deposition (50–300-m-
thick Santa Lucia Formation), major sediment accumulation commenced
during roughly late Eocene time (3–6.5-km-thick Potoco Formation). Pa-
leocurrent and stratigraphic data indicate that late Eocene–Oligocene basin
filling occurred by deposition of fluvial systems derived from western sed-
iment sources in the incipient Western Cordillera and Precordillera. Al-
though the present topography of the Western Cordillera is formed by a
Neogene–Quaternary volcanic arc, both arc-related and non-arc-related
(thrust-belt) sediment sources were involved in the early to mid-Tertiary
evolution of the western plateau margin. Sandstone and conglomerate com-
positions provide evidence for erosion of Paleozoic–Mesozoic sedimentary
and metasedimentary strata and Precambrian granitic and gneissic base-
ment. Erosion of these rocks suggests early to mid-Tertiary uplift of a
probable thrust belt to the west, consistent with previously reported evi-
dence for Paleogene shortening in the region. Upsection increases in pla-
gioclase and volcanic lithic fragments indicate progressively greater arc
influence during middle to late Tertiary time. Increased volcanic input may
represent larger-magnitude volcanism or an eastward migration of the vol-
canic arc.
East-derived fluvial and alluvial-fan deposits from the upper Potoco For-
mation and ;3-km-thick Coniri Formation of the Altiplano basin contain
relatively quartz-rich sandstone with sedimentary and metasedimentary lith-
ic fragments, consistent with derivation from deformed Paleozoic strata in
the west-vergent backthrust belt along the western flank of the Eastern
Cordillera. Judging from the age of these strata, initial shortening, crustal
 TERTIARY PROVENANCE HISTORY OF THE ALTIPLANO, CENTRAL ANDES
thickening, and uplift of the Eastern Cordillera must have been in progress
by late Oligocene time. Deformation could have started earlier if alluvial
deposystems took substantial time to prograde westward into studied parts
of the Altiplano basin. We propose that late Oligocene time may also rep-
resent the initiation of internally drained, plateau-like conditions in the
Altiplano basin. Provided that closed-basin conditions have persisted since
that time, topographic infilling due to structural damming may have played
a role in accommodating several hundred to a few thousand meters of upper
Oligocene to Quaternary basin fill. Nevertheless, structural development of
both plateau margins synchronous with early to mid-Tertiary basin filling
suggests that flexural subsidence related to shortening and topographic
loading along the margins of a crustal-scale piggyback basin may have
been the principal subsidence mechanism responsible for accumulation of
the thick (up to 12 km) Tertiary succession in the Altiplano.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by National Science Foundation grant EAR-9908003.
Compositional data for the Chuquichambi and Coniri sections represent part of the
M.S. research by Hampton and LaReau, respectively. We thank Enrique Diaz and
Thierry Sempere for helpful discussions concerning Altiplano stratigraphy and prov-
enance. Field work was facilitated by logistical assistance from Sohrab Tawackoli,
Reinhard Rössling, Carlos Riera, Juan Huchani, and Pedro Churata of Sergeomin
(La Paz). Richard Fink, Danielle Horton, and Jason Barnes assisted in the field. We
thank Tim Lawton, Steve Graham, Mark Johnsson, and Ray Ingersoll for construc-
tive reviews of the manuscript.
The appendix cited in this paper has been archived, and is available in digital
form, at the World Data Center-A for Marine Geology and Geophysics, NOAA/
NGDC, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303, U.S.A; telephone 303-497-6339; fax
303-497-6513; E-mail: wdcamgg@ngdc.noaa.gov; URL http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/
mgg/sepm/archive/index/html.
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Received 1 June 2001; accepted 7 February 2002.