Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-I (Revised 2017)

Manual of Irrigation Practice
(MIP)
Volume - I
(Revised 2017)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Foremost, Project Management Office (PMO) - Punjab Barrages, wants to extend this
endeavor to Almighty ALLAH for the prudence bestowed upon us, in order to suffice
the standard of this revised Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP).
A remarkable appreciation is due to Group of Editors, (Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry, Syed

Mahmood ul Hassan, Qazi Anwar Ali, Mr. Aslam Rasheed and Mr. Asrar ul Haq) for
their valuable contribution regarding developing of Table of contents, guidelines for
authors, editing and organizing the revised MIP.
It is pertinent to mention that the completion of this task was attainable owing to the
exemplary knowledge and arduous efforts of our renowned authors (Syed Mansoob
Ali Zaidi, Mr. Sajjad Hussain Naseem, Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid, Malik Ahmed Khan, Mr.
Muhammad Azam Chaudhry, Mr. Muhammad Ehsan, Mr. Ahmad Khan Bhatti, Mr.
Habibullah Bodla, Mr. Muhammad Shamshad Gohar, Mr. Ghulam Hussain Qadri and
Mr. Shafiq Ali).
Relentless efforts of Syed Mahmood Ul Hassan as Coordinator for compiling, editing,

and printing of revised MIP are also appreciated.
Revision of the MIP according to latest theories and practices is a cumulative effort to
generate valuable document, however, comments and suggestions for further
improvement of the revised MIP would be appreciated.
Amjad Saeed
Head/Project Director
Project Management Office (PMO)
Punjab Barrages Rehabilitation &
Modernization Projects,
Punjab Irrigation Department,
Lahore
FOREWARD
Irrigation Department Government of Punjab was originally a branch of the

Public Works Department (PWD) before partition of the Indian Subcontinent. First
Edition of Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) was published by PWD in 1943 for
guidance of irrigation engineers. The manual incorporated the irrigation set up existent
at that time and also the departmental rules, regulations and engineering techniques
in vogue.
After independence Irrigation Department Government of West Pakistan re-

printed the first edition in 1963 without incorporating changes in physical boundaries
and the engineering advancements since after 1943. However it was promised in the
Foreword of reprint that” A revised and enlarged edition incorporating all changes as
a result of independence and advancements in engineering techniques will be
available in the near future” but it could not happen till 2015 when Punjab Irrigation
Department (PID) took up with World Bank to allow utilization of provision under
component D of Punjab Barrages Improvement Phase-II Project (PBIP-II) for Re-
writing of MIP. World Bank agreed to support Re-writing of MIP being a strategic study
and a tool for better management and monitoring of key irrigation infrastructure in the
Punjab Province.
A group of editors (GOE) including an international member was selected to

review the existing MIP and other relevant documents, prepare Table of Contents
(TOC) for new MIP and recommend potential Authors. GOE also reviewed and
edited the Authors’ contributions and compiled final MIP.
Authors’ draft contributions were circulated among the Chief Engineers/senior

officers of PID being main stakeholders and users of MIP to have their suggestions
for improving the quality of the document. A workshop was also conducted to
deliberate the contents of MIP. Valuable suggestions for improvement of the
contents were incorporated.
MIP contains engineering tools and concepts that have proven useful in
planning, constructing, maintaining and operating the irrigation infrastructure
successfully. The manual is not a text book but contains sufficient background
knowledge so as to act as single book of theory and practice.
It is hoped that MIP would be a rich source of knowledge and guidance for
irrigation engineers.
ASAD ULLAH
Secretary to Government of Punjab
Irrigation Department
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title of Chapter Author
Chapter 1: Definitions Syed Mahmood-ul-Hassan
Chapter 2: History of Irrigation Development in Mian Asrar-ul-Haq

Punjab
Chapter 3: Punjab’s Irrigation Infrastructure Muhammad Ehsan
Chapter 4: Administrative Setup of Punjab Mian Asrar-ul-Haq

Irrigation Department
Chapter 5: Barrages Syed Mansoob Ali Zaidi
Chapter 6: Design of Unlined Canals Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid
Chapter 7: Design of Lined Canals Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid
Chapter 8: Maintenance of Canals Syed Mahmood-ul-Hassan
Chapter 9: Outlets Ghulam Hussain Qadri

Syed Mahmood-ul-Hassan
Chapter 10: Computerized Monitoring System for Habib Ullah Bodla

Canal Operation
Diagrams
1 Regime Slop Diagram for Discharge from 4 to 20,000 Cusecs and
Silt Factor From 0.4 to 1.6
2 Regime Dimension Diagram, Discharges from 100 to 20,000
Cusecs and Silt factor “f” 0.4 to 1.6
3 Data of Parent Channel U/S of Offtake
4 Regime Dimension Diagram, Discharges from 4 to 20,000
Cusecs and Silt factor “f” 0.4 to 1.6
5 Type Cross Sections of Distributaries
6 Type Cross Sections of Main Canal and Branches
7 Graph Showing Value of QR
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE i
DEFINITIONS
Chapter 1
DEFINITIONS
Compiled by
Syed Mehmoodul Hassan
Reviewed by
Qazi Anwar Ali,

Malik Ahmad Khan,
Aslam Rashid
ii MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE
DEFINITIONS
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 1-1
DEFINITIONS
1 DEFINITIONS1
A.
Abutments 1. For barrages and regulators these are structures built to
support the lateral pressure of an arch or span, e.g at the
end of bridge. For dams and bridges abutments are
substructure at the ends whereon the structure's
superstructure rests or contacts.
Accretion A process of sediment accumulation by flowing water due to
any cause, including Alluviation.
Acre foot A unit of volume used in irrigation practice. It means the
volume of water required to cover an area of one acre, to a
depth of one foot. It amounts to 43,560 cubic feet. A cusec
day is equal to 1.98 acre feet (ordinarily taken as 1 cusec
day= 2 acre feet).
Acre inch Is 1/12 of an acre foot defined above (and is almost equal to
one cusec hour).
Aeration (1) Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through
and mixed with or dissolved in a liquid / Water.
(2) The process of relieving the effects of cavitation by
admitting air to the affected section.
After Bay A tail race of water power plant, a stream, conduit, pond or
reservoir of a hydroelectric power plant at the outlet of
turbines.
Afflux Afflux is an increase in water level that can occur upstream
of a structure, such as a Dam, Barrage, a bridge or culvert,
that creates an obstruction in the flow.
Aggradation The raising of the surface of stream beds, flood plains, and
the bottom of other water bodies by the accretion or
deposition of material eroded and transported from other
areas. This is the opposite of degradation.
Angularity The correction to be made to an observed velocity when the
correction direction of the current is not exactly at right angles to the
discharge section line
Alluvial Pertains to alluvium deposited by stream or flowing water of
River.
Alluvial Stream A stream whose channel boundary is composed of
appreciable quantities of the sediments transported by the
flow, and which generally changes its bed forms as the rate
of flow changes.
1 The Definitions included in this Chapter have been mainly drawn from the “Manual of Irrigation
Practice” Public Works Department, Irrigation Branch printed in 1943 and reprinted in 1963. Where
found necessary additional definitions have been added. Some definitions are based on different web
based documents including but not limited to Wikipedia.
1-2 MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE
DEFINITIONS
Alluvium A general term for all detrital deposits resulting from the
sediment transport of (modern) streams, thus including the
sediments laid down in riverbeds, flood plains, and stream-
created fans at the foot of mountain slopes.
Antidunes Bed forms which occur at a velocity higher than that which
forms dunes and plane beds. Antidunes commonly move
upstream, and are accompanied by , and in phase with
waves, on the water surface.
Apron A floor or lining of concrete/stone, etc., to protect a surface
from erosion, such as the pavement below weirs, falls or at
the toe of a bund.
Aqueduct A channel, in which water flows with ‘free” surface,
constructed to carry water above the natural surface level or
to convey water over an obstacle such as river or valley.
This structure is suitable when bed level of canal is above
the highest flood level of drainage. In this case, the drainage
water passes clearly below the canal. If the flow in drainage
barrel is under pressure, the aqueduct is called syphon
aqueduct.
Area-Assessed The area irrigated, on which water rates are levied
(generally the same as area matured).
Area-Cultivated Land which is under crop or fruit trees or has been under
crop or fruit trees in the previous three harvests.
Area-Culturable That portion of the culturable irrigable area which is
commanded (CCA) commanded by flow irrigation.
Area-Culturable Lift That portion of culturable irrigable area which can be
irrigated by lift.
Area-Discharge The area of the water-way of a channel at the discharge
section section line, expressed in square feet or square meters.
Area-Flow irrigation Area which can be irrigated from the source of water, by flow
under gravity alone.
Area-Gross Total Area Within the extreme limits set for irrigation by a
project, system or channel
Area-Gross That portion of the gross irrigable area which is commanded
Commanded by flow irrigation
(GCA)
Area-Gross lift. That portion of gross irrigable area which can be irrigated by
lift.
Area-Irrigated The area to which water has been applied.
Area-Lift Irrigation Area of which the level is too high to allow irrigation by flow
from the source, but which can be economically irrigated by
water raised to the necessary level at some point in the
supply system
DEFINITIONS
Area-Matured The area irrigated upon which crops have matured

Area-Non-perennial The area served by a non-perennial canal.
Area-Outlet The unit of area, in irrigation practice, for final water
distribution. It is the area served by the individual outlet. The
village area may be divided into several outlet areas or
alternatively an outlet area may consist of portions of
several villages. Its boundaries are, or should be, defined by
the configuration of the ground, whereas village boundaries
are not so limited.
Area-Perennial The area served by a perennial canal.
Area-Remitted The area irrigated for which water rates are remitted owing
to failure of crops to mature or for other reasons.
Arid A term applied to lands or climates that lack sufficient water
for agriculture without irrigation.
Armouring The formation of a resistant layer of relatively large particles
resulting from removal of fine particles by erosion.
B.
Backfill Material used for refilling an excavation
Back water curve A form of the surface curve of a stream of water caused by
an obstruction in the channel such as a weir or dam.
.
Baffle A cross wall or a set of vanes or some other device placed
in a channel to effect a uniform distribution of velocities
across the section.
Barrage A barrage is a weir that has adjustable gates installed over
top of it, to allow different water surface heights at different
times. The water level is adjusted by operating the
adjustable gates. A gated structure used to prevent intrusion
of salt water in a tidal river
Base, base days or The number of days in a crop season. In the Punjab it
base Period numbers 183 for kharif and 182 for rabi
Bed load Silt, sand, gravel or other detritus rolling along the bed of a
stream. Silt moving on the bed of the channel is known as
the bedload. This silt slides, rolls or jumps along the bed
depending upon the velocity near the bed. Certain grades
of silt are, however, capable of moving either in suspension,
or on the bed, depending upon the turbulence of flow.
Bed Load Sampler A device for measuring sediment moving on or along the
bottom of the river bed, or channel bed.
DEFINITIONS
Bed-Material load Consists of particles that are generally found in the bed
or Bed Sediment material. Bed material load is the summation of the bed load
Load and the suspended load excluding the wash load. Bed
material load is also referred to as the total load.
Boil Sampler Sediment sample obtained immediately downstream of a
regulator or fall structure coupled with energy resistance
blocks is known as a boil sample. The characteristics of this
sample are that it contains all sizes of sediment, including
those which from bed material due to the churning action of
water caused by energy dissipation, where all sediments get
into suspension. A boil sample is collected to estimate the
total sediment load in the channel.
Berm (1) The space left between the upper edge of a cut and
the toe of an embankment.
(2) a horizontal strip of land or shelf built into or an
embankment to break the continuity of an otherwise
long slope, to improve stability.
Blocks Obstructions set in the path of high velocity water to
dissipate energy due to impact and prevent scour.
Branch This term is applied to a large channel taking its supply from
the main canal but whose functions are the same, viz., the
supply of water to distributaries and minor canals.
Breaching Section A section of a flood embankment or other flood protection
work which is designated for effecting a controlled breach to
release a part of flood under specific conditions
Bucket wheel The revolving portion of a current meter driven by the force
of the current and whose revolutions are an indication of the
velocity of that current
C
Caisson A structure used in underwater work, consisting of an airtight
chamber, open at the bottom and containing air under
sufficient pressure to exclude the water
Camber Camber is to arch slightly; bend or curve upward in the
middle
(overbuild) of the crests of embankment dams generally
provided, in addition to conventional freeboard allowances,
to accommodate anticipated post-construction settlements.
Canal An artificial channel constructed to convey appreciable
quantities of water
Canal-Inundation This term is ordinarily applied to a canal with or without
some form of head regulator, dependent upon the surface
level of the water in the river for its supplies. Generally the
inundation canals will only run when the supply in the river
rises to a level which permits of the feeding the canal
DEFINITIONS
Canal-irrigation A canal constructed primarily for conveying water from the

source of supply to areas in which it can be used for
irrigation.
Canal-Navigation A canal whose primary object is transport by water. In a
purely navigation canal the flow of water is reduced to a
minimum
Canal-Weir A canal taking its supply from a river at whose head the
controlled works are of a nature which permits control of the water level
of the source of supply.
Capacity (1) When applied to a channel, the authorized full supply
discharge.
(2) When applied to a tank or reservoir the gross capacity
is the quantity of water stored between bed level and the
level of the cill of the waste weir incase of tank and
between dead storage level and normal pond level incase
of reservoir.
(3) When applied to an outlet, the outlet capacity is the
discharge passed by the outlet when the channel is
running at authorized full supply discharge.
Capacity curve The graph of the volume of reservoir, tank, etc., as function
of elevations. It helps in calculating capacities at various
elevations
Capacity factor The ratio of the mean supply to the authorized full supply or
capacity
Notes:
i) If it were possible to run a canal system at full
supply discharge or closed then the capacity factor
and time factor would be the same.
ii) Owing to rotational working of branches the
distributaries do not run for the same number of
days as either the main canal or each other.
iii) The volume of discharge for a channel as given in
cusec days by the sum of the daily discharges for
the period in question. It is equal to the :
(a) Average discharge multiplied by the
number of days the canal is in flow, or
(b) Mean discharge multiplied by the number
of days in the crop;
Capacity-Flood Is the capacity of a reservoir between high flood level and
absorption the normal reservoir level, provided for the absorption of
floods.
DEFINITIONS
Capacity Statement It is a statement showing the data of area and discharge of

outlets in a channel alongwith capacity of channel at
different sections.
Capillary water Water held above the water-table in soil by capillary force.
Cavitation Formation of vapour cavities in a flowing liquid when the
liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that cause
the formation of cavities where the pressure is relatively low.
The cavities expand and then collapse producing a sharp
sound and causes structural damage to the surfaces.
Critical Tractive The minimum force necessary to initiate movement of
Force sediment particles from the stream bed.
Channel A natural or artificial waterway which periodically or
continuously contains moving water.
Channel-fill Deposits of sediment within a channel, partly or completely
deposits filling the channel. Such materials accumulate where the
transporting capacity has been insufficient to remove other
sediment as rapidly as it has been delivered.
Channel-Irrigation (Commonly known a watercourse).
A small channel taking its supply from a Government
channel but owned and maintained by the cultivators
Channel-Non- A channel which is designed to irrigate during only part of
perennial the year usually in the “kharif’ or summer season
Channel-Perennial A channel which is designed to irrigate all the year round
Channel Regime Channel which is in average equilibrium in its cross-section
and longitudinal slope. Channel in which accretion balances
scour on the average.
Chute blocks These are triangular concrete blocks, provided at the toe of
downstream glacis for energy dissipation.
Cistern A pool of water maintained for energy dissipation to take the
impact of water overflowing a dam, chute, drop or other
overflow structure
Clay A fine-grained cohesive soil with grains smaller than 0.002
millimeter in diameter, used for making bricks and tiles,
Coarse Silt The particles of sediment above 0.2 mm diameter.
Co-efficient of Ratio of observed (actual) to theoretical discharge.
discharge
Co-efficient of A factor in the Kuttar, Manning, Bazin, and other discharge
roughness formulae expressing the character of a channel as effecting
the friction slope of water flowing therein
Coffer dam A barrier built in water so as to form an enclosure from which
water is pumped out to permit free access to the area within
or on a stream to facilitate construction.
DEFINITIONS
Cohesion In a soil, is the resistance of particles against motion

because of their stickiness. Cohesion is high in clays, but
may be very low in silt and is entirely lacking in the sand
Cohesive Sediments whose resistance to initial movement or erosion
Sediments is influenced by the existence of cohesive bonds between
particles, in addition to the physical properties of the
particles.
Colloids Soil particles smaller than .001 mm. diameter
Commutator The portion of a current meter containing the electrical
contacting device for indicating single revolutions of the
bucket wheel
Command A worksheet that shows the water level in channel and water
Statement course at each outlet
Compaction Compaction is one of the methods used in the consolidation

of stabilized earth-work and consists in the application of
load at the top of an unconsolidated or partially consolidated
layer of a graded mixture, which contains enough granular
material to provide for mechanical interlocking. The load is
readily transmitted vertically and causes consolidation
throughout the thickness of the layer. The soil is rolled in
relatively thin layers and, as a rule, in a moistened state to
achieve desired degree of compaction at optimum moisture
content.
Compressibility In a soil, is the degree of resistance to change in volume
under the pressure of heavy loads
Contraction The extent to which the cross sectional area of a jet or
nappe is decreased after passing an orifice, weir or notch
Control point A “free” fall, so designed that the water surface level above
it bears a fixed relation to the discharge passing. The level
is usually fixed with reference to the authorized full supply
discharge
Crest 1. The top of a dam, dike, spillway, weir or a flood
protection embankment which serves as the flow
supporting surface.
2. The summit of a wave of peak flood
Crop ratio The crop ratio, or kharif; rabi ratio is defined as the ratio
between the areas anticipated to be irrigated in these two
crops
Current meter The device for determining the velocity of flowing water by
ascertaining the speed at which a stream of a water rotates
a vane or a wheel
Cusec The unit of discharge used in irrigation practice and means
a rate of flow of one cubic food per-second
DEFINITIONS
Cusec day A unit of volume used in irrigation practice and means the
volume of water resulting from a discharge of one cusec for
one day (24 hours). It amounts to 86,400 cubic feet of water
and is equal to nearly two acre-feet.
Cut-off A wall, collar, or other structure of impervious material (e.g.,
concrete, asphalted concrete, timber, steel sheet piling, or
impervious grout curtain) located in the foundation beneath
a dam or barrage intended to reduce percolation of water
along smooth surfaces or through porous strata
Cut off trench An excavation in the base of a dam or other structure filled
with relatively impervious material to reduce seepage
D
Dam A structure erected to impound water in a reservoir
Dam Arch A curved dam, convex upstream that depends on arch, or
arch and cantilever action for its stability. The load is
transferred by the arch to the canyon walls or other
abutments
Dam-Axis The horizontal centerline of a dam in the longitudinal
direction.
Dam-Buttress A masonry structure which carries the water load from an
impervious deck on the upstream face through buttresses
or counter-forts to the foundation.
Dam Cascade A number of dams constructed one after the other across
river channel are terms as a cascade of dams.
Dam Concrete A dam constructed with cement concrete.
Dam Earthfill A dam comprises an earth fill embankment as the main
structure.
Dam-Flat deck This type of dam is made of a flat reinforced concrete slab,
which transmits water pressure to a series of a parallel
buttresses which rest directly on the foundation or upon a
concrete slab resting on the foundation material.
Dam-Gravity A dam which depends for its stability, entirely on its weight.
It may be straight or slightly curved in plan
Dam-Gravel fill It is an embankment composed of gravel or shingle with the
downstream part made of relatively coarse material, and the
upstream, or water side part made of finer gravel and sand.
Dam-Hydraulic fill A dam composed of earth, sand, gravel, etc., sluiced into
place generally the fine materials are washed towards the
centre for greater imperviousness
Dam Large According to the definitions adopted by ICOLD any dam
having a height of 49.2 ft (15 meters) from the foundation
or, if the height is from 16.4 to 49.2 ft (5 to 15 meters), having
DEFINITIONS
a reservoir capacity of more than 106 million cuft (3 mcm) is

classified as large dam.
Dam Medium A medium dam used to be defined as a dam of medium
height between 15 to 30 meters, but recently the ICOLD has
abandoned this definitions and the medium dams of past
have been categorized as large dams.
Dam-Multiple arch This type of dam consists of a series of inclined arches
supported by buttresses. The load on the upstream face is
transmitted by the arches to the foundations through the
buttresses
Dam-Over flow A dam designed to be overtopped in floods
Dam-Rock filled It is modified form of the earth dam using rock of all sizes to
provide stability and an impervious membrane on the
upstream side to provide water-tightness
Dam-R.C.C (Roller Construction involves placement and compaction of
Compacted) concrete by roller compaction.
Dam-Concrete A rockfill dam with an impervious reinforced concrete slab
Faced Rockfill on upstream face to provide water-tightness.
(CFRD)
Dead storage level See Level-Dam-storage
Degradation The lowering of the surface of stream beds, flood plains, and
the bottoms of other water bodies by the removal of material
from the boundary. This is the opposite of aggradation.
Delta An expression used in irrigation practice to mean the depth
of water that would result over a given area from a given
discharge for a certain length of time. Alternatively, delta
may be defined as the total volume of water delivered
divided by the area over which it has been spread
Demand (1) At the outlet- The cultivators’ water requirements.
(2) At the head of channel- The sum of all useful discharges
required plus total losses
Demand factor When applied to an electric installation, demand factor of a
system or any part thereof is the ratio of the maximum
demand of system or part thereof to the total connected load
on the system or part thereof under consideration
Densification It is one of the methods used in the consolidation of
stabilized earth work and consists in the application of such
a load as penetrates the unconsolidated material and
compacts the layer from the bottom upwards in order that
the material shall be consolidated uniformly throughout its
thickness without stratification. For densification the soil is
deposited in layers of specified thickness and compacted at
a particular moisture content (See compaction).
DEFINITIONS
Density-Soil The density of a soil is its weight per unit volume. A soil
which consists of solids and pores has two densities that of
the mass termed “bulk” density and that of the solids termed
“absolute” density.
Depth-integrating An instrument that is moved vertically at an approximately
sediment sampler constant rate between the water surface and a point a few
inches above the streambed, which collects a
representative discharge-weighted water sediment mixture
at all points along the sampling vertical.
Depression in a semi-module, the depth below supply level of some
point of a semi-module fixed by its hydraulics such that as
supply level varies, a constant co-efficient multiplied by the
correct power of that depth gives the discharge
Depression ratio The ratio between the depression and the height of the
opening of an orifice outlet
Depth-Critical The depth of flow where energy is at a minimum for a
particular discharge.
Direction float A standard metal float carrying a small flag used for
indicating the direction of flow of a river so that the angle
that direction makes with the discharge section line at an
observation point may be measured
Direction peg line The line parallel to the discharge section line on which the
direction pegs are located
Direction pegs The points through which rays from the observation point
pass when converging on to the pivot point
Discharge The rate of flow at a stated site, i.e. the quantity of water
passing in unit time
Discharge section The line along which depths and velocities of water are
line measured between two points located one on each bank of
a channel
Distributary-Major (Commonly known as a distributary) A Government channel
taking its supply from a main line or branch canal, the
function of which is to supply water to smaller distributaries,
minors and outlets.
Distributary-Minor (Commonly known as a minor). A small Government
channel, usually taking its supply from a major distributary,
the function of which is to supply water to outlets
Distributary-sub- (Commonly known as sub-minor) A Government channel off
minor taking from one already defined as a minor
Diversity Factor The diversity factor of any electrical transmission system, or
part of a system, in the ratio of the sum of maximum power
demands of the sub-divisions of the system, or part of a
system, to the maximum demand of the whole system, or
DEFINITIONS
part of the system under consideration measured at the

point of supply.
Divide wall A long wall which separates the weir from the under-sluices
(pocket)
Dominant Is the discharge which controls the meander length and
discharge breadth. It appears to be slightly in excess of bank-full stage
Drainage The natural lines of depression in an area, through which
storm water escapes to the river
Drainage cut An artificial channel, deliberately excavated for the disposal
of storm water on a line which is not naturally a drainage
path
Draw off Statement A statement showing total withdrawals including absorption
losses in a reach of channel
Drift The distance in feet a discharge boat travels downstream
with the current whether anchored or not during the time
taken to make a velocity observation
Drowning ratio The ratio of the tail water elevation to the head water
elevation, when both are higher than the crest, the overflow
crest of the structure being the datum of reference. The
distances upstream or downstream from the crest at which
head-water and tail-water elevations are measured have not
been standardized but should be such that the levels are not
in the influence of the work
Dunes Bed form with a triangular profile having a gentle upstream
slope, which advances downstream by the movement of
sediment up the upstream slope and by the deposition of
the sediment on the steep downstream slope. Dunes move
downstream at velocities that are small compared to the
stream flow velocity.
Duty When applied to a channel the area irrigated during a base
period divided by the mean supply utilized in cusecs.
Duty on capacity The full supply factor obtained by a canal system or channel
after it has been opened for irrigation
E
Echo Sounder Instrument by means of which the depth of water is
determined by measuring the time required for a sound
signal to travel to the bed and return.
End Sill or End It is a raised reinforced concrete obstruction placed at the
Baffle end of the stilling basin to support energy dissipation by
providing additional flow depth in the stilling basin (d2).
Energy gradient The slope of energy line with reference to any plane
Energy head The elevation of the hydraulic grade line at any section plus
the velocity head of the mean velocity of the water in that
DEFINITIONS
section. The energy head may be referred to any datum or

to an inclined plane such as the bed of a conduit
Energy line A line joining the elevation of the energy heads of a stream.
The energy line is above the hydraulic grade line a distance
equivalent to the velocity head at all sections along the
stream
Energy of Flow/ When water flows in any channel (natural or man-made) its
Specific Energy energy is made up of three types i.e. potential energy,
kinetic energy and pressure energy. The sum of all the three
energies is the total energy of the fluid flow at any particular
point in the channel prism. This total energy is called as the
Energy of Flow / Specific Energy.
Equal-discharge- A procedure for obtaining the discharge-weighted
increments (EDI) suspended sediment concentration of flow at a cross
section, whereby; (1) the depth integration is performed at
the centers of three or more equal flow segments of the
cross section; and (2) the wearing away of the land surface
by detachment and transport of soil and rock materials
though the action of moving water or other geological
agents.
Erosion (1) The natural process by which earth or tock material is
comminuted in a broad sense and move, or (2) the waring
away of the land surface by detachment and transport of soil
and rock materials through the action of moving water or
other geological agents.
Escape A channel through which surplus or excess water may be
removed from a canal to a drainage channel
Exit Gradient Exit gradient is the rate of dissipation of head per unit of
length at the end of downstream floor of a hydraulic
structure founded on permeable foundations. It is a
measure of the effect of the piping phenomenon. Piping
occurs if the exit hydraulic gradient at the downstream point
approaches the critical hydraulic gradient. The exit gradient
is said to be critical when the upward disturbing force on the
grain is just equal to the submerged weight of the grain at
the exit.
F
Fall A structure designed to secure the lowering of the water
surface in a channel and the safe destruction of the surplus
energy
Fall Diameter This is the diameter of a sphere having a specific gravity of
2.65 and having the same terminal velocity as the particle
when each is allowed to settle alone in a quiescent distilled
water of infinite extent at 24oC.
DEFINITIONS
Feeder A channel constructed primarily to convey water from one

source of supply or system to another
Fetch 1 The distance over which a wind blows.
2 The distance traveled by waves with no obstruction
Field moisture The minimum moisture content at which a drop of water
equivalent placed on smooth surface of the soil will not be immediately
absorbed, but will instead spread over the surface and give
it a shiny appearance
Fine Small particles of sediment below 0.07 mm diameter.
Fish ladder Also called fish way or fish pass. It is a structural device
provided in the barrage / weir / a diversion structure to
facilitate the movement of fish (specially migrating species)
across the diversion structure. It comprises several
chambers arranged in a cascade of small drops to control
the velocities within the reach of the types of fish that are
expected to use it.
Flexibility The ratio of the rate of change of discharge of the outlet to
the rate of change of discharge of the supply or parent
channel
Flip Bucket
Float run The fixed distance over which surface float is timed
Flow-Critical The flow at depth equal to the critical depth is known as
critical flow. The Froude Number of critical flow is 1.For the
given value of specific energy the critical depth gives the
greatest discharge or conversely for a given discharge the
specific energy is a minimum for the critical depth.
Flow net Flow net can be defined as a graphical plot of flow/stream
lines with equipressure (equipotential) lines for flow under
an impervious mat (structure) resting on permeable soil.
The flow nets facilitate graphical determination of uplift
pressures, discharges and exit gradients
Flow-Hyper/super- Flow at velocities greater than the critical.
critical
Flow-sub-critical Flow at velocities less than the critical.
Flow-Uniform A constant flow or discharge, the mean velocity of which is
also constant. Also referred to as ‘steady uniform flow’. It is
an ideal condition that can only be approximated. If the
velocity of the constant discharge varies, the flow is defined
as ‘steady non-uniform’
Flow-Turbulent That type of flow in which any particle may move in any
direction with respect to any other particle and in which the
head loss is approximately proportional to the second power
of the velocity (Sometimes designated as ‘sinuous flow or
tortuous flow’).
DEFINITIONS
Flume A constricted water way

Free-board (1). The distance between the designed full supply level
and the top of the sides of an open channel or a
dam/embankment provided to allow for wave action,
floating debris, or any other condition or emergency without
over-topping the banks of the channel sides of the
structure.
(2) When applied to a dam, it is the distance from the top of
the dam to the water surface in the reservoir during
maximum flood conditions.
Friction Blocks or Cubical or trapezoidal or arrow shaped reinforced concrete
Baffle Piers blocks provided in the stilling basin for dissipation of energy
of flow.
Froude Number A dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the flow
v
inertia to gravity. Expressed as F= where v =Velocity of
√gd
flow; g = acceleration due to gravity, and d=Depth of flow
Fore-bay A reservoir or pond at the head of a penstock or pipe line
Full supply factor The area proposed to be irrigated in a project during the
base period divided by the authorized full supply discharge
of the channel at head
Note—(i) The full supply factor is assessed for purposes
of project making in these light of experience.
Note—(ii) Once a project is opened for irrigation, the full
supply factor attained usually known as the duty
on capacity.
Fuse Plug A fuse plug is a collapsible structure constructed to
supplement the flood release capacity of the spillway.
G
Gauge discharge The curve resulting upon the plotting of discharges against
curve equivalent gauges
Gauge line The line across a channel, passing through the permanent
gauge in a fixed direction
Gauge line pillars The masonry land marks fixing the position of the gauge
line.
Gauge-Permanent The contrivance whose position is never changed and
against which the height above sea level of water surface
levels are recorded.
Gauging Station A selected section of stream channel at which one or more
variables are measured continuously or periodically as an
index to discharge and other parameters.
Gauge-Temporary Any temporary gauge fixed for the purpose of recording
water surface level above sea level.
DEFINITIONS
Gauge wells Gauge wells are provided to facilitate reading of water level.
They are generally rectangular in plan with stairs leading to
observing point from the top pavement.
Glacis The sloping floor below and in continuation of the raised
crest of a weir.
Government A canal or channel which is owned maintained and operated
channel exclusively by the Government
Gravel Sub-angular to rounded, mixture of different size of stone
mixed with sand and possibly some clay.
Groyne A spur (or groyne) is a structures constructed with
permanent materials, transverse to the river flow and extend
from the bank into the river. These are widely used for the
purpose of river training.
Guide bank The embankments forming the upstream and downstream
approaches of a weir to guide the flow to pass centrally
through the barrage or weir. Guide banks are placed in pairs
symmetrical in plan. The nose of a guide bank is heavily
armored to withstand river action
H
Head (1) The height of water above any point or plane of
reference. Used also in various compounds, such as
energy head, entrance head, friction head, static head,
pressure head, lost head, etc
(2) The term is usually applied to the control work
constructed at the off-take of a channel subsidiary to a
main canal.
Head-Available The minimum available difference between supply and delivery
working water levels.
Head-Energy See energy head
Head-Gross When applied to a dam – the gross head is the total fall or
difference between the upstream's surface water (headrace)
forebay elevation and the downstream's surface water (tail
water) elevation at the tail-race.
Head-Minimum The difference of water level or pressure between supply and
modular delivery sides, which is the minimum necessary to enable a
module or semi-module to work as designed.
Head-Net When applied to a dam –Net head is the gross head less all
losses in the conduit and tail race. (Losses within the turbine
easing the turbines and the draft tube are not included in the
conduit losses, being accounted for in the turbine efficiency).
Head race A channel leading water to a water-wheel, a fore-bay.
DEFINITIONS
Head - The canal head regulator is a structure similar to a barrage

regulator constructed on the river flank to regulate the water supplies let
into the canal.
Head-Static See Static head.
Headworks The works constructed at the off-take of a main canal. It includes
a weir on a river or a dam at storage site, etc.
Hydraulic The slope of hydraulic grade line. The slope of the surface of
gradient water flowing in an open channel/conduit.
Hydrograph The curve resulting from the plotting of discharges against time
at a specific point in the river or conduit.
Hydraulic jump The sudden and usually turbulent passage of water from low
stage below critical depth to higher stage above critical depth
during which the velocity passes from supercritical to sub critical.
It represents the limiting condition of the surface curve herein it
tends to become perpendicular to the stream bed. . A hydraulic
jump represents a significant loss of energy and reduces the
scour and creation of turbulence.
Hydraulic mean The cross sectional area of a stream of water divided by the
depth length of that part of its periphery in contact with its containing
conduit (the ratio of wetted area to wetted perimeter).
Hydraulic mean The ratio of cross sectional area of a stream of water (pipe or
radius channel) divided by the total length of its periphery. For a full
pipe, this is half the radius.
I
Indent It is the total requirement of discharge at any place. It includes
the discharges actually used for irrigation as well as absorption
losses in between the indenting site and the place where
irrigation is actually done.
Infiltration The percolating flow of ground water into a drain, gallery, or other
underground conduit.
Inlet (1) A surface connection to a drain.
(2) A structure at the diversion end of a conduit.
(3)The upstream end of any structure through which water
may flow.
Instantaneous A suspended-sediment sampler which essentially
sample instantaneously traps and removes a representative specimen
of the water –sediment mixture in a stream at a described depth
and time.
Intensity- It is the ratio of cultivated cropped area to total cultivable
Annual command area expressed as percentage. Annual intensity is the
sum of intensities in kharif and rabi. Perennial crops are counted
twice in estimation of annual intensity.
DEFINITIONS
Invert The floor, bottom or lowest part of the internal cross-section of a

conduit.
Inverted filter Inverted filter comprises a layer or combination of layers
(normally 4) of graded pervious materials designed and placed
in such a manner as to provide dissipation of residual energy of
subsurface flow and upward drainage but preventing the
movement of fine particles of soil from underneath the
impervious floor with seepage water.
Irrigation The artificial application of water to arid land for the purpose of
growing crops.
Irrigation - Application of water through field channels. It is the most
Surface common form of irrigation throughout the world.
Irrigation - Drip Drip irrigation also called trickle/micro irrigation; is the most
efficient technology that makes highly effective use of water,
fertilizers, and nutrients form of through pipes which allows water
to drip slowly to the roots of different plants.
Irrigation - In sprinkler irrigation system, rainfall like conditions are created
Sprinkler by spraying water into the air through a sprinkler nozzle and
allowed to fall on the land surface in a uniform pattern.
Irrigation The quantity of water, exclusive of effective rainfall that is
requirements required for crop production. It includes economically
unavoidable wastes.
Irrigation- Watering plants by applying the water below the ground surface.
Subsoil
Irrigator One who applies water to land for growing crops.
L
Leach To remove alkali from soils by abundant irrigation
(combined with drainage if possible).
Lead Is a distance between two nakkas. Also the distance a
construction material is to be hauled from its source to
construction site.
Levels-Accretion of Converse of degradation or retrogression of levels. A rise in
specific levels of the river section at any site.
Level-Dead storage It is the water level below which a reservoir is not depleted
in order that the minimum designed head for hydro-electric
generation or for irrigation purpose is not reduced. The
capacity below this level is reserved for silt deposit.
Levels-Degradation A reduction of specific levels at any site which has originated
of at that site or worked downstream from a site higher up.
Level-Regime The level or the gauge reading of the water surface for a
gauge reading of given discharge.
Level-Water A water surface, also its elevation above any datum, gauge,
height, stage.
DEFINITIONS
Limits of oscillation Is the width within which a river has ranged within historic
times.
Lining A protective covering over all or over a portion of the
perimeter of a conduit, or canal to prevent seepage losses,
or to withstand pressure to resist erosion. Conduits and
canals are sometimes lined to reduce friction or otherwise
improve conditions of flow
Liquid limit Is that moisture content expressed as a percentage of the
weight of oven-dried soil at which the soil will just begin to
flow when lightly jarred. At this stage cohesion and internal
friction are practically zero.
Load factor It is the ratio of the average load to the peak load. In each
case the interval of maximum load and the period over
which the average is taken should be definitely stated such
as a “half hourly, monthly” load factor.
Log line The weight and cord attached to it used for determining
depths at observation points where it is impossible to use a
sounding rod.
Losses-Absorption Losses from a canal or reservoir on account of evaporation
and percolation or seepage.
Loose stone apron A pervious protection against bed scour that launches into
the scour and protects the impervious structure, both on the
upstream and downstream.
Losses-Total The sum total of losses of water by absorption, percolation
and evaporation. The total loss in a channel may be defined
as the difference between the discharge at head of a
channel and the useful discharge, i.e., the sum of outlet
discharges.
M
Main line This term is applied to the principal channel of a canal
system off taking from a river or other source of supply.
Mean particle size The weighted average of different sediment size classes bh
or diameter wight.
Mean velocity The point lying between water surface and the bed of a
position channel at which the velocity is equal to the mean velocity.
Median size or Particles size of sediment for which 50 percent by weight is
diameter finer, obtained graphically by locating the diameter
associated with the midpoint of the particle size distribution.
Medium silt The particles of sediment below 0.07 mm diameter.
Meter Is a device for measuring quantities of water passed or the
rate of flow.
Meter-flume The device for measuring discharge from the direct
measurement of the depth of water flowing over it.
DEFINITIONS
Module Device for ensuring a constant discharge of water from one

channel to anoher irrespective of the water level in each
within specified limits; this word is sometimes applied to
what are really rate-able modules which instead of ensuring
a constant discharge aim at passing a discharge into the
smaller channel which is in proportion to the supply in the
parent channel.
Modular limits The extreme values of any factors at which a module or
semi-module ceases to be capable of acting as such.
Modular range The range of condition between the side limits, within which
a module or semi-module works as designed.
Minimum Modular Minimum Modular Head Ratio (MMH Ratio) is the ratio
Head Ratio (MMH between the Minimum Modular Head and the depth of
Ratio) upstream water level on the crest of an outlet.
Marginal bund An embankment constructed along the river at a short
distance from the margin with the object of preventing
outflanking of the barrage or bridge and flooding of country
side effected by rise in river water levels effected by
construction of the barrage or bridge. These are in some
countries also termed as “Afflux Bunds”. They normally
extend from the barrage or bridge up to the backwater limit
of the barrage or bridge.
Meander Consists of two consecutive loops in a channel; one flowing
clockwise, the other anti-clockwise.
Meander belt It is the distance between lines drawn tangential to the
extreme points of successive full developed meanders.
Meander length It is the tangential distance between corresponding points
at extreme limits of successive fully developed meanders.
Meander ratio It is the ratio meander width to meander length.
Meandering river It follows a sinuous path due to natural physical causes not
imposed by external restraint and occurs where varying
discharges and silt loads lead to curved flow and erosion of
the banks.
Meander width It is the amplitude of swing of a fully developed meander
from mid-stream to midstream.
Moisture Content It is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as
soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood.
N
Nappe A sheet or curtain of water flowing over a weir or spillway of
a dam, etc. The nappe has an upper and a lower surface. A
nappe is said to adhere if its lower surface is in contact with
the face of the work.
Navigation Lock Navigation lock is a passage (about 22 to 40 ft wide) placed
on the weir side of the divide wall to facilitate the crossing of
DEFINITIONS
the barrage by boats or other aquatic objects (timber etc

through filling and emptying the lock enclosure with
regulating gates.
Nominal diameter This is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as
the particle.
Non-cohesive Sediments consisting of discrete particles, the movement of
sediments which for give erosive forces depends only upon the
physical properties of shape, size, and density, and upon
the relative position of the particles with respect to
surrounding particles.
Normal Flow is that state of steady flow of a stream, where the fall of
water surface corresponds to the consumption of energy by
friction.
Notch A narrow fall whose crest is usually at or near the bed level
usually without a glacis. In irrigation practice, notches are
designed primarily to maintain the depth discharge relation
of the canal at all stages of discharge.
O
Observation points The points at segmented intervals along a discharge section
line at which the velocities and depths are measured.
Ogee The reversed curve of the face of an overflow dam.
Optimum moisture The moisture content at which the maximum density is
content produced by a specific degree of compacting.
Outfall The point where water flows from a conduit, the mouth of
drains and sewers.
Outlet The term used to designate the work which passes water
from a Government channel to a water course.
Outlet-Direct An outlet constructed in a main line or branch canal
Outlet-Non-modular An outlet whose discharge is dependent on the levels both
in the canal and in the watercourse
Outlet-Pipe An outlet whose construction involves the use of a simple
pipe or pipes.
Outlet-Semi An outlet of which the discharge is independent of the level
modular in the watercourse, within working limits
P
Particle Size The diameter of a particle measured by settling, sieving,
micrometric, or direct measurement methods.
Particle size, Particle size distribution:- The relative amount of a sediment
average sample having a specific size, usually in terms of
percentage by weight finer than a given size, D%
PCC blocks PCC blocks are plain concrete blocks placed on top of the
inverted filter to weigh it down. These are provided in two
DEFINITIONS
sections, separated by a cut off wall; one is a part of the

inverted filter and the following one a settling portion
preceding the loose stone apron. PCC blocks are also
provided upstream of the upstream floor to support scour
protection provided by the loose stone apron.
Pendant A sheet metal disc bearing the observation point number
and carried by the pendant wire.
Pendant wire The wire exactly marking a section line and carrying
pendants upon it to indicate the exact position of
observation point.
Penta The special commentator which indicates every fifth
revolution only of the bucket wheel and is inter-changeable
with the commutator for indicating single revolutions of the
bucket wheel. Also the name of construction management
software
Penstock It is a closed conduit for supplying water under pressure to
a water wheel or turbine.
Percolation Movement of water through the interstices of a substance
as through soil.
Phreatic Line Line of seepage or phreatic line or saturation line is defined
as the line within the dam/embankment section below which
there are positive hydrostatic pressures in the
dam/embankment.
Piers Piers are supporting structures at the junction of connecting
spans of a bridge provided between any two adjacent bays.
The gates operate through the grooves provided in the
piers. Usually there are two grooves, the upstream one
called the stop log groove and downstream one called the
main gate or service gate groove.
Piezometers Piezomerers are instruments for measuring pressure of a
fluid or the compressibility of a substance when subjected
to such pressure These are pipes with screened ends
embedded in the substructure alluvium to read uplift
pressures under the structure by measuring the height to
which a column of the liquid rises against gravity. It is also
used to measures piezometric head of groundwater.
Pile line A long line of inter-locked piles driven into the soil to form
an impermeable cut off.
Piping Water seeps under the base of the weirs or dams founded
on permeable soils. When the flow lines emerge out at the
downstream end of the impervious floor of the weir, the
hydraulic gradient or the exit gradient may exceed a certain
critical value for the soil. In that case, the surface soil starts
boiling and is washed away by percolating water. This
process of erosion progressively works backwards towards
DEFINITIONS
the upstream and results in the formation of channel or a

piping underneath the floor of the weir, causing its failure.
Pivot point The point at a fixed distance from the discharge section line
on to which rays from the observation points converge.
Pivot point layout A geometrical layout of points on one or both banks for the
purpose of locating observation points in a river without
direct measurement along the discharge section line.
Pivot point line The line from the zero point of the discharge section line
passing through the pivot point.
Plane Bed A sedimentary bed without elevations or depressions larger
than the maximum size of the bed material, which is
characteristic of the lower part of the upper flow regime.
Plant factor (When applied to electric installation). Plant factor (or
capacity factor) is the ratio of the average load to the rated
capacity of the plant.
Plastic limit The lowest moisture content expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the oven dried soil, at which the soil can be
rolled into thread 1/8” in diameter without showing signs of
crumbling.
Plasticity index The numerical, difference between the liquid and the plastic
limit. This shows the percentage in moisture content through
which soil remains plastic. It is useful tool for determining
suitability of soil for dam construction material.
Pocket The under-sluice pocket may be defined as the area
adjacent to the head regulator bounded on one side by the
flank and on the other by the divide wall.
Point Integration Method of sampling to obtain the mean concentration of
sediment at a point in the stream.
Point-integrating An instrument designed to collect a representative sample
sediment sampler of the water-sediment mixture at a selected depth in a
stream vertical over a specific time period.
Point-integrated A water sediment mixture that is accumulated continuously
sample (point at about the prevailing stream velocity, over a specific time
sample) period, in sampler that is suspended at a relatively fixed
point in the stream vertical.
Point sampler Sample of water-sediment mixture taken at a single point,
either with an instantaneous or point-integrating sampler.
Power Primary or (When applied to the hydro-electric installation). Is the
Firm minimum power that can be generated under the worst
working conditions.
Power secondary (When applied to hydro-electric installation). Any power
generated over and above firm power due to variation of
flow and head is called secondary power
DEFINITIONS
Precipitation The total measurable quantity of water received directly

from clouds, as rain, snow and hail usually expressed as
depth in inches or millimeters in a day month or year and
designated as daily, monthly or annual precipitation.
Pressure Release A vertical well or borehole, usually downstream of
Wells impervious cores, grout curtains, or cutoffs, designed to
collect and direct seepage through or under a dam/weir to
reduce uplift pressure under or within the dam: A line of such
wells forms a relief well curtain.
Pressure Total load or force upon a surface, also appropriately used
to indicate intensity of pressure or force per unit area.
Pressure sounder The device for determining depths of water from the cubical
measurement of water trapped within it due to the different
pressures created at different pressures created at different
depths.
Priming (1) The first filling of a canal, reservoir or other structure that
is, either the absolutely first or seasonally the first,
(2) Starting the flow as in a pump or siphon
Proportional The fitting of semi-modules on a supplying channel in such
modeling a manner that when supply fluctuates each off take draws
always a constant proportion of the supply
Puddle Earthy material as a mixture of clay, sand, and gravel,
placed with water to form a compact mass to reduce
percolation.
Pumping sampler A suspended-sediment mixture taken at a single point,
either with an instantaneous or a point-integrating sampler.
R
Rack and pinion The machine incorporating a toothed wheel and a toothed
rod to the bottom of which the swivel and current meter are
attached.
Rapids (1) A term used by some writers for chute. (2) Swift and
turbulent flow, without pronounced falls.
Rating Curve, Solid particles derived from rocks or biological material,
Sediment which are or have been transported by water.
Reach A comparatively short length of a stream or channel.
Reconnaissance A preliminary field examination to a proposed project.
Reduced Distance A measurement of distance of 1,000 ft along the channel,
(R.D) Road, embankment and dams etc is known as one Reduced
Distance (one RD = 1,000 ft
Referring bench A masonry or other fixed point whose level above sea level
mark is known and by reference to which the levels of gauges,
etc. may be determined and thereby the water surface
levels above sea level as read from those gauges.
DEFINITIONS
Regime Flow It is state of stream, flowing in a self-borne alluvium, where

there is neither silt nor scour.
Regulation Is the process of distribution of supplies available in a river
between different off taking canals or between channels on
a canal.
Regulator A structure through which the discharge can be varied at
will. Also applied to a structure provided with means of
varying the water surface level above it.
Reservoir The lake impounded by a dam.
Riparian Pertaining to the banks of a body of water; a riparian owner
is one who owns the banks, a riparian right is the right to
control and use water by virtue of the ownership of the bank
or banks.
Ripple Small triangular-shaped bed forms that are similar to dunes
but have much smaller amplitudes and lengths.
River-Incised Is one which has cut its channel through the bed of the
valley floor as opposed to one flowing on flood plain.
River Spilling A river which spills over the flood plain in medium or high
floods are terms as spilling rivers.
River Braided A braided river is the one whose main channel contains
several cross channels and shoals that appear in plan as a
braid.
River Anastomosed A river which has more than one channel breaking off the
or main channel and rejoining it after some distance are terms
as “Anastomosed/Anna-branching” river.
Anna-branching
River Training Any structural interventions provided/ constructed to
Works train/guide the river flow into a desired channel/ direction is
referred to as a river training work.
Rotational working When the demand exceeds the available supply, recourse
is had to a system known as Rotational working. In sound
irrigation practice every endeavor is made to run the
distributary channels at the authorized full supply discharge
or to close them entirely. This is possible in the case of some
branches and most distributaries. Each channel takes a turn
of full supply for a certain number of days, other channels
being closed to admit of this. The unit period for which the
channels run or are closed is known as a Rotational Turn.
Run-off That part of precipitation that appears as flow in streams.
S
Sand A granular material composed of finely divided rock and
mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel
and coarser than silt. According to the American Standard,
it is taken as particles of soil 0.05 mm to 1 mm diameter.
DEFINITIONS
The standard adopted by the International Society of soil

Science is, however, 0.02 mm to 2 mm diameter.
Seconds pendulum A small weight attached to a cord held at a point 39” from
the centre of gravity of the weight resulting in its swinging to
and fro in exactly one second of time irrespective of its
normal swing range or the circumferential length of the to
and fro distance swung. The time for one complete cycle, a
left swing and a right swing, is called the period.
Segment A specified length of the total discharge section line.
Scour The enlargement of a flow section by the removal of material
composing the boundary through the action of the fluid
motion.
Sediment Solid particles derived from rocks or biological material,
which are or have been transported by water.
Sedimentation A term applied to the five fundamental processes
responsible for the formation of sediment; (1) weathering,
(2) detachment, (3) transportation, (4) deposition and (5)
digenesis.
Sedimentation This is the diameter of a sphere having the same specific
Diameter weight and the same terminal velocity as the given particle
in the same fluid under the same condition.
Sediment Concentration of each sample fraction in parts per million is
concentration in determined on the basis of one million times the ratio of the
ppm net weight of the sediment to the net weight of water-
sediment mixture by the formula.
Sensitiveness The variation (per cusec) of discharge of a semi module for
a tenth of foot variation of supply level.
Sensitivity The ratio that the rate of change of discharge of an outlet
bears to the rate of change in level of the distributary water
surface, referred to the normal depth of the channel.
Setting The ratio of the depth below full supply level (F.S.L.), of the
crest of an outlet to the full supply depth of the channel at
the point.
Shear friction- The ratio of the total resistance by cohesion and friction to
factor of safety the horizontal load is termed as sheer friction factor. The
term is used to denote the factor of safety of a structure
against failure by sliding, taking into consideration the
shearg strength of the material of which the structure is
constructed.
Shrinkage limit The moisture content expressed as a percentage of the dry
weight of the sample at which the removal of additional
water produces no further change in the volume of the
sample. In other words, the amount of water required to fill
DEFINITIONS
the pores of a soil sample which has been dried to constant

weight from a wet condition.
Shutter/Flashboard When applied to a weir, a plate of steel or wood construction
hinged to the crest. Shutters are used to regulate the level
of the river above the crest. The size is limited by that which
can be raised against a modest head by manual labour.
Side slopes The slope of the sides of a canal dam or embankment;
custom has sanctioned the naming of the horizontal
distance first as 1.5 to 1 (or frequently, 1 ½ :1) meaning a
horizontal distance of 1.5 to 1 vertical (1.5H : 1V).
Sieve Diameter The size of sieve opening through which a given particle of
sediment will just pass. This is the diameter of a sphere
equal to the length of the side of a square sieve opening
through which the given particle will just pass.
Silt (1) Water-borne sediment. The term is generally confined to
fine earth, sand, or mud, but is sometimes broadened to
include all material carried, including both suspended and
bed load
(2) Deposits of water-borne material as in a reservoir, on a
delta or on overflowed lands.
Silt Draw of Outlet This is the share of silt drawn by an outlet from the channel.
The silt draw of an outlet depends on the type of outlet and
its crest setting relative to the bed of the channel, which is
expressed as a percentage ration of sediment concentration
in the water drawn by tan outlet into a watercourse to the
sediment concentration in the channel.
Silt Grade Refers to sediment size in mm.
Silt charge This refers to sediment load carried by the flowing channel.
Silt Ejector This is a device to remove excessive sediment load after it
has entered the canal downstream of the head regulator.
The extraction of sediment is affected by causing the
sediment concentration to occur in the bottom layers and
separating them in such a way that there is the least
disturbance in sediment distribution of the approaching flow.
Silt excluder It is a structural device constructed in the pocket in front of
the canal regulators to exclude the heavier grades of silt
from entering the canals. It usually consists of a series of
RC tunnels placed in front of the canal head regulators at
right angles to the barrage gate line.
Silt intensity Silt intensity can be calculated from the mean value of all
the coarse and medium silt observations taken at one
particular site as: Silt intensity in cubic feet (cft) per % cft-
grams per litre *5/8 Silt intensity in cft per cusec-day grams
per litre *54 total silt which passes a canal section per day
DEFINITIONS
is given as total silt in cft silt intensity in cft per cusec day *
discharge in cft per sec.
Sliding factor Is the ratio of net horizontal force to net vertical load acting
on a structure.
Slit load All sediment material upto 3.6 mm diameter, whether in
suspension, or moving on the bed, or deposited on the bed.
Sluice 1. A conduit for carrying water at high velocity.
2. An opening in a structure for passing debris.
3. To cause water to flow at high velocities for wastage
for purpose of excavation or ejecting debris
Slope gauges Gauges fixed above and below a discharge section line for
the purpose or determining the water surface slope through
that discharge section line.
Sloping Apron Stone work to protect the side slopes of embankments,
canals, dams, dykes etc against erosion.
Soil Finely divided material composed of disintegrated rock
mixed with organic matter; the loose surface material in
which plants grow.
Soils-Alkali Soil that contains harmful concentration of alkaline mineral
salts.
Soil evaporation Evaporation of water from moist soils.
Sounding rod The graduated pole with which depths of water are
measured in feet at observation points.
Spillway A passage for spilling surplus water from a dam.
Spillway-Overflow It is a structure constructed at a dam site, for effectively
or Ogee disposing of the surplus water from upstream to
downstream and ogee spillway is an improvement upon the
“free overfall spillway”.
Ogee is an S-shaped line or moulding.
Spillway-Straight A straight drop or free overfall spillway is a structure is a low-
drop or free overfall height, narrow-crested weir with vertical downstream face
so that the water falls freely.
Spillway-Syphon Siphon Spillway is a closed duct connecting the upstream
and the downstream sides of a reservoir dam, thus enabling
flood waters to pass, as in the case of a bye-channel. The
hood level is higher than reservoir level. Hence, when
flowing full the water level in pipe is higher than the reservoir
level.
Spillway-Shaft or A shaft spillway is sometimes called a "morning glory"
morning glory spillway. It is a hollow tower or shaft, usually circular, which
has a funnel at its top.
DEFINITIONS
Spillway-Side A side channel spillway is one whose control weir is placed

channel just upstream and to the side of the dam. The water flows
over the spillway, into a side channel alongside and
approximately parallel to the upper portion of the spillway
discharge channel. Flow over the crest falls into a narrow
trough opposite the weir, turns approximately 90 degree
and then continues into the main discharge channel.
Spillway-Chute An over fall structure in which the water flow passes over a
crest into a sloping, lined chute;
Spur In irrigation practice, a projection into a stream, provided
with an armored head; the head may be of various shapes.
Stability In a soil, this may be defined as the resistance to natural
flow, when loaded, denoting its structural strength which
depends upon the shear strength representing the
combined effect of internal friction of the soil particles.
Standing wave A term used in local practice identical with hydraulic jump.
Static head The total head without deduction for velocity head or losses
for example the difference in elevation of head-water and
tail-water across a structure or a power plant.
Steady Flow Steady flow is that state of flow in a stream, where the
discharge across any defined section of the stream remains
constant in respect of time.
Stilling Basin An impervious depressed part of the floor downstream of
the crest block that accommodates the hydraulic jump and
subsequent turbulence to facilitate dissipation of energy of
flow in converting the super critical flow into sub critical state
to protect the downstream channel from undue erosion and
scour.
Stilling well The purpose of a stilling well is to dampen waves or surges
while permitting the water level in the well to rise and fall
with the major fluctuations of the main body of water or flow
channel. It is a pipe, chamber, or compartment with one or
more comparatively small inlets connected with a main
body of water or flow channel The water level in the well
can be measured and used to calculate flow.
Stream Discharge The quantity of flow passing through a cross section of a
stream in a unit of time. (The natural water contains both
dissolved solids and sediment).
Strike The strike of a bed, fault or joint in a rock is the bearing of
the line which a horizontal plane makes with the plane of
the bed, fault or joint.
Sub-meander Is a small meander contained within the banks of a
perennial river channel. These are caused by relatively low
discharge after the flood has subsided.
DEFINITIONS
Submerged orifice An orifice which in use is drowned by having the tail-water

higher than all parts of the opening.
Subsidiary weir A weir constructed to raise the water level on the
downstream of a barrage to counter the effects of
retrogression levels. It is needed at only those barrages
that are affected with extraordinary retrogression of levels.
Sub-soil The material lying below the surface soil, generally devoid
of humus or organic matter.
Supply Is taken to be supply utilized, that is supply entering the
canal head less escapage in modern and efficient canal
irrigation, there is practically no escapage.
Supply-Available (1) In the river the discharge passing at a particular
moment.
(2) In a reservoir; the quantity of water stored in the
reservoir above cill of lowest sluices or above the dead
storage level.
(3) At the head of a channel; the authorized share of the
river discharge pertaining to a canal.
(4) Other channels: The discharge flowing.
Supply-Authorized Is the maximum discharge for which a channel or work is
full or Designed full designed
supply or full supply
discharge
Supply- Average The average supply in a channel during a certain period is
the sum of the daily discharges run at the head of the
channel in that period divided by the number of days when
the channel is in flow.
Supply-Mean The mean supply in a channel is the sum of the daily
discharges at the channel head divided by the number of
days in the base period.
Supply-Normal Is a term peculiar to the Sutlej Valley Canals and denotes
the discharge corresponding to 55 percent of the
Authorized Full Supply Discharge.
Supply-Share Is an outdated term peculiar to the Sutlej Valley Canals
and denotes the discharge allowed to any particular
channel according to the term of the agreement between
the three parties, namely, Punjab, Bahawalpur and
Bikaner.
Supply-Utilized The supply entering a channel less any supply escaped.
Sound irrigation practice requires practically no escapage.
Surface float A wooden disc or other floating matter used for timing over
a fixed distance in order to determine surface velocity.
Suspended Load By definition, refers to the sediment moving in suspension.
DEFINITIONS
Suspension rod The hand operated rod used in shallow water instead of a
Rack and Pinion.
Swivel The device fixed between current meter and its means of
suspension, so that it may be free to swing in a horizontal
plane.
Syphon A term applied in irrigation practice to an “inverted siphon”
a tube or “sealed” channel constructed to carry water at a
level lower than at which the open channel normally flows.
Syphon-Inverted A pipe line crossing over a depression or under a highway,
rail road, canal, drain etc. The term is common but
inappropriate, as no syphonic action is involved. The
suggested term “sag pipe”, is very expressive and
appropriate.
Storage Dead Is the capacity of a reservoir at the minimum level to which
is the reservoir is drawn down.
Storage Live Is the capacity of the reservoir above Dead Storage level.
T
Tail/Tail Cluster This term is usually applied to the work constructed at the
end of a channel for the distribution of the water, e. g. tail
cluster / tail regulator etc.
Tail Water Tail water refers to water level immediately downstream
from a hydraulic structure, such as a dam/barrage, bridge
or culvert.
Tail race The channel that leads water away from a turbine or water
wheel
Temporary to A temporary contrivance for measuring water surface level
along the gauge line of a permanent gauge when that
Permanent Gauge
gauge itself is left high and dry, and fixed so that it
measures as it was the permanent gauge.
Time-factor The ratio of the number of days the channel is in flow to
the base days.
Time lag Is the allowance that has to be made for time required for
the effect of change in indent at one site reaching another
indenting site.
Toe-wall A shallow wall constructed below the foundation level to
provide a footing for the pitching of the face of an
embankment. When the sub-soil water level is high the
toe-wall takes the form of a series of shallow wells.
Tractive Force Force exerted by flowing water on the sediment particle at
a standstill on the river bed, to induce movement.
Trap efficiency The proportion of the incoming sediment load deposited in
a lake or reservoir, in present.
DEFINITIONS
Trash rack A grating, usually made of M.S Flats, provided at the

entrance of a submerged, outlet to prevent entry of debris,
jungle, etc.
Turbulence A state of flow wherein the water is agitated by cross
currents and eddies, opposed, to a condition of flow that
is quiet or quiescent.
U
Under-sluice Short flank sections of a barrage with low crest adjacent
to the canal head regulator and separated from the main
weir by a divide wall are called under-sluices.
Uplift The upward water pressure on the base of a structure.
V
Velocity The rate at which movement occurs and usually
expressed in feet per second or meters per second.
Velocity-Central The rate at which the surface layer of water moves in the
Surface centre of a channel.
Velocity Critical Is the velocity in a stream corresponding to critical flow.
Froude Number of critical flow is 1.
Velocity Drift The velocity due to drift.
Velocity Mean The average rate at which all the layers of water move
between water surface and the bed of a channel at a
specified distance from one bank.
Velocity-Modified The velocity as observed after correcting for the drift
velocity and angularity.
Velocity overall The average velocity of the discharge through a discharge
sectional m
area i.e. Q/A=V
e
a
n
Velocity of approach The mean velocity in a channel immediately upstream of
a weir dam, venturi throat, orifice, or other structure.
Velocity rod A rod loaded with metal at one end so that it floats in a
vertical position and on being timed through a float run
gives the mean velocity of the water between water
surface and the bottom of the velocity rod.
Velocity rod The correction to be applied to a rod velocity in order to
correction convert it into mean velocity
Velocity-surface The rate at which the surface layer of water moves.
Vena Contracta The section at which the boundaries of a jet passing
through an orifice or over a weir become parallel.
DEFINITIONS
W
Wall Breast or Face When applied to irrigation practice a well generally of
reinforced concrete or brickwork, immediately above the
face of a submerged orifice.
Wall-Curtain A cross wall built under the floor of a hydraulic structure
with the object of dividing the work into suitable
compartments, or to provide cutoffs.
Wall-Core A wall of masonry, sheet-piling, or puddle clay built inside
a dam or embankment to reduce seepage/percolation.
Wall-Divide See divide wall.
Wall-Flank The retaining walls in continuation of abutments both
upstream and downstream to provide a transition between
the vertical abutment and sloping guide bank.
Wall-Toe See Toe-wall
Water account Is an account maintained of distribution of supplies
between units of interlinked canals or different channels of
one canal.
Water allowance The outcome of all considerations of the duty of water
intensity proposed crop ratio, water, available etc., is the
fixing of the water allowance. Water allowance may be
defined as the number of cusec of outlets capacity,
authorized per 1,000 acres of cultural irrigable area. The
water allowance, therefore, not only defines the size of
outlet for each outlet area but also forms the basis for the
design of the distributing channels in successive stages.
Water course The term applied to an irrigators channel taking its supply
from a Government channel, from which fields are
irrigated directly.
Water logged A condition of land where the ground water stands at a
level that is detrimental to plants. It may result from over
irrigation, or seepage with inadequate drainage.
Water right A legal right to the use of water.
Watershed (1) The area drained by a steam or steam system.
(2) The divide between drainage basins.
Water table The upper surface of a zone of saturation in soil or
impermeable strata or beds.
Wave runup Wave run up is the maximum vertical extent of wave
uprush on a beach or structure above the still water level
(SWL). Wave run up is an important process in causing
and or promoting bluff erosion.
Weep holes Openings left in retaining walls, aprons linings, foundation,
etc. to permit drainage of accumulated seepage water,
reduce pressure etc.
DEFINITIONS
Weir A wall extending across a river or canal usually provided

with a raised crest and glacis.
Weir-Broad Crested. An overflow structure on which the nappe is supported for
an appreciable length; a weir with a significant dimension
in the direction of the stream.
Weir-Cipolletti A contracting measuring weir, in which the side of the
notch have a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical to
compensate for end contractions.
Weir-Drowned A weir which in use has the tail water level higher than the
highest level with which a hydraulic jump is formed and by
which the discharge is affected.
Weir-Sharp crested A measuring weir with its crest at the upstream edge or
corner of relatively thin plate, generally of metal.
Weir-Waste The escape provide for the passage of surplus water from
a reservoir or tank.
Wetted perimeter The length of the wetted contact between a stream of
water and its containing stream or conduit, measured
along a plane at right angles to the direction of flow that
part of the periphery of a cross-sectional area of a stream
in contact with its container.
Wind setup (1) The vertical rise in the still water level on the leeward
side of a body of water caused by wind stresses on the
surface of the water.
(2) The difference in still water levels on the windward and
the leeward sides of a body of water caused by wind
stresses on the surface of the water.
(3) Synonymous with wind tide and storm surge. Storm
surge is usually reserved for use on the ocean and large
bodies of water.
Wind setup is usually reserved for use on reservoirs and
smaller bodies of water'.
GLOSSARY OF VERNACULAR TERMS
Banjar jadeed A previously cultivated land which is not cultivated for four
or new fallow successive harvests
Banjar qadim If Banjar jadeed land continues to be uncultivated for next four
or old fallow seasons it is classed as banjar qadim which also includes all
culturable waste whether it has ever been under the plough or
not.
Bund An earthen embankment.
Chak The block of land which an outlet irrigates.
Chakbandi Is a comprehensive term. It covers the entire process of
collection of data for working up details of gross, commanded
DEFINITIONS
and culturable commanded areas of channels as a whole or of

individual outlets.
Chak boundary Is the limit set for irrigation from any particular outlet.
Colaba A pipe outlet in which the pipe is of earthenware.
Ghair mumkin This term is reserved for barren land, land under buildings, roads
streams, canals, tanks, etc. Sandy or Kallar lands also come
under this category. It cannot be supplied water for irrigation.
Khadir River valley, low alluvial lands between high banks.
Khal A water-course
Kharif Kharif means Summer cropping season
Mogha Outlet. It passes water from a government channel to a water
course.
Nakka A cut in a water-course to pass water to the fields.
Nikal Is a term used in distribution of supply between different share-
holders of an outlet. It is the amount of supply left in the water-
course in between the nakka in use and the nakka to be used
next.
Rabi Winter cropping season
Rajbaha Distributary channel.
Rakkar Land with a low salt content but high PH values, i. e. an alkaline
soil.
Sailab Flood
Sem Seepage.
Shamilat Village common land
Tatil The period of closure of an irrigation channel
Zaid Kharif Late summer crop
Zaid Rabi Late winter crop
Zamindar Land owner
.
HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB
Chapter 2
HISTORY OF IRRIGATION
DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB
Compiled by
Mr. Israr ul Haq
Reviewed by
Syed Mehmood ul Hassan

MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE iii
Table of Contents
2 HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB .................................. 2-1
2.1 THE OLD IRRIGATION METHODS AND ANCIENT CANALS ........................................ 2-1
2.2 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT UNDER COLONIAL RULE (1850 - 1947) .................... 2-1
2.3 POST-INDEPENDENCE DEVELOPMENTS (1947 - 60) ............................................. 2-2
2.4 HISTORIC W ATER RIGHTS AND SYSTEM DESIGN .................................................. 2-3
2.5 EVOLUTION OF W ATER DISTRIBUTION AT FARM LEVEL: THE W ARABANDI SYSTEM ... 2-4
2.6 INDUS W ATER TREATY (1960) ........................................................................... 2-4
2.7 INDUS BASIN REPLACEMENT W ORKS .................................................................. 2-5
2.8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE TREATY ........................................................................... 2-6
2.9 WATER APPORTIONMENT ACCORD 1991 ............................................................ 2-7
2.10 MAIN FEATURES OF W ATER ACCORD (1991) ...................................................... 2-7
Box 2.1: Water Accord 1991.................................................................................. 2-7
2.11 POST ACCORD ISSUES ...................................................................................... 2-9
2.12 ANTI-WATER LOGGING MEASURES AND GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ................. 2-9
2.13 PRIVATE TUBEWELL DEVELOPMENT.................................................................. 2-10
2.14 SCARP TRANSITIONING ................................................................................. 2-10
List of Tables
TABLE 2-1: DEVELOPMENT OF CANAL SYSTEM IN PUNJAB UNDER COLONIAL RULE ................ 2-1
TABLE 2-2: IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 1947-60 ................................................................ 2-2
TABLE 2-3: INDUS BASIN REPLACEMENT W ORKS (INDUS W ATERS TREATY CONSEQUENTIAL
WORKS) - DAMS..................................................................................................... 2-5
WORKS) - BARRAGES ........................................................................................... 2-6
WORKS) - NEW LINK CANALS ..................................................................................... 2-6
iv MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE
2 HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB

2.1 The Old Irrigation Methods and Ancient Canals
Irrigation in the Indus Basin has a long history dating back to the Indus Civilization.
The remains of Moenjodoro and Harappa indicate that the inhabitants of this fertile
Basin e practiced irrigation using wells and river spills during the flood season. The
ancient civilizations that flourished along the river banks were mainly dependent on
irrigated agriculture.
The decline of the Indus Civilization has been attributed to several factots. Some
historians believe that the deterioration of the irrigation system, which had set in during
this decline, might have been due to flogging energy and discipline. This led to
inadequate maintenance of irrigation channels and bunds that resulted in total system
collapse.
During the period between the 8th and the middle of the 19th centuries, a large number
of inundation canals were built by various emperors and minor rulers. The recorded
history of irrigation as an established practice can be traced as far back as the 8th
century, when Arab conquerors of the Sindh Province differentiated between the
irrigated and non-irrigated lands to levy land taxes. The Moghul emperors also
constructed a number of canals that included the· Western Jamna Canal, Hasli Canal,
Shah Nehr, and a series of other inundation canals. The available evidence indicates
that some of the canals built by Moghul rulers were not primarily for irrigation, but to
provide water to the parks and gardens of the Moghul royalty.
2.2 Irrigation Development under Colonial Rule (1850 - 1947)
Development in the irrigation field, on a scale unknown in history, started about the
middle of 19th century under British rule. Soon after annexation of the territories of the
Punjab and Sindh Provinces, the British rulers embarked upon a massive canal
construction program. Inundation canals were first improved, and then gradually
converted to properly-regulated perennial systems by means of weirs and barrages
constructed across the rivers. The works undertaken then were destined to develop
into the world's largest integrated canal network to provide irrigation facilities to 33
million acres of land in the Indus Basin. The main reasons for the urge behind this
colossal development included: protection against famine, political compulsion to
provide livelihood to disbanded soldiery, the development of area with high agricultural
potential and to increase the revenue generation capacity of the state. The
chronological sequence of development of canal system in the Punjab Province under
Colonial Rule is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2-1: Development of Canal System in Punjab under Colonial Rule
Year Major Events / Canal Construction
1854 Beginning of the modern era of irrigation practice with the
establishment of a Directorate of Canals under the supervision or the
Chief Engineer, Irrigation Works.
1846-1872 Construction of the first weir-controlled perennial irrigation channel;
the Upper Bari Doab Canal, off-taking from the river Ravi at
Madhopur (1859), and the Sirhand Canal from the river Sutlej at
Rupar (1872).

1872-1901 Severe famine prompted construction of Sidhnai Canal from the river
Ravi at Sidhnai Headwork (1872), Lower Chenab Canal from Khanki
Headwork (1892), and Lower Jhelum Canal from Rasul
Headworks(1901).
1901-1928 The Sutlej Valley Project, comprising Depalpur, Bikaner and Eastern
Canals off-taking from Ferozepur Headwork, Eastern Sadiqia,
Fordwah and Pakpattan Canals from Suleimanki Headwork and
Bahawal, Qaim and Mailsi Canals from Islam Headwork were
completed.
1932 Punjnad and Abbasia Canals were commissioned from the river
Chenab at Punjnad Headwork.
1939 To improve the Sidhnai Canal system, the Trimmu Barrage project,
comprising Haveli and Rangpur Canals, was put into operation.
1947-48 Thal Canal off-taking from the river Indus at Kalabagh was
constructed to provide irrigation facilities to Sindh Sagar Doab (area
between river Indus and Jhelum).
The development of irrigation in the Punjab during British rule transformed socio-
economic conditions in the province. Large tracts of land, which used to be
uninhabited, and uninhabitable, were soon converted into wide tracts of cultivation
dotted with villages that started to bristle with agricultural activity. Virgin lands began
to produce rich harvests, and a network of industry and infrastructure came up to
replace the wilderness. The continued development of irrigation has introduced
development features that have progressively contributed to improving the socio-
economic conditions and prosperity of the people. Recurrent famines, which occured
in the 18th and 19th centuries, are events of the past. The ripple effects of irrigation
development in the Punjab Province include improved law and order, general
improved welfare of the people, better living standards and improved education
facilities, as well as the development of industry, infrastructure and communication
networks.
2.3 Post-Independence Developments (1947 - 60)
After the Independence of Pakistan, the international border between Pakistan and
India divided the irrigation system. With this division, the source of supply of all the
rivers was located in India. Similarly, some of the headworks along the eastern rivers
also fell in Indian Territory, while parts of these canal systems irrigated areas in
Pakistan. Disputes over the river water, particularly that of managing truncated canal
systems, arose between the upper and lower riparians. The dispute could not be
resolved and Pakistan had to undertake emergency measures to provide irrigation
supplies to affected canal commands. In addition, new projects, as described below in
Table 2.2, were also undertaken.
Table 2-2: Irrigation Development 1947-60
1952 Construction of Shahpur Branch off-taking from LJC to irrigate
2,15,000 acres of CCA.
1953 Construction of BS Link Canal to connect the Ravi and Sutlej rivers to
feed channels off-taking from Suleimanki.
1956 Construction of MR Link to transfer surplus water from the river
Chenab to the river Ravi.
1956 Construction of BRBD Link from the Upper Chenab Canal to feed the
truncated system of the eastern rivers.
1954-58 Construction of Taunsa Project with two off-taking canals;
Muzaffargarh Canal and Dera Ghazi Khan Canal.
2.4 Historic Water Rights and System Design
The traditional distribution of uncontrolled flows of hill torrents in tribal areas was based
on "Saroba-Paina", a system in which the farmers at the head reach had the right to
divert water up to their full requirements, and then passing the water on to the lower
riparians.
The earlier inundation canals were almost always constructed through the joint action
of rulers and farmers, and were thus recognized as the joint property or the state and
the irrigators. The state left the irrigators to manage the maintenance of works and the
distribution of water for themselves as much as possible. The state management was
generally exercised through village headmen and village revenue officials. In 1873,
the Government of India enacted "The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act"
applicable to the Punjab and NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtunkhawa) provinces, and the
"Sindh Irrigation Act" in 1879 for the Sindh region. Through these Acts, the
Government assumed the powers to regulate the use of water from rivers in the
interest of the public.
The Indus Basin, as a whole, is located in a water-scarce environment, where water
is a limiting resource for agricultural development. The water rights and system
designs have been historically evolved against this backdrop. The primary purpose of
the canal systems was protection against droughts and famines by bringing as large
areas under cultivation as possible, with thin water application. The historic irrigation
withdrawals were considered as legal water rights. With the construction of new
barrages and headworks, the canal withdrawals improved and their commands
acquired new water rights. To resolve regional water disputes, various commissions
also based their awards on historic withdrawals, rather than on crop water
requirements. The rules that serve the irrigation water allocation at a
watercourse/distributary level on canal commands were developed during British rule
over a century ago. Under these rules, water is delivered based on a predetermined
water allowance and size of the culturable commanded area (CCA). The canal outlets
are ungated structures and are designed to enable all the watercourses to draw the
allocated shares of water simultaneously under continuous flow conditions.
There has always been a demand for water in different provinces, states and regions,
particularly during critical periods of river flow shortages. The history of water disputes
date back to 1919, when some doubts were expressed about the availability of water
for the Sutlej Valley Project Canals. In order to examine the position of water
availability and allocation to various provinces/ states, a number of commissions were
set up between 1920 and 1977. The reports of the commissions were either shelved,
or their recommendations were selectively implemented, with the result that disputes
over the apportionment of river waters could not be satisfactorily resolved until 1991.
In the absence of a decision on water apportionment, adhoc arrangements were
followed for sharing of Indus Waters.
2.5 Evolution of Water Distribution at Farm Level: The Warabandi System

Warabandi is a rotational method for the equitable distribution of available water in an
irrigation system by turns fixed according to a predetermined schedule specifying the
day, time and duration of supply to each irrigator in proportion to the size of his
landholding in the outlet command. Since the beginning of canal irrigation in the sub-
continent, warabandi has been traditionally practiced as a tertiary level water
distribution method based on a rotation of water turns among individual water users.
The term warabandi means 'turns' (wari) that are fixed (bandi).
The origin of warabandi is somewhat obscure and has to be placed somewhere in the
pre-colonial period. In older inundation canals, each individual cultivator used to bring
a watercourse from somewhere upstream of his holding to lead the water on to his
field. This system of individual watercourses grew in the village system under which
the control was exercised by village headman, or the local land owner. The marked
inefficiency of such a system must have been to use joint watercourses serving a
number of shareholders. The warabandi concept might have evolved during this
period. The warabandi on the older inundation canals used to be decided by the
farmers themselves, or through village Panchayats, while for the turn duration, timings
were not fixed, thereby allowing flexible operation. In these old practices, warabandi
used to operate only during channel flow periods following 10-day schedule. Another
feature of the old system used to adjust the flow times in view of water availability. This
system was considered to be more responsive in view of the flow fluctuations in the
supply channel.
When the British rulers started building the canal irrigation network, warabandi was
adopted from an existing practice as a water distribution method. An allocation
schedule was locally determined and mutually agreed upon by the farmers along the
watercourse command. However, social changes led to intermittent conflicts among
farmers, especially pertaining to increased official intervention in this original farmer-
managed kachcha (unofficial) warabandi tradition, resulting in the widespread
conversion of kachcha warabandi practices into more rigid pucca (official) warabandi
schedules.
The warabandi system of canal water distribution has been in progress for more than
one hundred years. The system has been found quite practicable and appropriate to
ensure equitable distribution of scarce resources. Some drawbacks, however, have
been identified in the system, which include progressively increasing water losses
along the watercourse not fully accounted for in warabandi schedules, flow variability
at the distributary and outlet heads, and deviations from the warabandi culture due to
changing socio-political settings.
2.6 Indus Water Treaty (1960)
The dispute between India and Pakistan over sharing common river waters could not
be settled through bilateral negotiations and international meditation had to be sought.
The dispute was finally resolved with signing of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960 after
protracted negotiations through the good offices of the World Bank. Under the Treaty,
India was entitled to the exclusive use of three eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas and Sutlej),
while the western rivers (Chenab, Jhelum and Indus) were earmarked for use by
Pakistan, except for certain specified uses allowed to India in upper catchments.
The Treaty consists of 12 Articles and 8 Annexures. It is based on the division of rivers
between India and Pakistan. Under the provisions of the Treaty, both India and
Pakistan appointed Commissioners for Indus Waters, to serve as the regular channel
of communication on all the matters related to implementation of the Treaty.
Under the Treaty, restrictions have been placed on the design and the operation of
hydroelectric plants, storage works and other river works to be constructed by India
on the Western Rivers. India is required to supply Pakistan certain specified
information related to these works at least 6 months in advance of undertaking the
works so as to enable Pakistan to satisfy itself that the design conforms to criteria set
out in the Treaty. Within a specified period, ranging from two to three months, Pakistan
has the right to communicate to India, in writing, its objections that it may have
regarding the proposed design on the ground that it does not conform to certain criteria
specified in the Treaty.
The Treaty places restrictions on the irrigated cropped area to be raised by India in
the basins of Western Rivers. The Treaty also provides for a regular exchange of the
daily hydrological data and other data.
The Treaty provides for a self-generating procedure for the settlement of differences
and disputes. Any question which arises between the Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of the Treaty or the existence of any fact, which, if
established, might constitute a breach of the Treaty, is to be first examined by the
Commission, which endeavors to resolve the question by agreement.
2.7 Indus Basin Replacement Works
Under the Treaty, Pakistan was required to construct and bring into operation a system
of works on the Western Rivers in order to accomplish the replacement of water
supplies in irrigation canals in Pakistan, which at the time of partition were dependent
on water supplies from the Eastern Rivers. The replacement works comprised two
storages dams (one on Indus River and one on Jhelum River), six new barrages,
remodeling of two existing barrages, seven new inter-rivers link canals and remodeling
of two existing link canals. These works were implemented through the assistance
(grants and loans) by the friendly countries like USA, Canada, UK, Netherlands,
Germany, France, Italy, Australia, New Zealand, etc. The fund was called the Indus
Basin Development Fund and was set up and administered by the World Bank with
the assistance of Indus Basin Development Board, constituted by the Government of
Pakistan. India made a fixed contribution £ 62.060 million towards this Fund, which
was payable in ten years in equal installments. The estimated cost of replacement
works (1964 estimates) was US $ 1208.50 million. There was a transition period of 10
years during which Pakistan was to receive waters from the “Eastern Rivers” for use
in the aforementioned canals.
The works constructed under the Indus Basin Project are listed in Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5
Table 2-3: Indus Basin Replacement Works (Indus Waters Treaty
Consequential Works) - DAMS
Live
Year of Height Storage
Dam River
Completion (Ft.) Capacity
(MAF)
Mangla Jhelum 1967 380 5.34
Tarbela Indus 1975 485 9.40

Consequential Works) - BARRAGES
Year of Length Capacity
Barrage River
Completion (Ft.) (000 Cfs)
Chashma Indus 1971 3,556 950
Rasul Jhelum 1967 3,209 850
Marala Chenab 1968 4,475 1,100
Qadirabad Chenab 1967 3,373 900
Sidhnai Ravi 1965 712 150
Mailsi Syphon Sutlej 1965 1,601 429
Trimmu
Chenab 1965 3,025 650
(Remodeling)
Balloki
Ravi 1965 1,646 225
(Remodeling
Consequential Works) - new link canals
Capacity
Year of Length
Link Canal Rivers (000
Completion (Miles)
Cfs)
Chashma – Jhelum
Indus - Jhelum 1970 63 21.7
Link
Indus -
Taunsa – Panjnad Link 1970 38 12.0
Chenab
Rasul – Qadirabad Jhelum -
1967 30 19.0
Link Chenab
Qadirabad – Balloki
Chenab - Ravi 1967 80 18.6
Link
Balloki – Suleimanki
Ravi - Sutlej 1968 54 18.5
Link
Trimmu – Sidhnai Link Chenab - Ravi 1965 46 11.0
Sidhnai – Mailsi –
Ravi - Sutlej 1965 62 10.1
Bahawal Link
2.8 Implications of the Treaty

The construction of storage and link canals allows the operation of the Indus irrigation
system in an integrated and improved manner, with greater control and enhanced river
water utilization. As a result, the canal head withdrawals in the Indus Basin have
increased considerably. The average annual withdrawals increased from 67 MAF in
1949-52 to 85 MAF by 1959-60, and 95 MAF just after the construction of the Mangla
Dam in 1967-68. The withdrawals further increased to 101 MAF just after the Tarbela
Dam completed and reached the peak of 108 MAF in 1979. The canal withdrawals
then stagnated at this level up to 1989-90 and are now declining to around 104 MAF
due to reduction in reservoir capacities caused by progressive sedimentation.
Despite the positive impacts mentioned above, there have been some issues and
concerns related to the implementation of the Treaty. These include:
i). While planning and implementing the projects for hydroelectric power, India
continues to go ahead without taking into consideration the objections of
Pakistan.
ii). The Treaty does not provide for the required environmental flows in the Eastern
Rivers. This has resulted in serious environmental impacts in the long dry
reaches of these rivers including river channel aggradation, extinction of aquatic
life and gradual deterioration of groundwater quality.
iii). India has acquired capability to totally block the flows in river Chenab for
prolonged periods. This action is in contravention of the Treaty provisions and
has adverse implications for Pakistan.
iv). Issues have also been identified regarding provision of timely, adequate and
accurate hydrological data by India.
2.9 Water Apportionment Accord 1991
Development of water resources has remained frozen since 1976 and no new storage
or irrigation project could be constructed after the completion of the Tarbela Dam. This
stalemate has been due to the continuation of age-old disputes between the provinces
over sharing Indus waters. Signing of the Water Apporionment Accord between the
four provinces and the Federal Government in 1991 was a major step towards
resolving the longstanding water apportionment disputes, thereby promising to open
a gateway for irrigation development in the country. The salient features of the Accord
include clear definition of provincial shares in the existing river diversions, as well as
for future development projects, the establishment of an authority for regulation and
distribution of river water to the provinces, the recognition of the need to construct
storage for planned future agricultural development, and an agreement between
provinces to undertake new projects.
2.10 Main Features of Water Accord (1991)
The text of the Water Accord is presented in Box 2.1:
Box 2.1: Water Accord 1991
1. There was an agreement that the issue relating to apportionment of the
waters of the Indus River System should be settled as quickly as possible.
2. In the light of the accepted water distribution principles, the following
apportionment was agreed to:
Kharif Rabi Total
Province
(MAF) (MAF) (MAF)
Punjab 37.07 18.87 55.94
Sindh* 33.94 14.82 48.76
NWFP (now
3.48 2.30 5.78
KPK)
1.80 1.20 3.00
Civil Canals**
Baluchistan 2.85 1.02 3.87
77.34 37.01 114.35

Total:- + + +
1.80 1.20 3.00
Note: * Including already sanctioned Urban and Industrial uses for metropolitan
Karachi
** Ungauged Civil Canals above the rim stations.
3. NWFP/Baluchistan projects which are under execution have been provided
their authorized quota of water as existing uses.
4. Balance river supplies (including flood supplies and future storages) shall
be distributes as below:
Punjab Sindh Baluchistan NWFP Total
37% 37% 12% 14% 100%
5. Industrial and Urban Water supplies for Metropolitan City, for which there
were sanctioned allocations, will be accorded priority.
6. The need for storages wherever feasible on the Indus and other rivers was
admitted and recognized by the participants for planned future agricultural
development.
7. The need for certain minimum escapage to sea below Kotri to check sea
intrusion was recognized. Sindh held the view that the optimum level was
10 MAF, which was discussed at length, while other studies indicated
lower/higher figures. It was, therefore, decided that further studies would be
undertaken to establish the minimal escapage needs downstream Kotri.
8. There would be no restrictions on the Provinces to undertake new projects
within their agreed shares.
9. No restrictions are placed on small schemes not exceeding 5,000 acres
above elevation of 1,200 ft. SPD.
10. No restrictions are placed on developing irrigation uses in the Kurram /
Gomal / Kohat basins, so long as these do not adversely affect the existing
uses on these rivers.
11. There are no restrictions on Balochistan, to develop the water resources of
the Indus right bank tributaries, flowing through its area.
12. The requirements of LBOD will be met out of the flood supplies in
accordance with the agreed sharing formula.
13. For implementation of this Accord, the need to establish an Indus River
System Authority (IRSA) was recognized and accepted. It would have
headquarters at Lahore (later shifted to federal capital, Islamabad) and
would have representation from all four provinces.
a) The system-wise allocation will be worked out separately, on ten
daily basis and will be attached with this agreement as part and
parcel of it.
b) The record of actual average system uses for the period 1977-82,
would form the guideline for developing a future regulation pattern.
These ten daily uses would be adjusted pro-rata to correspond to the
indicated seasonal allocations of the different canal systems and
would form the basis for sharing shortages and surpluses on all
Pakistan basis.
c) The existing reservoirs would be operated with priority for the
irrigation uses of the Provinces.
d) The provinces will have the freedom within their allocations to modify
system-wise and period-wise uses.
e) All efforts would be made to avoid wastages. Any surplus may be
used by another province, but this would not establish any rights to
such uses.
2.11 Post Accord Issues
The perceived benefits of the Accord however have not materialized so far because
of the delay in constructing of new storages. The existing river supplies are totally
committed to the existing projects. Therefore, in order for the Accord to be really
meaningful and for it to play an enabling role in irrigation development, there is a need
to initiate immediate steps to store surplus river water available during the high-flow
summer season, which is currently running waste into sea.
The other issues causing bitterness among the provinces relates to the differences
over interpretation of the procedure contained in Para 14(b) for sharing shortages and
surpluses. While the Sindh advocates post-Accord sharing according to the Para 2
allocations, Punjab holds the view that this would be operative when the available
supplies are equal to or more than the Para 2 allocations. In case the
available/utilizable supplies are less than Para 2 allocations, Punjab maintains that the
sharing may be in proportion to the existing uses.
Similarly, the study for determining the Kotri below escapages was inordinately
delayed and when conducted, the recommendations could not be implemented
without additional storages, as the existing supplies are fully committed.
2.12 Anti-water logging Measures and Groundwater Development
Before the construction of the extensive canal network, the groundwater was in a state
of natural equilibrium. After the construction of canals, the groundwater started to rise
due to seepage losses from unlined canals and watercourses and field application
losses. The annual rate of water table rises varied from 0.5 ft to more than 2 .0 ft,
depending upon the local environment. With rising water tables the menace of salinity
also developed. Various measures were undertaken up to 1950s to arrest the spread
of water logging and salinity, but these measures proved inadequate.
In 1961 the matter was discussed at the level of the Presidents of Pakistan and the
United States. As a result of this initiative at the highest level, various teams of US
experts visited Pakistan to help to plan anti-water logging measures. After
investigations and discussions, the expatriate experts proposed a new strategy, now
well known as the Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) approach. This
approach envisaged the vertical drainage of land by pumping water through deep and
large capacity tubewells. In useable groundwater areas, the pumped water was
planned for use to supplement canal supplies. In addition, surface drainage systems
were augmented to address surface run-off problems. Soil reclamation was envisaged
through the drainage provided, and also by farmers' own efforts supplemented by
agricultural extension services.
With this concept, a large number of project units were planned and implemented. A
total of 10,196 tubewells, 8,260 in fresh groundwater and 1,936 in saline groundwater
areas, were installed. The number of operable tubewells, however, decreased to
around 9,000 by 1994, with annual pumpage of about 6 MAF. SCARP tubewells, by
and large, succeeded in curbing water logging problems in most of areas. The
government's budget, however, has been taxed heavily on account of high operation
and maintenance (O&M) costs for tubewells, which is constantly increasing due to
rising electric tariffs. The overall performance of SCARPs is also on the decline due to
frequent power shut-downs and mechanical faults, fall in groundwater levels and
reduction in the specific capacity of the tubewells.
2.13 Private Tubewell Development
Concurrent with the development of public-funded SCARPs, there have been great
advances in private groundwater development in the Punjab Province. The demand
for additional irrigation water arising from increased cropping intensities and changes
in cropping patterns triggered a rapid growth of private tubewells. The number of
private tubewells, as such, increased from a mere 28,746 in 1965, to 147,995 in 1979,
to 213,408 in 1986 to 386,526 in 1994 and aggregates to around 1 million now. Fairly
generous credit facilities have provided the initial impetus and development of the local
industry, and indigenous methods have made it possible to continue and sustain
private tubewell development. The total pumpage from private tubewells has gradually
increased from 3.27 MAF in 1965 to 32.10 MAF in 1985-87. Currently, it is estimated
that public and private tubewells are contributing about 40-50 % of the total irrigation
water input in agriculture.
2.14 SCARP Transitioning
In view of the development of private tubewells and to avoid rapidly escalating
expenditure on O&M and replacement of fresh water SCARP tubewells, the
government adopted a policy to disinvest fresh groundwater (FGW) SCARP tubewells.
Under the SCARP transition pilot project, 213 FGW tubewells were replaced by 2,100
small capacity tubewells in the private sector. The pilot effort was replicated, through
subsequent SCARP transition projects resulting in transitioning of almost all the Fresh
Ground Water (FGW) tubewells. Currently public sector tubewells are being operated
for drainage of critical and Saline Ground Water areas.
References:
i) Irrigation Department Archives
ii) Indus Water Treaty 1960
iii) Water Apportionment Accord 1991
iv) IWARSI Publication 1995
PUNJAB’S IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE
Chapter 3
PUNJAB’S IRRIGATION
INFRASTRUCTURE
Compiled by
Muhammad Ehsan
Reviewed by
Muhammad Aslam Rashid

Table of Contents
3 PUNJAB’S IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE ............................................... 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 PID INFRASTRUCTURE AND ITS EXTENT......................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Water Diversion Structures.................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Irrigation Systems .................................................................................. 3-2
3.2.3 Drainage Systems ................................................................................. 3-2
3.2.4 Flood Protection Infrastructure .............................................................. 3-2
3.2.5 Territorial Spread of PID Infrastructure .................................................. 3-2
3.3 BARRAGES.................................................................................................. 3-3
3.4 LINK CANALS .............................................................................................. 3-6
3.4.1 Link Canals Constructed immediately after Independence ................... 3-7
3.4.2 Link Canals Constructed under Indus Basin Project ............................. 3-7
3.5 CANALS INFRASTRUCTURE ......................................................................... 3-10
3.5.1 Types of Canals .................................................................................. 3-10
3.6 DRAINAGE INFRASTRUCTURE...................................................................... 3-31
3.6.2 Surface Drainage Systems .................................................................. 3-33
3.7 SMALL DAMS............................................................................................. 3-84
3.8 FLOOD PROTECTION INFRASTRUCTURE ....................................................... 3-91
3.9 MAINTENANCE FACILITIES .......................................................................... 3-94
3.10 BUILDINGS ................................................................................................ 3-94
3.11 PLANTATION.............................................................................................. 3-94
List of Tables
Table 3.3.1: Barrages across the rivers in Punjab ................................................... 3-5
Table 3.6.1: List of the drains in Bahawalpur Zone ............................................... 3-33
Table 3.6.2: List of the drains in D.G. Khan Zone ................................................. 3-36
Table 3.6.3: List of the drains in Faisalabad Zone ................................................. 3-41
Table 3.6.4: List of the drains in Lahore Zone ....................................................... 3-53
Table 3.6.5: List of the drains in Multan Zone ....................................................... 3-68
Table 3.7.1: Cumulative statistics of small dams in Pothohar region .................... 3-84
Table 3.7.2: Particulars of Small Dams in Pothohar region ................................... 3-85
List of Figures
Figure 3.3.1: Diversion Structures in the Punjab Province ...................................... 3-4
Figure 3.4.1: Map Showing Link Canals .................................................................. 3-9
Figure 3.5.1: Irrigation Network of Punjab Province .............................................. 3-11
Figure 3.5.2: Bahawalpur Zone Irrigation Canals Network .................................... 3-15
Figure 3.5.3: Map of D.G. Khan Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network ............ 3-18
Figure 3.5.4: Map of Faisalabad Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network ........... 3-20
Figure 3.5.5: Map of Lahore Showing Irrigation Canals Network .......................... 3-23
Figure 3.5.6: Map of Multan Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network.................. 3-27
Figure 3.5.7: Map of Sargodha Zone Showing Irrigation Network ......................... 3-30
Figure 3.6.1: Map showing the drains in Bahawalpur Zone................................... 3-35
Figure 3.6.2: Map showing the drains in D.G. Khan Zone ..................................... 3-40
Figure 3.6.3: Map showing the drains in Faisalabad Zone .................................... 3-52
Figure 3.6.4: Map showing the drains in Lahore Zone .......................................... 3-67
Figure 3.6.5: Map showing the drains in Multan Zone ........................................... 3-70
Figure 3.6.6: Map showing the drains in Sargodha Zone ...................................... 3-83
Figure 3.7.1: Location of small dams in the Punjab ............................................... 3-91
3 PUNJAB’S IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE

3.1 Introduction
The source of water for agriculture are rain, snow-melt; and ground water. Adequate
water is not always available at the time when it is needed for agriculture. Irrigation is
science of delivering water at the land for agriculture purposes when it is needed in
due quantity. Supplying water for irrigation may entail all or part of the following
components: (a) storage (dams); (b) diversion of water (barrages); (c) conveyance of
water (canals); (d) distribution and application of water (water courses) to fields1; and
(e) drainage of excess water2 (drains).
Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) is mainly responsible for providing water for
irrigated agriculture, involving components (b) and (c) above. Although the primary
service PID is providing water for irrigated agriculture but the department has also
infrastructure for: (a) drainage of the soil in order to optimize agriculture produce; and
(b) flood protection. The infrastructure of PID can be divided into the following
categories:
i) Water Diversion Works such as barrages etc.; Link Canals;
ii) Canal Systems and Sub-systems;
i) Flood Protection Works;
ii) Drainage Systems;
iii) Small Dams;
iv) Plantations; and
v) Protected Areas
This chapter describes the aforementioned infrastructure and its extent in order to
inform its operators so that they can become conversant with the works contained in
infrastructure owned by PID.
3.2 PID Infrastructure and its Extent
3.2.1 Water Diversion Structures
For irrigation purposes almost all the water is diverted from rivers to canals by barrage
structures and headworks built across the river Indus and its four main tributary rivers;
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. There are 14 barrages (including Mailsi Siphon
Structure under the river Sutlej). These structures have a capacity of diverting about
120,000 Cusecs (3,399 Cumecs) to serve 22 large contiguous irrigation systems.
These are most important structures of PID, as they play the key role of diverting and
regulating the water into main canals. Without these diversion structures built across
the major rivers no irrigation system can operate. In addition there are 54 small dams
built across small streams mostly in Pothohar area that supply water to small schemes
for irrigation.
1
The application of water to the fields is made through surface (basins, furrows & ridges and sprinklers)
or sub-surface High Efficiency Irrigation Systems (Drip).
2 This component depends the types and operation of components (a), (b) and (c).
3.2.2 Irrigation Systems

In hierarchical manner all the 22 irrigation systems, which are contiguous, consist of
water conveying main canals and branch canals, and the distribution systems
comprise distributary channels, minors and sub-minors (in some cases) that supply
water to water course through outlet structures. As an exception, in many instances
direct outlets off-take directly from main and branch canals. The water generally flows
by gravity with a very few cases where the water is pumped into distributary canals
through which water again flows by gravity.
The total length of main and branch canals is about 3,754 Canal Miles 3 (5,722 Km)
including inter-river link canals having a total length of 840 Km and a total conveying
capacity of 110,000 cusecs (3,399 cumecs). The distributaries and minor canals have
a total length of 19,579 Canal Miles (29,839 Km).
3.2.3 Drainage Systems
There are several surface drainage systems for removal of water for drainage of the
soil in order to optimize agriculture produce. These drainage systems comprise a
single drain or several drains having a total length of 5,893 Canal Miles (8,980 Km).
Multiple drain systems include one or more tributary drains that join the main drain
before outfalling into the rivers or streams. There are two systems of tile drains (sub-
surface drains).
In addition there were over 3,500 public sector tubewells in year 2005 which operated
to lower the water table; many of those were in saline area.
3.2.4 Flood Protection Infrastructure
The flood protection infrastructure consists of earthen embankments having a total
length of 2,688 Km that protect the areas upstream and downstream of barrages and
other structures built across the rivers, canals and cities. There are 697 spurs and
stone studs (groynes) that protect the flood embankments and some reaches of the
river banks against erosion by the river action.
3.2.5 Territorial Spread of PID Infrastructure
PID infrastructure serves a culturable command area of 20.78 Ma (8.41 Mha) spread
over a vast territory. For operational reasons the infrastructure is divided in 6 territorial
Zones each headed by a chief engineer. The Zones include; Lahore, Sargodha,
Faisalabad, Multan, Bahawalpur and D.G. Khan. In addition there is one (1) functional
zone by the name of Development Zone, beside the miscellaneous sections such as:
(i) PMO Barrages; (ii) Irrigation Research Institute Buildings; (iii) Directorate of
Hydrology; and (iv) Directorate of Land Reclamation. The Zones are further divided
into administrative Circles, as follows;
(a) Bahawalpur Zone

(i) Bahawalnagar Circle
(ii) Bahawalpur Circle
(iii) Rahim Yar Khan Circle
(b) Development
Zone
3 One canal mile=5,000 ft

(i) Small Dams Directorate

(ii) Development Scrap III Circle
(iii) Mechanical Circle, Lahore
(iv) Machinery Circle, Lahore
(c) D. G. Khan Zone
(i) D. G. Khan Circle
(ii) Muzzafargarh Circle
(iii) Project Circle, D. G. Khan
(d) Faisalabad Zone
(i) LCC-West Circle
(ii) LCC-East Circle
(iii) QB-Link Circle
(iv) Faisalabad Drainage Circle
(e) Lahore Zone
(i) Depalpur Canal Circle
(ii) UCC Circle
(iii) Link Circle
(iv) Lahore Drainage Circle
(f) Multan Zone
(i) Haveli Canal Circle
(ii) Mailsi Canal Circle
(iii) Nilibar Circle
(iv) LBDC Circle
(v) Development circle
(g) Sargodha Zone
(i) Thal Canal Circle
(ii) Lower Jhelum Canal Circle
(iii) Upper Jhelum Canal Circle
(iv) Sargodha Drainage Circle
(h) Miscellaneous
(i) Irrigation Research Institute
(Buildings)
(ii) Directorate of Hydrology
(Buildings)
(iii) Directorate of Hydrology (General)
(iv) Directorate of Land Reclamation
3.3 Barrages
Barrages are the gated structures across rivers and the key components in the
irrigation infrastructure. The barrages, which do not have gates are called headworks.
The barrages are constructed across the rivers to raise the water level in the river so
that water can be diverted to the main canals of irrigation systems by gravity. They
also divert water to link canals to interlink the rivers. The barrages are strategic assets
of PID. The operation of a barrage has a far reaching impact in an irrigation system
often covering millions of acres, locally as well as several hundreds of miles away.
They are used for river control and flood management as well. The barrages also
provide links for the road networks working as bridges over rivers. Figure 3.3.1 shows
the barrages in the Punjab province
Figure 3.3.1: Diversion Structures in the Punjab Province

Source: Punjab Irrigation Department
There are 14 barrages (thirteen barrages and one headworks) in the Punjab Province,
where 21 main canals off-take and provide irrigation water to 20.8 million acres (8.4
Mha) of culturable command area (CCA). The Mangla headworks and Khanki
headworks4 were built around 1890. Mangla headworks does not have any man made
weir. The head regulator of its only offtaking canal, Upper Jhelum canal (UJC), is
constructed at a naturally occurring river bend for diversion of water. Khanki
headworks is being replaced by a new barrage and is likely to be completed in 2017.
Table 3.3.1 shows the particulars of barrages in Punjab.
4 Replaced by a new barrage during 2013-2016

Table 3.3.1: Barrages across the rivers in Punjab

Discharge
River Designed Name of off of off
Year of
Sr.# Barrage Name Capacity taking taking Main
Construction
(Cusecs) Channel (s) Canal (s)
(Cusecs)
1. Indus Jinnah Barrage 950,000 1943 Thal Canal 7,500
Chashma C-J Link6 21,700
2 1,000,000 1967-1970
Barrage5
3. Taunsa Barrage 1,100,0007 1965-1968 T-P Link 12,000
Muzaffargarh 8,900
Canal
D.G. Khan 8,990
Canal ????
Kachhi Canal
1. Jhelum Mangla 950,000 1943 Upper Jhelum 9,031
Headworks Canal
2. Rasul Barrage 850,000 1967 Lower Jhelum 5,280
Canal
Rasul 19,000
Qadirabad Link
1. Chenab Marala Barrage 1,100,000 1964-1968 MR Link 22,000
Upper Chenab 16,850
Canal
2. Khanki Barrage 1,100,0008 1889-1892 Lower Chenab 15,0009
Canal
3. Qadirabad 900,000 1964-1967 Qadirabad 18,60010
Barrage Balloki Link
4. Trimmu Barrage 645,00011 1937-1939 Haveli Main 5,170
Canal 2,710
Rangpur Canal 12,500
Trimmu
Sidhnai Link
5. Panjnad Barrage 700,00012 1929-1932 Punjnad Canal 12,480
Abbasia Canal 1,400
Abbasia Link 5,600
Canal
5 Operation and Maintenance not with PID

6 Operation and Maintenance not with PID
7 Revised during rehabilitation and modernization in 2007-2010
8 Increased while constructing new Khanki Barrage to replace old Khanki headworks, during 2012-2016.
9 New design discharge, which was increased from original design discharge of 8,120 cusecs after the
construction of new Khanki Barrage.

10 Reduces to 14,500 cusecs at RD 79+373.8 after diversion of 4,100 cusecs into Lower Chenab Canal
Feeder, which joins at the tail of Lower Chenab Canal Main Line Lower where it bifurcates into Jhang
Branch and Rakh Branch. Thus, only 14,500 cusecs outfalls upstream of Balloki Barrage.
11 To be increased from original design discharge of 645,000 cusecs while remodeling Trimmu Barrage
to increase its capacity to pass 875,000 is being done during 2015-2018.

12 To be increased from original design discharge of 700,000 cusecs while remodeling Panjnad Barrage
to increase its capacity to pass 865,000 during 2015-2018.

Discharge
Designed Name of off
River Barrage Year of of off taking
Sr.# Capacity taking
Name Construction Main Canal
(Cusecs) Channel (s)
(s) (Cusecs)
1. Ravi Balloki 380,000 1911-1914 Balloki 9,842
Barrage13 Sulemanki 24,50014
Link
Lower Bari
Doab Canal
2. Sidhnai 150,000 1967 Sidhnai 4,000
Barrage Canal 10,100
Sidhnai
Mailsi Link
1. Sutlej Sulemanki 325,000 1924-1926 Upper 6,600
Barrage15 Pakpattan
Canal 6,080
Eastern
Sadiqia 3,450
Canal
2. Islam 300,000 1922-1927 Fordwah
Bahawal 1,000
Barrage16 Canal 480
Qaim Canal
3.4 Link Canals

The partition of the sub-continent into two independent countries of Pakistan and India
took place in August 1947. Pakistan comprised West Pakistan and East Pakistan. The
boundary established between West Pakistan, the part where the Punjab is located,
and India severed the irrigation systems for which deliveries of water came from Ravi
and Sutlej rivers. The control of the supplies of water to a number canals was in the
hands of India. Soon after partition India indicated her intention to use all water flowing
from India into Pakistan and closed the canals offtaking from headworks which
remained within India.
Pakistan constructed the canals which diverted water from the river Chenab into Ravi
and Sutlej rivers. This allowed India some upstream use of water of Ravi and Sutlej
rivers. The canals constructed by Pakistan are: (i) Marala-Ravi Link; (ii) Bombawala-
Ravi-Bedian-Depalpur Link; (iii) Balloki-Sulemanki-I Link; (iv) and M-R Sub Link.
India kept on insisting that she would use all water flowing from India into Pakistan.
Eventually, India indicated to use all water of three eastern rivers; Ravi, Beas and
Sutlej for her use. A plan was prepared after prolonged studies and negotiations under
good ofices of the World Bank, which was accepted both by Pakistan and India. An
agreement called “Indus Waters Treaty 1960” between the Governments of Pakistan
and India was signed. Among various works, envisaged to be undertaken under the
Indus Basin Project to be executed in accordance with the Agreement, were
construction of eight (8) link canals. Except for one (1) all link canals convey water
13 Was rehabilitated during 2013-2015, design capacity increased from 225,000 cft to 380,000 cft.
14 Was increased after the rehabilitation of Balloki Barrage
15 To be rehabilitated during 2014-2017
16 To be rehabilitated
from adjacent rivers. These are: (i) Trimmu-Sidhnai (TS Link); (ii) Sidhnai-Mailsi (SM
Link); (iii) Mailsi-Bahawal (MB Link); (iv) Rasul-Qadirabad (RQ Link); (v) Qadirabad-
Balloki (QB Link); (vi) Balloki-Sulemanki II (BS II Link), (vii) Taunsa-Punjnad (TP Link);
and (viii) Chashma-Jhelum (CJ Link). Beside construction of aforementioned link
canals the remodeling of (i) Marala-Ravi Link; (ii) Bombawala-Ravi-Bedian-Depalpur
Link;(iii) Balloki-Sulemanki-I Link was included in the Indus Basin Project.
3.4.1 Link Canals Constructed immediately after Independence
Marala-Ravi (M.R) Link: It offtakes from Marala barrage with the design capacity of
22,000 cusecs and is 333,135 ft. long. Before splitting into M-R Sub Link and main M-
R Link, it feeds 20 distrbutary channels and 16 Minors. Although its design discharge
is 22,000 cusecs but it has never carried more than 19,000 cusecs due to reduction
of its canal prism. This reduction is the result of its less silt carrying capacity due its
inadequate bed slope. The bed level at Dek Nullah syphon is constraint which does
not allow its regrading.
Bombawala-Ravi-Bedian-Depalpur (B.R.B.D) Link: Its starting point is the Tail of
Main Line Upper (Upper Chenab Canal) at RD 133. Its design discharge is 7,260
cusecs (205.580 cumecs) and it is 434,000± ft. long. It passes under the river Ravi
through Ravi Syphon. Its first reach of 260+000± ft. is unlined, middle reach of
113+000± ft. is lined followed by last reach of 63+000± ft. which is unlined.
Balloki-Sulemanki I (B-S I) Link: It offtakes from Balloki barrage which is located
across the river Ravi. It was constructed to supply water to some of those channels
whose control remained in India at Ferozepore Headworks. Its present design
capacity is 24,500 cusecs at its head regulator at Balloki Barrage. It outfalls in the river
Sutlej upstream of Sulemanki Barrage after traveling 266,600+ ft. Its first 73,000 ft.
length is unlined while the remaining length is brick lined.
Sub M-.R Link: It offtakes from M.R Link just before it outfalls into the river Ravi. Then
it joins B.R.B.D link before passing the Ravi syphon. It was constructed to augment
supplies in B.R.B.D link. Its design discharge is 5,000 cusecs it is 12,170±ft long.
3.4.2 Link Canals Constructed under Indus Basin Project
Trimmu-Sidhnai (T-S) Link: It offtakes from Trimmu barrage with the design capacity
of 12,500 cusecs (353.961 cumecs) and is 214,000+ ft. (65.23 Km) long. Its alignment
is parallel to the Haveli Canal, the offtaking canal on the left side of Trimmu barrage
at the time of its construction. A mechanical dredger was provided to clear the
sediment expected in the link canal. However, the need of its use did not arise due to
lesser quantity of sediment than was expected. It conveys water from the river Chenab
to the river Ravi upstream of new Sidhnai barrage, also constructed under the Indus
Basin Project.
Sidhnai-Mailsi (S-M) Link: It offtakes from new Sidhnai barrage with the design
capacity of 10,100 cusecs (286.000 cumecs) and is 250,420 ft. (76.33 Km) long. It
conveys water from the river Ravi to Mailsi Canal. Part of its design discharge (±5,590
cusecs) is conveyed through Mailsi Syphon, also constructed as part the Indus Basin
Project works, to Mailsi-Bahawal Link canal.
Mailsi-Bahawal (M-B) Link: It starts from left side of Mailsi Syphon with capacity of
5,590± cusecs (158.291 cumecs) and is about 125,000 ft. (38.10 Km) long. It conveys
water from tail of Sidhnai-Mailsi Link to augment discharge of Bahawal canal, which
offtakes from Islam barrage.
Rasul-Qadirabad (R-Q) Link: It offtakes from new Rasul barrage, also constructed
under the Indus Basin Project, with the design capacity of 19,000 cusecs (538.020
cumecs) and is 147,156 ft. (44.853 Km) long. It conveys water from the river Jhelum
to the river Chenab upstream of Qadirabad barrage, constructed as part the Indus
Basin Project works.
Qadirabad-Balloki (Q-B) Link: It offtakes from Qadirabad barrage, constructed
under the Indus Basin Project, with the design capacity of 25,000 cusecs (707.921
cumecs) and is 397,415 ft. (121.13 Km) long. A mechanical dredger was provided to
clear the sediment expected in the link canal. However, the need of its use did not
arise as the quantity of sediment was lesser than expected. It conveys water from the
river Chenab to the river Ravi upstream Balloki barrage.
Balloki-Sulemanki II (B-S II) Link: Balloki-Sulemanki I Link needed remodeling for
carrying more discharge after signing of “Indus Water Treaty 1960”. It was easier to
remodel B-S I Link in the unlined reach upto RD 73. But the lined reach from RD 73
to its tail at RD 266+600 could not be remodeled easily and economically. Bifurcation
into two link canals which were to run parallel to each other from RD 73 was the
preferred solution in order to pass discharge beyond the capacity of lined section in
the second channel. Thus, B-S II Link offtakes from RD 73 of Balloki-Sulemanki I Link
canal. B-S II Link has design discharge of 9,000 cusecs (254.852 cumecs) and is
193,000 ft. (58.83 Km) long. Like B-S I Link, it conveys water to the river Sutlej
upstream of Sulemanki to feed Sutlej valley canals whose water supply was stopped
by India under the Indus Water Treaty.
Taunsa-Punjnad (T-P) Link: It offtakes from Taunsa barrage with the design capacity
of 12,000 cusecs (339.802 cumecs) and is 191,000 ft. (58.22 Km) long. It conveys
water from the river Indus to the river Chenab in proximity of Multan, upstream of
Punjnad barrage.
Chashma-Jhelum (C-J) Link: It offtakes from new Chashma barrage, also
constructed under the Indus Basin Project, with the design capacity of 21,700 cusecs
(614.476 cumecs) and is 321,222 ft. (97.91 Km) long. It conveys water from the river
Indus to the river Jhelum 96.6 km upstream of Trimmu barrage. It also conveys ----
cusecs discharge for Greater Thal Canal, which offtakes at ------.The operation and
maintenance of C-J Link is not by PID.
Figure 3.4.1 shows the map of the link canals in the Punjab province
Figure 3.4.1: Map Showing Link Canals

3.5 Canals Infrastructure

Canals infrastructure of Punjab province comprises main canals, branch canals,
distributary channels, minors and sub minors (in some cases).
3.5.1 Types of Canals
Main canals and branch canals are designed only to convey water to command areas.
The distribution of water in the command area is done through distributary channels,
minors and sub minors (in some cases), which supply water to water courses through
outlet structures. As an exception, in many instances there exist outlets off-taking
directly from main and branch canals. The water generally flows by gravity with a very
few cases where the water is pumped into distributary canals (Lift Canals) through
which water again flows by gravity.
The total length of main and branch canals is 3,696 Canal Miles (5,632 Km) including
inter-river link canals having a total length of about 850 Km and a total conveying
capacity of 110,000 cusecs (3,399 cumecs). As stated in Section 3.3 above, the
distributaries and minor canals have a total length of 19,579 Canal Miles (29,839 Km).
Figure 3.5.1 shows the map of Irrigation Network of Punjab province
3.5.1 Canal Systems
(a).Bahawalpur Zone
There are six (6) main canal systems in Bahawalpur Zone: (i) Bahawal Canal System;
(ii) Qaim Canal System; (iii); Fordwah Canal System; (iv) Eastern Sadiqia Canal
System; (v) Abbasia Canal System; and (vi) Panjnad Canal System.
Bahawalpur Canal System: Bahawal Canal off-takes from Islam Barrage with a
design discharge of 1,000 cusecs (28.32 cumecs), which is augmented by flow of M.B
link canal to about 5,590 cusecs (158.20 cumecs). Its total length is 240,000± ft. (73.15
Km). The upper reach of Bahawal Canal between Islam Barrage and tail of M.B link
canal is called Bahawalpur Canal Upper, while its remaining length is called
Bahawalpur Canal Lower. It directly supplies water to four (4) distributary channels
and one (1) minor channel before it bifurcates into two (2) branch canals and two (2)
distributary channels at its tail. The cumulative length of distributary channels and one
(1) minor channel which off-take directly is 450,000±ft (137.16 Km). The names of
bifurcating branch canals and distributary channels are Ahmadpur branch, Desert
branch off-take, Bahawalpur distributary and 3L/BC distributary.
Desert branch is 203,000±ft. (61.87 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
2,112 cusecs (59.805 cumecs). Desert branch bifurcates into Dera Nawab branch
canal and Derawar branch canal at its tail. It directly supplies water to thirteen (13)
distributary channels and part flows of these distributary channels are used for
supplying water to four (4) minor. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 858,000±ft. (261.52 Km).
Dera Nawab branch is 38,000± ft. (11.58 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 745 cusecs (21.096 cumecs). It supplies water to six (6) distributary channels part
flows of these distributaries are used for supplying water to four (4) minor and one (1)
sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
568,000± ft. (173.13Km).
IRRIGATION NETWORK OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
GENERAL LOCATION MAP
DEVELOPMENT
ZONE
LAHORE
ZONE
SARGODHA
ZONE
FAISALABAD
ZONE
MULTAN
ZONE
D. G. K H A N
ZONE
BAHAWALPUR
ZONE
PUNJAB IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE AUTHORITY

IRRIGATION NETWORK OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.5.1: Irrigation Network of Punjab Province

Bahawalpur Zone (contd)

Derawar branch is 60,000± ft. (18.29 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
127 cusecs (3.596 cumecs). It supplies water to three (3) distributary channels part
flow of one of these distributaries are used for supplying water to four (4) minor. The
cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 312,000± ft. (95.098 Km)
Ahmadpur branch is 210,000± ft. (64.01 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 2,430 cusecs (68.810 cumecs). It supplies water to eleven (11) distributary channels
part flow of these distributaries are used for supplying water to Twenty six (26) minor
and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 1,662,000±ft. (506.578 Km).
Qaim Canal System: Qaim Canal off-takes from Islam Barrage. It is 37,000± ft. (11.68
Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 483 cusecs (13.667 cumecs). No
branch off-takes while it feeds directly eight (8) distributary channels part flows of
these are used to supply water to four (4) minor. The cumulative length of distributary
and minor channels is 264,000±ft. (80.47 Km).
Bahawal Qaim Feeder off-takes from Bahawal canal Upper. It is 10,000± ft. (3.05 Km)
long and is designed to carry a discharge of 348 cusecs (9.854 cumecs). No branch
off-takes while it feeds directly two (2) distributary channels part flows of these are
used to supply water to four (4) minor and sub minor channels. The cumulative length
of distributary and minor channels is 276,000±ft. (84.13 Km).
Fordwah Canal System: Fordwah canal off-takes from Sulemanki Barrage. It is
45,000± ft. (13.72 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 3,448 cusecs
(97.636 cumecs). Three (3) branch canals namely, Fordwah branch, MacLeod Ganj
branch and Sadiqia Feeder off-take from Fordwah Canal.
Fordwah branch off-takes from tail of Fordwah canal and it is 372,000± ft. (113.39 Km)
long and is designed to carry a discharge of 2,603 cusecs (73.709 cumecs). It supplies
water to thirty (30) distributary channels. Part flows of these thirty (30) distributaries
are used for supplying water to eleven (11) minor and two (2) sub minor channels. The
cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,684,000±ft. (513.28 Km).
MacLeod Ganj branch is 61+000± ft. (18.59 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 374 cusecs (10.590 cumecs). It feeds five (5) distributary channels, part
flow of these distributary channels is used for supplying water to four (4) minors and
one sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
358,000±ft. (109.12 Km).
Sadiqia feeder is 26,000± ft. (7.92 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
500 cusecs (14.158 cumecs). It directly supplies water to only one (1) minor channel,
which is 45+000± ft. (13.72 Km) long.
Eastern Sadiqia Canal System: Eastern Sadiqia canal off-takes from Sulemanki
Barrage. It is 245,000± ft. (74.68 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
6,820 cusecs (193.12 cumecs). Three (3) branch canals namely, Supply channel,
Malik branch and Hakra branch off-take from Sadiqia Canal. It directly supplies water
to eight (8) distributary channels, part flows of these are used to supply water to four
(4) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
478,500±ft. (145.85 Km).
Supply channel off-takes from Eastern Sadiqia canal and it is 34,000± ft. (10.36 Km)
long and is designed to carry a discharge of 248 cusecs (7.023 cumecs). It supplies
water to two (2) distributary channels. Part flows of these distributaries are used for
supplying water to four (4) minor and three (3) sub minor channels. The cumulative
length of distributary and minor channels is 646,000±ft. (196.90 Km).
Malik branch is 117+000± ft. (35.66 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
1,538 cusecs (43.551 cumecs). It feeds five (5) distributary channels, part flow of those
is used for supplying water to twenty three (23) minor and four (4) sub minor channels.
The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,440,000±ft. (438.91 Km).
Hakara branch is 257+000± ft. (78.33 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 2,400 cusecs (67.960 cumecs). It feeds sixteen (16) distributary channels and a
flood channel, part flow of those is used for supplying water to twenty three (23) minor
and four (4) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 1,983,000±ft. (604.42 Km).
Panjnad Canal System: Panjnad canal off-takes from Panjnad Barrage. It is
(308.20 cumecs). Four (4) branch canals namely, Minchin branch, Rahim Yar Khan
branch, Sadiq branch and Dallas branch off-take from Panjnad Canal. It directly
supplies water to nineteen (19) distributary channels, part flows of these are used to
supply water to sixteen (16) minor and three (3) sub minor channels. The cumulative
length of distributary and minor channels is 1,222,000±ft. (372.47 Km).
Minchin branch is 155+000± ft. (47.24 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,527 cusecs (43.240 cumecs). It feeds fourteen (14) distributary channels part flow
of those is used for supplying water to twenty five (25) minor and two (2) sub minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,619,000±ft.
(493.47 Km).
Rahim Yar Khan branch is 187+000± ft. (57.00 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 1,291 cusecs (36.557 cumecs). It feeds nineteen (19) distributary
channels part flow of those is used for supplying water to seven (7) minor and one (1)
sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
914,000±ft. (278.59 Km).
Sadiq branch is 254+000± ft. (77.42 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
1,384 cusecs (39.191 cumecs). It feeds twenty two (22) distributary channels part flow
of those is used for supplying water to ten (10) minor and nine (9) sub minor channels.
The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,167,000±ft. (355.70 Km).
Dallas branch is 163+000± ft. (49.68 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
2,604 cusecs (73.737 cumecs). It feeds twenty four (24) distributary channels part flow
of those is used for supplying water to forty one (41) minor and nine (9) sub minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 2,198,000±ft.
(669.957 Km).
Abbasia Canal System: Abbasia canal off-takes from Panjnad Barrage. It is
(39.474 cumecs). No branch canal off-takes from Abbasia Canal. It directly supplies
water to seventeen (17) distributary channels, part flows of these are used to supply
water to twelve (12) minor and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary and minor channels is 1,222,000±ft. (372.47 Km).
Map of Bahawalpur Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.2.
(b) D.G. Khan Zone

There are two (2) complete main canal systems in D.G. Khan Zone: (i) Muzaffargarh
Canal System; and (ii) D.G. Khan Canal System. Additionally, tail part (RD 320+000
to 442+025) of Rangpur Canal system, emanating from Trimmu Barrage, Dholewala
Inundation System and the reach of Chashma Right Bank Canal (C.R.B.C) system
situated in the Punjab Province exist in D.G Khan Zone, as well.
Muzaffargarh Canal System: Muzaffargarh Canal off-takes from from left side of
Taunsa Barrage. It is 370,700 ft. (112.99 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 8,900 cusecs (252.05 cumecs). Four (4) branch canals namely,
Maggason branch, Thal branch, Alipur branch and Jatoi branch off-take from
Muzaffargarh Canal. Between RD 6+785 and its tail at RD 370+700, it directly supplies
water to twenty two (22) distributary channels part flows of these distributaries are
used for supplying water to thirty six (36) minor and three (3) sub minor channels.
Maggason branch off-takes at RD 6+785/R of Muzaffargarh Canal and it is 42,000± ft.
(12.80 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 1,342 cusecs (38.001
cumecs). It supplies water to four (4) distributary channels part flows of these
distributaries are used for supplying water to three (3) minor and one (1) sub minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 395,000± ft.
(120.40 Km).
Thal branch off-takes at RD 64+357/L of Muzaffargarh Canal is 86,000± ft. (26.21 Km)
long and is designed to carry a discharge of 635 cusecs (17.98 cumecs). It supplies
water to five (5) distributary channels part flows of these distributaries are used for
supplying water to five (5) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and
minor channels is 405,000± ft. (123.44 Km).
Jatoi branch is one of two canals into which Muzaffargarh Canal bifurcates at the tail.
It is 140,000± ft. (42.67 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 536 cusecs
(15.178 cumecs). It supplies water to two (2) distributary channels part flows of these
distributaries are used for supplying water to nine (9) minor channels. The cumulative
length of distributary and minor channels is 236,000± ft. (71.93 Km).
Alipur branch is one of two canals into which Muzaffargarh Canal bifurcates at the tail.
It is 117,000± ft. (35.66 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 937 cusecs
(26.533 cumecs). It supplies water to five (5) distributary channels part flows of these
distributaries are used for supplying water to five (5) minor channels. The cumulative
D.G. Khan Canal System: D.G. Canal off-takes from from right side of Taunsa
Barrage. It is 345+230 ft. (105.23 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
8,993 cusecs (254.653 cumecs). Five (5) branch canals namely, Link No. I, Link No.
III, Dhundi Kutab Canal, Kadra Canal and Dajal Canal. Link I off-take from D.G.Khan
Canal. In addition to five (5) branch canals, D.G. Khan Canal directly supplies water
to twenty (20) distributary channels part flows of three (3) distributaries out of these
are used for supplying water three (3) minor channels. The cumulative length of these
distributary and minor channels is 687,000± ft. (209.40 Km).
Figure 3.5.2: Bahawalpur Zone Irrigation Canals Network

D.G. Khan Zone (contd)

Link No. I is 203,000± ft. (61.87 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,673 cusecs (47.374 cumecs) feeds supplies water to fifteen (15) distributary
channels and part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water
to twenty five (25) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 1,198,000±ft. (365.15 Km).
Link No. III off-takes from tail of D.G.Khan Canal at RD 345+230. It is 228,000± ft.
cumecs). It supplies water to nine (9) distributary channels and part flows of these
distributary channels are used for supplying water to ten (10) minor and three (3) sub
minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 592,500±
ft. (180.59 Km).
Dhundi Kutab Canal off-takes from Link No. III and is 161,000± ft. (49.07 Km) long and
is designed to carry a discharge of 689 cusecs (19.510 cumecs). It supplies water to
eight (8) distributary channels part flows of three (3) out of these distributaries are used
for supplying water to three (3) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary
and minor channels is 388,110 ft. (118.30 Km).
Dajal Canal off-takes from tail of D.G.Khan Canal at RD 345+230. It is 190,000± ft.
cumecs). It supplies water to eighteen (18) distributary channels and part flows of
these distributary channels are used for supplying water to seventeen (17) minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,094,998 ft.
(333.76 Km).
Kadra Canal off-takes from tail of Link No. III. It is 223,500± ft. (68.12 Km) long and is
designed to carry a discharge of 1,362 cusecs (38.568 cumecs). It supplies water to
fourteen (14) distributary channels and part flows of these distributary channels are
used for supplying water to nine (9) minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary and minor channels is 716,045 ft. (218.25 Km).
Rangpur Canal System: The reach between RD 412+000 and RD 442+000 (tail) of
Rangpur Canal is located in D.G. Khan Zone. Only Muzaffargarh branch exists in this
reach, which off-takes from right side of the Rangpur Canal at RD 420+025. Between
RD 412+000 and RD 442+000 (tail) Rangpur Canal directly supplies water to four (4)
distributary channels. The cumulative length of these distributary channels is 63,000±
ft. (19.20 Km).
Muzaffargarh branch is 97,000± ft. (29.57 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 680 cusecs (19.255 cumecs). It supplies water to six (6) distributary
channels and part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to
sixteen (16) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels
is 645,000±ft. (196.60 Km).
Chashma Right Bank Canal System: C.R.B.C off-takes from right side of Chashma
Barrage. After irrigating parts if Khyber Pakhtunkhawa its tail reach is located in the
Punjab province as in enters the district of D.G Khan. The discharge at the point of
entry to Punjab is 1800 cfs. There are thirty one (31) distributary channels, part flows
of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to thirty one (31) minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 1,379,267 ft.
(420.40 Km).
Map of D.G.Khan Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.3.
(c) Faisalabad Zone
Faisalabad Zone has only Lower Chenab Canal (L.C.C) System.
Lower Chenab Canal System Lower Chenab Canal L.C.C) off-takes from from left
side of Khanki Barrage. Its length is 140.000 ft. (42.67 Km) and is designed to carry a
discharge of 15,00017 cusecs (424.753 cumecs). There are ten (10) branch canals in
Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) System namely, Kot Nikka branch, Main Line Lower,
Upper Gugera branch, Lower Gugera branch, Burala branch, Mian Ali branch, Rakh
branch, Jhang branch Upper, Jhang branch Lower and Bhowana branch. It directly
supplies water to seven (7) distributary channels, part flows of these are used to
supply water to eighteen (18) minor and sub minor channels. The cumulative length
of these distributary and minor and sub minor channels is 585,000±ft. (178.31 Km).
Kot Nikka branch is 91,000± ft. (27.74 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 536 cusecs (15.18 cumecs). It supplies water to fourteen (14) distributary channels,
part flows of some of these are used for supplying water to seven (7) minor channels.
The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 484,000± ft. (147.52 Km).
Main Line Lower branch off-takes at RD 140+000 (tail) of L.C.C. It is 60,000± ft. (18.20
Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 3,000 cusecs (84.951 cumecs). It
supplies water to four (4) distributary channels and part flows of three (3) of these
distributary channels are used for supplying water to three (3) minor channels. The
cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 189,900 ft. (57.61 Km).
Upper Gugera branch off-takes at RD 140+000 (tail) of L.C.C. It is 282,000± ft. (85.95
supplies water to seventeen (17) distributary channels and part flows of some of these
distributary channels are used for supplying water to twenty four (24) minor channels.
The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 1,590,900 ft. (484.91
Km).
Lower Gugera branch off-takes at RD 282+000 (tail) of Upper Gugera branch. It is
(75.379 cumecs). It supplies water to thirty four (34) distributary channels and part
flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to twenty
seven (27) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these
distributary and minor channels is 1,885,000 ft. (574.55 Km).
17 Revised during the construction of new Khanki Barrage

Figure 3.5.3: Map of D.G. Khan Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network
Faisalabad Zone (contd)

Burala branch also off-takes at RD 282+000 (tail) of Upper Gugera branch. It is
(69.320 cumecs). It supplies water to thirty seven (37) distributary channels and part
flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to thirty four
(34) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary
and minor channels is 2,109,000 ft. (642.82 Km).
Mian Ali branch is 100,000± ft. (30.48 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 724 cusecs (15.18 cumecs). It supplies water to eight (8) distributary channels, part
flows of some of these are used for supplying water to ten (10) minor channels. The
cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 589,100± ft. (179.56 Km).
Rakh branch off-takes at RD 200+283 (tail) of Main Line Lower. It is 277,000± ft. (84.43
supplies water to twenty four (24) distributary channels and part flows of some of these
distributary channels are used for supplying water to sixteen (16) minor channels. The
cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 972,000 ft. (296.27 Km).
Jhang branch Upper also off-takes at RD 200+283 (tail) of Main Line Lower. It is
(88.773 cumecs). It supplies water to twenty five (25) distributary channels and part
flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to thirty four
(34) minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels
is 1,427,000 ft. (434.95 Km).
Jhang branch Lower off-takes at RD 308+426 (tail) of Jhang branch Upper. It is
(34.207 cumecs). It supplies water to twenty (20) distributary channels and part flows
of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to twenty eight
(28) minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels
is 1,483,000 ft. (452.02 Km).
Bhowana branch also off-takes at RD 308+426 (tail) of Jhang branch Upper. It is
37,000± ft. (11.28 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 413 cusecs (11.695
cumecs). It supplies water to twenty (10) distributary channels and part flows of some
of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to fourteen (14) minor
channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 715,000
ft. (217.93 Km).
Map of Faisalabad Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.4.
(a). Lahore Zone
There are four (4) main canals in Lahore Zone: (i) Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main
Line Upper System; (ii) Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main Line Lower System; (iii)
Upper Depalpur Canal System; and (iv) Lower Depalpur Canal System. Besides the
above mentioned four main canal systems, M.R Link and B.R.B.D link directly feed
substantial number of distributary channels part flows of which are used to supply
water to minor and sub minor channels. These direct off-takes are for providing
alternative sources of flows to those canals whose control of sources of water supplies
was located Indian Territory as consequence the partition.
Figure 3.5.4: Map of Faisalabad Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network

Lahore Zone (contd)

Upper Chenab Canal Main Line Lower System: Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main
Line Lower Canal off-takes from tail of Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main Line Upper
Canal at RD.133+000. It is 283,000± ft. (86.26 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 7,000 cusecs (54.65 cumecs). A branch canal off-takes from Upper
Chenab Canal (UCC) Main Line Lower namely, Mangtanwala branch. Two (2) feeder
canals: Mangtanwala and Sikhanawala feeders off-take from Upper Chenab Canal
(UCC) Main Line Lower, as well. Fourteen (14) distributary channels, part flows of
some of these channels are used for supplying water to thirty eight (38) minor
channels, directly off-taking from Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main Line Lower. The
cumulative length of branch canals and feeders, distributary channels and minor
channels in Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) Main Line Lower System is 5,344,000± ft.
(1,628.85 Km).
Mangtanwala feeder is 65,000± ft. (19.81 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 687 cusecs (19.454 cumecs). It supplies water to Mangtanwala branch,
three (3) distributary channels and a minor channel. The cumulative length of these
distributary and minor channels is 137,000±ft. (41.76 Km).
Mangtanwala branch is 63,000± ft. (19.20 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 536 cusecs (15.18 cumecs). It feeds five (5) distributary channels and
four (4) minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor
channels is 568,000±ft. (173.13 Km).
Sikhanwala feeder is 32,000± ft. (9.75 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 416 cusecs (11.780 cumecs). It supplies water to three (3) distributary channels
and nine (9) minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor
channels is 453,000±ft. (138.07 Km).
Upper Depalpur Canal System: Upper Depalpur Canal off-takes from B.R.B.D Link
at RD.537+547. It is 208,000± ft. (63.40 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 16,850 cusecs (477.14 cumecs). Only Katora branch off-takes from it. Fifteen (15)
distributary channels, part flows of some of these are used for supplying water to
twenty two (22) minor channels, which directly off-take from Upper Depalpur canal.
The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 1,182,000±ft.
(360.35 Km).
Katora branch canal is 43,000± ft. (13.10 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 891 cusecs (25.23 cumecs). It supplies water to six (6) distributary
channels part flows of which are used to supply water to nine (9) minor and sub minor
channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is
652,000±ft. (198.65 Km)
Lower Depalpur Canal System: Lower Depalpur Canal off-takes from B-S I Link at
RD.227+270. It is 27,000± ft. (8.23 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
2,360 cusecs (66.83 cumecs). Three (3) branch canals namely, Upper Sohag branch,
Lower Sohag branch and Khanwah branch off-takes from Lower Depalpur Canal. It
directly feeds three (3) distributary channels, part flows of two (2) distributaries are
used for supplying water to three (3) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The
cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 298,000±ft. (90.83 Km).
Upper Sohag branch is 42+000± ft. (12.80 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 523 cusecs (16.509 cumecs) while it feeds eight (8) distributary channels
part flow of one of the distributary is used to supply water to five (5) minor channels.
The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 401,000±ft. (122.22
Km).
Lower Sohag branch canal is 213,000± ft. (64.92 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 1,456 cusecs (41.229 cumecs). It supplies water to twenty two (22)
distributary channels, part flows of some of which are used for supplying water to
twelve (12) minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor
channels is 982,000±ft. (299.31 Km).
Khanwah branch canal is 42,000± ft. (12.80 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 1,037 cusecs (29.36 cumecs). It supplies water to two (2) distributary
channels part flows of which are used to supply water to eleven (11) minor and sub
minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is
731,000±ft. (222.81 Km).
Off-takes from B.R.B.D Link: Three (3) branch canals namely, Muridke branch,
Lahore branch and Main branch Lahore, off-take from B.R.B.D Link. Additionally, it
supplies water directly to twenty one (21) distributary channels, part flows of some of
these distributary channels are used for supplying water to forty six (46) minor and sub
minor channels.
Muridke branch is 60,000± ft. (18.29 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
714 cusecs (20.22 cumecs). It supplies water to two (2) distributary channels and one
(1) minor channel directly. Part flows of these two (2) distributaries are used for
supplying water to fourteen (14) minor channels. The cumulative length of these
distributary and minor channels is 637,000 ft. (194.16 Km).
Lahore branch is 96+000± ft. (29.26 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
403 cusecs (11.41 cumecs). It used to feed two (2) distributary and two (2) minor
channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 327,000
ft. (99.67 Km).
Main Branch Lower is 190,000± ft. (57.91 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 1,530 cusecs (43.32 cumecs). It supplies water to sixteen (16) distributary
channels, part flows of these are used for supplying water to seventeen (17) minor
channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels is 1,191,000
ft. (363.02 Km).
Off-takes from M-R Link: M.R Link feeds directly twenty (20) distributary channels
part flows of these are used to supply water to fourteen (14) minor and two (2) sub
minor channels. The cumulative length of these minors and sub minor channels is
935,000± ft.
(284.99 Km).
Map of Lahore Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.5.
Multan Zone: There are seven (7) main canal systems in Multan Zone: (i) Lower Bari
Doab Canal (L.B.D.C) System; (ii) Pakpattan Canal System; (iii) Bahawal Canal
System; (iv) Mailsi Canal System (v) Rangpur Canal System; (vi) Haveli Canal
System; and (vii) Sidhnai Canal System.
Lower Bari Doab Canal System: Lower Bari Doab Canal (L.B.D.C) off-takes from left
side of Balloki Barrage. It is 660,700 ft. (201.38 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 9,842 cusecs (278.694 cumecs). Only two (2) branch canals namely,
Gugera branch and 10-R Jahanian branch off-take from L.B.D.C. Gugera branch off-
takes from right side of L.B.D.C. at RD 58+818, and 10-R Jahanian branch from tail
L.B.D.C. at RD 660+700.
Figure 3.5.5: Map of Lahore Showing Irrigation Canals Network

Multan Zone (contd)

In addition to the above mentioned two (2) branch canals, sixty six (66) other channels
directly off-take from L.B.D.C. These channels comprise one (1) feeder, forty nine (49)
perennial distributaries, three (3) non perennial distributaries, four (4) lift canals, one
(1) link (SP Link), four (4) perennial minors, four (4) non perennial minors. Part flows
of some of these channels are used for supplying water to one hundred ten (110) minor
and twenty three (23) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of branch canals
and feeders, distributary channels and minor channels in L.B.D.C. System is
7,425,000± ft. (2,263.14 Km).
Gugera branch is 192,000± ft. (58.52 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 980 cusecs (27.751 cumecs). It supplies water directly to thirteen (13) channels out
of which nine (9) are distributaries while four (4) are minors. Part flows of some of
these channels are used for supplying water to ten (10) minor and one (1) sub minor
(211.84 Km).
10-R Jahanian branch is 85,000± ft. (25.91 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 1,000 cusecs (28.317 cumecs). Only one (1) distributary channel (10-R)
off-takes from it, which is 187,000 (57.00 Km). It supplies water to thirteen (13) minor
and ten (10) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these minor and sub minor
channels is 748,000± ft. (227.99 Km).
Pakpattan Canal System: Pakpattan Canal off-takes from right side of Sulemanki
Barrage. It is intercepted by SM Link. The reach between Sulemanki Barrage and SM
Link is called Pakpattan Canal Upper while the reach beyond SM Link is called
Pakpattan Canal Lower. Pakpattan Canal Lower off-takes from from right side of
Sidhnai Mailsi Link at RD 195+117. Pakpattan Canal Upper is 568,000± ft. (173.13
Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 6,594 cusecs (186.721 cumecs),
which is augmented by 1,000 cusecs (28.317 cumecs)- design discharge of SP Link
off-taking from L.B.D.C. at RD 353+588. Pakpattan Canal Lower is 99,000± ft. (30.18
Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 1,160 cusecs (32.848 cumecs).
There is only one (1) branch canal in Pakpattan Canal System namely, Khadir branch,
which off-takes from it at RD 112+000 of Pakpattan Canal Upper. Pakpattan Canal
directly supplies water to fifty (50) distributary channels part flows of some of these
distributaries are used for supplying water to seventy five (75) minor channels and
nine (9) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor
channels is 4,213,000± ft. (1284.12 Km).
Khadir branch is 332,000± ft. (101.19 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 2,230 cusecs (63.147 cumecs). It supplies water to twenty one (21) distributary
channels part flows of some of these distributaries are used for supplying water fifteen
(15) minor channels and three (3) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary and minor channels is 1,407,000± ft. (428.85 Km).
Bahawal Canal System: Bahawal Canal off-takes from Islam Barrage with a design
discharge of 1,000 cusecs (28.32 cumecs), which is augmented by flow of M.B link
canal to about 5,590 cusecs (158.20 cumecs). Its total length is 240,000± ft. (73.15
Km) out of which 12,000 ft. (3.66 Km) is located in Multan Zone. The only branch canal
which off-takes from Bahawal Canal, is Karam branch located in Multan Zone. There
is neither any distributary channel nor minor channel which directly off-takes from the
part of Bahawal canal located in Multan Zone. However, four (4) distributary channels
off-take from S.M.B Link, which existed in Bahawal canal command prior to
construction of S.M.B Link. Four (4) minor channels off-take from two of these
distributary channels. The cumulative length of these four (5) distributary channels and
two (2) minor channels is 132,000±ft (40.23 Km).
Karam branch is 21,000±ft. (6.40 Km) and is designed to carry a discharge of 630
cusecs (17.840 cumecs). It supplies water to six (6) distributary channels part flows of
four (4) of these distributaries are used for supplying water nine (9) minor channels.
The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 399,000±ft. (121.62 Km).
Mailsi Canal System: Mailsi Canal off-takes from RD: 250420/R of S.M.B. Link. It is
91,000 ft. (27.74 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 3,705 cusecs
(104.914 cumecs). It bifurcates into two (2) branch canals at its tail structure namely,
Chit Dain branch and Lodhran branch. Seven (7) directly off-take from Mailsi Canal.
Part flows of two of these distributaries are used for supplying water to two (2) minor
channels. The cumulative length of distributary channels and minor channels is
353,000± ft. (107.59 Km).
Chit Dain branch is 94,000± ft. (28.65 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,819 cusecs (51.508 cumecs). It supplies water directly to ten (10) distributary
channels. Part flows of some of these channels are used for supplying water to
fourteen (14) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
Lodhran branch is 85,000± ft. (25.91 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
1,246 cusecs (35.283 cumecs). It supplies water to fourteen (14) distributary channels.
Part flows of some of these channels are used for supplying water to six (6) minor and
three (3) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these minor and sub minor
channels is 924,000± ft. (281.64 Km).
Rangpur Canal System: Rangpur Canal off-takes from right side of Trimmu Barrage.
Its design discharge is 2,710 cusecs (76.739 cumecs). Its total length is 442,000± ft.
(134.72 Km) out of which 30,000 ft. (9.14 Km) in the tail is located D.G. Khan Zone.
From RD 0+000 to RD 412+000 is located in Multan Zone. No branch canal off-takes
in this reach. The reach RD 0+000 to RD 320+000 supplies water to twelve (12)
distributary channels, one of these is a lift channel. Part flows of some of these
channels are used for supplying water to six (6) minor channels. No channel off-takes
in the reach from RD 320+000 to RD 412+000. The cumulative length of these
distributary and minor channels is 885,000±ft (269.75 Km).
Haveli Canal System: Haveli Canal off-takes from left side of Trimmu Barrage. Its
design discharge is 5,170 cusecs (76.739 cumecs). Its total length is 218,000± ft.
(66.45 Km). No branch canal off-takes in this reach. It supplies water to five (5)
distributary channels part flows of three (3) of these distributaries are used for
supplying water sixteen (16) minor and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative
length of these distributary and minor channels is 840,000±ft (256.03 Km).
Sidhnai Canal off-takes from tail of Sidhnai feeder at RD 35+561, which off-takes from
left side of Sidhnai Barrage. It is 122,139 ft. (37.23 Km) long and is designed to carry
a discharge of 4,005 cusecs (113.409 cumecs). Sidhnai Canal System contains four
(4) branch canals namely, Multan branch, Makhdoom Rashid branch, Shujabad
branch and Gajju Hatta Branch. Shujabad branch off-takes from RD 43+280/R of
Sidhnai Canal while Gajju Hatta branch off-takes from RD 300+418 (tail) of Shujabad
Branch. Sidhnai Canal bifurcates into Multan branch and Makhdoom branch at RD
157+700 (tail).
Sixteen (16) distributary channels directly off-take from Sidhnai Canal. Part flows of
some of these channels are used for supplying water to ten (10) minor channels. The
cumulative length of distributary channels and minor channels directly off-taking from
Sidhnai Canal is 883,000± ft. (269.14 Km).
Multan branch is 98,000± ft. (29.87 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
775 cusecs (21.946 cumecs). It supplies water to eight (8) distributary channels. Part
flows of four (4) of these distributaries are used for supplying water to six (6) minor
and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 857,000± ft. (261.21 Km).
Makhdoom Rashid branch is 39,000± ft. (11.89 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 425 cusecs (12.035 cumecs). It supplies water to four (4) distributary
channels. Part flows of two (2) of these distributaries are used for supplying water to
six (6) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
462,000± ft. (140.82 Km).
Shujabad branch is 300,418 ft. (91.57 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,918 cusecs (54.312 cumecs). It supplies water to sixteen (16) distributary
channels. Part flows of seven (7) of these distributaries are used for supplying water
to thirteen (13) minor and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
Gajju Hatta branch is 78,000± ft. (23.77 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 700 cusecs (19.822 cumecs). It supplies water to eight (8) distributary channels.
Part flows of three (3) of these distributaries are used for supplying water to seven (7)
minor and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 523,000± ft. (159.41 Km).
Map of Multan Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.6.
(a). Sargodha Zone
There are four (4) main canal systems in Sargodha Zone: (i) Upper Jhelum Canal
(UJC) System; (ii) Lower Jhelum Canal (LJC); (iii) Thal Canal Main Line Upper System;
and (iv) Thal Canal Main Line Lower System. In addition to these four main canal
system there is a non-perennial system namely, Kas Umar Khan System.
Upper Jhelum Canal System: Upper Jhelum Canal (UJC) off-takes from left side of
Mangla Headworks. It is 440,000± ft. (134.11 Km) long and is designed to carry a
discharge of 9,031 cusecs (255.729 cumecs). Only two (2) branch canals namely,
Gujrat branch and Phalia branch off-take from UJC. Twelve (12) distributary channels
off-take from UJC. Part flows of some of these channels are used for supplying water
to thirteen (13) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary and minor channels directly off-taking from Sidhnai Canal is 855,000± ft.
(260.60 Km).
Phalia branch is 17,000± ft. (5.18 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
376 cusecs (10.647 cumecs). It supplies water to four (4) distributary channels. Part
flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to twelve (12) minor
and two (2) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor
channels is 600,000± ft. (182.88 Km).
Figure 3.5.6: Map of Multan Zone Showing Irrigation Canals Network

Sargodha Zone (contd)

Gujrat branch is 185,000± ft. (56.39 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
1,537 cusecs (43.523 cumecs). It supplies water to twelve (12) distributary channels.
Part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to forty three
(43) minor and seven (7) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary
and minor channels is 1,726,000± ft. (182.88 Km).
Lower Jhelum Canal System: Lower Jhelum Canal (LJC) off-takes from left side of
Rasul Barrage. It is 197,000± ft. (60.05 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 6,600 cusecs (186.891 cumecs). Five (5) branch canals namely, Shahpur branch,
Northern branch, Southern branch, Sulki branch and Khadir branch off-take from UJC.
Beside these five branch canals a feeder canal, called Southern Feeder, is located in
LJC system. Four (4) distributary channels and one (1) minor off-take from UJC. Part
flow of one of these channels is used for supplying water to one (1) minor and one (1)
sub minor channels. The cumulative length of these distributary and minor channels
is 177,000± ft. (53.95 Km).
Shahpur branch is 262,000± ft. (79.86 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,075 cusecs (30.441 cumecs). It supplies water to twenty one (21) distributary
channels. Part flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying
water to twenty four (24) minor and fourteen (14) sub minor channels. The cumulative
length of distributary and minor channels is 1,400,000± ft. (426.72 Km).
Northern branch is 352,000± ft. (107.29 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 2,065 cusecs (58.474 cumecs). It supplies water to thirty five (35) distributary
channels. Part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to
twenty six (26) channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
1,835,000± ft. (559.31 Km).
Southern branch is 104,000± ft. (31.70 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,650 cusecs (46.723 cumecs). It supplies water to eight (8) distributary channels.
Part flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to
twenty five (25) minor and four (4) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary, minor and sub minor channels is 1,057,000± ft. (322.17 Km).
Sulki branch is 100,000± ft. (30.48 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
480 cusecs (13.592 cumecs). It supplies water to twelve (12) distributary channels.
Part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to nine (9) minor
(258.47 Km).
Khadir branch is 117,000± ft. (35.66 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
365 cusecs (10.336 cumecs). It supplies water to ten (10) distributary channels. Part
flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to fourteen
(14) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary, minor and sub minor
channels is 705,000± ft. (214.8 Km).
Southern feeder is 36,000± ft. (10.97 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 348 cusecs (9.854 cumecs). It supplies water to four (4) distributary channels. Part
flows of some of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to eight (8)
minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary, minor and sub minor channels
is 437,000± ft. (133.20 Km).
Thal Main Line Upper System: Thal Main Line (Upper) off-takes from left side of
Jinnah Barrage. It is 157,662 ft. (48.06 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 9,000 cusecs (254.852 cumecs). Two (2) branch canals namely, Mohajir branch
and Dullewala branch off-take from Thal Main Line (Upper). In addition a short Link
channel also distributes water. Thal Main Line (Upper) directly distributes water to
thirteen (13) distributary channels including three (3) lift canals, which directly off-take
from Thal Main Line (Upper). Part flows of some distributary channels are used for
supplying water to six (6) minor and one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length
of distributary and minor channels directly off-taking from Thal Main Line Upper Canal
is 546,000± ft. (166.42 Km).
Mohajir branch is 202,000± ft. (61.57 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 1,463 cusecs (41.428 cumecs). It supplies water to ten (10) distributary channels.
Part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to twenty two
(22) minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
1,099,000± ft. (334.98 Km).
Dullewala branch is 108,000± ft. (32.92 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge
of 869 cusecs (24.607 cumecs). It supplies water to fifteen (15) distributary channels.
Part flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to sixteen (16)
minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is 991,000±
ft. (302.06 Km).
Link Channel is 21,000± ft. (6.40 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of 569
cusecs (16.112 cumecs). It supplies water to three (3) distributary channels. Part flows
of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to thirteen (13) minor
(230.12 Km).
Thal Main Line Lower System: Thal Main Line (Lower) off-takes from the tail of Thal
Main Line (Upper) at RD 157+662. It is 502,000± ft. (153.01 Km) long and is designed
to carry a discharge of 4,524 cusecs (128.105 cumecs). Three (3) branch canals
namely, Bakht branch, Indus and Munda branch off-take from Thal Main Line (Upper).
Thal Main Line (Upper) directly distributes water to twenty eight (28) distributary
channels. Part flows of some these distributary channels are used for supplying water
to forty one (41) minor and four (4) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of
distributary and minor channels directly off-taking from Sidhnai Canal is 3,265,000± ft.
(995.17 Km).
Bakht branch is 63,000± ft. (19.20 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
524 cusecs (14.838 cumecs). It supplies water to three (3) distributary channels, part
flows of which are used for supplying water to four (4) minor channels. The cumulative
Indus branch is 51,000± ft. (15.55 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
575 cusecs (16.282 cumecs). It supplies water to seven (7) distributary channels. Part
flows of four (4) of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to ten (10)
minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels is
1,025,000± ft. (312.42 Km).
Munda branch is 112,000± ft. (34.14 Km) long and is designed to carry a discharge of
1,396 cusecs (39.530 cumecs). It supplies water to nine (9) distributary channels. Part
flows of six (6) of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to nineteen
(19) minor and eleven (11) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary
and minor channels is 2,078,000± ft. (633.37 Km).
Kas Umar Khan System: Kas Umar System off-takes form the river Kurram. It
comprises two (2) distributary namely, Kas Umar Khan and Namal Distributary. Part
flows of these distributary channels are used for supplying water to four (4) minor and
one (1) sub minor channels. The cumulative length of distributary and minor channels
is 172,000± ft. (52.43 Km).
Map of Sargodha Zone showing irrigation canals network is given in Figure 3.5.7.
Figure 3.5.7: Map of Sargodha Zone Showing Irrigation Network

3.6 Drainage Infrastructure

Application of irrigation water to land for agriculture, particularly in the farms which are
ploughed and prepared in basins, causes rise in ground water table. The rise in water
table, if allowed to reach the root Zone of the crops, adversely affects the crop yields
and could also cause salinity. The drainage systems are constructed in order to
address the problem of rising water table and to evacuate excess rainwater. In Punjab,
there are several surface drainage systems for removal of water from the soil in order
to optimize agriculture produce. These drainage systems comprise a single drain or
several drains. Multiple drain systems include one or more tributary drains that join the
main drain before outfalling into the rivers or streams. The cumulative length of drains
in these drainage systems is 5,893 Canal Miles (8,980 Km). Provincial Irrigation
Department maintains drainage systems as public goods.
3.6.1 Types of Drains
There are two methods for draining the soils to lower the water table: (i) horizontal
drainage; (ii) vertical drainage. Horizontal draining is accomplished by surface drains
and sub-surface tile drains. Vertical drainage is carried out by tube wells.
(a). Surface Drains
In Punjab the drainage system mainly comprises surface drains. Surface drains are
man-made channels dug below the natural surface level (NSL). Most of these drains
are seepage-cum-storm water drains i.e. besides disposing off seepage water these
evacuate the rain water as well. The surface drains have generally been designed with
rule of thumb criteria of capacities, ranging from 1 to 4 cusecs per square mile of the
catchment area to evacuate the excess rain water within 3 to 5 days. The performance
of surface drains demonstrates that the designed capacities are lower than normally
required for effective drainage, particularly during intense rainfall events. The
inadequate capacities of surface drains have been further reduced by unplanned
construction of roads, embankments, link canals, blockage of natural drainage lines,
and lack of adequate cross drainage works. There are naturally occurring surface
drains like Dek Nullah, Hudiara Nullah, Sukh Beas, etc., as well.
Similar to irrigation canal systems there is hierarchy in a surface drainage systems
which contain several drains. Broadly speaking there are only two categories of drains;
main drains and tributary drains. Hierarchically, there are main drains, branch drains
and minor drains (sometimes called sub drains). However, unlike hierarchy in
irrigation system comprising main canal-branch canal-distributary channel-minor
channel, which emanates from a source of water (a storage dam or diversion structure-
barrage), the drainage system comprising minor (tributary)-branch drain-main drain,
in reverse order, outfalls into a river or stream or a disposal area.
(b). Tile Drains
A tile drainage system consists of perforated polyvinyl or fiber glass pipes buried in
the ground underneath the farm lands, in a specified pattern. The water entering the
pipes through the perforations flow in the sloping pipes to sumps from which it pumped
into surface drains to disposal place. The operation and maintenance (O&M) of a sub-
surface system relatively requires more effort entailing more costs. In Punjab there are
only two systems of tile drains (sub-surface drains); Khushab and Faisalabad, which
together cover an area of 133,400 acres (54,000 ha). The cumulative lengths of
disposal channels, laterals (pipe drains) and collectors (pipe drains) are 73.93 Km.,
4,574.45 Km. and 1,332.40 Km. respectively. Total number of sumps in the two
schemes is one hundred thirty five (135).
(c). Tubewells
Tubewells provide vertical drainage of water-logged soils due to raised water table.
Installation of tubewells was commenced in the 1960s to combat the twin menace of
water logging and salinity under the Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects
(SCARPs). About 9,900 tubewells were installed in Punjab from 1960 to 1990 under
these projects of which around 1,600 were in saline groundwater areas. The SCARP
tubewells (STWs) not only provided the subsurface drainage relief but also
supplemented irrigation water in fresh groundwater (FGW) areas for conjunctive use
with canal water. Observing the double benefit that the tubewells were effective
dependable means of water supply and land reclamation through vertical drainage,
the farmers also started installing their own tubewells, which gave rise to the large
scale growth of private tubewells (PTWs) in the Province.
Notwithstanding the initial success of the STWs, their performance gradually
decreased with time. Over the period, the number of properly functioning SCARP
tubewells decreased as a result of poor operation and maintenance, which was due
to financial constraints. Whereas the number of private tubewells (PTWs) in Punjab
had grown to around 500,000 by the year 2007, which were successfully being
operated and maintained by the farmers due to individual personal care. The high cost
of operation and maintenance of STWs (largely due to increased electricity tariff), and
growing constraints on public sector investment led to the review of the government
policy with regard to groundwater development. In 1979 a Revised Action Programme
(RAP) for irrigated agriculture was prepared by WAPDA which recommended: (i)
transfer of responsibility for future groundwater development in fresh groundwater
areas to the private sector and replacement of existing STWs by PTWs of smaller
capacity; and (ii) STWs in saline groundwater areas (SGW) would continue to be
installed and maintained by the public sector. The government endorsed the RAP
recommendations and incorporated the same in its revised National Agricultural Policy
(NASP) in 1980. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1983-93) also placed a great reliance
on PTW development and gradual transition of STWs.
Recognizing the major contribution of the private sector in groundwater development,
the Government initiated a program to induce the private sector to invest in tubewells
through appropriate financial incentives and technical guidance. However before
proceeding with the large scale transition of STWs, it was considered prudent to
assess the farmers’ reaction and to study the feasibility of transition concept.
Accordingly, a Pilot Project was implemented in Khankah Dogran Scheme of SCARP-
I (1988-92). Under the pilot project 213 STWs were replaced with 2,100 PTWs by
providing necessary financial incentives and technical guidance to the farmers.
The enthusiastic response by the farmers prompted the Government to expand the
transition activity in the whole of SCARP-I area. Accordingly, under Second SCARP
Transition Project (SSTP) 1,452 STWs were transitioned and replaced by 4,700
PTWs/CTWs. Punjab Private Sector Groundwater Development Project (PPSGDP)
involved the transition of 4,230 STWs and their replacement with 6,300 Community
tubewells ( CTWs). The process of privatization of tubewells was continued. Presently
(year 2016), a nominal number public sector tube wells is operated by PID.
3.6.2 Surface Drainage Systems

(a). Bahawalpur Zone
Bahawalpur Zone includes three (3) administrative circles: (i) Bahawal Nagar Circle;
(ii) Rahim Yar Khan Circle; and (iii) Bahawalpur Circle. There is only one (1) drain in
Bahawalpur Circle. Besides a number of small drains, Bahawal Nagar Circle has eight
(8) main drainage systems. Similarly, Rahim Yar Khan Circle has two (2) major
drainage systems in addition to a number of small drains. All drains are maintained by
the respective circles. Table 3.6.1 shows list of the drains contained in these drainage
systems. Figure 3.6.1 shows map of the drainage systems in Bahawalpur Zone.
Table 3.6.1: List of the drains in Bahawalpur Zone
Length Design
Bed
Name of Drainage System (1000 Discharge
Width ft.) (cusecs)
Bahawal Nagar Circle

1 Kali Budi Drain 15+ 99 300
2 Sadiqia Drain 15+ 120 75
3 Sohail Drain 10-15 60 57
4 Bahawal Garh Drain 10- 31 14
5 Mirza Drain 10- 34 10
6 Bahawalnagar Upper Drain 10-15 122 160
7 2-L Drain 10-15 60 57
8 3-L Drain 10- 118 140
9 Bahawalnagar Lower Drain 10- 74 40
10 1-R Bahawalnagar Lower Drain 10- 8 5
Bahawalpur Circle
1 Panjnad Seepage Drain 10- 17 15
Rahim Yar Khan Circle
1 Shakrani Main Drain 10- 19 7
Shakrani Drain 10- 3 2
Shakrani Sub Drain 10- 17 3
2 Noorwala Seepage Drain 10- 30 10
Noorwala Sub Drain 10- 6 2
Noorwala Sub Drain 1-A 10- 9 3
3 Noori Mindin Main Drain 10- 21 10
Creek 63 of M bund 10- 1 10
Moori Minchin sub Drain 10- 4 2
4 Bohari Drain 0-25000 10- 25 5
Drain 10- 11 3
5 Mastoi Drain 10- 35 5
Mastoi R.H Canal Drain 10- 13
6 Thal Hamza Drain 10- 19 8
Thal Hamza Sub Drain 10- 18 4
7 Gabool Main Drain 10- 29 10
Gabool Sub Drain 10- 18 5
8 Malkani Main Drain 10- 45 9
9 Umar Main Dain 10- 9 2
Figure 3.6.1: Map showing the drains in Bahawalpur Zone

(b). D.G. Khan Zone

D.G. Khan Zone includes three (3) administrative circles: (i) Derajat Circle; (ii)
Muzaffargarh Circle; and (iii) Project Circle. There are two (2) main drainage systems
located in Derajat Circle but these are maintained by the Project Circle. Five (5) main
drainage systems are located in Muzaffargarh Circle. Table 3.6.2 shows list of the
drains contained in these drainage systems.
Table 3.6.2: List of the drains in D.G. Khan Zone
Discharge
Discharge
Width (ft.)
Width (ft.)
Name of Name of
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
(RD.)
(RD)
Drainage Drainage
Bed
Bed
System System
Darkhast
Project Circle 10- 4
34
Drain
Old Maneka Zahoor

10- 15
35
Drainage System Drain

---
Old
Manka 15+ 151 Drain No. I 10- 185
36
1
Drain 230 ---
Bhatti Kapper
10- 8 15+ 77
37
Drain Drain
2
--- ---
I-L Bhatti
10- 2 New Maneka Drainage System
Drain
3
---
New
Chandia 10-
2 1 Manka 15+ 126
Drain 15
4
--- Drain ---
Salareen Tayyab
10- 9 2 10- 57
Drain Drain
5
--- ---
I-L
Darkhast
Salareen 10- 1 3 10- 43
Drain
6
Drain --- ---
2-L
Muhamma
Salareen 10- 4 4 10- 10
d Pur Drain
7
Drain --- ---

I-R
Leshari
Salareen 10- 3 5 10- 16
Drain
8
Drain --- ---
Sakhi Bukhari
10- 4 6 15+ 89
Drain Drain
9
--- ---
Daggar
10- 11 Muzaffargarh Circle
10
Drain
---
I-L
Dagger 10- 5 Ghazi Ghat Drainage System
11
Drain ---
Thatha Ghazi Ghat

10- 14 15+ 135 435
12
Drain Main Drain

---
I-L Ghazi Ghat

Thatha 10- 6 Branch 15+ 59 260
13
Drain --- Drain
1-L Ghazi
2-L
Ghat
Thatha 10- 75 10- 82 80
14
Branch
Drain
--- Drain
Chahan
10- 5 Kot Adu Drainage System
15
Drain
---
I-L
Kot Adu
Chahan 10- 1 15+ 138 500
16
Main Drain
Drain ---
I-R Budh
10-
Chahan 10- 1 Branch 88 175
17
15
Drain --- Drain
M.Garh
Choti 10-
11 Branch 10- 19 100
18
Drain 15
--- Drain
M.Garh
I-L Choti
10- 5 L/Branch 10- 13 50
19
Drain
--- Drain
2-L Choti
10- 4 Ali Pur Drainage System
20
Drain
---
Jalohar Ali Pur

10- 43 10- 74 120
21
Drain Main Drain

---
I-L
1-L Branch
Jalohar 10- 1 10- 16 50
22
Drain
Drain ---
I-R
2-L Branch
Jalohar 10- 1 10- 17 50
23
Drain
Drain ---
Khatoo Saline
15 42 10- 123
24
Drain Ditch -
---
I-L
Khatoo 10- 2 Khan Ghar Drainage System
25
Drain ---
Ziarat 10- Khangarh

13 10- 40 80
26
Drain 15 Drain
---
Khangarh
I-L Ziarat
10- 11 Sub Drain 10- 17 20
27
Drain
--- A
Khangarh
Bakhar
10- 6 Sub Drain 10- 15 32
28
Drain
--- B
Khangarh
Sultan
10- 7 Sub Drain 10- 9 12
29
Drain
--- C
Mianwala
10- 6 Hanjrai Drainage System
30
Drain
---
I-R Dira Din

Mianwala 10- 5 Panah 10- 40
31
Drain --- Drain ---

Jamal Sanawan
10- 3 10- 63
32
Drain Drain
--- ---
Rafique Kot Sultan

10- 13 10- 58
33
Drain Drain
--- ---
Figure 3.6.2 shows map of the drainage systems in D.G. Khan Zone.

DRAINAGE NETWORK
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE NETWORK
OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.6.2: Map showing the drains in D.G. Khan Zone

(c). Faisalabad Zone

Faisalabad Zone includes four (4) administrative circles: (i) Lower Chenab Canal
(West) Circle; (ii) Lower Chenab Canal (East) Circle; (iii) Qadirabad Balloki Link Circle,
and (iv) Drainage circle. There are ten (10) main drainage systems located in
Faisalabad zone, all of them are maintained by the Drainage Circle. Table 3.6.3 shows
list of the drains contained in these drainage systems.
Table 3.6.3: List of the drains in Faisalabad Zone
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of (1000 ft.) Name of
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Sammundri Machrala 10-

131 176
Drainage System Drain 15
Samundr 4
Walgan
1 i Main 15+ 204 1506 10- 8 28
Br. Drain
5
Drain
Samundr
Sarwar
2 i Branch 10- 101 290 10- 101 121
Wali Drain
6
Drain
Ext:
Samundr Chaku
3 10- 17 - 10- 43 150
i Branch Drain
7
Drain
Samundr
Jagatan
4 i Try 10- 22 20 10- 31 27
Drain
8
Drain
1-R Try
Haripur
5 Drain of 10- 7 8 10- 14 14
Drain
9
SBD
2-L Try
Lundiawal
6 Drain of 10- 7 12 10- 8 5
10
a Drain
SBD
3-L Try Nurka

7 Drain of 10- 20 8 Thitta 10- 8 5
11
SBD Drain
Ahmeda
559/GB
8 bad Try 10- 11 10 10- 11 10
12
Try Drain.
Drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Madduan Jaranwala
10-
9 a Branch 277 1065 Drainage
15
Drain System
6-L Try Jaranwala
10 Drain of 10- 48 23 Main 15+ 366 1350
1
MBD Drain
Sub 6-L Jaranwala
11 Try Drain 10- 7 6 Branch 10- 80 149
2
of MBD Drain
Bismillah
Tarar Sub
12 pur Try 10- 5 15 10- 13 52
Br. Drain
3
Drain
Salooni
Moharanw
Try Dr.
13 10- 8 6 ali Branch 10- 20 42
RD 0-
4
Drain.
8000
Poliani
1-L of
14 10- 6 10 Branch 10- 41 89
MBD
5
Drain
Bahmniw Mananwal
15 ala Try 10- 18 10 a Branch 10- 210 42
6
Drain Drain
Sub 1-L Madah
16 10- 3 4 10- 16 46
of MBD Try. Drain
7
Dallah
5-L Try
17 10- 30 110 Jarmiana 10- 78 66
Drain
8
Try. Drain
II-R of Jatri Br.
18 10- 6 14 10- 58 85
MBD Drain
9
Sub 5-L Suchcha

19 of 5-L try 10- 19 66 Sauda 10- 9 10
10
Drain drain
Ext: Sub
Dhilwan
20 5-L of try 10- 27 53 10- 14 6
11
Drain
Drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
3-L Try
Drain of Dhilwan
21 10- 50 60 10- 2 1
12
Madduan Try. Drain
with Ext:
3-AL of
Madduan Nuakar
22 10- 10 8 10- 4 4
13
a Try try. Drain
Drain
3-BL of
Chuharka
Madduan
23 10- 15 16 14 na Try. 10- 4 4
a Try
Drain
Drain
4-R Try
Chuharka
Drain of
24 10- 9 66 na RH 10- 6 5
15
Madduan
Drain
a
Gidri Try
Sangla
Drain of 10-
25 10- 8 2 Branch 91 187
16
4-R Try 15
Drain.
Drain
Lathinwa
Gobind
26 la Try 10- 4 12 10- 58 111
17
Garh drain
Drain
Awagat
Langowal
27 Branch 10- 159 250 10- 24 32
18
drain
Drain
Gaddian
Maduana
28 Try Drain 10- 16 16 10- 36 10
19
drain
with Ext:
Qaisar Boree
29 10- 19 25 10- 16 15
20
Try Drain Drain

Ratta Try
Rampur
Drain of
30 10- 6 8 feeder 10- 7 26
21
Ratti Try
drain
Drain
Choranwa
Ratti Try
31 10- 7 10 la Feeder 10- 23 40
22
Drain
drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Jallandar
Shah Kot
32 Try Drain 10- 17 28 10- 10 23
23
Hill Drain.
with Ext:
Butti Try Daban try.
33 10- 2 8 10- 1 8
24
Drain Drain
Satiana Karyal
34 10- 17 28 10- 9 11
25
Try Drain Try. Drain
Ch
Haji Pur No.286/R
35 10- 14 14 10- 6 7
Try Drain 26 B Try
Drain.
7-R Try Ch
36 Drain of 10- 24 110 No.93/GB 10- 25 23
27
MBD Try Drain.

Annand
Sub 7-R
37 10- 19 71 Pur Try 10- 6 12
28
Try Drain
Drain.
Ext: Sub Marh Chiniot
38 7-R try 10- 21 35 Drainage
Drain System
Marh
Saduwal
Chiniot
39 a Try 10- 13 20 15+ 130 1900
Main
1
Drain
Drain.
Khushipu
r Try Dr.
Dabora
40 with 10- 3 8 10- 48 48
Br. Rain
2
Lined
Ch.
Jandiala
Badomali
41 Feeder 10- 21 32 10- 5 12
Try Drain.
3
Drain
Khurrian
Suddana
42 wala Try 10- 12 13 10- 24 44
Br. Drain
4
Drain
Ext: 4-R
Vanir Br.
43 Try Drain 10- 27 48 10- 24 40
Drain
5
of MBD
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Sukheki
Ext: 3-L 10-
44 10- 3 8 Branch 62 160
Try Drain 15
6
Drain.
Chak
Channi
No.27
45 10- 2 6 Sub Br. 10- 9 20
GB Try
7
Drain
Drain
Chak Bhobra
No.28 Sub
46 10- 4 3 10- 21 24
GB Try Branch
8
Drain Drain
Par
Jassuan
Ahmed
47 a Try 10- 36 40 10- 3 8
Branch
9
Drain
Drain
Par
Sub 4-R Nasiba
48 10- 9 10 10- 10 4.4
10
Try Drain Branch

Drain.
Par
A.K.N Drainage System Lakhia Try 10- 2 7
11
Drain.
Par
A.K.N.
Mausu
1 Main 15+ 143 750 10- 16 25
12
Branch
Drain
Drain.
AKN
Kot Khuda
Main 10-
2 109 196 Yar Try 10- 2 7
13
Drain 15
Drain
(U/S)
Par
Chiniot
Bhondi
3 Road 10- 13 14 10- 7 9
14
Branch
Drain
Drain.
Kot
Pindi
Khudahya
4 Bhattian 10- 29 18 10- 2 7
15
r Try
Drain
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Ahmed
K.B.
Nagar
5 Jangla 10- 38 23 10- 2 5
16
Branch
Drain
Drain.
Paranwali
Rattiki
6 10- 49 78 Branch 10- 5 5
17
Drain
Drain.
Thatta
7 Raika 10- 15 60 Rati Drain 10- 5 5
18
Drain
Chani Br. Sauction
8 10- 37 66 10- 6 5
19
Drain Drain
Lakhia Delivery
9 10- 19 64 10- 5 5
20
Br. Drain Channel

Pir Kot Sadkana
10 10- 33 24 10- 21 10
21
Br. Drain Drain

Sagar Dogran
11 Compou 10- 10 3 Branch. 15+ 1 3
22
nd Drain Drain
Marh
Ram
Chiniot
12 Nagar 10- 16 36 15+ 56 1704
23
Main
Br. Drain
Drain
Sagar Kubrika
13 Feeder 10- 2 4 Branch 10- 72 80
24
Drain Drain
1-R Try of
Sagar
14 10- 14 6 Kubrika 10- 9 5
25
Br. Drain
Drain
Hafizaba Daluwala
15 10- 12 6 10- 35 24
26
d Drain Try Drain

Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Salotrianw
Gojra Khewra Project ala Try 10- 8 5
27
Drain
Out fall
Gojra Delivery
Main Channel
1 15+ 40 710 10- 6 5
28
Drain of Budh
R.D.0- Nallah
40062
Gojra
Main Bund
Drain along
2 15+ 350 710 10- 15 3
29
R.D.0- Budh
40062- Nallah
390379
Pacca
Ahmedab
Anna
3 10- 51 715 ad Try 10- 5 5
30
Branch
Drain
Drain
Bhail 1-LTry of
4 Branch 10- 84 15 Kubrika 10- 5 5
31
Drain Drain
1-R of Kalu
Gojra Tarrar
5 10- 12 13.5 10- 62 141
32
Main Chamb
Drain drain
1-L/1-R
Gojra Pindi Bore
6 10- 19 10.5 10- 22 51
33
Main Drain
Drain
Fatehpur
Akbar Try
7 Branch 10- 113 184 10- 2 4
34
Drain.
Drain
Fatehpur Marh Salar
8 Branch 10- 89 88 Drainage
Drain System
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
1-R
Fatehpur
Salar 10-
9 Branch 10- 38 26 59
Drain 15
1
Drain
R.D.
Melluana
Khairwala Drainage System 10- 76 268
Br. Drain
2
Khairwal
a Main
Jallaliana
1 Drain 15+ 260 1042 10- 25 56
Drain
3
R.D. 0-
260200
Dijkot
Branch
Maryabad
2 Drain 15+ 222 564 10- 7 8
Drain
4
R.D.
221500
Nasrana
Branch
Mellay
3 Drain 15+ 70 162 10- 27 36
Drain
5
R.D. 0-
70000
Mangat
Chakbandi Drainage System 10- 15 20
Sub Drain
6
Chakban
Mian Ali
1 di Main 15+ 178 812 10- 34 12
Br. Drain
7
Drain
Pabbar Mian Ali

2 Branch 10- 22 34 Feeder 10- 18 14
8
Drain Drain
(i) 1-R of
Pabbar
Gajjiang
3 wala with 10- 9 20 10- 14 11
Drain
9
leading
Channel
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Thatta
Gajjiang
4 Glotran 10- 37 27 10- 3 12
10
Link Drain
Br: Drain
1-R of
Thatta
Kassoki
5 Glotran 15+ 5 60 10- 52 152
11
Drain
Branch
Drain
Paharan
g Main Ajniawala
6 10- 196 656 12 10- 14 12
Drain Drain
R.D.
Ahmed Pur
Nillianwa
Vagh
7 la try 10- 11 20
Drainage
Drain
System
Sarangw Ahmed
ala Pur Vagh
8 10- 70 64 15+ 93 924
Branch Main
1
Drain Drain
Gunna Kalu Tarar
9 Branch 10- 25 64 Branch 10- 10 12
2
Drain Drain
Khai Kalu Tarar
10 Branch 10- 36 50 Chenmb 10- 62 141
3
Drain Drain.
Thattah
1-R
Deoka
11 Pharang 10- 4 7.7 10- 7 37
Branch
4
Try Drain
Drain.
Akal Garh
Nipalke Said 10-
12 10- 6 12 74 192
Try Drain Branch 15
5
Drain.
Bucha
Karriari
13 10- 7 28 Branch 10- 29 52
Try Drain
6
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Fatha Pur
Phoolahi
14 10- 35 40 Feeder 10- 18 12
Tri Drain
7
Try Drain.
Chak
Feeder
No.195
15 10- 8 13 Try Drain 10- 4 7
R.B Try
8
No.1
Drain
Gojra Feeder 2
16 10- 10 24 10- 8 10
Drain Try Drain.
9 Kelianwal
Chak
a Chenmb
17 No.159 10- 9 13 10- 6 10
10
Branch
Try Drain
Drain.
Chak
Chak
Kharal
18 No.157 10- 8 2 10- 7 10
11
Branch
Try Drain
Drain
Chak
Kharal
Gatti
19 10- 12 16 Relocated 10- 7 10
12
Drain
Branch
Drain.
Chak
Gajir Gola
No.186
20 10- 27 39.1 Branch 10- 14 20
13
RB Try
Drain.
Drain
Sarfattu Shori
21 Delivery 10- 7 10 Branch 10- 15 24
14
Drain Drain.
Hinduan Jhatianwal
22 d Try 10- 14 12 i Branch 10- 25 20
15
Drain Drain.
Kalairwala
Aminpur
23 10- 33 32 Branch 10- 22 18
16
Drain
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
Name of Name of
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Drainage Drainage
System System
Kot Jan
Bux
Deg Nullah Drainage System 10- 7 14
17
Branch
Drain.
Deg Chakanwa
Nalluh li Feeder
1 15+ 362 1688 10- 7 5
18
Main Branch
Drain Drain.
Pindi Bore
Lurka
2 10- 21 104 19 Branch 10- 22 51
Drain
Drain
Ram Key
Shahpur
3 10- 7 42 Chattah 10- 9 9
20
Drain
Try Drain.
Figure 3.6.3 shows map of the drainage systems in Faisalabad Zone.


DRAINAGE NETWORK
OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.6.3: Map showing the drains in Faisalabad Zone

(d). Lahore Zone

Twenty two (22) main drainage systems are located in Lahore Zone. Additionally, thirty
(30) independent drains and one (1) natural drain; Dek Nullah are also located in
Lahore Zone. Drainage Circle is exclusively responsible to maintain the drainage
infrastructure of Lahore Zone. Table 3.6.4 shows list of the drains contained in these
drainage systems.
Table 3.6.4: List of the drains in Lahore Zone
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
Name of Drainage System
System
Mangoki Drainage System

Connecting
Mangoki Drain
10-15
35 11 6 -
10-
Drain between
1
UCC & MRL

2-L seepage
Mangoki
181 1132 12 Drain along 18 -
15+
10-
Drain
2
UCC
1-R seepage
(i) Bupra
20 13 Drain along 3 -
10-
10-
Drain
3
MRL
1-L seepage
(i) Bupra
10-15
10-15
33 84 14 Drain along 10 -
Drain
4
MRL
(ii) Jehan
20 20 Jourian Drainage System
10-
Shah Drain
5
(iii) Bhurri Jourian

25 25 1 32 -
10-
10-
Drain Outfall Drain

6
(iv) Madar Roras Outfall

26 28 2 13 -
10-
10-
Drain Drain
7
7-R Seepage
(v) Ratali
38 100 3 Dr: along 8 -
10-
10-
Drain
8
UCC
8-R Seepage
(vi) Harpalke
7 10 4 Dr: along 4 -
10-
10-
Bhatti Dr.
9
UCC
Reactivation 7-L Seepage
of Abundant 6 700 5 Dr: along 9 -
15+
10-
10
R/O drain UCC
7-L Seepage
Sheikhupura Drainage System 6 Dr: along 5 -
10-
UCC
6-R Seepage
Sheikhupura
11 7 Dr: along 9 -
10-
10-
Drain
1
UCC
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
6-R Seepage
Sheikhupura
10-15
36 8 Dr: along 4 -
10-
Drain
2
UCC
Jourian Dr:
Sheikhupura
116 400 9 between 5 -
15+
15+
Drain
3
UCC & MRL

6-L Seepage
(i) 4/3 L Try
20 40 10 Dr: along 10 -
10-
10-
Drain
4
UCC
(ii) 6-L Seepage
Sheikhupura 13 - 11 Dr: along 3 -
15+
10-
5
Bund Dr. UCC

2-R Seepage
(iii) Bhikhi
10-15
8 12 Dr: along 7 45
10-
Drain
6
MRL
3-R Seepage
(iii) Bhikhi
10-15
20 60 13 Dr: along 11 -
10-
Drain
7
MRL
2-L Seepage
Sheikhupura
3 2 14 Dr: along 10 -
10-
10-
Try Drain
8
MRL
3-L Seepage
Rechna
31 400 15 Dr: along 15 25
15+
10-
Outfall Drain
9
MRL
Roras Try:
Warn Drainage System 16 4 -
10-
Drain.
Warn Drain 5 Palkhu Drainage System

10-
1
Palkhu Out
10-15
Warn Drain 20 1 31 240

15+
Fall Drain
2
4-R Seepage
Warn Drain 19 112 2 Drain along 3 -
15+
10-
3
U.C.C.
5-R Seepage
Jandiala Sher
2 16 3 Drain along 3 -
10-
10-
Khan Drain
4
U.C.C.
Palkhu
Isherke Drainage System 4 59 388
15+
Nullah
5-L Seepage
Isherke Drain 5 Drain along 5 -
10-
10-
1
U.C.C.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
Central
10-15
Isherke Drain 6 Seepage 14
10-
12
2
Drain
Central
10-15
Isherke Drain 42 212 7 Seepage 12 92
15+
3
Drain
Abidabad Begowala Drainage

10
10-
Drain System
4
Abidabad Begowala
10-15
15 52 1 54 1346
15+
Drain Drain.
5
Kot Daran
10-15
Gujranwala Drainage System 2 9 138
Drain.
Gujranwala Sambrial Try:

10-15
92 3 8 -
10-
Drain Drain.
1
Sambrial
Gujranwala
78 700 4 Branch 8 -
15+
10-
Drain
2
Drain.
(i) Khan
Moulowali
Musalman 20 5 12 -
10-
10-
Drain.
3
Drain
(i) Khan
Drain along
10-15
Musalman 18 50 6 16 -
10-
pacca road.
4
Drain
9-R-Seepage
Dr. along
(ii) Ting Drain 14 16 7 UCC R/S 6 -
10-
10-
5
Begowala
Dr.
9-R-Seepage
Dr. along
(iii) Jaid Chak
10-15
10 8 UCC R/S 3 -
10-
Drain
6
Begowala
Dr.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
(iii) Jaid Chak Sahowala
10-15
44 208 9 20 96
15+
Drain Drain.
7
8-L Seepage
(iv) Qila
Dr. UCC L/S
Dedar Singh 15 4 10 12 -
10-
10-
Sahowala
8
Drain
Dr.
(v) Mussa Aik Nullah Drainage

27 56
10-
Dugal Drain System

9
(vii) Chahal Aik Nullah

15 8 1 50 1500
15+
10-
10
Drain Drain
(vi) Naushera
11 11 2 Pasia Drain. 13 -
15+
10-
11
Virkan Drain
11-R
(viii)
Seepage
Muraliwala 13 34 3 5 -
10-
10-
12
Drain along
Drain
U.C.C.
12-R
(ix) Mir
Seepage
Shakaran 30 40 4 4 -
10-
10-
13
Drain along
Drain
U.C.C.
11-L
(x) Shahpur Seepage
3 16 5 5 -
10-
10-
14
Drain Drain along

U.C.C.
12-L
(xi) Chak Seepage
12 25 6 5 -
10-
10-
15
Rajada Drain Drain along

U.C.C.
Chak Kaka
Sangowali Drainage System 7 8 -
10-
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
10-R
Sangowali Seepage
167 1316 8 6 -
15+
10-
Drain Drain along
1
U.C.C.
9-L Seepage
(i) Ahmad
14 9 Drain along 4 -
10-
10-
Nagar Drain
2
U.C.C.
10-L
(i) Ahmad Seepage
10-15
65 168 10 4 -
10-
Nagar Drain Drain along
3
U.C.C.
(i) Ahmad
6 26.4 Hassri Drainage System
10-
Nagar Drain
4
(ii) Wazirke Hassri Main

10-15
42 43 1 116 4500
15+
Drain Drain
5
(iii) Gakhar Hassri Drain

16 12 2 64 2503
15+
10-
Drain No.1
6
(iv) Pandoke Sohawa

18 3 30 465
15+
10-
Harkaran Dr. Drain

7
(v) Pandoke Ratta Bajwa

10-15
10-15
12 4 7 104
Harkaran Dr. Drain
8
(v) Pandoke Hassri Drain

3 216 5 55 420.56
15+
15+
Harkaran Dr. No.2

9
(vI) Ratial
8 9 6 Ramke Drain 8 24
10-
10-
10
Drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
(vii) Bucha Hassri Try.

13 7 23 841
15+
10-
11
Drain Drain
(vii) Bucha
10-15
6 55 MAIN DEK NULLAH 39 14594
15+
12
Drain
(vii)
Jhamwala 34 13 Independent Drains
10-
13
Drain
Dilawar
Cheema 39 92 1 Aroop Drain. 17 23
10-
10-
14
Drain
Goindke
Mangat Drain 31 40 2 37 42
10-
10-
15
Drain.
Mardana
Sethi Drain 15 3 33 332
15+
10-
16
Drain
Kotli Loharan
10-15
Sethi Drain 21 74 4 11 48
10-
17
Drain
Thatta Bajwa
Chichoki Mallian Drainage System 5 12 16
10-
Drain.
Chichoki Mehindwal
1 10- 33 6 13 -
15+
Mallian Drain Drain
Chichoki 10- Pathanwala

10-15
2 19 7 22
Mallian Drain 15 Drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
Chichoki Pathanwala
3 15+ 55 365 8 58 320
15+
Mallian Drain Drain
(i) Santpura Jeowali

4 10- 45 25 9 34 -
15+
Drain Drain
(ii) Ghazi
5 10- 24 10 Nada Drain 7 -
15+
Drain
(ii) Ghazi 10- Fatehpuri

6 28 11 20 40
10-
Drain 15 Drain
(ii) Ghazi Palangpur

7 15+ 13 132 12 10
10-
Drain Drain
(iii)
Palangpur
10-15
8 Bahrianwala 10- 42 43 13 56 116

Drain
Drain
(iv)
Dharoke
9 Kanianwala 10- 6 9 14 9
10-
Drain
Drain
(v) Pirkot Dharoke

10-15
5 6 15 15 52
10-
10
Drain Drain
Philloke
Nikki Deg Drainage System 16 18
10-
Drain
Nikki Deg Philloke

10-15
233 2475 17 39
15+
Drain Drain
1
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
(i) Koth Philloke

77 631 18 84 208
15+
15+
Nullah Drain Drain
2
(ii) Koth Delawar

Nullah Ext: 7 19 Cheema 7
10-
10-
3
Drain Drain
(ii) Koth Delawar
10-15
Nullah Ext: 51 253 20 Cheema 32 92
15+
1
Drain Drain
Hudiara
(iii) Drajke
47 - Drainage
10-
Drain
2
System
Hudiara Main
(iv)
Drain
Khushalpura 21 - 1 170 3000
15+
10-
RD.138000-
3
Drain
308000.
Deo
(v) Malke Padhana
13 10 2 10 100
10-
10-
Drain Drain
4
RD.0-10000.
(vi) Khark Brahmanaba

4 - 3 6 38
10-
10-
Drain d Drain
5
(vii) Khark
10-15
2 - 4 Barki Drain 19 84
10-
Feeder drain
6
Chak Dheru
(viii) Harpoke
10-15
19 - 5 Drain 16 44
10-
Drain
7
RD 0-16000
Chak Dheru
(ix) Gagrana Drain,
29 16 6 9 32
10-
10-
Drain RD.16000-
8
25100
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
(x) Gagrana
21 16 7 Alhu Drain 13 24
10-
10-
Ext: Drain
9
(xi) Qila Charrar

10 16 8 60 350
15+
10-
10
Jhanda Drain Drain
(xii) Tullewala Rakh Bangali

5 - 9 12 17
10-
10-
11
Drain Drain
(xiii) Nangal
10-15
28 80 10 Khana Drain 14 16
10-
12
Sadhan Drain
(xiv) Raiwind
Khangoora 6 4 Drainage
10-
13
Drain System
(xv) Mari Raiwind

Thakaran 7 4 1 Main Drain 144 862
15+
10-
14
Drain RD.0-143735
Raiwind
(xvi)
Main Drain
10-15
Chianwala 15 - 2 167
10-
15
RD.143735-
Drain
167000
(xvii) Adhoria Jhedu Drain

43 - 3 15 22
10-
10-
16
Drain RD.0-15000
(xviii) Kingra
Pipliwala 24 48 4 Seepage 14 21.6
10-
10-
17
Drain Drain
(xix) Khana Nipal

Eminabad 3 5 Drain RD.0- 16 21
10-
10-
18
Drain 15500
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
(xix)
Pajian Drain
10-15
10-15
Eminabad 15 60 6 9 78
19
RD.0-8900
Drain
Pajian try
(xx) Khori
10-15
5 3 7 Drain RD.0- 4
10-
20
Drain
1000
Pajian try
(xxi) Jandiala Drain
20 28 8 5 66
10-
10-
21
Baghwala Dr. RD.1000-

5125
Pajian try
Dalawagha Drainage System 9 Drain- I 3 12
10-
RD.0-2500
Burhanpura
Dalawagha
1 9 10 Drain RD.0- 15 120
15+
10-
Drain
15300
Burhanpura
Dalawagha Drain
10-15
10-15
2 29 84 11 7 96
Drain RD.15300-
22500
Burhanpura
Drain
10-15
3 (i) Kirto Drain 24 80 12 3 16

10-
RD.22500-
25000
Gharial Drainage System 13 Watna Drain 17 56

10-
Ladhaki
Gharial Drain 102 2738 14 25 95
15+
10-
Drain
1
Dandian Prem Nagar

10-15
44 200 15 5 20
10-
Drain Drain
2
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
Hachar Drain 34 527 16 Nehla Drain 34 50.5

15+
10-
3
Buchar
Gharial Try
12 8 17 Khana Drain 40 155
15+
10-
Drain
4
RD.0-40000
Buchar
Khana Drain
10-15
Abdal Drainage System 18 34 89
RD.40000-
74000
Ramkot
Abdal Drain 22 320 19 10 21
15+
10-
Drain
1
Turkwind
Daska Drain 57 250 20 25 96
15+
10-
Drain
2
Turkwind
R/S seepage
Drain
Drain alog 6 10 21 19 48
10-
10-
RD.25000-
3
B.R.B.D.
43950
Bambanwala Bhoe Asal

10-15
8 16 22 32 76
10-
Drain Drain
4
Raja Jang
Lurrki Drainage System 23 8 40
10-
Drain
Lurrki Main
77 980 Pandoki Drainage System
15+
Drain
1
Pandoki
Dholewali
19 338 1 Main Drain 89 624
15+
15+
Drain
2
RD.0-89000
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
Pandoki
Budha Main Drain
10-15
10 2 15 72
10-
Goraya Drain RD.89000-
3
104000
Pandoki
Budha Main Drain
10-15
13 62 3 28 49
10-
Goraya Drain RD.104000-
4
131775
Bharthanwala Jamman
10-15
9 90 4 58 217
15+
Drain Drain
5
Lurki Try
7 90 5 Hair Drain 6 12
10-
10-
Drain
6
Raja Ghuman Lakhoki

10-15
6 6 14 12
10-
Drain Drain
7
Raja Ghuman
6 197 7 Julke Drain 16 15
15+
10-
Drain
8
Daska Drain Kot Nabi Bux

10-15
16 70 8 6 31
10-
No.1 Drain
9
Daska Drain Kot Mela

33 478 9 7 16
15+
10-
10
No.2 Ram Drain
Baddoki
Tannaelwah Drainage System 10 22 44
10-
Drain
Tannelwah Thaman
73 292 11 25 68
15+
10-
Nullah Drain Drain

1
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
1-R Seepage
Drain along 7 - 12 Lulliani Drain 10 16
10-
10-
2
U.C.C.
1-L Seepage
Ibrahimabad
Drain along 10 - 13 23 13
10-
10-
Drain
3
U.C.C.
Neelwah
10-15
35 100 14 Sattoki Drain 10 16
10-
Nullah Drain
4
Rukhanwala
Dhallewali
3 15 Drain RD.0- 8 48
10-
10-
Drain
5
8000
Raokhanwal
Dhallewali
10-15
6 16 a Drain 5 24
10-
Drain
6
RD.0-5300
Shahabpura
Dhallewali
10-15
2 65 17 Drain RD.0- 11 60
15+
Drain
7
11000
Shahabpura
Drain
10-15
Gondal Drain 36 - 18 13 35
10-
RD.11000-
8
23900
Pandoki
Rodial Drain 8 - 19 52 2000
15+
10-
outfall Drain
9
Independen
Durgi Drainage System
t Drains
Chathianwal
Dugri Drain
10-15
20 1 a Drain 21 99
15+
No. 1
1
RD.0-20500
Chathianwal
Dugri Drain a Drain
10-15
63 2 17 56
15+
No. 1 RD.20500-
2
37000
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Length
Design
Length
Design
Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System
Chathianwal
Dugri Drain a Drain
10-15
13 - 3 9 40
10-
No. 2 RD.37000-
3
46100
3-R Seepage Lakneki

along U.C.C. 3 - 4 Drain RD.0- 47 164
10-
10-
4
R/S 47000
3-R Seepage Lakneki Link

along U.C.C. 4 - 5 Drain RD.0- 22 24
10-
10-
5
L/S 21774
Connecting
Drain
6 - 6 Bhasin Drain 20 56
10-
10-
between
6
UCC & MRL
3-L seepage B.S.Link - I

Dr: along 6 - 7 (RD.0- 15 40
10-
10-
7
UCC 15000)
4-L seepage
B.S.Link - II
Dr: along 3 - 8 4 10
10-
10-
(RD.0-3800)
8
UCC
2-R seepage
Dr: along Chaunian
17 - 9 5 32
10-
10-
UCC R/S of Drain

9
Dugri No. 1
2-R seepage
Rakh
Dr: along
3 - 10 Chunian 25 5
10-
10-
10
UCC L/S of
Drain
Dugri No. 1

DRAINAGE NETWORK
OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.6.4: Map showing the drains in Lahore Zone

(e). Multan Zone

Only two (2) drainage systems exist in Multan Zone. There are five (5) sets of multiple
drains system involving eleven (11) drains while eight (8) independent drains exist in
Multan Zone. Development Circle is exclusively responsible to maintain drains. Table
3.6.5 shows list of the drains contained in these drainage systems.
Table 3.6.5: List of the drains in Multan Zone
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
Bed Width
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Drainage Name of Drainage
(ft.)
(ft.)
System System
Drains
Sukhrawa Drainage System 5 Dangra Drain 10 14 12
Sukhrawa Main
1 15+ 455 816 6 Kaura Drain 10 15 19
Drain
Jhilwala
2 10- 66 100 7 Basira Drain 10 28 27
Branch Drain
Qadirabad Try:
3 10- 9 14 8 Forest Drain 10 24 32
Drain
Colyana 10-
4 30 77 9 Madi Drain 10 40 41
Branch Drain 15
Kharar Branch 10-
5 15 63 10 Ghagh Drain 10 45 147
Drain 15
Renala Branch 10-
6 31 113 Multiple Drains
Drain 15
Satghara Try: Dhaya Main
7 10- 27 46 1 15+ 85 296
Drain Drain
Ruklan
Renala Try:
8 10- 18 24 Branch 10- 20 32
Drain
Drain
Renala Chak-44
9 10- 12 30 2 10- 20 34
Cunnette Drain Drain
Hazara Branch Shahbore
10 10- 40 64 15+ 72 208
Drain Drain
Hayatpur 10- Shergarh
11 23 82 3 15+ 91 308
Branch Drain 15 Drain
Kohla Try: Shergarh
12 10- 34 52 10- 11 28
Drain Try Drain
6-1-R Dhulinai
13 10- 6 5 26-D Drain 10- 23 36
Drain
Kamman
14 10- 37 50 4 Hujra Drain 10- 40 62
Baranch Drain
Khokhar Khanka Br.
15 10- 21 68 10- 11 10
Branch Drain Drain
Nankana
16 10- 22 44 5 Jajja Drain 10- 5 20
Branch Drain
10-
17 Kalasan Drain 28 174 Balloki Drain 10- 10 100
15
18 Hallah Drain 10- 13 10 Independent Drains
Hallah Branch 10-
19 5 60 1 Aujla Drain 15+ 20 188
Drain 15
Rakh Halla Budh Dhakku
20 10- 10 32 2 10-15 24 36
Drain Drain
Sukhnai Out Sherwala
21 15+ 180 2000 3 10- 12 32
Fall Channel Drain
T.S.M.B. Drainage System 4 Kalasan Drain 10-15 28 174
T.S.M.B. Main 10- Tulamba
1 91 232 5 15+ 17 200
Drain 15 Drain
Berianwala
2 Aruti Drain 10 26 17 6 15+ 32 144
Drain
T.S.M.B.
3 10 99 5 7 Gunnu Drain 10- 52 96
Leading Ditch
4 Darkhana Drain 10 55 52 8 Towrian Drain 10- 7 64

DRAINAGE NETWORK
OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.6.5: Map showing the drains in Multan Zone

(f). Sargodha Zone

Eleven (11) drainage systems are located in Sargodha Zone. Drainage Circle is
exclusively responsible to maintain the drainage infrastructure of Sargodha Zone.
Table 3.6.6 shows list of the drains contained in these drainage systems.
Table 3.6.6: List of the drains in Sargodha Zone
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Drainage System Drainage System
Bahauddin Kot Bloach Drainage System 5-A / L 10- 6 4

15+ 24 105/7L 10- 6 8
Bahauddin Kot
1 10-15 21 350 1L / 2R 10- 3 12
Bloach Dr.
10- 19 22 N.B 10- 8 8
Sub Drain
10- 1 - 12 N.B 10- 8 6
No. 1
Sub Drain
10- 1 - 1-R / 6-L 10- 14 36
No. 2
Sub Drain
10- 8 - 2-R / 2-R 10- 15 8
No. 3
Mong Drain 10- 31 40 1-R / 2-L 10- 14 8
Bahauddin
15+ 9 400 Dhori Pond 10- 11 6
Out Fall.
Haria Drain & 15+ 21 Salam Pond 10- 19 10
2 Haria Out Fall 560
Drain 10- 8 Lower Budhi Nullah Drainage System
15+ 9 Lower Buhdi 10-15 46
Sohawa 1 668
10-15 20 400 Nala Part-1 15+ 160
Branch Drain
10- 26 Bhabra Drain. 10- 9 27
1-L haria Wan Pumping
10- 4 120 10- 4 -
Drain. Station.
Haria Pond
10- 3 - Wan Branch 10- 30 69
Drain.
Wan
Sohawa Try
10- 11 - Inspeciton F. 10- 4 -
Drain
Drain.
Sohawa Try
Kot Fazal
with 1-R 10- 4 - 10- 5 -
Ahmed Drain.
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Kattowal Wan Tributary

10- 12 - 10- 9 -
Drain. Drain.
Mona Bhera Melay Br.
3 15+ 87 750 10- 12 -
Drain. Drain.
Amir
Luqman Br.
Chandwala 10- 19 10- 7 -
Drain.
Drain.
Luqman Jhel
Khizar Drain 10- 4 10- 2 -
Drain.
Pakhowal Doda Br.
10- 6 10- 14 -
Branch Drain. Drain.
Gulabpur. 10- 4 Lower Raniwah Drainage System
10- 16 10- 25
Lower Raniwah
Chot Drain. 10-15 10 525 1 Drainage 10-15 60 450
System Part-1
15+ 35 15+ 182
1-L Chot Lahorianwal
10- 18 10- 47 85
Drain. Br. Drain.
Bhek Branch
Rukan Drain. 10- 46 195 10- 16 -
Drain
Remount
10- 15 10- 43 114
Depot Drain.
Ajjowal Drain.
1-L Remount
10- 34 10- 6 19
74 Depot Drain.
1-R Remount
4 Malakwal Drain. 10- 30 42 10- 23 37
Depot Drain.
2-R Remount
Raib Drain 10- 2 - 10- 7 35
Depot Drain.
Bekh Tributary
15+ 30 10- 7 15
Drain.
Miana Gondal Sikandarpur
5 10-15 28 560 10- 36 94
Drain. Br. Drain.
Pindi Dass
10- 42 10- 27 24
Drain.
1-R Miana Lakuana
10-15 24 270 10- 14 16
Gondal Drain. Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Tattaha
10- 2 Muhammad 10- 15 16
Panah Drain.
Sub / 1-R
Chak 108,109,
Miana Gondal 15+ 1 150 10- 31 50
NB Br. Drain.
Drain.
Chak -30
Gidder Khadi
Shadiwal 14 16 10- 20 28
Br. Drain.
Drain.
Dera Br.
Bhiko Drainage System 10- 4 -
Drain.
Budhewala Br.
1 Bhiko Drain. 15+ 188 830 10- 41 73
Drain.
Chachoka
Pandowal 10- 4 10- 13 21
330 Drain.
Drain.
10-15 13 Sabha Drain. 10- 14 21
Sher Garh
10- 25 10- 4 -
Gojra Drain. 430 Drain.
10-15 45 Dedhar Drain. 10- 137 130
Bhikki Pond
10- 60 230 10- 30
Drain.
Kot
Rerka Drain. 10- 23 48 Choughatta 10- 18 40
Drain.
Mamdana
10- 12 10-15 19
Drain.
Jahanabad
Baryar Drain. 10- 15 2 15+ 116 252
Drain.
Chak Alam Ahmad Yar
10- 10 10- 10 33
Drain. Drain.
Budhi Nullah Drainage System Jalpana Drain. 10- 4 16
Budhi Nala
Drain, Budhi Shahzad Pur
1 15+ 151 4200 10- 20 33
Nala Fall & Old Br. Drain.
Budhi Nala
Maggowal
10- 29 58 Wadhi Drain. 10- 8 15
Feeder Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Kot Kaka Sulki Escape

10- 14 15+ 9 16
Drain. Drian.
Kot Matta Sulki Creek
10- 16 15+ 14 16
Drain Drain.
Additional Out
10- 39 - fall of Mona 15+ 22 -
Machiana Main Drain.
2
Drain.
Sabowal
10-15 4 - 10- 30 -
Drain.
Br. No. 1 of
10- 10 - Mona Drainage System
Machiana.
Br. No. 2 of
10- 7 - 1 Mona Drain. 15+ 281 1585
Machiana.
Br. No. 3 of Mellowal
10- 7 - 10- 37 84
Machiana. Drain.
Br. No. 4 of Wairowal Try
10- 5 - 10- 14 22
Machiana. Drian.
Br. No. 5 of Thathi Noor
10- 2 - 10- 21 46
Machiana. Br. Drain.
Br. No. 6 of Hathiwind
10- 3 - 10- 11 -
Machiana. Drian.
Br. No. 7 of Ghughani
10- 6 - 10- 15 -
Machiana. Drian.
Br. No. 8 of Fatehabad
10- 18 - 10- 6 32
Machiana. Drain.
Nabishah Br.
15+ 59 10- 10 32
Thatta Paur Drain.
3 850
Outfall Drain. Phularwan
10- 8 10- 74 116
Drain.
Nabishah
1R Thatta Pur 10- 9 50 10- 31 32
Jheel Drain.
2R Thatta Pur 10- 5 50 Ali Pur Drain. 10- 8 54
Chawa Sardar
P.R.K Drainage System 10- 14 53
Pur Drain.
Noorpur
1 P.R.K Drain. 10- 10 2750 10- 37 79
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
10-15 17 Tattri Drain 10- 39 30

Sakesar Br.
15+ 115 10- 32 55
Drain.
Sher
Muhammad
Dhal Drain. 10- 38 77 10- 7 -
Wala Try
Drain.
Chechian Bunga Br.
10-15 33 107 10- 21 40
Drain. Drain.
Dhandala Try Bhakkar Br.
15+ 41 580 15+ 86 160
Drain. Drain.
Jhungian
1-L Dhadala
15+ 17 300 Bhikhiani 10- 3 -
Br. Drian.
Drain.
Kakewali
10- 17 10- 20 -
Drain.
Bhau Drain. 70
Dhakwan
10-15 27 10- 15 -
Drain.
Upper
Pauranwala
10- 17 Khawajabad 10- 10 22
Drain.
Drain
1-L Upper
Jhandoo
10- 18 30 Khawajabad 10- 4 -
Feeder Drain.
Drain.
2-L Upper
Attowal Drain. 10- 5 Khawajabad 10- 3 -
Drain
Amara Kalan Khawajabad
10- 21 40 10- 7 30
Drain. Link Drain.
Khokhara Br. Bhikhian
10- 17 10- 10 19
Drain. Drain.
Panjan No.1 Sultan Pur
10- 13 10- 6 11
Br. Drain. Drain No. 1
Panjan Minor Sultan Pur
10- 4 10- 3 14
Drain #1 Drain No. 2
Panjan #2 Try Mankiwala
10- 13 10- 23 33
Drain. Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
(Feeder #1 of
1-R Feeder of
Punjan)
10- 2 Mankiwala 10- 8 -
No.2 Try
Drain.
Drain.
1-L Feeder of
Panjan #2 Try
10- 2 40 Mankiwala 10- 6 -
Drain.
Drian.
2-R Feeder of
2R Disty
10- 7 Mankiwala 10- 4 -
Drain.
Drain.
1R of 2R Disty Hayatpur
10- 4 10- 24 33
Drian. Drain.
Chimber Khanpur
10- 8 10- 10 12
Drain. Drain.
Khori Ring Kot Bahi
10- 7 10- 6 12
Drain. Khan Drain.
Khori Village Kalra Try
10- 2 10- 43 25
Out Fall Drain. Drain.
Khori Br. Kot Kambo
10- 8 10- 11 13
Drain. Drain.
Raju Main Kalra Pond
10- 5 10- 7 14
Drain. Drain
Raju Sub Br. Lodhianwala
10- 2 10- 23 37
No. 1 Drain
1-R
Raju Sub Br.
10- 1 Lodhianwala 10- 10 12
No. 2
Drain
Link Drain
Raju Sub Br.
10- 1 along Maken 10- 7 89
No. 3
Canal
Raju Village Hayat Link
10- 1 10- 5 33
Sub Drain. Drain.
Hassan Br Mari Br.
10- 13 10- 61 140
Drain. Drain.
Jhanda Mari Tri
10- 25 475 10- 50 115
Chohan Drain. Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Bariwala
15+ 12 10- 34 45
Drain.
Sivia Try Chak. 15
10- 17 34 10- 9 -
Drain. Drain.
Chhoranwala Mari Feeder
10- 16 10- 10 33
Drain. Drain.
Chhani Mast Chak 54
10- 24 73 10- 16 35
Br Drain. Drain.
Kot
Chak 52
Multaniawala 10- 24 10- 7 25
Drain.
Drain.
Chak 52
Santhal Drain. 10- 23 10- 2 -
F.Drain.
Makhanwali Chak No. 66
10- 27 119 10- 13 -
Drain. Drain.
Nawan Lok Chak No. 58
10- 60 115 10- 13 64
Drain. Drain.
Kot Islam Nawabpur
10- 6 10- 19 34
Drain. Drain.
Dhok Murad Sulki Mills
10- 10 10- 14 -
Drain. Drain.
Main Phalia
10- 23 88 Bola Drainage System
Drain.
Bohat Drain. 10- 19 28 10-15 34
Jiasukh 1 Bola Drain. 584
10- 22 45 15+ 33
Dhaya
Delivery
10- 2 Kund Drain 10- 19 136
Drain.
Parallal Drian Bola Link
10- 3 10- 7 -
No. 1 Drain.
Parallal Drian
10- 5 Hadali Drain. 10-15 23 256
No. 2
Chak Kamal
10- 10 73 Khushab Drainage System
Drain.
Khushab Main
Halki Nullah Drainage System 1 15+ 49 284
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Halki Nala Khushab Br

10- 38 100 10- 31 40
1 Drain. Drain.
Parallal Drain Khushab Sub
10- 6 50 10- 16 -
T.R/Q link Drain.
Br. Drain No.
10- 2 10-15 8
1
2 Ghag Drain. 80
Br. Drain No.
10- 4 15+ 17
2
Parallal Drain
2 10- 170 - Dhak Drain. 15+ 32 516
along UJC
Dhak
Parallal Drain
3 10- 145 - Extension 15+ 27 200
along UJC D/S
Drain.
Turtipur Khan
Maujanwala
4 10- 72 87 Muhammadw 10- 51 96
Drain.
ala Drain.
Chawa Pond
Dhuni Drain. 10- 9 - 10- 12 -
Drain.
Kot Moman
D-1 Drain. 10- 14 70 10- 11 -
Drain.
Jalalabad
D-2 Drain. 10- 5 20 10- 6 -
Drain.
Chak No. 2
D-3 Drain. 10- 8 20 10- 11 16
N.B Drain.
Bheko O/F Chak No. 16
15+ 30 900 10- 9 -
Upper N.B Drain.
Pindi Lala Khawajabad
10- 16 - 10- 10 27
Drian. Try Drain.
Qila Attar 1-L Chot
10- 4 - 10- 18 16
Singh Drain.
Mona
Bohat Drain. 10- 19 - Remount 10- 21 34
Depot Drain.
1R Nawan 2-R /7-L F.S
10- 9 - 10- 10 -
Lok Drain.
1-L Hayat Pur
Chak Janu 10- 12 - 10- 3 -
Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
Maggowal
10- 3 - Deowal Drain. 10- 9 -
Sub Drain.
Wan Branch
Pauranwala
10- 17 - Below X-ing 10- 32 -
Drain.
Drain.
Panjan No. 1 Machar Khadi
10- 2 - 10- 47 -
Syphon Drain.
Panjan No. 2 Kalayar
10- 13 - 10- 14 -
Syphon Drain.
Sadowal
Khori Drain. 10- 8 - 10- 50 -
Drain.
Chimber
10- 4 - Mustafa Drain. 10- 15 -
Syphon
Bheko Out Jalal Br.
15+ 45 - 10- 10 -
Fall Lower Drain.
Bheko Hadda Outfall
15+ 84 - 15+ 37 -
Remoding Drain.
Chak Alam Hadda
10- 48 - 15+ 31 -
Upper Drain. embankment
Kot Sher Hadda Main
10- 6 - 15+ 108 -
Muhammad Drain.
Khanewala 1-R Hadda
10- 20 - 10-15 51 -
Drain. Drain.
B. Drain. 10- 100 - Shahjewana 10-15 20 -
10- 33 - Drain 15+ 29 -
Bhekhi Drain.
15+ 26 - 10- 4 -
Jassowal
10- 12 - 10-15 40 -
Drain. Sahiwal Drain.
Bhekho
15+ 11 - 15+ 24 -
Extension
Jewanwal
10- 24 - 10- 58 -
Drain.
Pind Mako Tarkhanawala
10- 15 - 10-15 8 -
Drain. Drain.
2-L Mona
10- 5 - 15+ 26 -
Bhera
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
1-R
1-L Mona
10- 2 - Tarkhanawala 10- 22 -
Bhera
Drain.
Ajjowal Jahaniashah
10- 35 - 10-15 16 -
Exlusion Drain.
1-R Drain. 10- 2 - 10- 35 -
Attowana
1-L Drain. 10- 2 - 10-15 11 -
Drain.
2-R Drain. 10- 2 - 15+ 13 -
Mittah Tiwana
2-L Drain. 10- 2 - 15+ 196 -
Drain.
Ghag No. 1
3-L Drain. 10- 7 - 10- 4 -
Drain.
Chak 33 Ghag No. 2
10- 22 - 10- 21 -
Drain. Drain.
Chak 16
10- 39 - Rajar Drain 10- 36 -
Drain.
Malakwal
10- 44 - Kaura Drain. 10- 7 -
Part-II
Rajar Pond
Halki Drain. 10- 37 - 10- 8 -
Drain.
Link Chennal
Majra Drain. 10-15 34 - 10- 10 -
No. 7 Drain
Link Chennal
Faqrian Sillanwala Drainage System 10- 11 -
No. 8 Drain
Link Chennal
10-15 23 10- 13 -
Faqrian No. 9 Drain
1 471
Sillanwali Drain. Chak No. 55
15+ 323 10- 12 -
MB Drain.
Chak No. 57
1-L F.S Drain. 10-15 26 49 10- 15 -
MB Drain.
1-R New F.S River Creek
10- 10 38 15+ 10 -
Drain. Drain
1-R Old F.S
10- 15 38 Sadral Drain. 10- 37 -
Drian.
Islamabad Sobagha Main
10- 7 - 10- 6 -
Drain. Drain
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
2-L F.S Drain 15+ 114 194 10-15 61 -

1-L / 2-L F.S
10- 19 25 15+ 93 -
Drain.
2-L /2-L F.S 2-L Sobagha
10-15 20 36 10- 8 -
Drain. Drain.
3-L/2-L F.S
10-15 23 53 10- 37 -
Drain. 1-L Sobagha
4-L / 2-L F.S Drain.
10- 15 40 10-15 27 -
Drain.
F.S out fall
10- 6 15+ 75 -
2-R F.S Drain. 110 Drain.
10- 84 10-15 24 -
Chak No 18 Bola Drain.
10- 11 - 15+ 51 -
NB Drain.
1-R / 2-R F.S Link Chennal
10- 3 - 10- 14 -
Drain. iv Drain
Khalqabad
3-L F.S Drain. 15+ 135 276 10- 6 -
Drain
1-R / 3-L F.S Link Chennal
10- 20 41 10- 6 -
Drain. v Drain.
10- 38 37 10- 6 -
Drain. No. 1 Drain.
10- 20 35 10- 10 -
Drain. No. 2 Drain.
4-R / 3-L Br.
Link Chennal
Drian / F.S 10- 48 40 10- 9 -
No. 3 Drain.
Drain.
1-L /3-L Br.
Drian / F.S 10- 17 34 Botala Drain 10- 43 -
Drain.
4-L Br. Drian / 1-R Bola
10-15 18 41 10- 3 -
F.S Drain. Drain.
3-R Br. Drian
10- 8 9 Homaka Drain 10- 57 -
/ F.S Drain.
5-L Br. Drian / Jauharabad
10- 23 49 10- 44 -
F.S Drain. Drain.
Bed Width
Bed Width
Discharge
Discharge
(1000 ft.)
(1000 ft.)
(cusecs)
(cusecs)
Design
Design
Length
Length
Name of Name of
(ft.)
(ft.)
6-L Br. Drian / Mitha Tiwan

10- 17 38 10- 7 -
F.S Drain. Drain.
7-L Br. Drian /
10- 46 90 Mirro Drain. 15+ 37 -
F.S Drain.
1-R / 7-L Br.
Gide Chennal
Drian / F.S 10- 6 19 10- 20 -
No. 1 Drain.
Drain.

DRAINAGE NETWORK
OF PUNJAB PROVINCE
Figure 3.6.6: Map showing the drains in Sargodha Zone

3.7 Small Dams

The development of agriculture in barani (rain fed) areas was specifically targeted in
the sixth and, seventh five year plans. As one of the measures for increasing
agricultural production in rainfed (barani) areas of the Pothohar Plateau in the Punjab
Province, a programme of construction of small dams was initiated in the early 1960s.
The program of construction of small dams was initiated in early 1961 under
Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC). Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) constructed the Rawal dam in 1962, whereas ADC constructed 10
dams during 1961-71. The Small Dams Organization (SDO) was established in 1973
in the Punjab Irrigation Department after winding up of the ADC. Since then this
organization has been responsible for identifying potential dams sites, collecting
hydrological, hydraulic, geo-technical and other needed data, conducting feasibility
studies, preparing details designs, constructing small dams and allied irrigation
network.
Dams are structures constructed across a river / stream / nullah to impound water for
various usages such as; agriculture, hydropower, flood control, fishery, recreation, etc.
Broadly, there are two main types: embankment dams and concrete dams.
Embankment dams could be either earthfill or rock fill and concrete dams of plain
concrete or plum concrete or roller compacted concrete. In Pothohar region three
types: earthfill, plain concrete gravity, and composite involving both earthfill and
concrete dams have been constructed for essentially developing agriculture. Although
these dams are labeled as small dams18 but according to definition of International
Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD)19 most of these dams fall into the category of
large dams.
All dams constructed by ADC were transferred to SDO and the organization
constructed eight (8) more dams during 1971-86. In addition, twelve (12) small dams
were constructed along with command area development, fisheries development, and
institutional strengthening. Three (3) small dams were commissioned during 2004-06.
SDO continued constructing small dams utilizing funding from the provincial ADP.
Presently, there are fifty four (54) small dams in the area. Out of these there are thirty
six (36) earthfill, fourteen (14) concrete and four (4) composite dams. Figure 3.7.1
shows the map containing locations of the small dams in Pothohar region. Table 3.7.1
shows cumulative statistics pertaining to these dams.
Table 3.7.1: Cumulative statistics of small dams in Pothohar region
Gross Storage (Acre Ft.) 209,548
Live Storage (Acre Ft.) 101,880
Proposed CCA (Acre) 68,343
Actual CCA (Acre) 32,110
Discharge of Conveyance Channels (cusec) 585
Length of all channels (Ft.) 1,431,551
18 Due to their small storage potential and benefitted area.

19 According to the definitions adopted by ICOLD any dam having a height of 49.2 ft (15 meters) from
the foundation or, if the height is from 16.4 to 49.2 ft (5 to 15 meters), having a reservoir capacity of
more than 106 million cuft (3 mcm) is classified as large dam.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Sr. No.
Attock / Jand Attock / Jand Attock / Jand Attock / Jand

Attock - Attock / Attock / Pindi Attock / District./
Attock / Jand Attock / Jand
Pindi Gheb Fateh Jhang Gheb Fateh Jhang Tehsil
Thatti Channi Bor Ratti Kassi Shahpur Name of the

Sawal Dam Basal Dam Jabbi Dam Jaba Dam Kanjoor Dam Mirwal Dam
Syedan Dam Dam Dam Dam
Composite
Earthfill Earthfill (Earth + Earthfill Concrete Concrete Concrete Earthfill Concrete Concrete Type of Dam
Concrete)
Year of
2005 2004 1991 2005 1975 2005 1990 1979 1970 1986
Completion
95 61.4 35.39 83.6 61.25 42.65 79 64 46.95 85

Height of Dam
(ft.)
1,720 1,447 2,753 515 2,400 250 2,726 1,173 1,012 4,079
Live Storage
(AF)
Attock Division
2,400 1,687 2,702 860 2,835 600 3,765 1,958 1,950 14,320
Gross Storage
Capacity (AF)
900 450 1,494 400 200 300 1,050 1,500 2,000 1,250
Proposed
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE
7 419 1,182 200 784 - 1,219 1,160 1,028 866

(Acres)
Capacity of
Table 3.7.2: Particulars of Small Dams in Pothohar region
9.5 4.25 15.75 3.75 11 3.75 11 6 4.5 15 Irrigation

Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
37,000 11,500 24,182 7,800 25,344 10,000 16,949 19,536 23,232 39,442 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
3-85
3-86
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 Sr. No.
Rawalpindi / Rawalpindi / Rawalpindi /

Rawalpindi / Attock / Attock / Attock / Attock / District./
Rawalpindi Gujar Khan Gujar Khan Gujar Khan Attock / Jand
Gujar Khan Hazro Fateh Jhang Fateh Jhang Fateh Jhang Tehsil
Ugahun Phaliana Qibla Bandi Shakar Dara Name of the

Misriot Dam Dungi Dam Nirali Dam Talikna Dam Sipiala Dam Jalwal Dam
Dam Dam dam Dam Dam
Composite Plumb Concrete Composite
Concrete Earthfill (Earth + Earthfill Earthfill Concrete Earthfill + stone masonry (Earth + Earthfill Type of Dam
wall dyke
Concrete) Concrete)
Year of
1963 2012 1971 1970 2008 1971 2005 1964 1994 2005
Completion
46.75 85 71.4 68.5 74 70 57.87 37.58 115 60

Height of Dam
(ft.)
241 3,960 959 416 2,930 1,128 1,350 267 3,550 2,820
Live Storage
(AF)
Rawalpindi District
560 8,100 1,760 682 3,900 1,820 2,050 568 5,679 5,000
Gross Storage
Capacity (AF)
100 3,500 250 300 2,160 850 548 140 4,200 2,300
Proposed
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
172 49 268 6 108 1,368 350 152 3,217 50

(Acres)
Capacity of
2 35 3 3 21.6 6 7 2 46.22 23 Irrigation
Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
8,765 39,500 16,282 12,672 37,500 15,523 15,000 15,840 122,866 40,000 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 Sr. No.
Rawalpindi - District./
Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Islamabad Rawalpindi Rawalpindi
Gujar Khan Tehsil
Dhok
Khokhar Zer Dhok Qutab Kot Raja Dhok Tahlian Khasala Name of the
Surla Dam Dam
Khai Dam Jamal Dam Sanday Mar Jawa Dam
Dam Din Dam Dam Dam Dam
Dam
Composite
Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Concrete (Earth + Earthfill Concrete Type of Dam
Concrete)
Year of
1979 1985 1991 1991 2002 2007 2005 1990 1994 1985
Completion
77 61 81 79.14 83.45 128 87 48 82.43 60

Height of Dam
(ft.)
2,602 1,555 827 1,344 1,110 2,106 1,286 518 900 1,498
Live Storage
(AF)
Chakwal District
3,312 1,905 1,737 2,844 1,808 5,920 1,860 651 1,575 2,415
Gross Storage
Capacity (AF)
1,480 1,200 800 835 650 1,800 1,488 550 800 1,250
Proposed
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
1,440 1,100 913 751 730 100 25 405 627 336

(Acres)
Capacity of
14 14 6 14 4.3 16 8.75 3.5 5 6 Irrigation
Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
26,400 10,000 17,688 24,288 30,007 34,600 28,100 15,893 24,816 12,038 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
3-87
3-88
40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 Sr. No.
Chakwal - Chakwal / District./

Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal Chakwal
Talagang Kallar Kahar Tehsil
Uthwal/lakh Mundee Name of the

Dhok Hum Mial Dam Dhrabi Dam Dhok Jhang Walana Dam Minwal Dam Nikka Dam Ghazial Dam
wal Dam Dam
Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Concrete Earthfill Concrete Concrete Earthfill Type of Dam
Year of
2012 2004 2012 2012 2012 1983 2008 1990 2012 2007
Completion
70.31 91.5 133 100 70 82.5 47 73.5

Height of Dam
87 97
(ft.)
1,306 12,621 6,500 1,250 1,278 1,003 340 1,100

Live Storage
2,800 527
(AF)
3,200 37,000 18,000 2,650 2,193 2,000 450 2,000

Gross Storage
8,000 1,248
Capacity (AF)
935 6,400 3,500 1,070 1,200 750 400 900

Proposed
1,230 777
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
800 786 - - 1,000 676 168 799 250 676

(Acres)
Capacity of
15 6 32 6 6 6 7.5 3.5 7 Irrigation
Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
13,700 16,000 131,800 79,100 37,500 20,300 12,000 15,600 18,000 18,800 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 Sr. No.
Jhelum Jhelum / Jhelum / Jhelum / Dina

Dina Dina Chakwal / Chakwal / Chakwal / Chakwal / District./
Jhelum / Dina
Talagang Talagang Talagang Talagang Tehsil
Jammargal Tain Pura-II Tain Pura-I Pira Fatehal Name of the

Lehri Dam Garat Dam Dhurnal Dam Bhugtal Dam Gurabh Dam
Dam Dam Dam Dam Dam
Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Concrete Earthfill Earthfill Type of Dam
Year of
1992 2005 1981 1994 1994 1967 1990 1995 1970
Completion
53.48 109 66 79.84 83.18

Height of Dam
68 75 89.94 69.7
(ft.)
1,259 4,595 1,690

Live Storage
3,858 791 673 2,900 679
(AF)
Jhelum District
2,432 5,705 2,228 3,395 5,941
Gross Storage
1,380 1,140 7,400 679
Capacity (AF)
725 3,000 600

Proposed
3,410 700 680 750 1,346
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
839 577 437 2,059 704 700 778 913

(Acres)
Capacity of
7.25 30 6 33.62 4 6.5 16 3.25 Irrigation
Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
14,400 37,000 16,525 41,820 20,064 17,002 36,379 15,048 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
3-89
3-90
54 53 52 51 50 Sr. No.
Jhelum / Jhelum / Jhelum / Jhelum

Jhelum / District./
Sohawa Sohawa Sohawa
Sohawa Tehsil
Fatehpur Gurrah Uttam Shah Habib Name of the

Domeli Dam Salial Dam
Dam Singh Dam Dam Dam
Grand total
Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Type of Dam
Year of
2008 2007 2005 2008 2008
Completion
86.5 120 68 94 77.14

Height of Dam
(ft.)
650 4,636 417 1,029 536

Live Storage
101,880
(AF)
1,733 8,690 527 2,679 1,655

Gross Storage
209,548
Capacity (AF)
300 3,000 400 1,225 300

Proposed
68,343
C.C.A. (Acres)
Actual C.C.A
3 32,110 527 131 258 -

(Acres)
Capacity of
4 585 3 30 4 12.25 3 Irrigation
Channel
(cusecs)
Length of
5 1,431,551 22,000 29,200 8,550 30,000 18,000 Irrigation
Channel (ft.)
Figure 3.7.1: Location of small dams in the Punjab

3.8 Flood Protection Infrastructure
The construction of flood protection works has been carried out to protect irrigation
infrastructures and to safeguard agricultural lands, cities, towns and villages from the
onslaught of floods. PID is responsible for the proper upkeep of flood protection works,
flood watching, flood fighting during the flood emergencies and restoration of damages
caused by floods.The flood protection infrastructure primarily consists of earthen
embankments having a total length of 2,688 Km, which protect the areas upstream
and downstream of barrages and other structures built across the rivers, canals and
cities. There are 697 spurs and stone studs (groynes) that protect the flood
embankments and some reaches of the river banks against erosion by the river action.
3.8.1 Types of Flood Protection Works

(a). Embankments (Bunds)
The embankment is usually built with earthfill along banks of a river or stream to check
overflow of flood water into the proximity of the river or stream. It is trapezoidal in
section with or without wetting channel. A wetting channel is constructed to moist the
soil in the embankment in advance flood season. The moistening through wetting
channels helps to locating settlements and leaks in embankment.
For protection against water erosion some embankments are provided with stone
pitching, or ‘pilchi’ pitching or cross ‘killa’ bushing spurs or earthen spurs pitched with
stone or stone studs. The choice of protection depends upon severity of erosion. Stone
pitching along the embankment is founded on toe or has stone apron which is
launchable.
(b). Spurs
Spurs are built normal as well as oblique to embankment for safe guarding it against
the erosion. Spurs are also constructed to train the river. Spurs have different shapes
such as J-Head spur, Mole Head spur, T-spur and Hockey spur. Like embankments,
the stone pitching along has launchable stone aprons. Spurs constructed with only
revetment stone are called stone studs. A stone stud having slanting top level is called
‘sloping’ stud.
3.8.2 Flood Protection Works
(a). Bahawalpur Zone
The total number of flood protection embankments, other than those connected with
barrages, is twenty four (24) in Bahawalpur zone The total length of embankments
without wetting channel is 1,026, 250 ft. (312.80 Km) while the total length of
embankments with wetting channel is 123, 000 ft. (37.49 Km). Panjnad barrage and
Mailsi siphon are located in Bahawalpur zone. Both marginal bunds of Panjnad
barrage have wetting channel with a total length of 135,723 ft. (41.37 Km). Both
marginal bunds of Mailsi siphon are without wetting channel having total length of
116,682 ft. (35.33 Km).
Not connected with the barrages there are eight (8), five (5) and one (1) J-Head/ T-
Head spurs in the Chenab river, the Indus river and the Sutlej river respectively. There
are twenty one (21) Mole-Head spurs and Sloping spurs in the part of the Indus river
that is in Bahawalpur zone, those too are not connected with barrages.
(b). D.G. Khan Zone
barrages, is forty eight (48) in D.G Khan zone. Total length of embankments without
wetting channel is 3,723, 000 ft. (1134.77 Km) while the total length of embankments
with wetting channel is 16,500 ft. (5.03 Km). Taunsa barrage is located in D.G. Khan
zone. The total length of the embankments associated it is 275,000 ft. (83.82 Km).
There are thirty two (32) and fifty (50) J-Head/T-Head spurs in the Chenab river and
the Indus respectively. Total of fifty one (51) Mole-Head spurs and Sloping spurs are
in D.G. Khan zone. A total number of stone studs is twelve (12) in the Chenab river
while those in the Indus river are eight (8).
(c). Faisalabad Zone

There are seventeen (17) flood protection embankments, other than those connected
with barrages, in Faisalabad zone. The total length of embankments without wetting
channel is 380,000 ft. (115.82 Km) while the total length of embankments with wetting
channel is 140, 000 ft. (42.67 Km). Khanki barrage and Qadirabad barrage are located
in Faisalabad zone. The total length of the flood embankments connected with Khanki
barrage having wetting channel is 28,000 ft. (8.53 Km) while total length embankments
without wetting channel is 45,350 ft. (13.82 Km). All the flood embankments connected
with Qadirabad barrage are without wetting channel and their total length is 193,650
ft. (59.02 Km).
Not connected with the barrages there are twenty seven (27) J-Head and five (5) T-
Head spurs in the Chenab river and the Ravi river respectively. Only one (1) Mole-
Head spur/Sloping spur is in Faisalabad zone. Total number of stone studs is six (6)
in the Ravi river while only one stud (1) is located in the Chenab river.
(d). Lahore Zone
barrages, is forty five (45) in Lahore zone. All of these embankments are without
wetting channel having total length of 1,180,000 ft. (359.66 Km). Marala barrage and
Ravi siphon are located in Lahore zone. All the flood embankments connected with
Marala barrage are without wetting channels and their total length is 100,570 ft. (30.65
Km). All the flood embankments connected with Ravi siphon are also without wetting
channels and their total length is 16,925 ft. (5.16 Km).
There are twenty four (24) and twenty five (25) T-Head spurs in the Ravi river and the
Chenab rivers respectively, which are not connected either with Marala barrages or
Ravi siphon. A total of twenty (20) Mole-Head spurs/Sloping spur are in Lahore zone.
No stone stud is located in Lahore zone.
(e). Multan Zone
barrages, is forty seven (47) in Multan zone All of these embankments are without
wetting channel having total length of 1,835,420 ft. (559.44 Km). Trimmu barrage,
Balloki barrage, Sidhnai barrage, Sulemanki barrage and Islam barrage are located in
Multan zone. The total of the flood embankments connected with Trimmu barrage
having wetting channel is 46,000 ft. (14.02 Km) while total length embankments
without wetting channel is 74,000 ft. (22.56 Km). The total of the flood embankments
connected with Balloki barrage having wetting channel is 55,850 ft. (17.02 Km) while
total length embankments without wetting channel is 36,600 ft. (11.16 Km). The total
of the flood embankments connected with Sidhnai barrage having wetting channel is
11,000 ft. (3.35 Km) while total length embankments without wetting channel is
195,285 ft. (59.52 Km). ). All the flood embankments connected with Sulemanki
barrage are without wetting channel and their total length is 119,400 ft. (36.39 Km). All
the flood embankments connected with Islam barrage are also without wetting channel
and their total length is 150,740 ft. (45.95 Km).
Not connected with the barrages there are thirteen (13) and twelve (12) J-Head/T-
Head spurs in the Chenab river and the Ravi river respectively. A total of eighty two
(82) Mole-Head spurs/ Sloping spurs are in Multan zone. Total number of stone studs
is eighteen (18) in the Ravi river while fifteen (15) are located in the Chenab river.
(f). Sargodha Zone

barrages, in Sargodha zone is thirty nine (39). All of these embankments are without
wetting channel having total length of 983,650 ft. (299.82 Km). Jinnah barrage, Rasul
barrage and Mangla headworks are located in Sargodha zone. All the flood
embankments connected with Jinnah barrage are without wetting channel and their
total length is 32,814 ft. (10.00 Km). All the flood embankments connected with Rasul
barrage are without wetting channel as well. Total length of these flood embankments
is 74,105 ft. (22.59 Km).
Not connected with the barrages there are twenty seven (27) and sixteen (16) J-
Head/T-Head spurs in the Chenab river and the Indus river respectively. A total of
eleven (11) Mole-Head spurs/Sloping spurs in Sargodha zone. Total number of stone
studs are sixteen (16) in the Chenab river while only one hundred thirty five (135) are
located in the Indus river. All these spurs and studs are not connected with any of the
two barrages located in Sargodha zone.
3.9 Maintenance Facilities
PID has two main workshops i.e. Moghalpura Irrigation workshop Division Lahore
(M.I.W) and Bhalwal Irrigation workshop (B.I.W) for carrying out maintenance of canal
systems and barrages.
Irrigation Workshop Division Moghalpura was established in 1944. The Bhalwal
Irrigation Workshop was set up in 1955 exclusively for fabrication and installation of
gates and gearing of Taunsa Barrage. These workshops are entrusted with
mechanical works pertaining to existing gate and gearing system installed on
barrages, head works and regulators of irrigation canal network in Punjab. Other
functions include: repair of pumping sets installed for Lift Irrigation Schemes; general
overhauling of earth-moving machinery; Day to day repair and general overhauling of
vehicles and Provision of transport for shifting of Earth-moving machinery. These
workshops have catered for the above mentioned activities for irrigation Department
as well as for other organizations, however both the workshops are underutilized.
3.10 Buildings
Most of the buildings were constructed during the construction of irrigation systems in
the Punjab. There are four types of building in the Punjab Irrigation Department. These
are: (i) office buildings; (ii) residential buildings; (iii) rest houses; and (iv) other
buildings such as, mosques, basic health units (BHUs), dispensaries, education
buildings, etc.
An inventory of all the buildings in each zone is available in the files. Most of the
building are old and need renovation.
3.11 Plantation
The plantations along the canals were originally developed to meet the increased fuel
wood needs that arose with the commissioning of railways and their demand of
firewood for steam engines. Initially shisham and mulberry trees were planted but
owing to reduction in canal water supplies in the 1930s, these species were replaced
by the drought resistant American mesquite tree (Prosopis glandulosa). The species
however, proved to be more harmful than beneficial as it suppressed the growth of all
other native species and as a result the species is now being eradicated. Mesquite
infested area is considerable, such as about 2,500 acres in Chichawatni and 4,257
acres in Pirowal in LBDC System. Reforestation programmes are envisaged in the

rehabilitation and upgradation schemes. The reforestation can provide an opportunity
to eradicate invasive (such as mesquite) and undesirable (such as eucalyptus) species
that are present along the canals. At present the forest department takes care of canal
plantation, although the Punjab Cabinet decided in 2010 that canal plantation may be
taken over by Irrigation Department on distributaries and minors while main canal and
link canals may be kept under forest department. The taking over of plantation has yet
not happen because the Government of Punjab has nto provided the staff and
resources demanded by Irrigation Department to maintain the plantation on
distributaries and minors.
References
1. Irrigation department files
2. PIDA files
3. Report of Assets Inventory, IPD, January 2006
ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP OF PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT
Chapter 4
ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP OF
PUNJAB IRRIGATION
DEPARTMENT
Compiled by
Israr ul haq
Reviewed by

Aslam Rashid
Table of Contents
4 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP OF PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT ........ 4-1
4.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT .................. 4-1
4.1.1 THE EARLY HISTORY ................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 POST-INDEPENDENCE SET-UP (1947-55) ...................................................... 4-2
4.1.3 POST-INTEGRATION SET-UP ......................................................................... 4-2
4.1.4 CREATION OF WAPDA (1958) ..................................................................... 4-2
4.1.5 MAY 1962 REORGANIZATION........................................................................ 4-3
4.1.6 POST-1965 ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES ........................................................ 4-3
4.1.7 1984 REORGANIZATION PROPOSALS ............................................................ 4-4
4.1.8 THE POST 1997 DEVELOPMENTS ................................................................. 4-5
4.2 OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT ............................ 4-5
4.2.1 INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP FOR IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN ................. 4-5
4.2.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT .................................. 4-6
4.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT ................................... 4-8
4.3.1 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE: A PROVINCIAL SUBJECT...................................... 4-8
4.3.2 OFFICIAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................... 4-8
4.3.3 CORE FUNCTIONS ....................................................................................... 4-9
4.4 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF IRRIGATION-RELATED FUNCTIONS AND SPECIALIZED UNITS
4-10
4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE.................................................................... 4-16
4.5.1 DEPARTMENT AS A W HOLE ......................................................................... 4-16
4.5.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE.................................................................... 4-16
4.5.3 ZONES ...................................................................................................... 4-16
4.5.4 CIRCLES ................................................................................................... 4-16
4.5.5 DIVISIONS ................................................................................................. 4-19
4.5.6 SUB-DIVISIONS ......................................................................................... 4-19
4.5.7 SECTIONS ................................................................................................. 4-21
4.5.8 PUNJAB IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE AUTHORITY (PIDA) ............................... 4-21
List of Tables
Table 4.1: Chronological Sequence of Agency Development upto 1947 ................ 4-1
Table 4.2: Set-up of the Irrigation Department in 1947 ........................................... 4-2
Table 4.3: Global and Operational Objectives of Water Scheduling ........................ 4-7
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: Organizational Set-up of the Punjab Irrigation Secretariat .................. 4-17
Figure 4.2: Punjab Irrigation & Power Department Organizational Chart .............. 4-18
Figure 4.3: Organizational Chart of a Canal Division ............................................ 4-20
4 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP OF PUNJAB IRRIGATION

DEPARTMENT
4.1 Historical Development of Punjab Irrigation Department
4.1.1 The Early History
In 1849, an organization headed by Robert Napier was created the Military Board at
Calcutta to execute all the public works in the area of the Punjab, the North-West
Frontier (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Province and adjoining territories. The
engineering works used to be financed by the Local Government, and were carried
out by a Board of Administration.
The control of the Military Board continued until 1854 when the entire engineering
works in the Punjab and the NWFP (civil, military and public works) were placed under
one department, with Napier as Chief Engineer. A Directorate of Canals was also
created in September 1854, and the designation of its head was changed to Chief
Engineer, Irrigation Works. A Public Works Department in Government. of India was
created during the period of Lord Dalhousie, and that was followed by the creation of
Public Works Departments in all the provinces under central control. In order to meet
the increasing demand for public works, the following three separate branches were
created in 1866:
i). The Military Works Branch;
ii). The Civil Works Branch, including Irrigation; and
iii). The Railway Branch.
In accordance with the recommendations of the Aitchison Commission on the Indian
Public Services, a Provincial Service was created in 1893 for more extensive
employment of non-British staff. By 1895, the Public Works Department had become
a purely civil works department, including the irrigation works.
By the turn of the century, engineering organizations originating as single units in the
middle of the previous century had grown in size and stature, and were functioning as
separate organizations. The chronological sequence of the development of irrigation
Agency up to independence (1947) is presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Chronological Sequence of Agency Development upto 1947
Year Development
The setup of the Irrigation Department comprised one Chief Engineer
By 1905
/ Secretary, and seven circles.
The post of Second Chief Engineer / Joint Secretary to the
1905 Government was sanctioned. The post was later raised to the status
of Secretary to the Government,
Creation of another three circles for implementation of the Triple
1906
Canal Project.
1915 Swat Canal Circle transferred to the NWFP Government.
A post of a third Chief Engineer Irrigation Works, and Secretary to the
Government was sanctioned, for construction of a series of works
1921
along the Sutlej River at Ferozepur, Sulemanki and Islam
Headworks.
Completion of the Sutlej Valley Project, including the construction of
1933
the fourth weir at Panjnad.
The Irrigation Department had expanded to the extent of 20 circles.

1945 In order to cope with the increased work load, a post of a fourth Chief
Engineer / Secretary to the Government was created.
The post of Fifth Chief Engineer / Secretary to the Government was
1946
created.
4.1.2 Post-independence Set-up (1947-55)
In the wake of independence came the division of the Punjab Province, entailing
extensive dislocation in the department. The set-up of the department at the time of
independence is given below in Table 4.2.
Consideration of the vastness of the span of responsibility and crucial importance of
the work had led to the unique administrative arrangement of concurrently having three
Secretaries to the government, who were also vested with the powers of Chief
Engineer, and were all located at Lahore to work as a team.
Table 4.2: Set-up of the Irrigation Department in 1947
Description C.Es S.Es XENs SDOs
Total Strength of Engineering
5 27 98 245
Staff (during 1947)
Number of Posts that came to the
3 17 63 154
share of Punjab (Pakistan)
C.Es: Chief Engineers; SEs: Superentending Engineers; XENs; Executive Engineers;
SDOs: Sub Divisional Officers
4.1.3 Post-integration Set-up
In October 1955, the four western provinces (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan)
and some of the princely states were integrated as one unit, named West Pakistan.
Accodingly government departments including the Irrigation Department were re-
organized. The new set-up for the engineering departments, envisaged segregation
of the post of Chief Engineer (Irrigation from that of Secretary. There was one Chief
Engineer Irrigation, West Pakistan, who was assisted by four Additional Chief
Engineers, one for each province. The entire West Pakistan was divided into nine
regions and Punjab was divided into four regions. Each region was under the charge
of a Deputy Chief Engineer.
4.1.4 Creation of WAPDA (1958)
In the late fifties, planning, design and construction activities connected with
development of water and power resources underwent a major change. Water and
Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was created in 1958 as an autonomous
organization to development of water resources in the country and control
waterlogging. Later WAPDA was entrusted execution of the new infrastructure
development including implementation of Indus Basin Plan (IBP), All resources in
material and manpower were diverted to the timely completion of the gigantic
replacement works under the (IBP).
Due to pressure of work of the Replacement Plan, a large number of experienced
engineers from the Irrigation Department were assigned to WAPDA during the period
1960-70, as the entire emphasis was on the timely execution of the IBP. No major
canal irrigation project outside the Replacement Plan was undertaken. WAPDA was a
young, expanding and powerful organization entirely responsible for the Power Sector
and the execution of all Replacement Works. Major new projects in the Water Sector
(along with anti-waterlogging and salinity measures) were also assigned to WAPDA.
4.1.5 May 1962 Reorganization
The post-integration set-up did not prove to be effective and efficient. Therefore, it was
decided to restore the original practice of appointing engineers as the head of
engineering departments in 1962. The province was divided into six regions and each
one was put under the charge of a Chief Engineer. Three of these regions comprised
areas of the former Punjab Province.
4.1.6 Post-1965 Administrative Changes
The administrative changes in the organizational set-up of the department after 1965
are summarized below:
Creation of the Multan Zone (1968): After the creation of the Agricultural Development
Corporation (ADC), some irrigated areas were transferred to that corporation on the
concept of a unified development of irrigation, agriculture and all other agricultural
inputs. In the Punjab Province, the Thal Canal and Muzaffargarh Canal Systems
(excluding the respective headworks) were transferred to the ADC in January 1965.
These canal systems were reverted to the Irrigation Department in March 1968 and
the ADC was later dissolved. Consequently, a new zone with headquarters at Multan
was opened in June 1968 and the boundaries of the existing zones were suitably
readjusted.
Creation of the Post of Chief Engineer Floods and Chief Engineer Central (1973): The
post of Chief Engineer, Drainage and Floods, was created in March 1973 to plan and
implement the flood works in the province and to coordinate processing of flood
schemes with the Federal Flood Commission for the approval and allocation of funds.
A new post of Chief Engineer, Central, was created in June 1973 with administrative
control over Mechanical Circle, Directorate of Land Reclamation, Design Directorate
and Small Dams Organization.
Creation of the Faisalabad Zone (1974): In June 1974, another readjustment took
place when the Faisalabad Zone under a Chief Engineer was created by splitting the
jurisdiction of the previously existent Sargodha Zone. This was done with a view to
cater for the increased work load and to have better co-ordination at the Civil Division
level.
Creation of the Post of Chief Engineer, Research (1975): In April 1975, the post of
Director Irrigation Research Institute was upgraded to the rank of Chief Engineer
Research.
Creation of the SCARP Circles: The completed SCARPs were transferred from
WAPDA to the Irrigation Department in the mid 70s. Four SCARP circles were
accordingly set up in the department for O&M of public tubewells.
Chief Engineer, Co-ordination (1983): A post of Chief Engineer, Coordination, was
created in 1983 to coordinate and monitor the implementation of rehabilitation/
management projects for irrigation and drainage systems. These projects were
financed by the World Bank and USAID. The projects aimed at rehabilitating the
irrigation and drainage network of the province, which had deteriorated due to
inadequate maintenance funding in the past two to three decades. The first phase of
the project was completed in 1988, with simultaneous launching of the second phase
of the (irrigation System Rehabilitation Project (ISRP) in 1989 to cover balance

rehabilitation needs. The second phase of ISRP was completed in 1996. The post of
Chief Engineer Coordination was later re-designated as Provincial Program
Coordinator for the National Drainage Program (NDP I).
Chief Engineer, D.G. Khan (1993): A post of Chief Engineer, D.G. Khan, was created
in July 1993 by re-adjusting the canal circles in the Multan and Bahawalpur zones.
This was considered necessary because of the increased work load of the Multan
Zone, which had to supervise irrigation activities in 11 districts and 4 civil divisions. In
addition, a large number of irrigation and drainage development activities were being
planned and implemented in the D.G. Khan Civil Division, which included the
management of hill torrents, construction of surface drainage systems, Chashma Right
Bank Irrigation Project and other development projects. With the creation of D.G. Khan
Zone and re-adjustment of canal circles, the jurisdictions of irrigation zones were
redefined to correspond to respective civil divisions.
4.1.7 1984 Reorganization Proposals
In the wake of administrative changes in rapid succession and almost a complete
blockade of expansion after the inception of the Indus Basin Project works, there was
a general feeling of frustration and despondency prevailing in the Irrigation
Department. As a result of this state of affairs, a high level committee, comprising
senior echelons of the department and two senior professors of the University of
Engineering and Technology was constituted in July 1981 to propose organizational
changes to improve the performance of the Irrigation Department.
The committee had, inter-alia, noted that there had been a considerable increase in
the work load in the field, in respect of revenue and engineering matters. The irrigation
intensity had reached an average figure of 110 percent when compared to the
designed value of 70 percent. This had resulted in keen demand for canal water and
a more than 50 percent rise in booking of irrigated areas. There were more cases of
tampering of outlets and trespassing along the canal banks had increased, especially
with the increasing use of tractors/trolleys by the farming community. With growing
emphasis on development and more powers for local bodies, there was a constant
demand for co-ordination and meetings at various levels. However there had been no
increase in the original strength of the field staff in the field division and sub-divisions,
since 1937.
In view of the above perspective, the committee made a number of recommendations
to improve the working of the Punjab Irrigation Department. The main organizational
changes recommended by the committee included 50 percent increase in the revenue
staff up to Zilladar, 50 percent increase in the engineering staff and 25 percent
increase in the canal divisions. This was proposed to be achieved in 2 stages. In the
first stage, 25 percent increase in the revenue and engineering subordinate staff as
well as 25 percent increase in the sub-divisions, was recommended. Subsequently in
the 2nd stage, other changes recommended by the committee were proposed for
implementation.
Some of the above recommendations were accepted in 1984, with the over-riding
condition that no additional funds would be provided. Therefore, it basically meant
departmental re-organization; creating some new positions with matching surrenders
of some existing positions. New posts of Additional Secretary and Chief Engineer
(Power) were created. The Electrical inspectors organization was strengthened. A
Planning and Review Organization under Chief Engineer (Planning) was set-up. There
were adjustments in the functions of Chief Engineers at Lahore and the post of Chief
Engineer Central was renamed as Chief Engineer Development, with jurisdiction over
the Central Design Office, Small Dams Project Organization and the mechanical outfit
of the Department. The Zonal Chief Engineers and the O&M field staff remained
almost unchanged. Recommended expansion of field divisions and sub-divisions was
not carried out. Setting up a Board of Chief Engineers at Lahore also did not meet with
approval.
4.1.8 The Post 1997 Developments
The concept of Participatory Irrigation management (PIM) was introduced in 1997 as
part of the conditionalities under World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB) and
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) financed National Drainage Program
(NDP). A new organization namely Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA)
was established in 1997 under Punjab Irrigation & Drainage Authority (PIDA) Act 1997.
PIDA pioneered work of PIM by creating pilot Farmers Organizations (FOs) at
distributary level and Area Water Boards (AWBs) at Canal Command level.
A number of new projects were planned for implementation at the turn of the
millennium. The projects envisaged comprehensive rehabilitation of old and dilapated
irrigation infrastructure with the assistance of the World Bank, Asian Development
Bank (ADB) and Japenese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). These projects
included National Drainage Program (NDP), Rehabilitation of Lower Chenab Canal
Project, Rehabilitation of Barrages, and Rehabilitation of Lower Bari Doab Canal
System and Pakpattan Canal System. Exclusive Project Implementation Units were
created for these projects under development funding mode. Similarly the post of Chief
Engineer / Provincial coordinator was created for Greater Thal Canal Project.
During 2003, Development Circles and Divisions were established by closing the
SCARP circles due to the disinvestment of public sector tubewells in fresh
groundwater areas. The Development Circles and Divisions were thus staffed by
making internal adjustments. The purpose of Development outfits was to plan and
implement the major development schemes as well as the implementation of the
foreign aided projects.
During 2006, a comprehensive reforms framework was agreed with the World Bank
under Development Policy Loan. A Strategic Planning and Reforms Unit was created
for steering the program. Similarly, an exclusive Program Monitoring and
Implementation Unit (PMIU) was set up for improved monitoring of canal operations.
The PMIU has developed modern tools and performance indicators for on-line
computerized monitoring.
During 2011, the Power Wing of Punjab Irrigation & Power Department was detached
from the I&P Department and attached with the newly created Energy Department.
The I&P Department was accordingly renamed as Punjab Irrigation Department.
4.2 Objectives and Functions of Irrigation Department
4.2.1 Institutional Set-up for Irrigated Agriculture in Pakistan
A number of state agencies and departments share responsibilities for the
management of irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. The broad division of responsibilities
between irrigation and agriculture starts at the federal level, with two separate
ministries, and runs through the sector's whole structure up to the farm level. Irrigation
management in Pakistan, thus, follows a segregated organizational structure.
The Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), under the Federal Ministry
of Water and Power, is an autonomous agency responsible for the development of
water resources in the country. WAPDA managed construction of large storage dams,
construction of barrages and inter rivers link canals the Indus Basin Project
Replacement Works and installation of tubewells in Salinty Control and Reclamation
Projects (SCARPS). WAPDA operates the major reservoirs in consultation with the
Indus River System Authority (IRSA) and Provincial Irrigation Departments (PIDs)
according to the water rights and seasonal allocations of the provinces. After the
construction of schemes, except large storage projects, by WAPDA, the responsibility
for their operation and maintenance (O&M) is transferred to the respective Provincial
Irrigation Departments (PIDs).
The major responsibility for irrigation management rests with the PIDs, and some of
its elements are with Provincial Agriculture Departments (PADs). PIDs undertake
some construction works, but primarily attend to the rehabilitation and O&M of
irrigation facilities, extending from barrages and main canals to outlets, upkeep and
maintenance of drainage and flood works, assessment of water charges, and
resolution of conflicts among water users. On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)
Directorates of Agriculture Departments (PADs) carry out watercourse lining and on-
farm water improvements. PADs are responsible for agricultural research, extension
and productivity enhancement. On the other end, farm level decisions regarding
application of water and non-water inputs are made by the individual farmers. A host
of complex factors and the external environment impinge on farmers' performance and
decision-making processes.
4.2.2 Objectives of the Punjab Irrigation Department
Goals and objectives of irrigation management in Pakistan have not been explicitly set
out in any single document. The objectives listed below have been extracted from
various documents. The broader objectives, like increasing the agricultural production
or farm level objectives of improving the application efficiency, although quite relevant
in the context of overall irrigation management, extend beyond the functional
jurisdiction of the Irrigation Department. While irrigation water definitely helps to
increase the agricultural production, it is only one of the inputs. Other non-water inputs,
as well as farming and marketing policies, impact the productivity of the system.
Similarly, the jurisdiction of the Irrigation Department extends up to the outlet level and
beyond this; farmers manage their watercourses and field applications with the advice
/ input of the Agriculture Department.
In view of the foregoing, the objectives of the Punjab Irrigation Department are
presented below:
A. Planning Stage Goals
 To develop vast tracts of barren land.
 To provide livelihood to local inhabitants.
 To improve the well-being of the rural population by stabilizing and
increasing agricultural production.
 To overcome recurring famines.
 To generate revenue earnings for the state.
B. Design Stage Objectives

 Improved control and command for the acquisition and distribution of
irrigation water.
 Optimal allocation and utilization of scarce water resources.
 Bringing maximum area under cultivation to benefit the maximum
population with available irrigation water.
 Partial irrigation with restricted cropping intensities.
 Operation of the system with minimum human intervention.
 Equitable and proportional distribution of available irrigation supplies.
C. Operational Objectives
 Effective and efficient management of irrigation and drainage
infrastructure.
 Equitable distribution of available canal supplies.
 Control of illegal water abstractions.
 Water resources development.
 Control of water-logging and salinity.
 Flood protection of population centers, agricultural and communication
network, as well as the industrial and irrigation infrastructure.
 Revenue generation through efficient assessment of water rates.
 Resolution of conflicts related to the mutual water rights of the share-
holders.
 Control of environmental degradation of land and water resources.
D. Objectives of the Water Scheduling
The irrigation system of the Punjab Province is mainly a run-of-river system with
limited storage capacity upstream in the system. Therefore, variability and
shortage of surface water supplies are expected. The main objective of the
canal operations is to achieve as much equity as possible, and to ensure
supplies to tail-end farmers. The objectives of the water scheduling can be
categorized as global and operational objectives. These objectives, for various
system levels, are described in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Global and Operational Objectives of Water Scheduling
System Operational Decision-making
Global Objective
Level Objectives Authority
 Providing
maximum
 Matching the
water for
water demand of
agriculture Indus Rivers
Reservoirs different
and power System Authority
and provinces
generation (IRSA) and Water
Inter-  Implementing
 flood and & Power
provincial the Water
drainage Development
Canals Apportionment
control Authority (WAPDA)
Accord among
 Sustainability of
the provinces
the
network
System Operational Decision-making

Global Objective
Level Objectives Authority
 Deliver water to
the secondary
system according  Distributing the
to the availability water shortages
design discharge or excesses Punjab Irrigation
Main Canals
 Maintenance of equitably Department
the main canals  Minimize the
 Satisfy the operational cost
demand of the
secondary system
 Deliver water to
the tertiary canal
system according  Distributing the
to the design water shortages
Secondary rights or excess Punjab Irrigation
Canals  Take care of the equitably Department
environmental  Minimize the
impacts operational cost
 Maintenance of
the system
Frequently the
farmers, also PID /
Punjab Irrigation
 Providing Water and Drainage
 Following the
Tertiary to all cultivators Authority (PIDA)
authorized
System on an equitable through the
scheduling
basis Farmers
Organizations
(FOs) in pilot
areas.
4.3 Functions of the Punjab Irrigation Department
4.3.1 Irrigation and Drainage: A Provincial Subject
Irrigation and Drainage is a provincial subject in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution of Pakistan (1973). Article 142 of the Constitution provides guidelines
concerning subject matter of the Federal and Provincial Laws. This article prescribes
that the Provincial Assembly shall have the power to make laws with respect to any
matter not enumerated in the Federal Legislative List. Irrigation and drainage have not
been included in the Federal list and therefore, it becomes a provincial subject.
4.3.2 Official Functions
The functions of the Irrigation Department as enunciated in the Punjab Government
Rules of Business, are given below:
1. Legislation, policy formulation and planning for irrigation and drainage.
2. Construction and maintenance of:
a) Barrages
b) Canals
c) Tubewells
d) Drainage schemes
e) Storage of water and construction of reservoirs
f) Flood control and flood protection schemes on rivers and hill
torrents
3. Basic and applied research in:
a) Irrigation hydraulics
b) Ground water and land reclamation
3. Survey of water bodies for data collection and analysis for future planning.
4. Distribution of canal water and assessment of water rates.
5. Training.
6. Human resources development including Engineering Training Academy.
7. Collection of tTolls on barrages & waterways.
[9A. Planning, designing, construction, maintenance and repair of all
buildings and related infrastructure under the administrative control of the
department.]
8. Strategic Planning.
9. Budget, accounts and audit matters.
10. Purchase of stores and capital goods for the Department.
11. Service matters except those entrusted to Services and General
Administration Department.
12. Administration of the following laws and the rules framed there-under:
i. The Canal and Drainage Act 1873
ii. Soil Reclamation Act 1952
iii. Land Improvement Tax Act, 1975
iv. Water Users Associations Ordinance 1981
v. The Punjab Irrigation & Drainage Authority Act 1997
vi. The Punjab Minor Canal Act
vii. Water User & Water Management Act
13. Matters incidental and ancillary to the above subject
4.3.3 Core Functions
The core functions of the Punjab Irrigation Department are summarized below:
 Operation and upkeep of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure of the
province;
 Planning and prioritization and implementation of maintenance works through
approved O&M Work Plans, and under third party top supervision;
 Optimizing the use of water resources in the province by the equitable
distribution of irrigation water supplies (about 54 MAF) through 52,000 canal
outlets;
 Assessing water rates by the revenue staff of the department;
 Planning and implementing the development program portfolio and foreign-
aided projects;
 Providing for and executing a plan for management of floods in the province,
and to construct and maintain flood protection programs/works;
 Promoting the participation of the beneficiaries in the management of the
Irrigation and Drainage Systems of the province, in line with requirements of
the Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) Act, 1997; and
 Acting as the Personnel Department for employees of the Provincial Irrigation

Department, including matters related to career development, posting and
transfer, promotion and in-service training.
4.4 Brief Description of Irrigation-related Functions and Specialized Units
Irrigation-related functions of Punjab Irrigation Department are briefly described below:
i). River Surveys and Hydrology Data
Pakistan's rivers are characterized by mobile beds and meandering river
courses due to highly variable discharges and sediment inflow. Changes in river
courses are quite frequent, particularly after each flood season. Mapping river
courses and its longitudinal sections is an essential activity for effective and
efficient planning of the flood protection works. This activity is carried out by the
department's Hydrology Directorate and by engineers posted at various
barrages. In addition, the Hydrology Directorate makes discharge observations
and keeps record of river and main canal flows in the province. The record of
discharges and water levels forms the basis of planning and designing new
schemes.
ii). Operation and Maintenance of Barrages
There are 14 barrages in the Punjab Province, where 21 main canals off-take
and provide irrigation water to 20.78 million acres of culturable commanded
area (CCA). Being the most crucial component of the irrigation system for
controlled diversion of irrigation supplies, proper and efficient operation and
maintenance of the barrages is essential to sustain irrigated agriculture in the
province.
The main responsibility of the Ddepartment relates to the proper upkeep and
maintenance of existing barrages. The major functions under barrage O&M
include effective regulation, control of water and sediment flow into the canals,
safe passage of floods, proper maintenance of all the barrage components
(guide banks, marginal bunds, spurs, etc.), river surveys, repair and
maintenance of gates and the superstructure, periodic safety inspections, and
carrying out necessary repair works, particularly during the annual canal
closures.
The Department also undertakes the safety and performance review of the
barrages and plans / implements schemes for rehabilitation of barrages. The
Taunsa and Jinnah Barrages have been rehabilitated while the schemes for
rehabilitation of Suleimanki, Trimmu and Panjnad Barrages are under
implementation. The construction of New Khanki Barrage to replace the old
Khanki weir is also in advanced stage of implementation.
iii). Operation and Maintenance of Canals
Effective and efficient operation and maintenance of canals is one of the most
important functions of the department for providing assured and equitable canal
supplies to the irrigation area. The total length of canals in the Punjab Province
is over 23,000 miles, with about 4,000 miles of main canals and branches and
over 19,000 miles of distributaries, minors and sub-minors. The operation
activities include the efficient management of canals to supply canal water
reliably and equitably; data collection, processing and analysis; control of water
levels and discharges; monitoring discharges of the canals and out lets; and
feedback. The maintenance activities include maintenance inspections, field

surveys, preparation of estimates, budgeting, contracting, and execution of
approved works. Silt clearance, berm cutting and repair to the canal structures
is carried out during the annual canal closure. Comprehensive rules and
procedures have been prescribed to implement the works through proper
supervision, checks by higher officers, and financial controls.
The Department has employed exclusive O&M staff for canal operation and
routine inspections, preventive maintenance, minor repairs to the canal banks
and structures, and checking outlets, etc. Inspection officials/officers (Sub-
engineers, SDOs and XENs) also carry out routine and special inspections of
canals, checking canal operations versus the planned schedules and
identifying maintenance needs.
iv). Distribution of Irrigation Water
The Indus River System Authority (IRSA) distributes the water according to the
Water Apportionment Accord (1991) between the provinces. An account of the
provincial-level canal flow for a five day period is maintained by IRSA. At the
provincial level, a regulation program is prepared by the Regulation Directorate
for each crop season (two seasons in each year) and for all main canals. These
programs are prepared on 10-daily basis and are conveyed to the irrigation
staff. The main canal flows are monitored at the headworks and conveyed to
the Regulation Directorate.
The quantity to be released to a canal is based on the allocation made by the
Regulation Directorate, or the indent placed by the canal management,
whichever is less. This quantity is then released by the engineer in charge of
the headworks. The engineer in charge of the headworks monitors the canal
flow and informs variations from the schedule to the Regulation Directorate.
The main objective of canal operations is to achieve as much equity as possible
and to ensure supplies to the tail-end farmers. Within the limitations set by
surface water availability, the farmers have the authority to decide most matters
related to crop production and cropping intensity. Exploitation of ground water
is also managed by the farmers and they are free to share and manage this
water. The state management ends at the turn-out (out-let). A seven-day roster
called "warabandi" is formulated for all the farmers along a water course. The
share-holders are expected to operate and maintain the watercourse and
implement the warabandi system. In the case of a dispute, the agency
management intervenes and fixes the duration of the turn for each cultivator
according to his land-holding size.A sub-division is the basic administrative unit
of the network and a Sub-divisional Officer (SDO) is the "Regulation Officer" of
the sub-division. Each SDO works out the requirement (indent) of the area
under his supervision. The water requirement from the tail-end to the head-end
is conveyed by the respective SDOs. The SDO is expected to include the
effects of events, such as rainfall, canal breaches, etc. When the supplies are
less than the demands, a rotation program is implemented by the Executive
Engineer (XEN). An eight-day rotation is usually adopted and notified at the
start of the season. The tail-end of the distributary would run under this system
for seven days.
v). Tubewells
In order to control the twin menace of water-logging and salinity, about 10,000
tubewells were installed in the public sector under various SCARPs. These
tubewells were mostly of deep well turbine type. In some areas, tubewells with
centrifugal pumps under the 'Grow More Food' program had also been installed.
The SCARP tubewells in fresh groundwater areas have since been disinvested
and only saline groundwater tubewells are presently working for controlling
waterlogging in the critical areas. For this purpose, the Department has
employed exclusive staff comprising operators, mechanics and properly
qualified mechanical engineers, who take care of daily operation, as well as
special and emergency repairs of the tubewells. The operators are stationed at
tubewells for proper operation of tubewells as per operating schedules and local
needs. The Ddepartment also has workshops for the expeditious repair of
tubewells. The record of the running hours, actual discharge of tubewells and
sub-soil water levels is also monitored.
vi). Flood Protection Works
The construction of flood protection works, viz. flood embankments, spurs,
studs, etc., is required to protect irrigation infrastructures and to safeguard
agricultural lands, and abadies (towns) from the onslaught of floods.
Departmental activities in this regard include both, short term measures
(temporary protection against river erosive action along its banks), as well as
long-term measures (training river flow). For optimal results, precise planning
of protection works between the control points on the basis of model studies
and then implementing the package in one working season, is recommended.
Financial constraints and delays in approval formalities, however, do not allow
this and the packages are only partially implemented. This restricts the
usefulness of the flood works. The Department is also responsible for the
proper upkeep of the existing bunds, spurs and other flood protection works.
Flood watching and flood fighting during the flood emergencies is another
important function of the department. In addition, the restoration of damages
caused by floods is also the responsibility of the Irrigation Department.
vii). Drainage Schemes
As a consequence of the development and intensification of canal irrigation, the
necessity to construct surface drainage schemes was felt. Accordingly, a large
surface drainage network with an aggregate length of around 5,000 miles has
been constructed to facilitate the drainage of rain and seepage water. Major
drainage projects are implemented by WAPDA, which are handed over to the
Irrigation Department for subsequent O&M. Smaller drains are planned and
constructed by the Irrigation Department. The main functions of the
Department, therefore, relate to proper functioning and maintenance of
completed drainage schemes, as well as monitoring the planning and
implementation of new drainage projects undertaken by WAPDA. Maintenance
activities include weed and debris clearance; bed clearance; maintenance of
banks inlets, bridges, outfalls and other structures; and monitoring the drain
flows to evaluate its effectiveness and identify the need to remodel.
Currently, there are three Drainage Circles in the Lahore, Faisalabad and
Sargodha Zones. In the other three field zones, drainage divisions and/or sub-
divisions look after the local drainage network.
viii). Land Reclamation and Groundwater Monitoring
Soil and water quality and its suitability for irrigated agriculture has an important
bearing on the development and sustainability of irrigated agriculture. The
Department has developed research facilities over the last 45 years to
determine water and soil standards and measures for the reclamation of salt-
affected soils. Both, biological and chemical methods have been developed and
demonstrated.
The Land Reclamation Directorate is equipped with research laboratories and
experimental field stations spread all over the province. Research studies
pertaining to soil deterioration, soil survey and land classification, water quality,
irrigation water management and water requirements of crops, cropping
patterns with regard to the physio-chemical aspects of salinity control and other
features of land improvement, are undertaken by this Directorate.
The Land Reclamation Directorate has also been entrusted the work of
groundwater monitoring. The monitoring is carried out both for the level and
quality of groundwater. For this purpose, a network of monitoring prints has
been established throughout the province for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
observations. Based on the monitoring results, groundwater maps for levels
and quality are also prepared and displayed on the Department website.
ix). Construction of Small Dams
The development of barani areas has been specifically addressed in the
strategies of the previous five-year plans, with special reference to agriculture.
As one of the measures for increasing agricultural production in rainfed (barani)
areas of the Pothohar Plateau in the Punjab Province, a program to construct
small dams was initiated in the early 1960s.
A common feature of rainfed areas is that agriculture is not developed due to
erratic and uncertain precipitation and loss of rain water due to rapid run-off.
The high velocity rain water flow generated by steep slopes of the plateau also
causes acute problems of erosion of fertile topsoil. In order to address the
problem of soil erosion and to conserve rainwater for agricultural development,
the construction of small dams offers promising prospects. In order to plan and
implement the construction of small dams in the barani areas of the Punjab
Province, a Small Dams Organization has been established in the Department.
This organization is responsible for identifying potential dam sites, collecting
hydrological, hydraulic, geo-technical and other needed data, conducting
feasibility studies, preparing detailed designs, constructing small dams and
allied irrigation network.
The Department, with the assistance of the World Bank, is currently planning a
comprehensive project for integrated development of Pothohar plateau. The
initiatives include rehabilitation of existing dams, watershed management,
rainwater harvesting, construction of small and mini dams and local ponds for
water storage, on-farm water management and planned agricultural
development by growing high-value crops and plants suited to the Pothohar
area.
x). Irrigation Research

While developing the world's largest integrated irrigation system, irrigation
engineers and scientists had encountered a number of complex problems
associated with the design and construction of large hydraulic structures on
permeable foundations, stable alluvial canals, and training / control of large
rivers. The Irrigation Research Institute (IRI), established in 1924, has now
grown into a premier research organization, with facilities for large-scale
hydraulic model testing. The research conducted by this institute has led to the
development of safe and economic design of large hydraulic structures, dams,
spillways, bridges, river training and flood protection works.
Many models and research projects, of basic and applied research related to
WAPDA, Federal and other Provincial Governments and agencies are also
undertaken in IRI.
In physics directorate of Irrigation Research Institute various research and
investigation studies related to Groundwater and Environmental Evaluation,
Sedimentation, Geotechnical Investigation, Quality Control of Engineering
Materials, GIS and Remote Sensing are undertaken. FRS is also established
at Babakwal for the study on soil characteristics, water use efficiency, drain
water quality and seepage losses at field level.
xi). Design Directorate
During the construction of the Haveli Project in 1939, the need was felt to
standardize and centralize the designs of irrigation structures. A Central Design
Office in the Secretariat was consequently created, initially on a temporary
basis, which was made permanent on January 01, 1945. The post of Director
Central Design was of the rank of Executive Engineer up to October 1955. At
the time of the integration of West Pakistan, the post was upgraded to that of
Superintending Engineer and designated as the Director of Design and
Research. The Central Design Office continued functioning up to October 1955
in the Irrigation Secretariat, and up to May 1962 in the office of the Chief
Engineer, Irrigation, West Pakistan. Consequently, it was abolished upon the
reorganization or the Ddepartment and a post of Design Engineer was created
in the office of each Regional Chief Engineer. The Design Directorate was re-
organized at the Departmental level in 1973 under the administrative control of
the Chief Engineer of the Central Zone. After the re-organization of the
department in 1984, the Design Directorate was attached with the Chief
Engineer Planning & Review Zone and subsequently with the Chief Engineer
Research.
xii). Machinery and Mechanical Set-up
The need for a mechanical outfit as a complementary unit of the largely civil
engineering administration of the irrigation system was felt quite early. A Central
Workshop was accordingly opened in 1901 at Amritsar, which was modernized
and extended in 1905. For several years, this workshop engaged itself in the
manufacture of small sluice gates and maintenance of irrigation machinery and
structural steel works.
The workshop was taken over by the Government or India for ammunition
production during the Second World War. Another workshop was accordingly
set-up at Moghalpura (Lahore) to carry out repairs to machinery, pumps, gates
and gearing, etc. The post-independence division of irrigation assets left only
the Moghalpura workshop to the share of the PID. Later, another workshop was
opened at Bhalwal to meet the increasing needs of repair and maintenance of
mechanical components of gates and gearings and the earth moving
equipment.
With the gradual replacement of manual and donkey labour for earthwork by
units of earthmoving machinery to attain speed and quality, the fleet of
departmental machinery had to be expanded, both in scope and size, for the
procurement, operation, and maintenance of such machinery. The expansion
took place gradually as the needs arose. A Mechanical Circle was established
in 1944 to meet the larger work load of workshop and machinery. The
mechanical fleet of the Irrigation Department was enlarged and modernized
through the USAID-assisted Irrigation Systems Management Project during the
1980s. To further improve the operation and management of machinery units,
an exclusive Machinery Circle was created in 1984 as part of the reorganization
of the Irrigation Department.
xiii). Administration of Canal and Drainage Act
The Canal and Drainage Act was promulgated in 1873 to regulate and control
the development of irrigation and the distribution of canal water. The Act was
modified in 2008.The rapid population increase has resulted in mounting
pressure on land, increasing competition for canal supplies. The Canal Act is
administered by the officers of the Irrigation Department. The divisional and
sub-divisional canal officers have been given magisterial powers and legal
authority for the expeditious resolution of water disputes among shareholders,
effective administration of the Act, control of encroachments and equitable
distribution of irrigation supplies. The proceedings under the Act are deemed
as quasi-judicial, requiring adherence to the prescribed procedure and a proper
understanding of the law.
The main functions of the Department under the Canal and Drainage Act
include application of water for public purposes, construction and maintenance
of irrigation works, supply of water, water rates, recovery of charges, drainage,
internal water distribution, control of offenses and penalties. Most work
connected with the administration or the Canal and Drainage Act relates to the
settlement of mutual differences among the shareholders (Section 68), supply
of water for new area or change of source of water supply (Section 20), water
rates and liability for unauthorized irrigation (Section 33-35), and offenses under
the Act (Section 70).
xiv). Assessment of Water Charges
Every irrigation system needs financial resources to cover the O&M costs. This
is done by collecting water fees from the farmers for irrigation water supplied to
them. In the Punjab Province, service charges are recovered from individual
farmers in the form of Occupiers' Rates or Abiana. This charge is currently in
the form of a flat rate applicable to the area included in the Culturable Command
Area (CCA).
For the purpose of assessing water rates, there is an exclusive revenue set-up
in the Department. The revenue wing arranges the records on which canal
revenue is assessed and collected. Demand slips (Parchas) are prepared for
the owners/cultivators, with details of the area finally assessed. These are
delivered to the "Lambardar" for distribution among the cultivators. The demand
statements (Khataunis) are prepared from the Parchas. The demand
statements are prepared by villages / tehsils / districts, and are supplied to the
civil administration for the collection of water rates. The district administration
collects revenue through village headmen (Lambardars), who are allowed to
retain a certain percentage of the collected amount.
4.5 Organizational Structure
4.5.1 Department as a Whole
The Punjab Irrigation Department is headed by the Secretary Irrigation under the
governance of the Minister for Irrigation and overall control of the Government of
Punjab. Secretary is the overall head of field and functional set up of the Department
being run by various Chief Engineers. Six Chief Engineers have territorial jurisdiction
over different parts of the irrigation system, while other 6 Chief Engineers have
functional duties. For example, the Chief Engineer Research is responsible for
research in the hydraulic problems and other allied fields connected with soil and
water, and the Chief Engineer Development provides services such as excavation
machinery and workshop facilities required in the field. In addition, there are a number
of Project Management Units in the Department for planning and implementation of
mega and foreign-aided projects. The schematic representation of the organizational
structure of Punjab Irrigation Department is depicted in Fig. 4.1.
Each Zone is headed by a Chief Engineer. There are a number of Circles under the
Chief Engineer. Each Circle is headed by Superintending Engineer. In each Zone,
there are two to three Canal Circles and some subject specific Circles such as
Drainage, Link Canals, and Development Circles. The Circles are divided into
Divisions, Sub-Divisions and Sections as described below.
4.5.2 Organizational Structure
The Secretary is assisted by three Additional Secretaries (Administration, Technical
and Budget/Operation) and five Deputy Secretaries in charge of five wings, i.e.,
Administration, General, Operation, Budget and Development. The Deputy Secretary
level wings have been further sub-divided into Sections, under the charge of Section
Officers under Secretaries. The secretariat has about 200 members as support staff.
Figure 4.2 portray the organizational pattern of the Irrigation Secretariat up to the level
of Section Officers.
4.5.3 Zones
Under the Secretary, there are 10 Chief Engineers (C.Es) who carry out various
functions of the department. Six Chief Engineers have territorial jurisdiction over
different parts of the irrigation system, while the remaining C.Es have functional duties.
As seen from the schematic diagram, each Zone headed by a Chief Engineer has a
number of Circles, each under the charge of a Superintending Engineer (S.E), as
depicted in Figure 4.1.
4.5.4 Circles
Canal Circle is a complete unit responsible for operation, maintenance, regulation of
water distribution, recording of irrigated area and assessment of abiana (water rate)
of one canal system under its charge. A Superintending Engineer (SE), being the head
of the circle, is responsible for all operations concerned with one canal system. While
the subject specific circles look after work in their respective jurisdiction.
A Superintending Engineer has powers under the Canal and Drainage Act VIII of 1873,
as Superintending Canal Officer, to hear irrigators' appeals against the decisions of
Divisional Canal Officers (Executive Engineers) under Section 20, 33 and other
relevant sections.
Figure 4.1: Organizational Set-up of the Punjab Irrigation Secretariat
Figure 4.2: Punjab Irrigation & Power Department Organizational Chart

4.5.5 Divisions
For operation and maintenance of a canal system, a Circle is further divided into two
or three Divisions. An Executive Engineer (XEN) is in-charge of a canal Division under
the administrative control of the Superintending Engineer. The Division is the basic
executive unit for operational activities, and the Executive Engineer is the "kingpin" of
the Department. The engineers above him are controlling and directing officers, while
engineers and staff under his supervision are to assist him in performing his field
duties. He is the custodian of basic records and monitors the regulation and water
distribution of all channels in the Division.
On financial and accounting matters, an Executive Engineer, as Head of a Division, is
independently responsible to the Audit Department. For this purpose, the Audit
Department posts a Divisional Accountant as its representative to assist the Executive
Engineer to maintain the accounts of the Division properly, and to exercise financial
checks.
To administer the canal supplies and to settle irrigators' disputes, an Executive
Engineer is so designated as a "Divisional Canal Officer" under the Canal and
Drainage Act of 1873. He is declared Canal Magistrate to perform his duties under the
Canal and Drainage Act relating to canal offences. All claims, disputes and complaints
of irrigators are decided by him as the Divisional Canal Officer.
An Executive Engineer also performs duties to assess water rates. For this purpose,
a Revenue Wing headed by a Deputy Collector is placed under his control. In this
capacity, he is responsible for assessing abiana and preparing demand statements
for the collection of water rates at the end of each crop season. These demand
statements are submitted to the District Civil Administration for collection of revenue.
Figure 4.3 shows the organizational structure of a canal division and illustrates the
hierarchical arrangement involving different levels of staff in a typical division.
4.5.6 Sub-Divisions
A Division is further sub-divided into three or four sub-units known as Sub-divisions,
each headed by a Sub-divisional Officer (SDO) who is a qualified engineer or an
experienced diploma holder in Engineering. He is also designated as the Sub-
Divisional Canal Officer under the Canal and Drainage Act of 1873, and has the
powers of a Magistrate to adjudicate cases concerning the canal offenses under the
Act and to settle disputes among irrigators. He holds delegated administrative and
financial authority for his area as a sub-unit of the Division.
The SDO is responsible for the operation and maintenance, distribution of water, and
water rate assessment in the portion of canal commands in his charge, under the
administrative control of the Executive Engineer of the Division. A Sub-division,
ordinarily, consists of three or four Engineering Sections and two to three Zilladari
Sections, as depicted in Fig 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Organizational Chart of a Canal Division

4.5.7 Sections
The smallest unit on the Engineering side is a "section". The head of a Section is a
Sub Engineer who is basically a diploma holder in Engineering. He is responsible for
the operation of the channels, maintenance of infrastructure and the recording of
discharges in the distributary/minor canals. Sub-engineers' offices are located in canal
colonies along the channels to ensure more intimate surveillance over canal
operations and irrigation supplies. The Sub-engineer, who is assisted by Misteries,
Mates (a Mate is the head gauge man) and Canal Patrols/Beldars for maintenance
and watching of channels, and gauge readers for regulation and observation of water
flow. Each canal colony has a rest house where inspecting officers stay, and a
telegraph/telephone office to transmit gauge readings and other important regulations
and urgent messages.
The smallest unit in the PID's revenue organization is the Zilladari Section, headed by
a Zilladar, the canal official who supervises the work of about 10 Patwaris (Irrigation
Record Keepers). Each Patwari supervises and assesses irrigated area of 3,000 to
5,000 acres, and thus, a Zilladar's supervision covers an area of about 50,000 acres.
Zilladars' offices are also located in canal colonies, along with that of the Sub-engineer
to facilitate easy access for irrigation.
4.5.8 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA)
The performance of the irrigation sector all over Pakistan has been unsatisfactory
mainly due to inadequacies in operation and maintenance (O&M) of the key
infrastructure, which is considered largely to be the result of lack of adequate funding.
Because of the increasing share of staff and overhead costs in the overall O&M
budgets, lesser funds were becoming available for actual maintenance and repair
works. The funding constraints mainly stem from the fact that the ‘abiana’ is insufficient
to meet O&M costs, requiring subsidies out of scarce provincial revenues. As the
collected abiana flows into the general revenue and O&M subsidy is not linked to
system performance. Beneficiaries were generally reluctant to involve themselves in
the O&M facilities or pay for their O&M, as they perceive these facilities as public
property. Also with the introduction of intensive agriculture, the irrigation sector could
not keep pace with the demand of water due to massive increase in population and
pressure on land could not cater for the additional needs of food and fiber. The quality
of surface water and groundwater resources is deteriorating because of agriculture
intensification, urbanization and industrialization.
The Government of Pakistan after conducting several studies and detailed discussions
with the World Bank and other donors introduced institutional reforms in the water
sector so as to achieve equity in distribution of supplies, improve cost recovery and
encourage participatory management of the irrigation and drainage system. In
consultation with the provinces, the Government of Pakistan in August 1995
evolved a strategy for institutional reforms in the water sector, which envisaged that:
(i) Provincial Irrigation Departments would be transformed into
autonomous, self-accounting and self-financing Provincial
Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs).
(ii) Below the PIDAs, financially self-accounting Area Water Boards
(AWBs) would be created, preferably along canal commands, for
managing and operating the irrigation and drainage systems. It
was envisaged that farmers and leading professionals would be

represented on the Boards of Directors of the AWBs.
(iii) Below the AWBs, farmers would be encouraged to form Water
Users Organisations at minor or distributary level. A pilot project
approach would be followed and, based on the results of the pilot
projects; a workable model for the formation of water users
organisations would be evolved.
According ly the Irrigation Department is promoting implementation of reforms
initiatives in the Irrigation Sector since1997 through Punjab Irrigation & Drainage
Authority (PIDA) Act 1997. The functions of PIDA generally include; operation and
maintainenance of the parts of the irrigation and drainage systems assigned to it;
manage the transition process to promote the formation, growth and development of
the Area Water Boards (AWBs) and Farmers Organizations (FOs) into self-supporting
and financially self-sustaining entities on pilot basis.
The reforms are based on participatory irrigation management by involving the farming
community in the operation and management through Khal Panchayats at
watercourse level and Farmers Organizations (FOs)/Nehri Panchayats at distributary
level. Under these reforms, the Farmers Organizations will ultimately be managing the
irrigation system at distributary level by themselves so as to improve irrigation
management performance, ensure equitable distribution of water among all share-
holders, exercise control over water theft, optimize water use efficiency, undertake
measures to improve assessment and collection of Abiana for adequately addressing
cost recovery aspect etc.
The Minister for Irrigation is Chairman of the PIDA Board, which has a number of
farmers and ex-officio members. Administratively, PIDA is headed by a Managing
Director assisted by three General Managers (Transition Management, Operations
and Finance).
Towards effective performance of the above important functions, the following three
Cells are functioning in PIDA:
 Social Mobilization Cell
 Capacity Building & Training Cell
 Monitoring & Evaluation Cell
Under PIDA 5 Area Water Boards have been formed. These include:
(i) LCC East AWB (ii) LCC West AWB (iii) Bahawal Nagar AWB. (iv) LBDC AWB and
(v) Derajat AWB. Below these AWBs 396 Farmer Organizations have been formed.
The Irrigation Drainage Management Transfer (IDMT) Agreements were executed
with 402 Nos. F.Os. Under the IDMT the FOs had following functions:
 To operate, manage and improve the irrigation & Drainage
infrastructure under their charge.
 To obtain irrigation water from PIDA or Area Water Board at the head
of minor or distributary and to supply the same to their members and
other water users in accordance with the agreed proportion.
 To receive the drainage effluent for its appropriate disposal within its
area.
 To execute various tasks associated with irrigation/ Drainage net-

work within their jurisdiction in accordance with the By Laws.
 Collect abiana from the water users and deposit 50% with PIDA/AWB
and retain 50% which is to be spent on operation and maintenance
of the irrigation & Drainage infrastructure under their charge.
References:
1. Irrigation Department files
2. Interviews with PID officers
3. Report of Assets Inventory, IPD, January 2006
4. Working Paper on Functional/ Institutional Analysis of Punjab IPD, by M.
Aslam Rasheed and Ch. M. Shafi June 2006
5. Punjab Irrigation System Reform Program (PISRP), IPD, March 2006
6. Detailed assessment of irrigation sector reforms supported under the DPL
program by M. Aslam Rasheed; prepared for the ICR Mission 2010
7. PIDA; Data on AWBS and FOs
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-i
BARRAGES
5 BARRAGES
Table of Contents - Barrages

5 BARRAGES ...................................................................................................... 5-i
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO BARRAGES ................................................................ 5-1

Headworks ................................................................................................. 5-1
Open Weir .................................................................................................. 5-1
Barrage ...................................................................................................... 5-2
The merits and demerits of an Open Weir ................................................. 5-2
Merits and Demerits of a Barrage .............................................................. 5-3
Selection of Type of Structure .................................................................... 5-3
5.2 COMPONENTS OF A BARRAGE ................................................................. 5-4
Main Weir ................................................................................................... 5-4
Undersluices .............................................................................................. 5-4
Silt Excluder ............................................................................................... 5-4
Divide Walls ............................................................................................... 5-4
Fish Ladder ................................................................................................ 5-4
Other Main Component Structures............................................................. 5-4
Canal Head Regulators .............................................................................. 5-9
Subsidiary Weir .......................................................................................... 5-9
Bridge Decks .............................................................................................. 5-9
Mechanical and Electrical Works ............................................................... 5-9
Appurtenant Works .................................................................................... 5-9
Operation and Control Room ................................................................... 5-10
Pressure Pipes / Piezometers .................................................................. 5-10
Pressure Release Wells ........................................................................... 5-10
5.3 ALLIED WORKS ......................................................................................... 5-11
Guide Banks............................................................................................. 5-11
Marginal Bunds ........................................................................................ 5-11
River Training Works ................................................................................ 5-11
Divide Wall ............................................................................................... 5-12
Piers ......................................................................................................... 5-13
Abutments ................................................................................................ 5-13
Fish Ladder .............................................................................................. 5-14
Navigation Lock........................................................................................ 5-17
PCC Blocks / Inverted Filter ..................................................................... 5-18
PCC Block Apron or Settling Blocks ......................................................... 5-18
Cut-Off Walls ............................................................................................ 5-18
Loose Stone Aprons ................................................................................. 5-19
Flared Out Walls ...................................................................................... 5-22
Silt Excluder ............................................................................................. 5-22
Bridge Decking ......................................................................................... 5-29
5.4 RIVER TRAINING WORKS ......................................................................... 5-34
General .................................................................................................... 5-34
Guide Banks............................................................................................. 5-34
Pitched Islands ......................................................................................... 5-39
Diversion Bunds and Cunnettes ............................................................... 5-41
Gabions Retaining Walls .......................................................................... 5-41
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-ii
BARRAGES
Marginal Bunds ........................................................................................ 5-41

Spurs (or Groynes)................................................................................... 5-45
Studs ........................................................................................................ 5-57
Design of River Training Works................................................................ 5-58
5.5 SCOUR AND PROTECTION ...................................................................... 5-71
General .................................................................................................... 5-71
Local Scour .............................................................................................. 5-72
Other Methods ......................................................................................... 5-82
Recommended Scour Depth Methods ..................................................... 5-83
General Scour/Degradation ..................................................................... 5-84
Stone Apron ............................................................................................. 5-86
Slopes Protection ..................................................................................... 5-93
Geotextile Filter ...................................................................................... 5-103
5.6 BARRAGE DESIGN .................................................................................. 5-105
Introduction ............................................................................................ 5-105
Preliminary Investigations ...................................................................... 5-105
Detailed Investigations ........................................................................... 5-105
Location and alignment .......................................................................... 5-107
Estimation of Design Flood .................................................................... 5-109
Climate change effects ........................................................................... 5-109
Design Criteria ....................................................................................... 5-109
5.7 DESIGN FOR SURFACE FLOW ............................................................... 5-111
Afflux ...................................................................................................... 5-111
Tail water rating curve ............................................................................ 5-111
Retrogression ......................................................................................... 5-111
Accretion of Levels ................................................................................. 5-113
5.8 ENERGY OF FLOW/SPECIFIC ENERGY ................................................ 5-114
Total Energy Line ................................................................................... 5-114
Hydraulic Jump ...................................................................................... 5-114
5.9 DESIGN PROCEDURE ............................................................................. 5-124
Discharge Calculation Methods.............................................................. 5-127
Design of undersluices pockets.............................................................. 5-132
Stilling Basins ......................................................................................... 5-133
5.10 BARRAGE DESIGN FOR SUBSURFACE FLOW ..................................... 5-150
Development of Design .......................................................................... 5-150
Lane’s Theory ........................................................................................ 5-151
Modern approach to design of weir and barrages .................................. 5-152
Khosla’s Theory ..................................................................................... 5-154
Floor thickness ....................................................................................... 5-158
Effect of scour and sedimentation on exit gradient and uplift pressures 5-160
Sheet piles / sheet pile lines / sheet pile walls........................................ 5-161
Exit Gradient .......................................................................................... 5-162
Calculation of exit gradient ..................................................................... 5-163
5.11 FLOW NET ................................................................................................ 5-166
Definition ................................................................................................ 5-166
Application.............................................................................................. 5-166
Rules for Drawings flow nets .................................................................. 5-166
Drawing Procedures............................................................................... 5-167
Issues of isotropy variation ..................................................................... 5-167
Forchheimer’s method ........................................................................... 5-168
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-iii
BARRAGES
Procedure for Flow Net Construction ..................................................... 5-169

Determination of seepage discharge, uplift pressure and exit gradient from ..
Flownet .................................................................................................. 5-170
Example ................................................................................................. 5-172
Exit gradient ........................................................................................ 5-172
5.12 DESIGN OF HEAD REGULATOR AND CROSS REGULATORS ............. 5-174
Hydraulic Jump ...................................................................................... 5-174
Exit Gradient .......................................................................................... 5-174
Uplift pressure ........................................................................................ 5-174
Floor Thickness ...................................................................................... 5-174
Gates ..................................................................................................... 5-174
5.13 OPERATION & REGULATION RULES AND PROCEDURES .................. 5-175
Operation and Regulation Rules ............................................................ 5-175
Operational Guidelines ........................................................................... 5-175
Objective of Good Operation .................................................................. 5-175
Pond Level Limitations ........................................................................... 5-176
Rate of Raising and Lowering of Pond Level ......................................... 5-176
5.14 UNUSUAL EVENTS .................................................................................. 5-182
Emergency preparedness plan .............................................................. 5-182
Flood Emergency Plan ........................................................................... 5-184
5.15 PERIODIC SAFETY INSPECTIONS OF BARRAGES .............................. 5-186
Need for Inspection and Evaluation of Safety ........................................ 5-186
Types of problems affecting the safety of barrages ................................ 5-186
Evaluation report .................................................................................... 5-194
Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................... 5-195
Selected items to be considered for inclusion in the inspection / evaluation ..
report ...................................................................................................... 5-195
5.16 INSPECTION OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS .......................................... 5-197
River training works................................................................................ 5-197
River training works can be damaged by: .............................................. 5-197
Inspections and Overall Surveillance ..................................................... 5-197
The Inspection Team ............................................................................. 5-198
Data Collection ....................................................................................... 5-198
Safety Inspection and Evaluation ........................................................... 5-198
Frequency of Safety Inspections ............................................................ 5-199
Inspection / Evaluation Report ............................................................... 5-199
River Surveys ......................................................................................... 5-199
River channel morphology and meandering ....................................... 5-200
5.17 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT ................................................................ 5-204
Discharge measurement of off-taking canals ......................................... 5-204
Instructions on discharge measurement ................................................ 5-204
Discharge measurements required at a barrage .................................... 5-204
Direct observation of discharges ............................................................ 5-205
Distances across the section for determination of partial areas of the cross ..
section .................................................................................................... 5-207
Previous practice in discharge observation ............................................ 5-208
Recent practices .................................................................................... 5-208
Velocity observations ............................................................................. 5-211
Equipment required for discharge measurements by current meter ....... 5-211
Equipment assemblies ........................................................................ 5-211
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-iv
BARRAGES
Procedure for discharge measurements by boat (using current meter) .... 5-

212
Precautions for use of current meters ................................................. 5-214
Maintenance and rating of current meters .......................................... 5-214
5.18 SEDIMENT MEASUREMENT – SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS.................. 5-215
General .................................................................................................. 5-215
Classes of unstable channels................................................................. 5-215
Sediments in alluvial streams ................................................................. 5-215
Silt sampling at a barrage ...................................................................... 5-216
Required frequency of observations....................................................... 5-217
Location of sites for collection of samples .............................................. 5-217
Collection of water: sediment samples ................................................... 5-217
Equipment required for collecting water samples ................................... 5-217
Precautions for the use of equipment ..................................................... 5-219
Method of sample collection and transportation to the laboratory ....... 5-219
Analysis of samples ............................................................................ 5-220
Equipment required for analysis of sediment samples ........................ 5-222
Analysis Procedure ............................................................................. 5-223
5.19 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE .......................................................... 5-225
Inspection and maintenance .................................................................. 5-225
Upstream and downstream aprons ........................................................ 5-225
Impervious floors .................................................................................... 5-225
Sediment excluding devices ................................................................... 5-225
5.20 MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS............................................................. 5-235
Maintenance Terminology ...................................................................... 5-235
Maintenance during normal operating conditions ................................... 5-236
Maintenance during closure period ........................................................ 5-236
Protection works aprons of main weir, undersluices, divide walls and guide ..
bunds .................................................................................................... 5-237
Additional instructions ............................................................................ 5-238
Responsibility for maintenance .............................................................. 5-238
5.21 RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED .............................................................. 5-240
Log book of routine maintenance ........................................................... 5-240
River Survey Map................................................................................... 5-240
5.22 PERIODIC MONITORING REPORTS....................................................... 5-242
Monitoring During Normal Days ............................................................. 5-242
Piezometers Observations ..................................................................... 5-242
Silt analysis ............................................................................................ 5-244
Silt Depths in pockets and canals .......................................................... 5-244
Hydraulic jump location .......................................................................... 5-244
Observations during flood period ........................................................... 5-246
Observations during post flood period .................................................... 5-246
5.23 PIEZOMETRIC NETWORK AT A BARRAGE AND METHODS OF
OBSERVATIONS, AND DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................... 5-250
The stand pipe type ................................................................................ 5-250
Effect of time lag .................................................................................... 5-250
Method of analysis ................................................................................. 5-251
Layout of Piezometers ........................................................................... 5-251
Standard residual pressures .................................................................. 5-251
Interpretation of seasonal variations ...................................................... 5-251
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-v
BARRAGES
Detection of cavity formation or loose contact under the barrage floor .. 5-252
Vibrating wire peizometers ..................................................................... 5-252
Piezometer Observations ....................................................................... 5-257
5.24 ACCIDENTS ON BARRAGES .................................................................. 5-260
Suggestions for Prevention of Accidents ................................................ 5-260
Boats ...................................................................................................... 5-261
Rafts and other vessels .......................................................................... 5-261
Accidents in workshops .......................................................................... 5-261
Workshop fires ....................................................................................... 5-263
First Aid .................................................................................................. 5-263
5.25 REHABILITATION OF PUNJAB BARRAGES ........................................... 5-264
Introduction ............................................................................................ 5-264
Major issues ........................................................................................... 5-264
Safety Evaluation ................................................................................... 5-264
Analysis and Redesign Proposals .......................................................... 5-264
Taunsa barrage ...................................................................................... 5-265
Jinnah Barrage ....................................................................................... 5-267
Balloki Barrage ....................................................................................... 5-267
Sulemanki Barrage................................................................................. 5-268
Trimmu Barrage ..................................................................................... 5-269
Panjnad Barrage ................................................................................. 5-270
Islam Barrage ..................................................................................... 5-270
Khanki Weir ........................................................................................ 5-270
5.26 BARRAGES FAILURES ............................................................................ 5-271
Introduction ............................................................................................ 5-271
Causes of failure .................................................................................... 5-271
Undermining through piping due to excessive exit gradient ................... 5-271
Eruption / blow up of floor caused by excessive uplift ............................ 5-271
Formation of deep scours ...................................................................... 5-272
Faulty regulation..................................................................................... 5-272
Faulty construction ................................................................................. 5-272
Overtopping............................................................................................ 5-273
Outflanking ............................................................................................. 5-273
Record of failures and remedial measures ......................................... 5-273
Data to be collected in the event of a failure ....................................... 5-273
5.27 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF BARRAGE STAFF ...................... 5-275
Executive Engineer ................................................................................ 5-275
Sub Divisional Officer Head Works ........................................................ 5-276
Sub Engineer Headworks ...................................................................... 5-278
Sub Engineer Hydraulic ......................................................................... 5-279
Sub Engineer Mechanical ...................................................................... 5-280
Head Jamadar........................................................................................ 5-281
Naib Jamadar ......................................................................................... 5-282
Head Boatman ....................................................................................... 5-282
Headworks Mistry................................................................................... 5-283
References: 5-284
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-vi
BARRAGES
List of Tables
Table 5-1: Sheet pile data ....................................................................................... 5-8

Table 5-2: Sand sizes in suspension ..................................................................... 5-24
Table 5-3: Optimum escapages at various excluder ............................................. 5-25
Table 5-4: Loss Coefficient .................................................................................... 5-27
Table 5-5:Radii of upstream guide bank head ....................................................... 5-37
Table 5-6: Minimum Freeboard ............................................................................. 5-61
Table 5-7: Minimum safety factor .......................................................................... 5-66
Table 5-8: Combination of data input for slope stability analysis of embankment . 5-68
Table 5-9: Summarized boundary conditions for design purpose ......................... 5-71
Table 5-10: Protective scour measures ................................................................. 5-72
Table 5-11: Flow characteristics ............................................................................ 5-73
Table 5-12: Medium grains and silt factor ............................................................. 5-74
Table 5-13: Multiplication factors for Lacey method 1930 ..................................... 5-76
Table 5-14: Multiplication factor for CC Inglis method 1940 .................................. 5-77
Table 5-15: Multiplication factors for Neil, Lacey and Blench equation ................. 5-80
Table 5-16: Structure design ................................................................................. 5-80
Table 5-17: Multiplication factors for CC Inglis method (1949) .............................. 5-82
Table 5-18: Kenedy’s velocity ratio ....................................................................... 5-83
Table 5-19: Recommended scour depth methods ................................................ 5-84
Table 5-20: Coefficient “E” for Alvarez equation .................................................... 5-85
Table 5-21: Load reduction and strength increase methods ................................. 5-86
Table 5-22: Values of internal friction angle “” for different saturated soils ......... 5-87
Table 5-23: Thickness of stone pitching ................................................................ 5-89
Table 5-24: Wind ratio’s for various fetches .......................................................... 5-97
Table 5-25: Wave height versus fetch and wind velocity ....................................... 5-99
Table 5-26: Reduction in discharge coefficient due to submergence .................. 5-128
Table 5-27: Reduction factor for ‘c’ per Gibson’s curve ....................................... 5-128
Table 5-28: Cc for tainter gate ............................................................................. 5-130
Table 5-29: Stilling basin length coefficient ......................................................... 5-139
Table 5-30: Weighted creep ratio ........................................................................ 5-152
Table 5-31: Lane’s creep coefficients and Khosla’s safe exit gradients .............. 5-153
Table 5-32: Value of Slope Correction ................................................................ 5-158
Table 5-33: Recommended raising rates for pond level ...................................... 5-176
Table 5-34: Recommend rates for lowering of pond............................................ 5-176
Table 5-35: Variation of discharge coefficient ‘C’ due to drowning ratio d/H ....... 5-177
Table 5-36: Classification of sediment according to size ..................................... 5-221
Table 5-37: Maintenance..................................................................................... 5-235
Table 5-38: Details of piezometers installed in the barrage ................................. 5-256
Table 5-39: Proforma for recording observations of piezometers (stand pipes) .. 5-258
Table 5-40: Sample table for v.w. piezometers observational record (system
output) ................................................................................................................. 5-259
Table 5-41: Barrages identified for rehabilitation ................................................. 5-264
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-vii
BARRAGES
List of Figures
Figure 5-1: Original head regulator of upper Jhelum canal also called Mangla
Headworks (old) ................................................................................................... 5-1
Figure 5-2: Overall views of open weir at Khanki .................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-3: Overall views of Taunsa Barrage .......................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-4: Typical Plan of a Barrage ...................................................................... 5-5
Figure 5-5: Typical Cross through a Barrage .......................................................... 5-6
Figure 5-6: USBR Curve to determine stone size ................................................. 5-20
Figure 5-7: Gradation envelope for apron stone .................................................... 5-21
Figure 5-8: Sediment distribution profile for normal / laminar flow ......................... 5-23
Figure 5-9: Typical plan of an excluder ................................................................. 5-31
Figure 5-10: Typical cross section across an excluder .......................................... 5-32
Figure 5-11: Types and general shapes of guide bunds ....................................... 5-36
Figure 5-12: Typical plan of guide bank ................................................................ 5-38
Figure 5-13: Typical cross section of guide bank .................................................. 5-40
Figure 5-14: Typical details of pitched island ........................................................ 5-42
Figure 5-15: Typical cross sections of marginal bund ........................................... 5-43
Figure 5-16: Typical details of gabions retaining wall ............................................ 5-44
Figure 5-17: Alignment of spurs ............................................................................ 5-47
Figure 5-18: Types of spurs .................................................................................. 5-50
Figure 5-19: Typical details of sloping spurs ......................................................... 5-52
Figure 5-20: Plan of guide head spur .................................................................... 5-55
Figure 5-21: Typical mole head spur with cast-in-place concrete piles ................. 5-56
Figure 5-22: Typical cross section of studs ........................................................... 5-59
Figure 5-23: Design of Freeboard (Reference-7) .................................................. 5-63
Figure 5-24: Embankment phreatic surface (Casagrande’s solution) .................... 5-65
Figure 5-25: Lacey’s method – calculation of scour .............................................. 5-76
Figure 5-26: Chart for estimating Fbo (after blench, 1969) ..................................... 5-79
Figure 5-27: Suggested component mean velocities for significant bed movement of
cohesionless materials (after Neill, 1973).............................................................. 5-81
Figure 5-28: Typical details of stone pitching protection and stone apron ............. 5-88
Figure 5-31: Wave run-up ratios VS wave steepness and embankment slopes (A.T.
Ipen & Muir wood) ................................................................................................. 5-98
Figure 5-32: Typical details of stone pitching protection and stone apron ........... 5-102
Figure 5-33: Energy of flow curves (AMR Montague) ......................................... 5-116
Figure 5-34 (b): Hydraulic jump ........................................................................... 5-117
Figure 5-35: Hydraulic jump curves (AMR Montague)......................................... 5-118
Figure 5-36: Diagram showing observed and computed positions of the hydraulic
jump .................................................................................................................... 5-120
Figure 5-37: Characteristic forms of hydraulic jump related to the Froude number
(USBR Standard 288-D-2423) ............................................................................ 5-123
Figure 5-38: Free flow discharge ......................................................................... 5-129
Figure 5-39: Submerged discharge ..................................................................... 5-131
Figure 5-40: Crumps method for fixing stilling basin level ................................... 5-136
Figure 5-41: Sketch for stilling basin design ........................................................ 5-138
Figure 5-42: Types and details of stilling basins (USBR) .................................... 5-141
Figure 5-43: Types and details of stilling basins .................................................. 5-142
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE 5-viii
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Figure 5-44: Types and details of stilling basins .................................................. 5-143

Figure 5-47: Proportion for Froude number 2.5 to 4.5 – (Basin IV) ..................... 5-147
Figure 5-48: Stilling basin for spillways and barrages ......................................... 5-148
Figure 5-49: Stilling basin for spillways and barrages ......................................... 5-149
Figure 5-50: Khosla’s curves for uplift pressure ................................................. 5-156
Figure 5-51: Uplift correction for floor thickness .................................................. 5-157
Figure 5-52: Mutual interference of piles ............................................................. 5-157
Figure 5-53: Uplift correction for floor slope (A.N. Khosla) .................................. 5-159
Figure 5-54: Exit gradient (A.N. Khosla) .............................................................. 5-164
Figure 5-55: Exit gradient (A.N. Khosla) .............................................................. 5-165
Figure 5-56: Equipotentials and streamlines ....................................................... 5-166
Figure 5-57: Flow Net polygons, approach curvilinear squares ........................... 5-167
Figure 5-58: Flownet sketching by trial and error drawing equipressure lines on two
stream lines ......................................................................................................... 5-168
Figure 5-59: Forchheimer’s flow net under a structure ........................................ 5-169
Figure 5-60: Flow lines under simple floor........................................................... 5-169
Figure 5-61: Determination of seepage discharge, uplift pressure and exit gradient
from flownet ....................................................................................................... 5-171
Figure 5-62: Extent of meandering of river .......................................................... 5-202
Figure 5-63: Key points for determining uplift pressure ....................................... 5-243
Figure 5-64: Graphical presentation of residual pressures under the floor .......... 5-245
Figure 5-65: Schematic diagram of a typical v.w. piezometer ............................. 5-253
Figure 5-66: As-built details of typical vw piezometers in the barrage ................. 5-254
Figure 5-67: Location of Piezometers in the Barrage .......................................... 5-255
Figure 5-68: Photos illustrating Installation of Piezometers at the Barrage ......... 5-256
List of Annexures
Annexure A Sample calculations for embankment safety

Annexure B Sample calculations for wave parameters against embankments of
medium size water bodies
Annexure C Sample calculations for free board of embankments
Annexure D Sample calculations for a typical weir design for surface flow
Annexure E Sample calculations for floor thickness
Annexure F Sample calculation for surface flow design for a canal head
regulator
Annexure G A sample generic/tentative check list for a barrage visit
Annexure H A sample checklist for Site Inspection
Annexure I Manual for v.w. piezometer Model PW
Annexure J Manual for v.w. piezometer Model MB-6T
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5.1 INTRODUCTION TO BARRAGES

Barrages fall in the group of hydraulic structures generally called as Head works.
There is substantial confusion amongst the terms headworks, open weir and barrage.
The following explanation should help in clarifying each term.
Headworks
Any structure or a group of structures which regulate the withdrawal from a river into
a canal is called as “Head works”. Sometimes a “Headworks” is basically a standalone
head regulator placed at the river flank from where a canal takes off; e.g. “Mangla
head works” on the Jhelum River. It is the old/original head regulator of Upper Jhelum
Canal (UJC) placed on the left bank of the Jhelum river as a standalone structure.
After construction of Mangla Dam, the UJC was linked to tail race of Mangla Dam and
this structure (a treat to watch and study) now lies abandoned.
A standalone head regulator is now obsolete and rarely adopted, except as head
regulator of inundation canals, supplemented by periodic dredging
Figure 5-1: Original head regulator of upper Jhelum canal also called Mangla
Headworks (old)
Now a day “Headworks” is a general term and includes the other two types of
regulators i.e. open weirs and barrages introduced in the following.
Open Weir
At locations where the river water level has to be raised to feed an off-taking canal, a
hump or an ungated barrier is provided across the river channel to raise the water level
in the river channel. Mostly it is without gates but at some locations where it is
advisable to keep the hump crest low, shutters or flash boards are provided. A real
example is old Khanki Weir, which is now being replaced with a new barrage.
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Figure 5-2: Overall views of open weir at Khanki

Barrage
A barrage is a structure constructed across a river channel to raise water level to feed
the off-taking canals, with permanent regulating gates. The barrage differs with the
open weir only in that the latter has no provision of regulation gates.
A barrage can also be defined as “A barrier provided with a series of gates across the
river to regulate the water surface level and flow patterns on the upstream of the barrier
and for other purposes, distinguished from an open weir in that it is gated over its entire
length and may or may not have a raised crest / sill”.
Figure 5-3: Overall views of Taunsa Barrage

In some European countries such as France and Austria, dams are also referred to as
Barrages because the dams have a gated spill way. In Pakistan and South Asia this
European definition is not used.
Comparison between the open weir and barrage
The merits and demerits of an Open Weir
5.1.4.1 Merits
1. An open weir is economical if the river channel banks are high enough to
contain the afflux or only low protection embankments are likely to be sufficient.
Such conditions do not exist anywhere in Pakistan.
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2. Regulation gates are necessary in undersluices only. The rest of the structure
has only a raised crest or small shutters / flash boards, no more than 6’ in
height.
5.1.4.2 Demerits
1. High crest level induces heavy silting on the upstream.
2. The flow patterns cannot be controlled as needed.
3. There has to be a trade-off between High Flood Level (HFL) and Normal Pond
Level (NPL).
4. Operation of shutters is cumber some and sometimes even dangerous.
5. No bridge is available for trans river movement of heavy equipment for
emergencies.
6. The trolley system is hazardous, even for inspecting personnel.
7. Since the shutters can be operated in groups only, the discharge intensities
with in a bay differ radically i.e. zero in some (shutters up) part and maximum
in the others (shutters down). This imbalance of discharge intensity stresses
the downstream glacis and stilling basin differently in different sections which is
hazardous and should not be accepted.
An open weir is now not favoured and has been phased out in favor of a barrage.
Merits and Demerits of a Barrage
5.1.5.1 Merits
1. With low crest levels, the afflux is also low and manageable.
2. With regulation gates provided in the entire length, flow patterns can be
controlled as required through judicious operation of gates.
3. Discharge intensities can be regulated in different sections of the barrage, as
necessary.
4. The barrage always has a road bridge and in some cases, a railway bridge also
(e.g. Taunsa and Panjnad barrages) to facilitate all types of traffic.
5. With a bridge in place, movement of maintenance material, equipment and
machinery is facilitated.
5.1.5.2 Demerits
The only disfavoring element is a slightly higher cost but it is more than offset by the
advantages the barrage possesses over other competitive type (open weir).
Selection of Type of Structure
In view of the above, the barrage has become a structure of choice and is now the
most favored intervention for feeding the off-takes and river channel control.
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5.2 COMPONENTS OF A BARRAGE

The main component structures of a barrage are shown in Figs. 5-4 & 5-5 and
introduced in the following paragraphs:
Main Weir
Main weir, also termed as river sluices in Sindh and some parts of India, is the gated
part of the barrage with raised crest and is the main structure through which the river
flow patterns and levels are controlled. It is separated from the undeslucies by a divide
wall.
Undersluices
Short flank sections of a barrage, with low crest and sometimes a silt excluder and
separated from the main weir by a divide wall are called undersluices. These regulate
the discharge through the stilling pocket from which the canals are fed. The crest level
of underslucies is generally 3 to 5 feet lower than that of the main weir to facilitate
flushing the silt deposited in the pocket due to stilling effects.
Silt Excluder
It is a structural device constructed in the pocket in front of the canal regulators to
exclude the heavier grades of silt from entering the canals. It usually consists of a
series of RC tunnels, placed in front of the canal head regulators at right angles to the
barrage gate line.
Divide Walls
These are the walls constructed at right angle to the barrage gate line, starting from
the gate line and extending usually to the end of the canal regulators to separate the
undersluice pocket from the main weir, thus facilitating desired regulating steps to
control canal withdrawals and sediment control in off-taking canals.
Fish Ladder
Fish ladder (also called fish way or fish pass) is a structural device provided in the
barrage / weir / a diversion structure to facilitate the movement of fish (specially
migrating species) across the diversion structure. It comprises several chambers
arranged in a cascade of small drops to control the range of flow velocities within the
limits prescribed for the types of fish that are expected to use it.
Other Main Component Structures
The main hydraulic structures of the barrage comprise impermeable upstream floor,
crest block and downstream floor / stilling basin. The PCC blocks (inverted filters) and
flexible protection in the form of stone aprons both on upstream and downstream of
the impermeable structure. For details referred to sections 5.3.9 and 5.3.10.
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Figure 5-4: Typical Plan of a Barrage

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Figure 5-5: Typical Cross through a Barrage

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5.2.6.1 Navigation Lock

Navigation lock is a passage (about 20 to 40 ft wide) located on the weir side of the
divide wall to facilitate the crossing of the barrage by Boats or other aquatic vehicles
(timber tallas etc) by filling and emptying the lock chamber with two regulating gates.
5.2.6.2 Piers
Piers are the walls that support the road, railway and regulating bridge decks and
regulating gates. These are normally founded on wells, piles or reinforced raft floor,
house the gate grooves and facilitate the up and down movement (lifting and lowering)
of regulating gates.
5.2.6.3 Upstream Floor
Upstream floor of a barrage is an impervious membrane to cut off vertical ingress of
water from the upstream pond to the foundation alluvium / sub-structure aquifer. It also
lengthens the seepage path / creep length across the barrage structure.
5.2.6.4 Crest Block
The crest block comprises upstream glacis, crest and downstream glacis.
5.2.6.5 Crest
Crest is the top strip of the structure that supports the gates and serves as the flow
supporting surface.
5.2.6.6 Upstream Glacis
The sloping portion of the crest block upstream of the crest.
5.2.6.7 Downstream Glacis
The sloping portion of the crest block downstream of the crest.
5.2.6.8 Downstream Floor / Stilling Basin
The impervious depressed part of the floor downstream of the crest block that
accommodates the hydraulic jump and subsequent turbulence to facilitate dissipation
of energy of flow in converting the super critical flow into sub critical flow to protect the
downstream channel from undue bank erosions and bed scours.
5.2.6.9 Cut-offs
Cut-off walls are provided at the junction of two sections of concrete structure to cut
seepage line or mitigate local scour of small depths, normally up to 8 ft. Cut-off walls
may be constructed in masonry or concrete depending on the site requirements.
5.2.6.10 Sheet Pile Walls
Sheet pile walls are provided where the structure has to be boxed or cut-offs of more
than 8’ are required. Sheet pile walls installed under the structure, in addition to boxing
also meet the requirements of mitigating scours, controlling uplift pressures and
reducing exit gradients. The depth of the sheet pile walls and the type / section of
sheet pile are adopted on the basis of relevant design calculations. Table 5-1 lists the
type / sections or their equivalents suitable for various encountered and effective
depths. Sheet pile walls are properly designed for various depths.
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Table 5-1: Sheet pile data

Elasti
c
Momen Suitabl
Heigh sectio
Width Thickness Mass t of e for
t n
inertia depth
Type modul
us
Singl wall
b h t s Cm3/
e pile kg/m cm4/m (ft)
AU mm mm mm mm m
kg/m 2
AU 14 750 408 10.0 8.3 77.9 103. 28680 1405 14-16

8
AU 16 750 411 11.5 9.3 86.3 115. 32850 1600 17-19
0
AU 18 750 441 10.5 9.1 88.5 118. 39300 1780 20-22
0
AU 20 750 444 12.0 10. 96.9 129. 44440 2000 23-25
0 2
Source: M/s. Arcellor Mittal manufacturers –Luxemburg, Germany
5.2.6.11 Inverted Filter
Inverted filter comprises a layer or combination of layers (normally 4) of graded
pervious material designed and placed in such a manner as to provide dissipation of
residual energy of subsurface flow and upward drainage but preventing the movement
of fine soil particles from underneath the impervious floor.
5.2.6.12 PCC Blocks
PCC blocks are plain concrete blocks placed on top of the inverted filter to weigh it
down. These are provided in two sections, separated by a cut off wall; one is a part of
the inverted filter and the second a settling portion preceding the loose stone apron.
PCC blocks are also provided upstream of the upstream floor to support anti-scour
protection provided by the loose stone apron.
5.2.6.13 PCC Block Apron/Settling Blocks
This component consist of PCC blocks placed on a proper filter between inverted filter
and loose stone apron. This provides an additional pervious protection to the structure.
5.2.6.14 Loose Stone Apron
As the name implies, loose stone apron is a pervious protection against bed scour that
launches into the scour and protects the impervious structure, both on the upstream
and downstream sides.
5.2.6.15 Abutments
These are retaining walls placed located on both flanks of the structure to act basically
as an end pier and retain the backfill earth.
5.2.6.16 Wing Walls
The wing walls are constructed as continuation of the abutment to provide a transition
between the vertical abutment and sloping guide bank. These may be simply splayed
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out walls or flared out walls (also called warped walls) and facilitate the expansion of
flow from the end of abutment to the guide bank width/profile.
5.2.6.17 Gauge Wells
Gauge wells are provided on both flanks to facilitate reading of water level. They are
generally rectangular in plan, with stairs leading to the observation point from the top
pavement.
Recently, water level sensors have been provided at some barrages as pilot
undertaking. If successful, they may replace the gauge wells which are expensive to
construct and maintain.
Canal Head Regulators
The canal head regulator is a structure similar to a barrage constructed on the river
flank to regulate the water supplies let into the canal (withdrawals).
Subsidiary Weir
A subsidiary weir is a concrete weir constructed to raise the water level on the
downstream of a barrage to a value required to counter the effects of retrogression of
levels i.e. produce an adequate depth on the downstream of the barrage for formation
of hydraulic jump at proper location. It is needed at only those barrages that are
affected by extraordinary retrogression of levels.
Bridge Decks
These include the decks of highway, railway or maintenance bridge to facilitate the
trans- river road traffic, railway bridge to facilitate the railway operations and regulating
bridge deck for movement of gate operation /maintenance staff and required
equipment.
Mechanical and Electrical Works
Mechanical and electrical works at a barrage comprise:
a) Regulating gates;
b) Hoists and gearing and related gadgets;
c) Electric motors, pumps, lighting and wiring circuits;
d) Electric transmission and distribution lines and circuits;
e) Transmitters and receivers for piezometer readings.
Appurtenant Works
5.2.11.1 Chute Blocks
These are triangular concrete blocks, provided at the toe of downstream glacis for
energy dissipation.
5.2.11.2 Friction Blocks or Baffle Piers
These are cubical or trapezoidal or arrow shaped RC blocks provided in the stilling
basin for dissipation of energy.
5.2.11.3 End Sill or End Baffle
It is a raised trapezoidal RCC obstruction placed at the end of the stilling basin to
enhance energy dissipation by providing additional flow depth in the stilling basin (d 2).
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Operation and Control Room

Operation and control rooms are generally two roomed accommodation for instrument
data and analysis, remote control systems like SCADA and piezometer loggers.
Pressure Pipes / Piezometers
These are pipes with screened ends embedded in the substructure alluvium to read
uplift pressures under the barrage structure. Recently this old contraption is being
replaced with electronic vibrating wire devices that are easier to read and analyze, by
using system built models and software.
Pressure Release Wells
Pressure release wells may be perforated pipes or ducts installed to release pressures
built up under the structures or toe of embankment dams. Normally these are not
needed at barrages founded on homogeneous sandy alluvium. However these had to
be provided at Rasul barrage due to pressure variations caused by clay lenses in the
foundation alluvium. These have also been provided downstream of Chashma barrage
but without any definite need, and have over the years got clogged and became
ineffective.
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5.3 ALLIED WORKS

Guide Banks
These are training and protection earthen embankments armored with stone
constructed at both the flanks (in continuation of the abutment and wing/warped/flared
out walls) to guide the flow through the barrage.
Marginal Bunds
These are embankments or dykes constructed to prevent the outflanking of the
barrage and flooding of country side effected by rise in river water levels due to
construction of the barrage. In some countries, these are also termed as “Afflux
Bunds”. They normally extend from the barrage up to the backwater limit of the
barrage.
River Training Works
Any structural or non-structural interventions provided to train or guide the river flow
into a desired channel or direction is referred to as a river training work. The river
training works include:
1. Guide banks
2. Groynes
3. Studs
4. Spurs
5. Pitched Island
a. Guide banks have already been introduced above.
b. The groynes are embankments, earthen or armored, anchored to a
protection work or a high point and protrude into the active river plain /
Khadir to facilitate diversion of river current to a desired direction. For
that matter, cunnettes can also be classified as training works.
c. Studs are very short groynes either armored or constructed as a solid
stone structure.
d. Spurs are properly designed longer groynes with armored heads /
leading noses. They are of various shapes and types with different
hydraulic characteristics. Types and shapes are selected in line with site
specific requirements and can be categorized as:
i. Attracting spurs
ii. Repelling spurs
iii. Capturing / holding spurs
These can be subdivided as:
a. Earthen unprotected groynes / diversion embankments
b. Bar spurs
c. Mole headed spurs
d. Sloping spurs
e. Tee-headed spurs
f. Hockey spurs
g. Inverted hockey spurs
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h. Tee cum hockey spur

i. Tee cum hockey sloping spurs
j. J-head spurs
k. Guide headed spurs
l. Y-configuration spurs
There are several other structures that can be classified as allied works such as
workshops, pump houses, etc.
Divide Wall
The divided wall is similar to a pier and is provided between the under sluice and the
main weir. Its main functions are:
1. Its separates the turbulent weir flows from comparatively tranquil flow in the
pocket in front of the canal head. It also prevents heavy disturbance which
would otherwise result on account of the water in the two parts being at different
levels.
2. It helps in checking parallel flow which would be caused by the formation of
deep channels leading from the river to the pocket in front of the sluices. If
parallel currents still form, the divided wall keeps them away from the floor of
the diversion structure and from the upstream and downstream flexible
protections.
The length of the divide wall on the upstream side has to be such as to keep the heavy
action on the nose of wall away from the upstream protection of the sluices and also
to provide deep still water pond in front of the canal head regulator. The divide wall
also plays an important role in the control of silt entry into the canal by enclosing a
pocket of nearly still water and by separating it from turbulence of the main river.
Similarly on the downstream side, it should be sufficiently long to guard against action
set up by the undersluice discharge damaging the main weirs flexible apron.
The top of the divided wall on the upstream side near the diversion structure is always
kept above the pond level with 3 feet freeboard. Beyond some safe distance, the top
of divide wall can be lowered (subject to stability requirements).However; this should
be based on the results of model tests.
The divided walls, both on the upstream and downstream sides are separated from
the raft by joints and have their own foundations. Concrete cut-offs or sheet piles, as
the case may be, are inserted along both the faces of the divided wall foundations and
join up with the main sheet piles. Sometimes some portion of the upstream or
downstream end of the divide wall rests over well foundation.
While the final lengths and alignments of the divide walls are to be determined by
hydraulic model tests, the following guidelines help in the initial selection of the length,
height, width etc.
i. Experiments conducted at the Research Stations indicate that a divide wall
should not extend beyond the upstream end of the canal head regulator.
ii. The length of downstream divide wall should be such as to prevent the
development of any parallel flow along the structure under, various flood
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stages. Usually the downstream divide wall is extended up to the end of the
downstream apron.
iii. The upstream divide wall may also have a length that keeps the heavy attack
on its nose away from the upstream protection of the sluice bays.
iv. The curvature of the river at the site of head-works plays an important part in
determining the length of the divide wall. Thus, if the pocket lies on the outer
side of permanent approach curve, the length of the divide wall may be
reduced; otherwise, it may do more harm than good.
Piers
Piers are support walls provided between any two adjacent bays. The gates operate
through the grooves provided in the pier sides. Usually there are two grooves, the
upstream one is called the stoplog groove and the downstream one is called the main
gate or service gate groove. Sometimes there may be a third groove also for
emergency purposes. The bridge of the gate-hoisting mechanism is also installed over
the piers. Wherever necessary, dummy piers are provided in between the main piers
to add load on the floor against uplift pressure. Sometime to reduce the size of the
gates, dummy piers are introduced between the main piers.
The piers are constructed either monolithic with the floor (raft) or made independent
with their own foundations. In the latter case, seals are provided all around to prevent
leakage between the floor and the piers.
The thickness of pier varies from 5’ for canal head regulators and 7’-10’ for the barrage.
The thickness should be adequate to resist the moments created and also
accommodate the embedded parts for the main gate and stoplog grooves.
The upstream cut-water usually has a semicircular shape and downstream ease-water
has an equilateral, trough shape with circular curves. The upstream and downstream
vertical ends are sometime given a batter of 1 in 20 depending on the architectural
requirements.
The piers have to be high enough to hold the gates clear off the maximum flood while
making ample allowance for passing the floating debris under the gate. The height of
the piers should also be viewed from any additional dead weight required while
computing the overall stability of the structure. The height of the pier in the zone where
gate hoisting mechanism are located, is usually higher than the other zones and it
constructed with the same material as the rest of pier, i.e. concrete or masonry. But in
earthquake regions, constructing higher portion of the pier with concrete or masonry
is to be avoided so that extra earthquake horizontal moments are avoided. Instead,
steel trestles of required height can be erected so that the moments are reduced due
to light weight structure. In locations where fixed wheels are provided for gate
movement, it is customary to provide an inspection gallery in the pier with approach
from top of the pier. The detailed design of piers as is clear from the above narration
is quite complicated and beyond the scope of this treatise.
Abutments
The abutments are the end structures of the diversion structures and their layout
depends on the project features and topography of the site. The length of the abutment
is generally kept the same as the length of the floor. The top of the abutment should
have adequate free board above the upstream and downstream water levels. From
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upstream to downstream the top of the abutment may be sloping or stepped. The
thickness of the abutment must be adequate to accommodate the grooves as well as
and bridge bearings. Due to different intensities of loading and to avoid damages due
to any possible differential settlement, generally the abutments may be divided into
different blocks such as upstream, gate bridge, road bridge, downstream blocks etc.
Each block is separated from the other by joints and provided with seals both vertically
and horizontally. The top slab of the foundation block of the abutment usually forms
part of the raft of the end bay adjacent to the abutment and separated from the raft by
longitudinal joint provided with seals. The foundation of the abutments should be at
least at the same levels as those of the floor of the Main diversion structure and
preferably a little lower. The foundation of the abutments should provide a boxing of
the diversion structure. Cross cut-off or sheet piles are continued from upstream to the
downstream end of the floor and are well connected to the upstream and downstream
cut-offs or sheet pile lines.
The abutments of the barrage and the regulators are designed as reinforced concrete
retaining walls with counterforts. The vertical face of the wall is considered as a
continuous slab supported by counterforts. The lower section is loaded most heavily
and thickness diminishes towards the top. The base of the counterforts is also
considered as a slab, spanning across the counterforts. The front face of the wall is
provided with a small batter to allow for any small differential settlement of the base
owing to earth pressure behind the wall. The earth pressure acting on the wall is
calculated using the conventional soil mechanics methods, and the stability of the wall
is checked for safety against overturning and sliding.
Fish Ladder
Fish ladder is provided to enable the migratory fish to move across the barrage from
downstream to upstream and vice versa. It is located near the divide wall in view of
the availability of water throughout the year in the river downstream of the under
sluices. Fish ladders are also called as fish ways or fish passes in several countries.
There are several types of fish ladders such as pool and jet fish-way; paired obstacle
fish way; alternate obstacle fish way; Denil fish way and others. A brief description of
each follows:
5.3.7.1 Alternate Obstacle Fishway
Alternate obstacle Fishway is generally a straight rectangular channel with obstacles
or baffles placed alternatively along the sides producing a jet deflection in the
horizontal plane. This type of fishway has been built in an almost unlimited variety of
baffle shapes, spacing and angles. The flow is confined to a zig-zag path which is
much longer than the fishway. The width of passage is effectively less than its
measured width because of its tortuous form. Velocities are sharply localized for mild
slopes, this type performs quite satisfactorily. Compared with Denil type, equal number
of fish use both these two types.
The Denil fishway which incorporates side as for energy dissipation and is generally
adaptable to any particular set of local conditions and requirements.
The Denil and Pool and Submerged Orifice fishways are generally recommended for
slopes upto 25 percent and heights upto about 2 ft. When the velocity increases, by a
proper reduction of the slope, the size of the fishway could be adjusted. Paired
Obstacle Fish way adopts itself to a considerable range of head water elevation.
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Where the majority of fish is of the catfish variety, Denil type may be advantageous.
An Alternate Obstacle Type may be preferable for herbivorous variety.
5.3.7.2 Selection of Type
Considering the various factors and site conditions, the alternate obstacles type has
been provided at almost all the barrages in Pakistan.
5.3.7.3 Design Requirement
The success of a Fish ladder in attracting the migratory fish primarily depends on its
location. A number of factors such as physical features of the section, the height to be
overcome and the available water supply may influence the design of a fish way.
The design of a fish way involves collection and analysis of different types of data and
prevalent fish habits. The design is complicated and beyond the scope of this manual,
however brief guidelines are recorded below. Interested readers may refer to, Design
of fishway by Dr. Mushtaq and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual.
In order to keep the velocity of water emanating from the fish entrance constant
(approximately 6 ft./see). Irrespective of the upstream and downstream water levels,
it is arranged such as downstream water level rises and progressively drowns the
lower pools additional water can be supplied from a separate supply channel through
a system of ducts and chimneys controlled by sluice valves. The velocity can be
maintained at a predetermined level.
The hydraulic design of the fish ladder entails producing flows, velocity and flow
pattern attractive for the fish to travel upstream without difficulty. Upstream water level
is pond level and allowance is made for possible minor variations in levels.
Downstream water level depends on the conditions in the river. Maximum and
minimum values likely to occur during the period when the fish are migrating are
selected to correspond to the limits of flows expected in the river at that time.
The fish ladder parts (starting from the downstream end) are:
i. Fish entrance and entrance section
ii. Pool and weir section, part below maximum downstream water level and part
above it. Control pool with constant water level, between orifice and their
section
iii. Exit section of pool and orifice
iv. Supply channel for adding water; this runs parallel to and adjacent to the fish
ladder.
5.3.7.4 Fish Entrance Section
The fish entrance should be a vertical slot about 4 feet wide. Velocity of water through
entrance slot is around 6 feet per second for all probable downstream water levels.
This velocity, together with the accompanying fall in water level (about one foot) should
serve to attract fish from the river to the fish ladder. Inside the entrance section, water
is supplied from the supply channel through four control gates and diffusers. This water
supplements the flow for fish ladder and provides the required velocity through the fish
entrance.
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5.3.7.5 Pool and Weir Section

A fall of 9’’ to one foot per pool may be selected. Both weirs and orifices is provided to
suit local fish having various habits. Velocities over weirs and through the orifices
should be around four to six feet per second respectively.
By a suitable arrangement of ducts and chimneys, water is fed from the supply channel
through diffusers of pools, drowned by the downstream water level, i.e. when the
downstream water level is above the normal water level in the pool. In this way the
velocity at the entrance may be kept more or less constant and the velocity in the
drowned section of the fish ladder is itself sufficient to attract the fish upstream.
5.3.7.6 Control Pool
Water level in this pool is maintained at a constant level by adding more or less water
direct from the pond. In this way, flow in the non-submerged part of the ladder section
is kept steady.
5.3.7.7 Exit Section
The orifices are staggered in successive baffles to effect good energy dissipation.
Velocity through the orifices varies with the pond level from about 3 ½ to 5 ½ feet per
second.
5.3.7.8 Supply Channel
The supply channel carries water from the pond to be fed through the chimneys into
the weir pools when required and water to be fed into the entrance section.
Water level in the supply channel is controlled by a gate at the upstream end of the
channel and is maintained at a level 3 feet above downstream water level at all times
the fish ladder is in operation, i.e. 2 feet above water level in the entrance section.
The chimneys are designed to pass the required amount of water through the diffusers
under this head.
The level of the top of each chimney is fixed so that water starts/begins to flow through
chimneys when the water level in the entrance section rises to a level 1 foot below the
normal water level of the pool fed by that chimney and reaches a constant value when
the water level in the entrance section rises a further 2 feet.
5.3.7.9 Fish Ladder Operation
Gates of the four openings from the supply channel to the entrance section are
adjusted at minimum downstream water level to give the desired entrance velocity.
The water level in the supply channel is maintained 3 feet above the downstream water
level by reference to float gauges in still wells connected to the river downstream and
to the supply channel respectively.
Water level in the control pool is maintained at constant level by adjustment of a gate
opening leading direct to the pond by reference to a float gauge in still well connected
to the control pool.
Any silt deposited should collect at the downstream end of the supply channel. A gated
opening has been provided in the downstream end wall to enable this silt to be washed
out from time to time.
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5.3.7.10 Flow Calculations

Flow through the fish ladder maybe calculated using the following formulae:
Flow over weir Q = C.L.H3/2 ............... 5-1
Flow through orifice Q = Cd .A (2gh) ............... 5-2
1/2
where in:
C = Coefficient of discharge for weir overflow condition normally taken as
3.09-3.3
h = Working head at the submerged orifice
L = length of notches in feet
H = total head in feet (including head of velocity of approach)
Cd = coefficient of discharge taken as 0.63 for small openings and as 0.65 for
large openings.
A = area of orifice in square feet.
It must be mentioned that in problems of this kind the actual flow patterns are complex
and depend in part on the interaction of one section on its neighbors.
It is therefore, important, that approximate computed results are verified by suitable
model tests.
Navigation Lock
This has been introduced in an early paragraph. It facilitates the passage of different
types of water craft across the barrage. Latest lock designs envisage several attributes
but mostly the simple reinforced concrete type has been adopted in Pakistan. The
detailed design is complicated and beyond the scope of this manual. However the
design should provide the following basic requirements for operation:
i. Sufficient depth for movement of crafts in the navigation channel and lock.
ii. Adequate widths in the channel and lock for maneuvering of crafts at the
desired speeds.
iii. Freedom from hazardous currents; and
iv. A minimum required time for the passage through the lock. The hydraulic
design generally ensures adequate of water supply for lockage, fix top level of
the components of the structure, provide approach structures, provide efficient
filling and emptying system and to fix other necessary feature. It is always
desirable to conduct hydraulic model test to accomplish lockages with
reasonable and avoid excessive turbulence and hawser stresses.
5.3.8.1 Lock Dimensions
The size of the lock depends on the size of the largest water craft or boat, it is designed
to accommodate. Suitable clearances are provided to allow the vessel to negotiate the
lock safely. The minimum clearances required are usually 3 ft. on each side.
5.3.8.2 Structural Design
The lock walls are usually monoliths and joints are provided between them. They are
located according to the requirements of the particular element that the monolith
supports or contains. Each monolith should be completely stable without depending
upon the adjacent units for support. The length of a monolith is generally less than 50
ft. The length of monoliths containing the gate anchorage, valves, filling and emptying
system components and other machinery may be more.
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Stability at all horizontal planes of the structure where either the applied loads or the
section change abruptly as well as the stress conditions at points where other planes
of weakness may be anticipated should be checked. Usually analysis is done for unit
length of wall. However the monoliths subjected to gate loads, line pulls, vessel impact
etc and loaded in more than one axis, are analyzed as a whole. The stability of the
lock walls is checked for three different conditions, namely (i) Normal operating
condition taking into account the worst combination of loads during o complete lockage
cycle, (ii) Extreme operating, maintenance and emergency condition taking into
account unusual loads such as vessel impact, extreme operating saturation levels,
drawdowns, earthquakes, etc. Safety factors and stresses could be relaxed in this
condition and (ii) Construction condition taking into account earth pressures with or
without uplift and surcharge loads. The analysis has to be done for the worst
combination of the loads and moments.
PCC Blocks / Inverted Filter
As a transition between the impervious floors and the pervious protection, an inverted
filter is provided. It generally consists of 4ft x 4ft x 4ft concrete blocks resting on the
graded filter. There are small gaps (jharies) between the Blocks so that the residual
pressure from underneath the barrage could be released through the inverted filter
and joints without dislocating the blocks.
The filter is graded so as to permit free movement of water but prevent the movement
of fine particles of soil. It consists of four layers of (i) coarse sand, (ii) shingle or stone
crush ¼” to ¾”, (iii) ¾” to 1½” and (iv) 1½” to 3” each 6” thick resting directly on the
bed soil. This filter bed of layers of increasing porosity, from bottom to top, is protected
by the heavy concrete blocks (with open joints) against the action of surface flow. The
length of this section is one half of the length of stilling basin.
PCC Block Apron or Settling Blocks
The length of this apron depends on the depth of scour which is calculated using the
Lacey’s formula, i.e.
1
 q2  3
R  0.9 x   ............... 5-3
 f 
where:
R = Lacey’s regime depth
q = discharge per foot width with 20% concentration.
f = silt factor
For calculation of the length of block apron, the scour factor of 1.25 for the upstream
apron and 1.5-1.75 for the downstream apron is used. To calculate horizontal length
of block aprons, factors of 1.0 and 1.5 are used for upstream and the downstream
aprons respectively. Application or otherwise of discharge concentration should be
decided based on the site conditions.
These blocks are also called as “Settling Blocks”.
Cut-Off Walls
Concrete cut-off walls of 8’ height are provided as separators between the two block
aprons and the loose stone apron. These walls are provided with, have the standard
minimum steel reinforcement.
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Loose Stone Aprons

Permeable and flexible protections in the form of a loose stone apron are provided on
the upstream of the upstream PCC block apron and downstream of the downstream
PCC block apron to mitigate the local scour.
For determining the maximum local scour, the methods based on “the regime”
approach shall be used and results should be checked and compared with Unites
States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) and other developed methods described in the
scour data.
The launching slope of the stone apron is assumed between 2H:1V and 3H:1V,
depending upon the characteristics of river bed material. The thickness of apron when
fully launched should be not less than three (3) feet depending upon the discharge
intensity.
The stone size/weight is determined by using USBR curve (Figs. 5-6 and 5-7) for
velocity versus stone size at the average velocity for the maximum design discharge
intensity. Weight of the stone is taken at 165 lbs/ft3.
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Figure 5-6: USBR Curve to determine stone size

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Figure 5-7: Gradation envelope for apron stone

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The length and thickness of the loose stone apron is determined by assumption of the
following conditions:
 Apron will launch to a slope between 2H:1V and 3H:1V depending upon the
characteristics of the river bed material.
 Thickness of stone apron when launched should not be less than 3 feet.
The stone size limits are depicted in Fig. 5-6.
The hyperbolic curve contained in this Fig. has been plotted with the data observed
for various prototypes and laboratory tests. Its locus can also be traced using the
following equation established by N.K. Berry and adopted by USBR.
𝑽𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟕√𝒅 ............... 5-4
where
Vb = Bottom velocity in the channel in FPS; and
d = Stone particle diameter in inches
with specific gravity of 2.65.
Another equation by Mavis & Laushly given below yields similar results.
𝟏
𝑽𝒃 = 𝟐 √𝒅𝟏 √𝒔 − 𝟏 ............... 5-5
where
d1 = Diameter of stone particle in mm
S = specific gravity of the stone particle.
The scour factor for aprons varies from 1.25 to 1.75 for the upstream and from 1.75 to
2.25 for the downstream aprons. Application or otherwise of discharge concentration
is decided on the basis of site conditions.
Flared Out Walls
As already introduced in section, the flared out warped walls are counterfort type
retaining walls with a compound slope on the water side to provide a transition from
vertical face of the abutments and the wing wall to guide bank sloping face (2:1 slope).
Silt Excluder
The idea of silt excluder was originally presented by Mr. H. V. Elsden, whose paper,
published in 1922, first brought the idea of silt excluder before the Punjab Engineers.
The basic principle on which silt excluders are designed lies in the fact that in a flowing
stream carrying silt in suspension, the concentration of silt in the lower layers is greater
than in the upper ones. Consequently if we can escape the lower water without
interfering with the silt distribution, the remaining water will have less silt in it per unit
volume, than the water upstream of the escape structure/excluder.
Fig. 5-8 exhibits the distribution of sediment charge in laminar or regime flow, bottom
up in percentage for various types of soils/sediment sizes (sediment grades). It
establishes that larger the size of sediment, remains closer to bed. However it is
different for finer grades of 30 microns or less. This fine sediment remains in
suspension and the distribution is more or less uniform over the whole depth of flow.
Soil particles of these sizes thus do not settle in the canals as well and are carried to
the off-takes where velocity is the only criterion for their settlement.
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Figure 5-8: Sediment distribution profile for normal / laminar flow

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This Fig. 5-8 also shows that coarse grades / sizes remain in the lower half, generally
below 40% of depth, with maximum intensity and grade at the bottom.
These indicate that given the conditions of laminar flow the coarse or settling grades /
sizes can be escaped through the excluder tunnel openings by as much as 95% of the
percentage of exclusion for various sizes / grades being (approximate) as depicted in
the following table 5-2:
Table 5-2: Sand sizes in suspension
Type of Sediment Size %age at 40% depth
up from bottom
Very find sand 62 to 125 microns 65%
Fine sand 125 to 250 microns 65%
Medium sand 250 to 500 microns 80%
Coarse sand 500 to 1 mm (1000 microns) 92%
Very coarse sand > 1 mm (1000 microns) 95%
These percentages are however approximate but give a fair idea of sediment
distribution in a vertical plane for a laminar/close to laminar flow.
Elsden's design for effecting this, comprised a regulator divided into two portions by
means of a horizontal diaphragm over which the upper water guided into the canal
while the heavily silt laden lower water passed through tunnels to waste. With
modification in detail, this form of construction is found in all excluders constructed to
date.
Elsden also advanced the idea that the amount of silt entering the canal might be
regulated by varying the supply passing through the lower tunnels. He also suggested
the need of a hinged flap at the upper end of the diaphragm, in order that the line of
separation of the two streams might be varied to permit the separation to take place
without disturbance, of the approaching flow. This idea being impractical did not find
favour with the hydraulic engineers and was dropped/abandoned.
Elsden died shortly after publishing his paper and for many years his ideas remained
untested in practice. However, they were not lost sight of. Messers King and Gram
prepared a very elaborate design for an excluder for the Headworks of the Lower
Chenab Canal at Khanki, about 1926, which was based on Elsden's principles. The
chief feature of this design was that the diaphragm was to cover half the undersluice
pocket.
The construction of the first excluder at Khanki was followed by rapid development on
the Upper Jhelum Canal, where Mr. Crump designed and built three extractors and
two excluders. The distinction between an extractor and an excluder, is that the latter
is placed at the head of the canal in the pocket and consequently excludes a proportion
of the silt from the water before it enters the canal, while the former being placed at
some distance down the canal extracts or ejects silt which has entered the canal.
The excluders located on the Bong and Jaba level crossings, exclude the torrent silt
from the canal and follow the Khanki type more closely, but considerably more care is
taken in the design of the tunnel and their orifices to secure uniformity of velocity of
the escapage across the canal, at the line of separation.
After Khanki two more improved excluders have been constructed at Trimmu and
Kalabagh Barrages. These structures are briefly introduced in the following:
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5.3.14.1 Khanki Type Silt Excluder

Two undersluice bays adjacent to the regulators were used for the construction of this
excluder in which three tunnels running parallel to regulator face were provided in each
bay. The tunnel along the face of the regulator is the longest tunnel with upstream end
just above the upstream abutment of regulator and the extreme right tunnel in Bay
No.2 is shortest in length. Each tunnel stepped out from the one next to it farther from
regulator face and has one opening at its upstream end and openings facing the divide
wall in the projection.
5.3.14.2 Haveli Canal excluder at Trimmu
The left undersluices of Trimmu barrage which have eight bays have been divided into
two portions by a divide wall going far out to give a smooth approach. The four bays
between regulator face and divide wall are provided with full slab excluder with top of
slab at the crest level of the regulator and extending beyond the regulator face which
ensure the separation of escaped water before entering the regulator. High efficiency
of silt exclusion was claimed by the designers and the excluder did reduce sediment
entry into Haveli canals which do not have any significant siltation in the head reach.
5.3.14.3 Kalabagh type silt excluder
It is a modified Khanki type silt excluder covering only two bays of the under sluices
without any additional divide wall. In the design the length of the tunnels decreased in
equal steps from left to right.
5.3.14.4 Design & Operation of Excluders
(A) Proportion of escapage to canal supply
The efficiency of an excluder may be defined as the reduction per unit of the silt
intensity in the canal supply when compared with that of the water approaching the
work. This, though the only practical standard, is not a realistic criterion. The true
measure of the efficiency of an excluder is unity minus the ratio of the silt entering the
canal to that which would enter if the excluder is not working. The point about this
distinction is that the addition of the escapage discharge to the canal discharge
increases the silt approaching the canal and increases it in a proportion greater than
that of the discharge. It has also been demonstrated by Crump on the Upper Jhelum
Canal that as might be expected from the general form of the curve of silt distribution
with depth, that an increase of the escapage discharge is always accompanied by a
marked reduction in its intensity. We must not therefore blindly accept the idea that
the greater escapage discharge is always accompanied by a marked reduction in its
intensity. We must not therefore blindly accept the idea that the greater the escapage
the greater the efficiency.
Some studies on earlier excluders yielded the following values of optimum escapage
at various structures:
Table 5-3: Optimum escapages at various excluder
Name of Excluder Canal (Cusecs) Escapage Percentage
(Cusecs)
Bong 8000 1260 15.8
Jaba 8000 1500 18.8
Dadupur 6400 1400 22.0
Salam pur 1800 700 39.0
Khanki 12000 4000 33.34
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Operation of later structures indicates that the optimum escapage through excluder
tunnels (effective) rests at about 40%. The escapage above 100% of canal discharge
generates turbulences and increase in the coarser sediment induction while
discharges less than 15% tend towards choking of tunnels.
(B) Separation of escapage from canal supply
The separation of the escapage water from the canal supply at the edge of the
diaphragm should obviously be arranged without disturbing the silt distribution. It is
easy enough to arrange this for fixed canal and escapage discharges by placing the
diaphragm at a height such that it divides the normal stream into the correct proportion.
For full supply conditions the stream lines is horizontal. If, however, it is required to
run the canal supply full, while sufficient water is not available for the escapage
discharge or if the escapage is run full when canal supply is low we shall have stream
lines somewhat as below:-
In the region AB there may be a certain amount of turbulence set up which will cause
a less favourable silt distribution. The question is, whether this disturbance is so
serious that it would necessitate to have the height of the edge of the diaphragm
variable or fixed.
In case the d50 of the suspended sediment is less than 150 microns, the distribution in
the vertical planes is generally uniform and the use of silt excluder becomes
unproductive.
5.3.14.5 Tunnel Design
(A) Tunnel Velocities
The tunnels are designed to evacuate the escapage at a high velocity, for effective silt
flow say 5 to 10 ft/s. They must also provide control of the discharge so that the same
velocity is secured at the entrance to each tunnel.
The tunnel roof should be designed to take full water pressure above it with the
maximum pressure which may occur inside it, assuming the entrance to be blocked. If
the tunnels act as a weir for the canal supply, the possibility of uplift occurring with the
tunnels closed at the downstream end, and a velocity depression over the roof should
be studied. The escapage if less than full supply is regulated by gates on the down-
stream end of the tunnel. At Madhopur a surge chamber was provided at the down-
stream end of the tunnels. Such situation can also be addressed by providing pressure
release holes in the concrete diaphragm (Tunnel roof slab).
(B) Efficiency of Excluders
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The efficiency of excluders is calculated for conditions of with and without excluder
and is defined as:-
 S 
Efficiency  1  C 100
 SO  ............... 5-6
where So is the silt entering the canal (in PPM) with no excluder and Sc is the silt
entering the canal (in PPM) when an excluder is in operation. To make the excluder
work efficiently all measures which increase bed shear stress and throw more
sediment into suspension must be avoided and all measures which help in dropping
down of sediment into the lower layers should be used. These are:
i. Decrease the tractive force by flattening the river slope in the approach channel.
ii. The canal discharge and excluder tunnel discharge should not be increased
beyond a limit permissible for creating more bed shear than the normal.
iii. All obstructions, protuberances and roughnesses that have the effect of
throwing up towards surface a certain quantity of water should be avoided as
such as possible, because any disturbance caused in a laminar flow would
result in an upward rush of coarser sediments which normally (as reported by
researchers) once disturbed do not attain laminarity / normalcy in less than a
length of 50 times the depth of flow.
iv. An excluder in front of an intake located on the outside of a curve in a parent
channel will not have maximum efficiency for considerations of discharge, and
may beeven not needed.
The following aspects are considered for a specific site:
i. Efficiency of excluder in relation to its discharge extraction
ii. The best shape of the excluder.
iii. The efficiency of excluder over and above the still pond system; indicates that
the excluder efficiency at an optimum escapage/extraction of about 40% of
canal discharge remains in the range of 30 to 60%.
5.3.14.6 Hydraulic Design
The fact that the bottom layers of a channel carry the major part of the sediment load
has led to evolution of silt excluders as means for excluding excessive amount of
sediments from the water being diverted into canals off taking from barrages. Silt
excluders divide the pocket into two portions by means of a horizontal diaphragm, over
which the upper water passes into the canal while heavier silt laden bottom water
passes through tunnels downstream of the undersluices.
Discharge capacities of various tunnels are calculated after making due allowance for
the head losses inside the tunnels. With reference to Articles 227 and 228, Pressure
Flow in Outlet Conduits (Design of Small Dams, USBR 1987), various head losses
inside the tunnels are computed by using the loss coefficient listed in the following
Table 5-4:
Table 5-4: Loss Coefficient
i. Entrance 0.5
ii. Contraction 0.1
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iii. Exit 1.0

iv. Friction Manning’s “n” = 0.016
5.3.14.7 Structural Design
Structural design of Silt Excluder Tunnels has to be based on design methods set out
in the applicable provisions of the American Concrete Code (ACI), or British Standards
(BS) where ACI Code does not carry certain pertinent information. All structural
members are designed to withstand loads expected to be imposed on the structural
members during life time of the structure. These loads include the self-weight of
structure and the weight of water inside or on top of the structure, imposed loads such
as hydrostatic and the uplift pressures, foundation soil pressures etc.
Following loading conditions are considered for this structure:
Condition 1: All tunnels full of water and submerged under water with normal pond
level condition.
Condition 2: One or more tunnels choked with silt and submerged under water under
normal pond level.
Structural components of the structure are designed as reinforced concrete sections
catering for the maximum stresses caused by the worst possible combination of the
applied loads. Base pressures under the foundation slabs are kept under/below the
allowable bearing capacity.
Tunnel walls in certain areas may be required to be erected on top of the existing
upstream floor of the Barrage in the Pocket. Vertical wall reinforcement should be
securely anchored in the 1½ to 2 inch dia and 1½ ft deep drilled holes in the existing
floor and filled with appropriate epoxy grout mixture.
5.3.14.8 Instructions for Regulation of Excluder Flow/Escapage
The regulation instructions for a typical excluder are as the following.
i. The excluder tunnels will never be closed except during dire emergency and
for a short period. This too is done with the specific permission from the Chief
Engineer concerned.
ii. The minimum discharge through the excluder tunnels is no less than 15% of
the canal supply. The optimum range is 30% to 40% of the canal discharge.
However a minimum prescribed discharge will always be escaped through the
excluder tunnels to keep them operational.
iii. The maximum discharges through the excluder tunnels will normally not exceed
40% of the canal discharge except when the canal is closed. In that case the
tunnel openings is governed by the permissible intensities with reference to the
pond and tail water levels.
iv. It should be ensured that no turbulence occurs at the tunnel in-takes or in the
close proximity upstream. Some researchers place this distance to be 50 times
depth of flow.
v. The distribution of supply at the nose of the divide wall is to be normal and
without turbulence which is mainly the result of head developing across the
nose of the divide wall.
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vi. The openings of tunnels have to be uniform i.e. same except in special
conditions with the approval of the Chief Engineer.
vii. To facilitate the gate opening / regulation process, tables and graphs which give
discharges and velocities for various gate openings for the structure are to be
prepared and used. These will help the operator for correct regulation of
discharge through the excluder tunnels.
5.3.14.9 Observations
The following observations are made daily or as prescribed by the Executive Engineer
and reported upto Chief Engineer level.
i. Discharge of the canal at head regulator.
ii. Discharge through excluder tunnels.
iii. Total discharge through the pocket.
iv. Sediment charge in the supply entering the pocket from upstream of the tunnel
entrance/intakes.
v. Sediment charge passing downstream of the tunnel exits.
vi. Sediment charge and the canal carrying capacity of the canal for the current
discharge in the canal.
vii. X-sections of the canal at 250 ft intervals in the 1st 2500 ft then 500 ft upto 5000
ft and then 1000 ft upto 10000 ft length. These X-sections is super imposed on
the previous ones and submitted to the Executive Engineer on the day next to
the observations. The Executive Engineer will keep a watch on the canal bed
configuration and take additional suitable measures (ejector operation) in
consultation with Chief Engineer. The frequency of these observations will be:
a. Upto 2500 ft on alternate days;
b. Upto 5000 ft twice a week;
c. Upto 10000 ft once a week;
The above frequency may be varied by the Executive Engineer in consideration of
various site conditions.
5.3.14.10 Inspection and Maintenance
Generally the excluder remaining under water all the time except during closure (and
that too rarely) can only receive maintenance attention during closure. It is therefore
of-utmost importance to give special attention to the excluder during closure. The
structure is inspected visually if possible or through divers. Although no problems are
expected, inspections are, however, necessary. The result of inspection and measures
taken to address any deficiency is reported in the annual closure report.
Typical plan and cross section of an excluder appear as Figs. 5-9 and 5-10.
Bridge Decking
The bridge decks are normally concrete structures classified as the following:
i. Simple supported slabs, cast in place or precast
ii. Slabs with girders (Tee decks)
iii. Balanced cantilever type
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iv. Slab supported by pre-tensioned girders

v. Slab supported by post tensioned girders
vi. Continuous slabs / beam combinations
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Figure 5-9: Typical plan of an excluder

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Figure 5-10: Typical cross section across an excluder

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Selection of type depends on the site requirements. The decks are designed using
AASHTO standards and maintained as such.
The type classification with reference to customary loadings are:
i. Foot bridge loading (self-load with a light live load of 100 lb/sf uniformly
distributed).
ii. Class C – 9 ton loading. This is an old type for village carts etc and is now
obsolete.
iii. Class B – 18 ton loading. This type capable of handling 10 ton trucks has also
became obsolete and not constructed any more.
iv. Class A – or 30 ton loading, are used for inter village or village to town
connections.
v. Class AA – or 70 ton loading is used for district and arterial roads.
vi. Special class for NLC / environmental loads. Design calculations are based
on Pakistan Highway design code.
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5.4 RIVER TRAINING WORKS

General
River training requires various types of structures along or across a river to guide and
divert the river flow and has quite a wide scope as summarized in the following:
i. To reduce waterway in a wide and indeterminate river bed to a reasonable size
which can be spanned by a bridge or a weir without excessive scour in different
stages of flow.
ii. To prevent flow concentrations over the works built in a river.
iii. To prevent a river from out-flanking the works built across it.
iv. To keep river channels suitably located in position and direction so as to ensure
sediment free supply reaching off-taking canals all-round the year.
v. To protect flood bunds, lands, towns, strategic and industrial assets etc., from
erosion by river.
vi. To reclaim land; and
vii. To improve and maintain navigation channels.
Guide Banks
A river generally flows in a wide khadir (i.e. the historical movement limits or distance
between the two high banks of the river) and it is necessary to narrow down and restrict
its course to guide the flow to pass centrally through the barrage or the weir. Guide
banks are placed in pairs, symmetrical in plan. It is essential that the design should be
such that no swirls are produced and the flow is smooth. There should be no spurs
projecting from the guide bank as the spurs produce swirls.
5.4.2.1 Classification of Guide Banks
Guide banks can be classified according to their form in plan as divergent, convergent
and parallel and according to their geometrical shape as straight and elliptical with
circular or multi-radii curved head. (Fig. 5-11)
In the case of divergent guide bunds, the approach embankment (marginal bund) gets
relatively less protection under worst possible embayment and hence divergent guide
banks require a longer length for the same degree of protection as would be provided
by parallel guide banks. They also induce oblique flow on to the diversion structure
and give rise to tendency of shoal formation in the centre due to larger waterway
between curved heads. However, in the case of oblique approaching flow, they
become essential to keep the flow active in the spans adjacent to them.
The convergent guide bunds have the disadvantage of excessive attack and heavy
scour at the head and shoaling all along the shank, rendering the end bays inactive.
Parallel guide banks with suitable curved head create uniformity of flow from the head
of guide bunds to the axis of the diversion structure, but their shanks get heavily
strained.
In the case of elliptical guide banks, due to gradual change in the curvature, the flow
sticks to shanks all along their lengths whereas in the case of straight guide banks,
separation of flow occurs after the curved head, leading to obliquity of flow. Elliptical
guide banks provide better control on development and extension of meander loops
near the approach embankment (marginal bund).
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In special situations, other suitable form may be provided after confirmation by the
model studies.
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Figure 5-11: Types and general shapes of guide bunds

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a) Length of Guide Banks

The length of guide banks is determined / selected depending upon the following
factors:
The distance necessary to secure a straight and normal flow approach to the
structure so as to minimize the obliquity of current.
 To safely protect the approach banks on both sides of the structure if the river
develops excessive embayment behind the training works.
 To ensure that the swirls and turbulence, likely to be created by the spreading
out of flow downstream of the guide banks, do not endanger the structure.
 The length necessary to prevent the edge of bend or meandering of the river at
upstream and behind the guide bank.
The typical plan of the guide bank (Bell’s Bund) is reproduced in Fig. 5-12.
The length of the upstream guide bank is generally 1.0 to 1.3 L, where L is the width
of the diversion structure between the abutments. To avoid heavy river action on the
guide bunds, it is desirable to limit the obliquity of flow with the river axis to not more
than 30°. The length of the downstream guide bank is 0.2 to 0.3 L.
b) Radius of Bank Head
The proper radius of upstream bank head depends on the river velocity. Spring (1903)
in his paper “River Training and Control of Large Rivers” recommended / prescribed
to use the following table to design the radii, related with the probable maximum scour
and river gradient.
Table 5-5:Radii of upstream guide bank head
Probable River Gradient (inches per mile)
Sand
Maximum 3 6 9 12 18
Classification
Scour (ft) Radius of Upstream Bank Head (ft)
< 20 200 250 300 350 400
Very Coarse
> 20 250 310 375 440 500
< 30 300 360 425 490 550
Coarse
> 30 350 430 510 590 670
< 40 400 425 550 625 700
Medium
> 40 450 550 650 750 850
< 50 500 590 675 760 850
Fine
> 50 600 725 825 925 1020
< 60 600 700 800 900 1000
Very Fine
> 60 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Source: Spring JFE - River Training and Control of Large Rivers (1903)
The upstream bank head curve should be carried 120 to 140 degrees round the back
to protect landside, on the downstream end the curve is carried over 40° to 60° for
satisfactory performance.
c) Typical Sections of guide Banks
The typical sections of the guide banks are shown in Fig. 5-13. The basic design
criteria for the embankment is:
 Crest width
a) Shank = 30 ft
b) Head = 60 ft
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Figure 5-12: Typical plan of guide bank

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 Side slopes
a) Country side = 3H:1V
b) River side = 2H:1V (Armoured)
 A six (6) inch (150 mm) thick compacted gravel and sand surfacing should be
placed on the crest of guide bank for protection against rainfall and traffic wear
and tear to keep it motorable for inspection and maintenance vehicles.
 The embankment has to be protected with stone pitching, underlain with graded
spall and filter layers, and flexible stone apron on the riverside slope, upstream
head and downstream end.
 The final geometry of the guide banks is determined by the physical model
studies to suit the site requirements.
 Freeboard of top (crest) would be 9 ft for Indus and 7 ft for other rivers over the
HFL (Highest recorded flood level in Pakistan.
Pitched Islands
The pitched island is used as a river training measure due to its ability to cause re-
distribution of velocity and tractive force. The tractive force near a pitched island
begins to increase rapidly, with the result that deep scour begins to form round the
island and gradually draws the main river channel towards it and holds it permanently.
Pitched island is used either singly or in series, for the following purposes:
 Correcting oblique approach upstream of weirs, barrages and bridges by
training the river to be axial.
 Altering the river flow pattern and to stabilize its course.
 Redistributing harmful concentration of flow for relieving attack on guide banks,
marginal bunds and river bends.
Sometimes, advantage may be taken of an existing natural island (a bela) which can
be reshaped and pitched accordingly.
Pitched islands exist upstream of Sulemanki barrage and Empress Railway bridge
over Sutlej near Bahawalpur.
Scour at the toe of a steeper slope is deeper than at the toe of a flatter slope. Different
side slopes are prescribed/specified for the pitched island when it is used for
redistribution of concentration of flow. The steeper slope (usually 2H:1V) is adopted
on the side on which a concentration of flow is desired, while flatter slope is provided
on the side where a deflection is required.
In the case of wide and shallow rivers, where obstruction caused by the island would
be very small, scour will not develop a readily round the island. Similarly in flashy
rivers, there is not enough time for the development of scour around the island. In such
cases, the pitched island may not achieve the desired results.
The pitched island is usually shaped as elliptical or egg-shaped, as shown in Fig. 5-
14. The upstream nose is round and broad, while downstream end is provided with a
narrow tail. Generally, its body consists of compacted river bed material, protected
with stone pitching, underlain with graded spall and filter layers, on the side slopes
and flexible stone apron. The final length and shape of the island is determined by
physical model studies to suit the site requirements.
Design of pitching and apron follow the method adopted for guide banks.
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Figure 5-13: Typical cross section of guide bank

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Diversion Bunds and Cunnettes

When meandering of the river develops to extreme conditions the land between the
bends may gradually reduce to a narrow neck. Unless the banks of the neck and
meandering river loop are protected, continuous caving takes place. The narrowing of
the neck reaches a limit and a natural cut-off may form across the neck. Based on this
natural phenomenon an artificial pilot cut (or cunnette) may be formed to bypass the
meandering river loop and stop the banks erosion. The entry of the flow in the
meandering river channel is checked by placing the upstream and downstream
diversion bunds.
The cunnette is made in dry season to carry about ten (10) percent of the flood
discharge and are permitted subsequently to develop to carry total flood discharge.
These channels normally widen in two to three years and gradually alter the river
regime.
The diversion bunds is sufficiently anchored into the river banks to avoid outflanking.
The cross-section of the diversion bunds is similar to the cross-section of earthen
marginal bund, shown in Fig. 5-15. The bunds height is sufficient to allow for the
backwater effect in the blocked river channel. The backwater effect is higher at bund
1 (upstream) than at bund 2 (downstream). The bund 2 (downstream) will have less
design height than the bund 1 (upstream).
Gabions Retaining Walls
In hilly areas the rivers usually have high velocity flows, and it is not practicable to
provide stone protection against bank erosion. For such locations the most stable
structural measure is the provision of Gabions (stone crates) retaining walls. Gabions
are well suited for retaining walls because of their flexibility and also to make full use
of readily available local stone. The Gabions retaining walls are designed as gravity
walls and their layout, geometry and stability are checked by the applicable design
criteria described in Section 9. The walls are well extended landward into the bank
line, at both ends, to avoid any outflanking during high flood.
The typical plan and cross-section of a Gabion retaining wall are shown in Fig. 5-16.
Marginal Bunds
The marginal bund (also called afflux embankment) is provided to contain river spill
caused by raising of water level by a barrage, bridge, syphon etc. Due to backwater
effect, the marginal bund may extend up to 12 to15 miles length (19 to 24 km) or even
more depending on the channel slope and afflux imposed.
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Figure 5-14: Typical details of pitched island

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Figure 5-15: Typical cross sections of marginal bund

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Figure 5-16: Typical details of gabions retaining wall

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Generally, marginal bunds are aligned by placing them a mile or two away from the
active channel prism. The marginal bunds are normally anchored to the guide banks
or start from about five hundred (500) feet upstream or downstream of the gate-line of
the barrage. They are anchored into / connected with high land or an existing flood
bund, where no spill due to end effect is anticipated.
Since the rivers change their course, it is not necessary that a particular alignment of
the marginal bund safe for a particular flow condition will remain safe for changed river
flow conditions with passage of time. When such contingencies develop, proper river
training works are needed to contain the river channel / spill within the provided Khadir
(Active flood plain) width.
In reaches, where current attack or wave-wash are anticipated the riverside slope of
the bund are generally protected with stone pitching, with a stone toe or apron.
Typical cross-sections of normal earthen marginal bund and bund with slope
protection are presented in Fig. 5-15. The following section parameters for the
embankment are kept as prescribed by the Federal Flood Commission:
 Crest top width = 25 ft.
 Free Board 6 to 7 ft over the HFL (7 ft for Indus and 6 ft for other rivers)
 Riverside slope, earthen = 3H:1V
 Riverside slope, protected = 2H:1V
 Landside slope = 2H:1V
 The cross-section of the embankment is generally designed to accommodate
the hydraulic gradient of 6:1 (for sandy or silt loam) at the design flood level
(HFL). The hydraulic gradient line should have a minimum cover of two (2) feet
at landside toe of the embankment in natural grand and 4 ft for made up slope.
Where not practicable, some drainage solution is adopted. Design of drainage
measures is beyond the scope of this manual.
 A six (6) inch (150 mm) thick compacted gravel and sand surfacing is now
also placed on the crest (top) for protection against rainfall traffic wear and
tear and in rare cases of wave splash.
Spurs (or Groynes)

The spurs (or groynes) are structures placed transverse to the river flow and extend
from the bank into the river. These are widely used for river training and serve one or
more of the following functions:
 Training the river along a desired course by attracting, deflecting (or repelling)
or holding the flow in a channel by constructing one of the following general
types of spurs.
o Attracting spur;
o Deflecting (or repelling) spur;
o Holding spur;
 Creating slack flow with an objective of silting up the area in the vicinity.
 Protecting the river bank by keeping the flow away from it.
To serve the desired purpose, the requirements of a spur are;
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 Optimum alignment and orientation consistent with the objective.

 Availability of high river bank to anchor (or tie) the spur by extending it landward
into the bank line a sufficient distance of fifteen (15) feet to fifty (50) feet or more
depending upon the major channel changes to avoid any outflanking during
high flood.
 Crest / top level to be sufficiently above HFL in case of non-submerged spurs.
 Fairly stable flow entry condition at the upstream.
 Adequate protection to nose/head against anticipated scour.
 Shank protection with stone pitching and stone apron for the length which is
liable to parallel flow attack of river channel/deep spills on the upstream.
Depending upon the purpose, spurs may be used singly or in series. They can also be
used in combination with other training measures. Their use in series is introduced if
the river reach to be protected is long, or if a single spur is not efficient enough to
deflect the current and also not quite effective for sediment deposition on the upstream
and downstream. The structure located the farthest upstream in a series of spurs is
much more susceptible to flow attack both on the riverward and landward ends. Thus
it should be given special treatment to ensure its structural stability.
The position, length and shape of spurs at any site should be determined by physical
model studies. The choice of spur types is based on efficiency and suitability for the
desired purpose. No single type of spur can generally be expected to produce the
desired results in all locations.
5.4.7.1 Alignment of Spurs
Spurs may be aligned, either perpendicular to the bank or at an angle pointing
upstream or downstream, as shown in Fig. 5-17.
5.4.7.1.1 Repelling spur
Spur angled upstream repels the river flow away from it and is called a repelling spur.
They are preferred where major channel changes are required. A spur originally
angled upstream may eventually end up nearly perpendicular to the streamlines after
development of upstream side silt pocket and scour hole at the head.
A spur facing upstream makes a deflection angle from of 10 to 30 degrees with a line
perpendicular to the bank. Generally, the head of a repelling spur causes disturbance
at its nose and heavy scour occurs. These spurs should therefore, have strong head
to resist the direct attack of a strong current. A still pocket is formed on the upstream
side of the spur, but only when the spurs are sufficiently long. Repelling spurs are
usually constructed in a battery to shift the current away from the caving bank. A single
spur is neither strong enough to deflect the current nor so effective to cause silt deposit
upstream and downstream of it. (Fig. 5-17(a)).
5.4.7.1.2 Attracting spurs
A spur angled downstream attracts the river flow towards it and is called an attracting
spur. The angle of deflection downstream ranges between 30 to 60 degrees. The
attracting spur bears the full fury of the frontal attack of the river on its upstream face,
where it has to be armoured adequately. Heavy protection is not necessary on the
downstream slope. It merges into the general stream alignment more easily. The scour
hole develops off the riverward end of the structure. (Fig. 5-17)
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Deflecting Spur
(c)
Replacing Spur
(b)
Attracting Spur
(a)
Figure 5-17: Alignment of spurs

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5.4.7.1.3 Deflecting Spur

An upstream angled spur of short length changes only the direction of flow without
repelling it and is called a deflecting spur. It provide sonly local protection. (Fig. 5-17)
5.4.7.1.4 General
The angle which the spur makes with the current may affect the results. A spur built
normal to the stream is normally the shortest possible and thus economical. An
upstream angle or head protects the riverward end of the spur against the anticipated
scour. A downstream angle is better for protecting a concave bank, especially if
spacing and the lengths of the spurs are such as to provide a continuous protection
by deflecting the main currents away from the entire reach of the river bank.
5.4.7.2 Spacing of Multiple Spurs
The spacing between spurs depends on the length projected by each spur in the
series. The general recommendations for spacing are:
 In a straight reach, the river bank protected by a spur is about three (3) times
the projected length of the spur. The spurs are spaced further apart, with
respect to their lengths, in a wide river than in a narrow river, having nearly
equal discharge. Longer spacing is normally provided in a straight reach than
in a curved reach of the river. The minimum spacing in a straight reach should
thus be five (5) to six (6) times the length of spur.
 The location of spurs affects their spacing. A larger spacing may be adopted
for convex banks and a smaller spacing for concave banks. In general, the
recommended spacing is:
- Convex bends; 2.5 to 3.0 times the length of spur
- Concave bends; equal to the length of spur
 When the river bank has a curvature, the spurs in series may have varying
lengths and, therefore, varying spacing. The angle of deflection of spurs may
also change continuously according to the curvature of the bank line.
5.4.7.3 Length of Spurs
No general rules can be formulated for specifying the length of spurs. It depends
entirely on the prevailing conditions and site specific requirements. The length should
not be shorter than that required to keep the scour hole formed at the nose away from
the salient to be protected. Short length may cause bank erosion upstream and
downstream of the spur due to eddies formed at the nose. A long spur may dam up
the river and would not withstand the flood attack from discharge concentration at the
nose and a high head across the spur. Normally spurs longer than one fifth (1/5) the
river width are not provided. However a spur shall be long enough provide necessary
protection and short enough to allow necessary flexibility of movement of river
channel. The length, shape, orientation etc are best determined by model studies.
In fixing the length of spurs, the criteria objectives shall be aimed at the design, length,
angle/orientation, shape etc., and these can best be finalized using physical model
studies.
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5.4.7.4 Types of Spurs

Normally, spurs are provided with unprotected shanks, having horizontal top. The
shank, on its riverward end, is provided with a protected/armoured head. The different
types of spurs commonly used and named according to the shape of their armoured
heads, are shown in Fig. 5-18 and listed below:
i. Bar spur
ii. Mole-head spur
iii. Hockey spur
iv. Inverted hockey spur
v. T-head spur
vi. Sloping spur
vii. T cum hockey spur
viii. T cum hockey-sloping spur
ix. J – head spur
x. Guide-head spur
Typical cross-sections of unprotected shank and protected heads are shown in Fig. 5-
18. The basic design for the embankment is:
 Crest width = 30 ft
 Side slopes – Shank = 3H:1V
– Head = 2H:1V
 Stone protection of armoured head (Design in a later para).
 A six (6) inch (150 mm) thick compacted gravel and sand surfacing of the crest
for protection against wave splash, rainfall and traffic wear and tear.
A brief description of each type of spur follows:
5.4.7.4.1 Bar spur
The bar spur is the simplest type of spur. It is a straight embankment with armoured
head and projecting into the stream transverse to the flow.
5.4.7.4.2 Mole head spur
A bar spur with armoured rounded mole shaped head of increased width is known as
the mole head spur.
5.4.7.4.3 Hockey spur
The hockey spur follows the shape of hockey stick with stone protection on the
concave face and head and to a small length on the convex face. Some typical
characteristics of hockey spur observed in the physical model studies are:
i. A hockey spur can be installed successfully for checking a deep embayment.
The angle of deflection of the main current downstream of the spur increases
with the increase in depth of embayment upstream of the spur.
ii. The flow concentrates at the nose of the spur which sets up an intense eddy at
the back of the spur nose and a significant secondary current is directed
towards the shank.
iii. A follow-up spur at an optimum position downstream of the hockey spur is
essential to form a pocket that reduces the eddies and keeps off the secondary
currents.
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Figure 5-18: Types of spurs

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5.4.7.4.4 Inverted hockey spur

The inverted hockey spur is the mirror image of hockey spur. It is provided with stone
protection on the convex face and head and to small length on the concave face. Some
typical characteristics of inverted hockey spur observed by the physical model studies
are:
i. The deflection of the main current imposed by the inverted hockey spur is much
less than the hockey spur. The flow moves backward to the spur shank after
moving for some distance downstream of the spur.
ii. Inverted hockey spur acts as an attracting spur if placed in series on a river
bank.
iii. Secondary current is not generated at the back of an inverted hockey spur.
5.4.7.4.5 T-head spur

The T-head spur follows the shape of English letter “T”. The head is generally placed
parallel to the flow with about two third (2/3) length on the upstream side of the shank
and one third (1/3) on the downstream side. Some typical behaviour characteristics of
T-head spur observed in the physical model studies are:
i. Performance of the T-head spur when river channel approaches tangentially to
the spur head and forms a mild embayment upstream of the spur head is
reasonably acceptable. The main current gets deflected and the angle of
deflection depends upon the magnitude of embayment forming upstream of the
spur head. The stone apron launches gradually and uniformly with the rising
flow and covers the subaqueous slope below the apron down to the deepest
scour level.
ii. An eddy forms along the nose of spur head, moving up and down the armoured
slope. A proper filter under the stone pitching is essential.
iii. With the formation of deep embayment upstream of spur head the main current
gradually drifts towards the shank and ultimately attacks the shank which may
breach at the point of attack.
iv. The high concentration and spiral eddies forming at the upstream nose of the
spur head do not allow smooth launching of the stone apron. Stones from the
apron are picked up by the high velocity spiral currents and carried away,
ultimately causing the collapse of spur head.
v. If the length of head upstream of junction point is inadequate and scour hole
from the nose extends up to the junction the point, the shank will fail at the
junction point.
vi. When the river channel approaches head-on to the spur head, it creates
heaving and surging in the pocket upstream of the spur head. This rise and fall
in water level upstream of the spur head may result in serious damages.
5.4.7.4.6 Sloping spur
The sloping spur Fig. 5-19 is a wedge shaped ramp of solid stone, with its height
decreasing from bank to riverbed at a slope ranging from 6H:1V to 10H:1V. Sloping
spur is, generally, installed for the training in straight reaches of hilly streams. Some
typical behaviour characteristics of sloping spur observed by the physical model
studies are:
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Figure 5-19: Typical details of sloping spurs

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i. No secondary current is generated on the downstream of the spur.

ii. There is less resistance to stream flow, resulting in lesser head across the spur.
iii. With increase in the stream discharge, more length of spur comes in action.
Thus the extent of the eddy reduces and main current gets deflected away from
the stream bank.
iv. The point of maximum scour is away from the spur nose.
v. The optimum top slope for most effective performance of the spur is 10H:1V.
vi. The optimum angle of spur axis with respect to flow axis is ninety (90) degrees.
vii. This spur is most effective for a straight river approach. Its effectiveness
reduces with the obliquity in river approach.
viii. This spur will hold the stream near its nose and will thus reclaim the land on its
upstream.
5.4.7.4.7 T-cum hockey-sloping spur
The T-hockey-sloping spur (or J-head spur) is a combination of T-spur, hockey spur
and sloping spur. The spur design elements are:
i. Hockey-parts; optimum radius of the spur shank at its junction with the spur
head.
ii. T-part; alignment and length of the spur head.
iii. Sloping-part; optimum slopes for the upstream and downstream ends of the
spur head.
iv. Stone-apron; effective dimensions and stone size of the spur head and
upstream slope of the shank.
Some typical behaviour characteristics of this type of spur observed on the physical
model studies are:
i. With an increase in the radius of hockey-part the embayment upstream of spur
head increases and the entire flow converges at the upstream end of the spur
head and after leaving spur nose it swings towards the opposite bank. The silt
carrying bottom currents move towards the concave bank, forming a sand bar
downstream of the spur.
ii. There is no definite relationship for determining the length of the spur head. On
the basis of past experience the recommended length (but not limited to) of
spur heads for the main rivers are:
a. Sutlej and Ravi = 300 – 400 ft
b. Jhelum = 400 – 600 ft
c. Chenab = 600 – 900 ft
d. Indus = 900 – 1500 ft
iii. With shorter radius of spur head the eddy forming at the upstream end of the
spur reduces in extent and the flow follows the head for most of its length. As
the downstream end of the head bends towards the bank, most of the flow is
directed to it in the form of a secondary current. In the case of longer radius the
tail end of the spur extends almost straight. Only a small flow is directed as the
secondary current. With increase in the radius of spur head the eddy forming
along the upstream nose increases in extent and intensity, thus increasing the
scour.
iv. When there is head-on attack of the flow at the tail end of the spur, the spur
acts as a sloping spur. After impingement, the main current deflects towards
the opposite bank and an eddy forms along the downstream face of the shank.
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With flattening/lengthening of the tail end slope of the spur head the scour hole
shifts lower down from the tail end of the spur.
v. When the spur head is placed parallel to the main current the flow approaches
tangential to the spur head and runs almost parallel to it. With the development
of scour hole at the spur head nose, embayment starts forming upstream of the
spur head and deepens with time and increase in river flow. At this stage, the
main current is slightly deflected towards the opposite bank and an eddy
develops along the upstream end of the spur head. With the deepening of the
embayment, the flow concentration and intensity of eddy increases and
becomes dangerous to the spur head. However, with the increase in angle of
orientation of spur head, the flow concentration at the spur head nose and the
eddy along upstream portion of the spur head reduce generally till the eddy is
eliminated completely. But at the same time an eddy develops at the back of
the spur which gains strength with increase in the angle of orientation and
poses a threat to the downstream face of the unprotected shank. The maximum
angle of orientation is recommended to be ten (10) degrees.
5.4.7.4.8 J-Head spur
This type is very similar to a (a close variant of) Tee-cum-hockey-sloping spur
developed with a mild change in the spur head shape.
The hydraulic behaviour is also similar but it is less massive and more cost effective.
This type has thus gained greater acceptance and tee cum hockey sloping type has
been virtually abandoned in favour of J-head.
5.4.7.4.9 Guide-head spur
The guide-head spur is a combination of Guide bank nose, T-spur, hockey spur and
sloping spur Fig. 5-20. The spur design elements are:
i. Hockey-part: optimum radius of the spur head at the upstream end.
ii. T-part: availing alignment and length of the spur head.
iii. Sloping-part: optimum slope for the downstream end of the spur head.
iv. Stone-apron: effective dimensions and stone size on the spur head and
upstream face of the shank.
For selecting the length of shank and spur head, the, angle, shape etc, can best be
finalized from physical model studies. However, the typical behaviour characteristics
of guide-head spur are similar to those of J-head type with the addition of the current
guiding function. This type is now preferred over others on the basis of model test
results.
5.4.7.4.10 Spur head with cast-in-place concrete piles
A typical mole head spur with cast-in-place concrete piles is shown in Fig. 5-21. In
piles head spur, the piles constitute the main verticals, placed down to anticipated
scour depth plus embedded length in the river bed. The pile top is kept at the crest
level of the spur head. Piles are spaced at 30 inches centre to centre. This
arrangement can be used for any spur type depending upon the site suitability.
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Figure 5-20: Plan of guide head spur

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Figure 5-21: Typical mole head spur with cast-in-place concrete piles
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Stone and brush-wood filling is provided between the pile verticals. When the channel
bed scours along the piles, some small stones will slip through the vertical gaps into
the scour holes. This loss depresses the stone filling between the pile verticals.
Replenished stone during the period of channel bed scouring.
The basic design criteria for the cast-in-place concrete piles are:
 Pile diameter = 24 in
 Point of fixity is at the anticipated maximum scour level
 Concrete type = RCC, 3000 psi (1:2:4)
 Reinforcement = Grade 40, deformed bars. Minimum longitudinal
bars are provided at one percent (1.0 %) of the concrete area
 Concrete cover = 3 in. (75 mm)
 Design forces = self-weight, hydrodynamic force and active
pressure from stone filling.
 Embedded length = to sustain self-weight and moments from design forces
 Spacing of piles = 30 inches C/C
This type is new and is expensive but gives a highly sustainable structure. However it
has not been tried in practice due to its high cost.
5.4.7.5 Choice of Type of Spur
Various factors which influence the choice and design of spurs:
i. Gradient and velocity of river.
ii. Available construction materials.
iii. Type of bed material carried by the river (i.e. shingle, sand or silt).
iv. Sediment silt load in river flow.
v. River width or waterway available at high, medium and low discharges.
vi. Depth of waterway and flood hydrograph.
Permeable spurs are best suited to erodible bed rivers, normally carrying heavy-silt-
laden flows. These are not suitable for small rivers, having steep gradients or deep
rivers carrying light-sediment load.
Impermeable spurs are most suitable for confining a river to a defined channel.
Spurs may be aligned perpendicular or inclined to the bank line, pointing upstream or
downstream. The determination of angle of spur with respect to current axis requires
physical model study.
In a straight reach of a river, a series of spurs are required to provide bank protection.
A curved reach of the river may be trained by a limited number of spurs.
Studs
The studs are short bar-spurs used for protection against the spill flow causing erosion
along the river bank or flood embankment. These are placed in series at suitable
locations in the spill flow channel along the bank. They reduce erosion by deflecting
the high velocity currents away from the eroding bank. For anchoring of studs, they
are well extended into the bank, having similar section as that placed in riverward
portion.
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The studs are repaired and additional studs are constructed from time to time
depending upon the conditions of the river during and after a flood. A series of studs
are often used in lieu of direct bank protection, because they are more economical
and do not disturb the near-bank environment.
Depending upon the flow velocity, the following four types of studs are used:
i. Earthen stud; in spill flow channel with low velocity.
ii. Earthen stud with stone protection; in spill flow channel with medium velocity.
iii. Earthen stud with stone protection and armoured leading nose; in spill flow
channel with high velocity or leading nose under current attack of main channel.
iv. Solid stone stud; when main channel current attacks the bank.
The typical cross-sections of different types of studs are shown in Fig. 5-27. The basic
design criteria for the studs are:
 Crest width
o Earthen stud = 12 ft
o Earthen stud with stone protection = 12 ft
o Solid stone stud = 8 ft
 Side slopes
o Earthen stud = 3H:1V
o Earthen stud with stone protection = 2H:1V
o Solid stone stud = 2H:1V
 Length: As per site conditions but not exceeding 500 ft
 Spacing: As already stated in an earlier paragraph the spacing may be 3 to 6
times the length of the stud
 Apron: The need and size are established by site conditions and
expected scour
Design of River Training Works
5.4.9.1 Freeboard
In the design of water containing structures, the crest of the embankment is to be kept
higher than the level of water to be contained. This margin is necessary for safety
against overtopping due to rise in water levels on account of disturbances in water
from breaking waves and wind set-up in river ponds. At river curves the river set (or
super elevation) also needs to be taken into consideration. Where river bed accretion
is regular due to sediment deposition (like in the lower reaches of Indus River), the
design flood level is established by adding two feet to the recorded high flood level.
For other cases, a small freeboard is also necessary for contingent requirement as a
factor of safety.
The following formulae are used for calculating the wave run-up, wind set-up and river
set and the freeboard:
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Figure 5-22: Typical cross section of studs

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5.4.9.2 Wave Run-Up (or Ride)

The run-up (or ride) of a breaking wave in shallow water measured vertically above
the mean water surface level may be estimated by using Hunt equation:
𝑹 𝑲 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝓛
= 𝟏 ............... 5-7
𝑯
𝟖 𝑯 𝟐
( )( )
𝑻 𝟐𝒈
where:
R = wave run-up (or ride) (ft)
H = wave height (ft)
K = surface roughness coefficient for the embankment slope (ft)
= 2.3 ft. for smooth surface
= 1.8 ft. for earthen surface
T = wave period(s)
ℒ = embankment slope angle with horizontal (degree)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft./s2)
5.4.9.3 Wind Set-Up
An appreciable rise in water level may be caused on the slope of reservoir or pond by
wind action, particularly in shallow water. The wind set-up can be estimated by Zui-
Der-Zee formula:
𝑼𝟐 𝑭
𝑺 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 ............... 5-8
where:
S = set-up above still pond level (ft)
U = wind velocity (mile/hour)
F = fetch (mile)
D = average water depth (ft)
θ = angle of fetch and wind (degree)
For combined effect of wind set-up and storm wave the total rise in water level is equal
to wind set-up plus two third of wave run-up.
5.4.9.4 River set or super elevation
At a curve the deepest point of the river cross-section is near the concave (or outer)
bank and the water surface there is higher than that at the convex (or inner) bank. The
“river set” may cause a super elevation of the water surface at the concave (or outer)
bank and this can be estimated by Schoklitsch formula:
V2 R2
h  2.3 .log ............... 5-9
g R1
Where:
h = river set (ft
V = average velocity at the upstream straight reach (ft/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft./s²)
R1 = radius of curvature of convex (or inner) bank (ft
R2 = radius of curvature of concave (or outer) bank (ft
The “Government of Sind Bund Manual” indicates that “river set” may cause a rise of
the water surface at the concave (or outer) bank as much as 2.0 feet.
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5.4.9.5 Recommended Freeboard

To determine at appropriate freeboard and the design flood level, the wave run-up,
wind set-up and river set are calculated. These should be added accordingly and one
foot additional freeboard be provided for contingent requirement as a factor of safety
i.e.
F (freeboard) = Wave Run-up + Wind Set + River Set + 1.0 ft (Fig. 5-23).
The ultimate foundation and fill settlement are neglected against one foot contingent
provision.
By taking into consideration the current local practices on freeboard for the typical
flood protection structures, influenced by different hydraulic and wind conditions, the
recommended minimum freeboard provisions for various flood protection structures
are listed in the following table:
Table 5-6: Minimum Freeboard
Recommended
Flood protection
Hydraulic/Wind conditions minimum freeboard
structure
(ft*
CONTAINING
STRUCTURES
Flood Bunds Current flow, sediment 6.0

deposition, storm wave and
wind set-up
Retired Bunds Current flow 5.0
Marginal bunds (at Current flow, sediment 7.0

barrages, bridges and deposition, storm wave and
syphons) wind set-up
TRAINING
STRUCTURES
Current flow, river set, Straight andconvex
-Rivers bank protection sediment deposition, storm bank=6.0
wave and wind set-up Concave bank=7.0
Current flow and sediment 5.0

-Spurs/Groynes deposition
Current flow 5.0

- Studs
Current flow, sediment 7.0
-Guide banks deposition, storm wave and
wind set-up
Current flow, storm wave and 5.0

-Pitched Islands wind set-up
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- Gabions Retaining Current flow 5.0

Walls
-Sills Current flow and back water 4.0
effect
-Diversion Bunds Back water effect 4.0
(*) The recommended minimum freeboard values include one foot additional
freeboard for contingent requirement as factor of safety.
5.4.9.6 Slope Stability

The slopes of an embankment must be stable under all conditions of construction,
design flood discharge, rapid flood draw-down low flow level and earthquake forces.
The stability depends on the strength of the fill soil and foundation characteristics.
Similarly, the river banks needing protection are designed to be stable.
Slope stability analysis requires a comparison between the state of stress in the soil
and soil shear strength along an assumed failure plane. The detailed slope stability
analysis is carried out according to Method of Slices, by using Simplified Bishop
Method with relevant computer software. The needed information includes:
 Geometry of embankment
 Soil properties
 Design flood level and low water level of the river
 Phreatic line and pore water pressure
 Surcharge on the embankment
 Earthquake loads
A brief description of each follows:
a) Geometry of Embankment
The calculations is carried out according to the typical cross-section of the
embankment for two different geometrical parameters:
 The river-bed stone apron is intact and taken into account
 The scour of the river bed is modelled with assumed fully launched stone apron
b) Soil Properties
The following soil parameters are determined by laboratory tests:
 Bulk density.
 Saturated density.
 Cohesion “c”
 Angle of internal friction “”
 Unconfined shear strength
 Permeability “k”
 Isotropy conditions
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Figure 5-23: Design of Freeboard (Reference-7)

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c) River Flow Levels

The design flood level and low flow level of the river are established for the particular
embankment site to determine the phreatic line (flood condition) and subsequent draw-
down (low flow condition).
d) Phreatic line and pore water pressure
i. Phreatic line
The phreatic line is independent of fill material properties and depends solely upon the
geometry of and differential head across the embankment. However, in case of more
permeable fill material, it takes less time to develop as compared to materials having
less permeability. The position of emergence of phreatic line on the landside slope is
not influenced by the permeability of the homogeneous fill material. The less pervious
material takes longer to attain the steady state position, but the ultimate position of the
phreatic line in all cases remains the same. Location of the phreatic line (or hydraulic
gradient) in the embankment is determined for the relevant seepage condition at the
design flood level, by using Casagrande’s solution, illustrated in Fig. 5-24. The two
Casagrande equations are:
S  h2  d 2
............... 5-10
a  d 2  h2  d 2  h2 cot2 
Where:
S = length of parabolic line of seepage (or phreatic line) from riverside water
entrance point to the toe of landside slope (ft)
h = design flood depth on riverside slope (ft)
d = horizontal distance from riverside water entrance point to the toe of
landside slope (ft)
a = landside slope angle with horizontal (degree)
 = length of surface of seepage upward from the toe landside slope (ft)
The phreatic line is taken as boundary between the below saturated and above dry
embankment soil properties for use in the stability analysis of side slopes.
ii. Pore water pressure
Pore pressure ratio (ru),which is defined as the ratio of pore water pressure to vertical
load at the base of each slice, is used for the slip circles analysis for all given conditions
except for riverside slope at flood draw-down condition. For this condition only pore
water pressure is used. The pore water pressure equation is:
u = ru  h ............... 5-11
where:
u = pore water pressure
ru = pore pressure ratio
 = total unit weight of soil (dry weight above phreatic line and saturated
weight below phreatic line)
h = depth of soil from top surface
The Simplified Bishop Method computer package may be used to compute the pore
pressure ratio. For draw-down analysis the pore water pressure is determined by the
above equation and utilized for determining the pore water pressure.
For common soils the value of “ru” ranges between 0.3 and 0.1
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Figure 5-24: Embankment phreatic surface (Casagrande’s solution)

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e) Surcharge
A surcharge of 200 lbs. per ft2 (975 kg/m2) on the top surface of embankment is applied
for stability analysis.
f) Earthquake load
The acceleration due to earthquake is selected on the basis of fifty percent (50%)
reduction for the horizontal and vertical components for calculation by the pseudostatic
method. For example, the effect of a maximum ground acceleration (in central Punjab
area) due to an Open Basis Earthquake (OBE) of 0.16g (pseudostatic) in the free field
issued for the stability analysis. Thus on the basis of 0.16g OBE and fifty percent (50%)
reduction in accelerations the earthquake loads adopted for analysis will be:
Horizontal acceleration = 0.08g
Vertical acceleration= 0.04g
These earthquake forces act at the center of gravity of the slice.
For OBE values no major damages may be expected for the hydraulic structures in
general. The OBE values for particular scheme is adopted on the basis of specific
related earthquake zone criterion.
g) Critical conditions for stability analysis
The stability analysis of the embankment is carried out by using laboratory test values
and characteristics of selected materials for determining the “Safety Factors” under
critical conditions relating to the various parameters under design requirements. The
recommended minimum safety factors against shear failures are listed in the following
table 5-7:
Table 5-7: Minimum safety factor
Minimum safety factor
Condition Without
With earthquake
earthquake
During and end of construction 1.4 1.2
Rapid river draw-down 1.3 1.1
River low flow level 1.2 1.0
Design flood 1.5 1.2
Source: HASKONING and Delft Hydraulics
For overall stability of the embankment, during construction stage and under different
river flood levels, the proposed slopes of the embankment is analyzed for the stability
under the following three loading conditions:
 Gravity
 Seepage (or pore water pressure)
 Earthquake
The potential failure surfaces is analyzed for the following four critical conditions
against the pore water pressure by considering gravitational loading with and without
earthquake:
 End of construction
 Design flood level with steady seepage
 Flood draw-down
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 Assuming fully launched stone apron

The assumptions for the development of pore water pressures for the four conditions
are:
i. End of construction
For the end construction condition, full pore water pressure is considered for the
embankment fill.
ii. Design flood level with steady seepage
The critical condition for the landside slope occurs from the water seepage through
the embankment when high river discharges have continued for a sufficient period.
The pore water pressure development is calculated with respect to phreatic line within
the embankment at design flood level (DFL) and with no water on the landside. For
this condition the stability at the landside slope is checked for steady seepage.
iii. Flood draw-down
The critical condition for the riverside slope occurs as the DFL is down to the low flow
level during the flood season having high saturation level at the embankment (i.e.
close to DFL)
iv. Assuming fully launched stone apron
The applied condition is same as item ( c ) above.
The complete slope stability analysis of embankment covers the different cases using
various combinations of data input, as shown in table 4.4.
5.4.9.7 Foundation stability
The stable side slopes of embankment depend upon the strength of the fill material
and foundation characteristics. The foundation soil determines the rate of under
seepage, formation of boils on the landside natural surface, the settlement of the
embankment and stability of side slopes. Detailed subsurface investigations is needed
for proper foundation evaluation. If required, the particular foundation is treated for its
strengthening / protection by developing specific design to suit the site conditions.
These specific designs may include:
 Reworking of the foundation soil
 Grouting of the armoured river bed to the required extent
 Inverted filter or geo-textile layer at the foundation of revetment / gabion
hydraulic structure
 Where required, provision of a suitable cut-off
Distribution of foundation pressures also checked against the bearing resistance of

formation soils.
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Table 5-8: Combination of data input for slope stability analysis of embankment
Surc
S Eart
Soil harg
r. Side h- Pore water
Case Prop e Remarks
N Slope qua Pressure
erties (lb./f
o ke
t2)
END OF
CONSTRUCT
1 ION H;V fill - 200 ru construction
“ru” important
2 Riverside H:V fill - 200 ru
construction
3 Landside H:V fill H & 200 ru “ru” important
V
4 Earthquake – H:V fill 200 ru earthquake
Riverside H & important
V
Earthquake – earthquake
Landside important
RAPID RIVER
DRAW-
5 DOWN H:V fill - 200 pore water pore water
pressure pressure
6 Riverside H:V fill H&V 200 contours important
7 Earthquake – H:V& fill & - 200 pore water earthquake

Riverside assum subs pressure important
ed oil contours
8 Launched launchi H&V 200 pore water
Stone Apron – ng fill & pore water pressure
Riverside slope. subs pressure important
oil contours
Earthquake- H:V&
Launched assum earthquake
Stone Apron – ed pore water important
River side launchi pressure
ng contours
slope.
RIVER LOW
FLOW LEVEL
9 H:V fill - 200 ru For major part
Riverside of structure life
1 H:V fill - 200 ru
0 Landside For major part
H:V& - 200 ru of structure life
assum
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1 Launched ed fill & For major part

1 Stone Apron – launchi subs of structure life
Riverside ng oil
slope.
DESIGN
FLOOD
1 H:V fill - 200 ru “ru” important
2 Landside
H:V fill H&V 200 ru earthquake
1 Earthquake - important
3 Landside
Source: HASKONING and Delft Hydraulics
The foundation investigations is planned to provide information about the type and
nature of the materials in the river bed, the depth and extent of possible
openwork/surface armoured layers in the formations and rock level below the alluvium.
These investigations include possible drilling, excavation of test pits, trenches and field
and laboratory testing.
As a general rule the extent and depth of investigation depends upon the importance
and height of embankment above the river bed level. A subsoil depth equal to about
the proposed height of embankment should be investigated through test pits and
boreholes. Investigations in the river bed are confined to periods of low river flows
when the drilling and other auxiliary equipment could be mobilized and deployed in the
river bed. The investigation essentially provides the following information:
 Material type and zoning
 Permeability of river bed material
 In-situ density
 Hardness of cobles and boulders
 Bearing pressure capacity
5.4.9.8 Hydraulic Gradient
After the size of flood embankment has been established with a given top width and
side slope, the existing practice is to test the cross-section against hydraulic gradient
and if necessary, a back berm (or pushta) is provided to keep the hydraulic gradient
within the cross-section. The hydraulic gradient is an assumed line of saturation in the
embankment body. Normally, for common soils, it is assumed as 6:1 and 2 feet
minimum cover is provided over this line as pushta if it exits on the landside.
The present practice of providing pushta on landside, however, does not adequately
solve the problem of seepage flow through embankments placed on pervious
foundation. Such provisions are only advisable where the duration of steady flood level
against the embankment is not more than the period of saturation required for the
cross-section with respect to the permeability of the fill material. Cases where duration
of flood water standing against an embankment is more than the required period of
saturation, the provision of pushta simply increases the period to a limited extent and
does not ensure safety of the structure against piping. The position becomes graver
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when the foundation of embankment is impervious. In such cases adequate provision

for drainage is necessary for the safety of embankment. For embankments that remain
in contact with flood water for a prolonged period, the phreatic line is established for
designing of the embankment to the phreatic line concept.
Based on the above discussion the embankments are divided in the following two
categories:
 Embankments which come in contact with the flood water for short duration.
 Embankments which remain in contact with the flood water for long periods.
For the first category, it is recommended to design the embankments on the basis of
hydraulic gradient line as per current practices. The second category of embankments
is designed by ensuring stability of slopes and preventing their failure through piping.
a) Landside toe filter/toe drain
When fill material of the embankment is not sufficiently homogeneous the flood water
may reach the landside slope with a sufficient hydraulic head to cause piping of the fill
material. This may result in complete breaching of the embankment. In such cases a
sloping filter connected with a horizontal filter is designed to deliver the seepage water
from sloping filter to the landside toe of the embankment. The sloping filter is covered
with compacted protective material. For protecting and keeping the filters in place a
rock toe is provided at the landside slope.
The introduction of landside filter establishes a definite exit for the seepage water.
Landside toe of the embankment should not become wet and pushta is no longer be
needed. Also, the piping and internal erosion of the embankment is controlled and
chances of embankment breaches due to these factors are minimized.
Normally, filter material comprises hard and durable gravel or crushed rock conforming
to the following gradation limits:
Material Size Percent Finer by Weight
6inch 64 – 95
3inch 40 – 82
1 ½inch 19 – 64
¾inch Not greater than44
3/8inch Not greater than23
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5.5 SCOUR AND PROTECTION

General
To ensure the safety and long term functioning of hydraulic structures exposed to high
velocity currents and wave action, it is necessary to understand the failure
mechanisms, boundary conditions and design requirement.
These are discussed in the following:
a) Failure Mechanism
Generally, the scour near a structure maybe considered to be a result of the river bed
scour caused by different processes. Initially the development of scour is very fast but
eventually a state of equilibrium is reached. The scour process may progressively
damage the bed protection, resulting in failure of the structure.
b) Salient design characteristics / aspects
A number of characteristics that are taken into consideration in design process are
listed in the following table 5.9.
Table 5-9: Summarized boundary conditions for design purpose
Loading
Hydraulic  Flow velocities, water levels and discharges
conditions  Wave characteristics: flow depth, wave
height and wave period
 Turbulence intensity related to the geometry
of structure
Special  Supercritical/sub-critical flow

conditions  Unsteady/steady flow
 Earthquakes
Strength Morphological  Grain size distribution: representative
conditions diameter (Dm)
 Cohesive/non-cohesive sediments, both
suspended and rolling
 Homogeneity of bed material
Geotechnical  Stratification of sub-soil
conditions  Angle of internal friction
 Porosity
 Cohesion
Source: Maynard 1996
c) Hydraulic Conditions
The most simple flow pattern is generated by a steady uniform flow. Other special
conditions for the flow pattern are an accelerated flow in a local constriction, a river
bend with well-developed flow, an unsteady flow due to flood waves or when the
direction of the flow downstream of hydraulic structure.
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d) Morphological Conditions
In non-cohesive sediments, such as sand and gravels, the particle size and material
density are the dominant material parameters for sediment transport. Bed material
which is widely graded is more resistant to scour than uniform material of the same
median grain size. During a flood, the finer grains of a non-uniform bed material are
eroded first leaving coarser grains in bed. This increases the median grain size of the
bed material and the process is called as armouring of bed.
e) Geotechnical Conditions
The maximum scour depth and areal extent increases gradually until an equilibrium
phase is established. However, this continuous process may suddenly be disturbed
by geotechnical instabilities along the scour side slopes. The extreme case of
instability may involve large masses of sediment and may cause major change in the
shape of scour slopes in a relatively short period of time.
f) Design Process
The design process involves the development of solutions of various problems in an
interactive manner. Though an optimum solution may not be obtained, the adopted
design process provides a systematic approach. To produce a safe and reliable
design, all the possibilities of failure should be considered at the conceptual level, and
various failure probabilities should be integrated in a single approach. The bed
protection has to prevent or slow down a change in the bottom of the foundation. A
failure of the bed protection does not directly result in the loss of structure. However,
if the sub-soil becomes unstable due to a well-developed local scour, the resistance
of the foundation is reduced.
g) Protective Measures for Local Scour
Placing a flexible bed protection (or flexible stone apron) downstream or around the
hydraulic structures is a common method of local scour protection. The scour occurs
in the area of the bed beyond the flexible stone apron and as a scour hole is formed
the apron slides down into it. Local scour can be reduced or prevented by either
reducing the loading parameters or by increasing the strength parameters as
summarized in Table 5-10.
Table 5-10: Protective scour measures
Load Reduction Strength increase
- Lengthening bed protection - Compacting sub-soil
- Roughening bed protection - Grouting sub-soil
- Streamlining hydraulic structure - Protecting bed/scour slope
- Energy dissipaters
- Wave dissipaters (berms,
vegetation, reed etc.
Source: Hoffman, Bkema and Verhaij – scour manual (1997)
Local Scour
The local scour results directly from the impact of the structure on the flow. The
development of the scour process depends on the flow velocity, turbulence intensity
and bed materials. Therefore, it is difficult to prescribe a direct for prediction method
local scour. It is recommended to calculate the local scour by several available
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methods and then use engineering judgment to select the preferred results of establish
using the maximum value by the most applicable methods.
a) Flow Characteristics
For predicting the severity of local scour at or around hydraulic structures the
interaction of the three types of flow are listed in table 5-11:
Table 5-11: Flow characteristics
Geometry Interaction ( Type of flow )
b/ho< 0.5 A strong interaction: vortices are generated intermittently from a
separation point at the sides of the structure.
0.5 < b/ho< 1.5 A weak interaction
b/ho> 1.5 No interaction, vortices are generated independently from a point

at the sides of the structure.
Source: Hoffman, Bkema and Verhaij – scour manual (1997)
where:
b = width of structure
ho = flow depth
b) Calculation of Local Scour Depth
For calculating the local scour depth the scour problem has to be evaluated and
calculation methods selected that best suit the particular application. Sometimes it
may be necessary to use several methods and utilize engineering judgment to select
the most appropriate result.
For large rivers, the local scour depth calculations may be based upon the portion of
discharge contained in and hydraulic characteristics of the main channel where
hydraulic structure is to be located.
A number of methods are available to determine the local scour depth for use in
determining the dimensions of the stone apron. The available methods are grouped
as follows:
 Traditional sub-continental methods covering mainly “the regime” approach.
 USBR recommended methods.
 Other developed methods.
c) Traditional Sub-continental Methods
For calculating mean flow depth (dm) of a river, following data is used:
i. Cross-section of river (width: B ft
ii. Bed roughness (Chezy: C)
iii. Slope of flow surface (S)
iv. Flood discharge (Q cusecs)
v. The minimum stable width of an alluvial channel can be obtained by using the
following formulae:
For regime channels B = 2.67 Q½
For incised rivers B = 2.48 Q½
For spilling rivers B = 4.88 Q½
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The Chezy’s “C” is obtained by the following Bazin’s formula;
c  1157 .6
m / (R )½ ............... 5-12
where:
Bazin’s m= 1.54 for earth channels in perfect condition
= 2.36 for earth channels in ordinary condition
= 3.17 for earth channels in rough condition
R= hydraulic radius (ft
The slope “ S” is given by the following Lacey’s formula;
5
3
s f
1 ............... 5-13
1844 Q 6
where:
f = Lacey’s silt factor = 1.76 (Dm)1/2
Dm = Median grain size of bed material (mm)
Mean flow depth:
1/ 3
 Q2 / B2 
d m   2  ............... 5-14
 C .S 
d) Modified form of Chezy’s formula:
V  C RS ............... 5-15
Field tests are carried out to establish “Dm” for flow reach of the individual hydraulic
structure. For guidance the values of Lacey’s silt factor “f ” for various soil types are
listed in the following table:
Table 5-12: Medium grains and silt factor
Soil Type Dm Lacey’s silt factor
(mm) “f”
Large boulders and shingle 129.13 20.00
Boulders and shingle 72.64 15.00
Boulders and gravel 50.44 12.50
Cobbles / small boulders, shingle and sand 32.28 10.00
Coarse gravel 26.15 9.00
Gravel 7.28 4.75
Heavy sand 1.29 2.00
Coarse sand 0.73 1.50
Medium sand 0.51 1.25
Standard silt/Fine sand 0.32 1.00
Medium silt 0.16 0.70
Fine silt 0.08 0.50
Very fine silt 0.05 0.40
Source: Lacey’s method 1930 – Regime Approach
i. Lacey Method (1930) (regime approach)
R  0 .9 ( q 2 / f ) 1 / 3 ............... 5-16 (Fig. 5-25)
where:
BARRAGES
R = scour depth below flow surface (ft)

q = flow intensity (cusecs/ft)
f = Lacey’s silt factor
The value of maximum local scour (D) below channel bed is determined from the
following equations:
D = xR - dm ............... 5-17
where:
dm = mean flow depth (ft
x= mean multiplying factor for various locations around structures as listed in Table 5-
13:
BARRAGES
Figure 5-25: Lacey’s method – calculation of scour

Table 5-13: Multiplication factors for Lacey method 1930
Location “x”
Straight reach of channel 1.25
Mild bend of channel 1.50
Moderate bend of channel 1.75
Severe bend of channel 2.00
BARRAGES
Location “x”
Right angled bend of channel 2.50
Upstream floor of structure 1.75
Downstream floor of structure 2.25
Nose of guide bank 2.50
Transition from nose to straight of guide bank 1.75
Straight reach of guide bank 1.50
Pier nose (Consultants recommendation) 2.00
Nose of spur, depending upon the location and river approach 2.50– 3.00
(Consultants recommendation)
ii. Inglis Method (1940) (regime approach):

By observing scour data of bridges, guide banks, spurs etc. at about 40 locations Sir
Inglis produced the following well known equation for straight flow:
R = 0.93 q 0.71 ............... 5-18
where:
R = Scour depth below flow surface (ft
q = flow intensity (cusecs/ft
This equation yields normal results for discharges up to 300,000 cusecs (8,500
cumes).
The value of maximum local scour (D) below channel bed is determined from:
D = xR - dm ............... 5-19
where:
dm=mean flow depth (ft)
x = mean multiplying factor for various locations (actual observed) around structures
as listed in the following table:
Table 5-14: Multiplication factor for CC Inglis method 1940
Location “x”
Downstream bridge 4.00
Straight portion of spur/groyne with steep sloping head 3.80
(1.5H:1V)
Sloping spur head 2.75
Large radius nose of guide bank 2.75
Groynes/ spurs along river banks, depending upon severity of 1.73 to 3.80
attack (*)
(*) The severity of attack varies with conditions, such as, length of projection,
curvature sharpness, angle and location relative to the flow embayment.
d) USBR Methods
i. Lacey’s Equation (1930), Expanded (1984) by USBR(regime approach)
1/ 3
Q
d m  0.47  ............... 5-20
f
ds = Z.dm ............... 5-21
where:
dm = mean depth at design discharge (ft)
BARRAGES
Q= design flood discharge (cusecs)

f= Lacey’s silt factor
ds = depth of scour below stream bed (ft)
Z = multiplying factor for predicting maximum scour depth
ii. Blench Equation (1969), Recommended by USBR (regime approach)
2/3
d fo  qf / Fbo1 / 3
............... 5-22
d s  Z .d f o
where:
dfo= depth for zero bed sediment transport (ft)
qf = design flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
Fbo = Blench’s “zero bed factor” (ft/s2)
ds= depth of scour below stream bed (ft)
Z= multiplying factor for predicting maximum scour depth
A graphical relationship between Fbo and the median bed particle size (D) is given in
the Chart for Estimating Fbo (after Blench, 1969). (Fig. 5-26)
iii. Neill Equation (1973), Recommended by USBR (regime approach for
incised river reach)
This approach involves obtaining field measurements in an incised reach of river, from
which the flood depths can be computed by:
d f  d i q f / qi 
m
............... 5-23
d s  Zd m
where:
df = scoured depth below design flood water level (ft)
di = average depth at bankful discharge in incised reach (ft)
qf = design discharge intensity (cusecs/ft)
qi = bankful discharge intensity in incised reach (cusecs/ft)
m = exponent varying from 0.67 for sand to 0.85 for coarse gravel
ds = depth of scour below stream bed (ft)
Z = multiplying factor for predicting maximum scour depth
BARRAGES
Figure 5-26: Chart for estimating Fbo (after blench, 1969)

BARRAGES
iv. Values of Multiplying Factors, “Z”, for Lacey, Blench and Neill Equations
(regime methods)
Table 5-15: Multiplication factors for Neil, Lacey and Blench equation
Value of “ Z ”
Condition Neill Lacey Blench
ds=Z df ds=Z dm ds=Zdfo
EQUATION TYPES A AND B
Straight reach 0.50 0.25
Moderate bend 0.60 0.50 0.6 1/
Severe bend 0.70 0.75
Right angle bends 1.00 1.25
Vertical rock bank or wall 1.25
EQUATION TYPES C AND D 1.00

Nose of piers 0.4-0.7 1.5-1.75 0.5-1.0
Nose of guide banks 1.5 1.0-1.75
Small dam or control across river 0.75-1.25
1/ “Z” value selected by USBR for use on bends in river.
The classification of equation types given in table 5.6 cover various structure designs
as shown in the following table 5-16:
Table 5-16: Structure design
Equation Scour At Design For
Type
A Natural channel for restrictions Syphon crossings, natural bank and
and bends waterway for one-span bridge.
B Bank line structures Abutments, bank slope protection,
spurs/ gryones, dykes, guide banks
etc., pumping plants and canal
regulators.
C Mid channel structures Piling of bridge, piers, powerline
footings and river bed intake structures
D Hydraulic structures across Dams, barrages, bank erosion controls,
channel rock cascade drops, gabion controls,
weirs and outfall structures.
Source: Pemberton and Lara – Technical guidelines (1984)
v. Jain Equation (1981), Recommended by USBR (rational method for scour
at piers)
0.3
d 
d s  1.84b  Fc 0.25 ............... 5-24
b
where:
ds = depth of scour below stream bed (ft
b = pier width (ft)
d = flow depth (ft)
Vc
Fc= threshold Froud number =
gd 1 / 2
BARRAGES
Vc= competent mean velocity (ft./s)

g = acceleration due togravity (ft./s2)
The Fig. 5-27 shows competent mean velocities for significant bed movement of
cohesionless materials, in terms of grain size and depth of flow (after Neill, 1973).
vi. Schoklitsch Equation (1932), Recommended by USBR (rational method
for downstream scour at weirs, barrages etc
ds  3.15H  q /D90 

0.2 0.57 0.32
 dm ............... 5-25
where:
H= head across the structure (ft)
q = discharge flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
D90=particle size for which 90 percent is finer than (mm)
dm=downstream mean water depth (ft)
Figure 5-27: Suggested component mean velocities for significant bed

movement of cohesionless materials (after Neill, 1973)
vii. Veronese Equation (1937), Recommended by USBR (rational method for
downstream scour at stilling basin)
d s  1.32HT  q0.54  dm
0.225
............... 5-26
where:
ds= depth of scour below stream bed (ft
HT=head across the structure (ft)
q = discharge flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
dm= downstream mean water depth (ft)
BARRAGES
viii. Zimmerman and Maniak (1967), Recommended by USBR (rational method

for downstream scour at stilling basin)
ds 1.95q
0.82
/D85 
0.23
d m /q 
2 / 3 0.93
 dm ............... 5-27
where:
q= discharge flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
D85= particle size for which 85 percent is finer than (mm)
dm= downstream mean water depth (ft)
Other Methods
i. Molesworth and Yenidunia Equation (rational method)
d s  1.41q
0.61
............... 5-28
where:
q= discharge flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
ii. Farraday and Charlton Equation (regime approach for gravel – bed rivers)
d m  0.47V y  / D90 
0.8 0.12
............... 5-29
where:
dm= depth of scour below stream bed (ft)
Vy= discharge flood intensity (cusecs/ft)
D90 = particle size for which 90 percent is finer than (mm)
iii. Inglis Method (1949) (regime approach)
Sir Inglis using the Lacey’s regime equation analyzed the prototype data and
developed the following scour equations:
Ds  x.d m  d o
d m  0.47Q / f  ............... 5-30
1/ 3
where:
Ds= depth of scour below stream bed (ft)
x = multiplying factor for predicting maximum scour depth
dm= mean depth at design discharge (ft)
Q = design discharge (cusecs)
do= mean flow depth
Table 5-17: Multiplication factors for CC Inglis method (1949)
Location “x ”
Nose of pier 2.00
Straight spur facing upstream, sloping at 1.5H:1V 3.80
Large radius guide bank 2.75
Spurs/groynes along river banks, depending upon severity of 1.57 to 3.80
attack (*)
BARRAGES
(*)The severity of attack varies withconditions such as length of projection, curvature

sharpness, angle and location relative to the flow embayment.
iv. Brown Formula (for hilly areas: straight river or torrent approach)
W = 2.4 Q½ ............... 5-31
where:
W = width of incised river (ft)
Q = design discharge (cusecs)
The scour depth formulae for different types of discharge floods are:
 Rivers subject to sustained floods:
D1.32Q/ Cr 
3/10
............... 5-32
(Maximum scour depth = 1.7 D)
 Rivers and torrents subject to sudden and short lived spates:
D1.0Q/ Cr 
3/10
............... 5-33
 Rivers subject to fluctuating flood discharge throughout the year:
D 0.78Q/ Cr 
3/10
............... 5-34
 Rivers and torrent in gorges with inerodible / rigid banks and a deep alluvium
bed:
D1.32Q/ Cr 
3/10
for gorge width > 2.4 (Q/Cr)½ ............... 5-35
D 2.25Q/Wr .Cr 
3/ 5
for gorge width < 2.4 (Q/Cr)½ ............... 5-36
where:
D= maximum scour depth from design flood level to down (ft)
Q= design flood discharge (cusecs)
Cr= Kennedy’s velocity ratio
Wr = width of gorge (ft)
Table 5-18: Kenedy’s velocity ratio
Bed material “Cr”

Fine sand 0.80
Medium sand 1.00
Coarse sand 1.25
Fine gravel or bajri 1.50
Medium gravel 1.75
Coarse gravel 2.00
Small boulders and gravel 2.50
Medium boulders and gravel 3.00
Large boulders and gravel 4.50
Recommended Scour Depth Methods
For normal calculations of scour depth, for various combinations of river gradient and
bed material types, the recommended methods are listed in the following table:
BARRAGES
Table 5-19: Recommended scour depth methods

River gradient Material Recommended method
Very mild Sand and silt -Lacey method (1930)
-Inglis method (1940)
- Lacey’s equation (Expanded by
USBR, 1984)
-Blench equation (USBR,1969)
-Molesworth and Yenidunia equation
Mild (incised) Gravel, sand and silt -Lacey method (1930)
-Inglis method (1940)
- Lacey’s equation (Expanded by
USBR, 1984)
- Blench equation (USBR,1969)
- Neill equation (USBR,1973)
-Molesworth and Yenidunia equation
Steep Gravel and coarse - Blench equation (USBR 1969)
sand -Molesworth and Yenidunia equation
- Farraday and Charlton equation
- Brown formula
Very steep Gravel and boulders - Brown formula
General Scour/Degradation
The time scale for general scour is generally longer than the time scale for local scour.
If a hydraulic structure is located at the river constriction, bend or confluence, there is
possibility of general scour. This will lower the neighbouring river bed level and the
water level relative to the time selected water level/bed level. This long term lowering
of the water/bed level needs to be added to the estimated maximum local scour.
Similarly, if a hydraulic structure is located downstream of a diversion structure long
term degradation may occur. This long term lowering of the water/bed level is added
to the established local scour. The methods to compute the general scour depth for
these three locations are discussed in the following paragraphs.
a) Constriction Scour
The constriction scour occurs in confined section of a river and results in lowering of
the bed level across the width of the river. The increase in depth over a long
constriction maybe calculated by the following formula (Laursen and Tock, 1956):
ym  ho 1
 ............... 5-37
ho 1 m
where:
ym= scour depth in constriction (ft)
ho= flow depth upstream of constriction (ft)
m = B2/B1
B1 = upstream width of river (ft)
B2 = constriction width of river (ft)
= coefficient : ranging 0.67 to 0.80
For bank overflow of upstream river, the above equation may be written as:
BARRAGES
ym  ho 1 Q
  ............... 5-38
ho 1  m Q  Q f
where:
Q= total flood discharge (cusecs)
Qf= bank overflow (cusecs)
b) Bend Scour
Excessive scour occurs in the outer part of bends as a result of spiral flow. The scoured
depth at a bend maybe calculated using the following formulae:
i. Thorne Equation (1993), (empirical relation)
y m / ho  1.07 - log (R/B -2) for 2 < R/B < 22 ............... 5-39
where:
ym= scour depth at river bend (ft)
ho= flow depth in upstream straight reach of river (ft)
R = radius of curvature at the center-line (ft)
B = water surface width in the upstream straight reach of river (ft)
ii.Alvarez Equation
Alvarez equation for the maximum flow depth in the bend follows:
H m ax  EH re ............... 5-40
where:
Hmax= maximum depth of flow in the bend (ft)
Hre= flow depth in upstream reach of river (ft)
E= coefficient depending on B/R ratio
B= water surface width in upstream straight reach of river (ft)
R= river bend center-line radius (ft)
Table 5-20: Coefficient “E” for Alvarez equation
B/R “E”
0 1.27
0.166 1.48
0.200 1.84
0.250 2.20
0.333 2.57
0.500 3.00
Source: Copeland – Strain bank protection (USACE)
c) Confluence Scour
At the function of two branches of a river, both the angle of confluence and water level
may change. The scour downstream of a confluence may be computed using the
following equation (Breusers and Raudkivi, 1991):
Ym/ho = Co + 0.037  ............... 5-41
where:
Ym = scour depth at confluence (ft)
ho= average flow depth of the two branches (ft)
BARRAGES
Co = coefficient depending on river bed material properties in river bed (1.29 for fine
sand to 2.24 for gravel)
ʋ= angle between the two upstream branches (degree)
d) Swirl Scour
Swirls are generated when fast moving water flows past a still water area. Depending
on severity, the swirls may cause abnormal deep scour. Since it is difficult to compute
the velocities in swirl creating currents, no definite analytical relationships have been
developed in this respect. In the absence of reliable calculations of the scour that a
swirl may produce the locations where swirls are likely to be generated should be
identified and provided with additional protection.
e) Maximum Design Velocity in Concave Bend
To calculate the maximum design velocity (Vmax) in a concave bend Salikov
recommended the following equation:
Vmax = 1.25 VCv ............... 5-42
where:
VCv= average velocity at the foot of the concave bend in the absence of a groyne
f) Protective Measures for Local Scour
Placing a flexible bed protection (or flexible stone apron) downstream or around the
hydraulic structures is a common method of local scour protection. The scour occurs
in the area of the bed beyond the flexible stone apron and as a scour hole is formed
the apron slides down into it. Local scour can be reduced or prevented by either
reducing the loading parameters or by increasing the strength parameters as
summarized below:
Table 5-21: Load reduction and strength increase methods
Load reduction Strength increase
-Lengthening bed protection -Compacting sub-soil
-Roughening bed protection -Grouting sub-soil
-Streamlining hydraulic structure -Protecting bed/scour slope
-Energy dissipaters - Reworking the foundation soil
-Wave dissipaters (berms, vegetation, reed etc
Stone Apron
The function of stone apron is to launch and cover the scoured subaqueous slope
below pitching level and prevent the possibility of damaging effect of scour reaching
close to the structure, with a possibility of undermining.
The calculated quantity of apron stone is laid horizontally along the bank toe, with its
top level at the river bed level for dry conditions or at par with the low water level (LWL)
of the river to form the working platform. When scour occurs, the hand packed stone
apron launches itself to act as revetment on the scoured subaqueous slope.
After launching action of stone apron, the stone pitching gradually slips down the bank
slope because of its diminished stable toe previously offered by the stone apron. A top
layer of suitable size gabions (or stone crates), depending upon the stone apron
thickness should be placed for one quarter width of the apron, starting from the stone
pitching toe. These gabions re-establish a stable toe to the stone pitching due to
BARRAGES
launching action of the stone apron. These gabions also check the rolling away of
loose apron stones due to higher velocity in the proximity of stone pitching.
Typical details of stone apron and pitching are shown in Fig. 5-28.
a) Stone Apron Design
To design a stone apron, it is necessary that the volume of stone should be sufficient
to cover the local scour slope length in its fully developed state and also fill partially
the scour hole at toe of the subaqueous slope.
i. Launching Slope
The launching slope of apron maybe assumed as the angle of internal friction () of
the river bed subsurface saturated soil located near to the side slope of the structure.
The representative values of “” for various soil types in saturated condition are shown
in the following table:
Table 5-22: Values of internal friction angle “” for different saturated soils
Soil type “” (Saturated conditions)
Gravel 35º
Coarse sand 28º
Silty sand 25º
Fine sand 28º
Clayey sand 20º
Silt 20º
Source: Bolhales – Foundation analysis and design (1980)
The slope of the scour hole to be covered (or protected) is calculated on the basis of
the above data.
ii. Volume of Stone Apron
The volume of stone to be laid in apron should be enough to cover (or protect) the side
slope of the scour hole with a reasonable thickness, sufficient to ensure safety of stone
pitching of the structure head. Some of the empirical/research methods for determining
the value of stone apron presently used in Pakistan are in the following:
 Manual of Irrigation Practice, Punjab (1943):
Quantity of stone (Qs ) in apron = 2.(5)1/2 .D (per ft)
= 4.48 D
or  4.50 D
where:
D = scour depth below the normal bed level (ft)
 Spring (1903) presented the following formulae for the side slope 2H:1V of the
scour hole:
Cover thickness = 1.25 T
Length of slope = 2.24 D
Qs = 1.25 T x 2.24 D = 2.8 DT(per ft)
where:
T = thickness of stone pitching necessary to protect sand surfaces of various grades
of sands and slopes of rivers, as depicted in Table 5-23:
BARRAGES
Figure 5-28: Typical details of stone pitching protection and stone apron
BARRAGES
Table 5-23: Thickness of stone pitching

Fall per mile (in) 3 9 12 18 24
Sand classification Thickness of stone pitching (in)
Very coarse 16 19 22 25 28
Coarse 22 25 28 31 34
Medium 28 31 34 37 40
Fine 34 37 40 43 46
Very fine 40 43 46 49 52
Source: Spring and Khosla (1903/1936)
 Pakistan Engineering Congress Golden Jubilee Publication (1963)
Qs =7 D(per ft) ............... 5-43
where:
 Kalabagh Barrage Criteria
Qs = 10 D(per ft) (To cover a slope of I in 3 with a thickness of3.25 ft) ....... 5-44
where:
The material commonly found in the bed of alluvial rivers in Pakistan is silty sand, with
an average angle of internal friction (  ) of twenty three (23) degrees in saturated
conditions. However, the23 degrees angle conforms to a slope of 2.36H:1V. Adopting
a 3.25 ft thickness for slope pitching , recommended by IRI, the quantity of stone
required for proper cover of scour hole works out to 3.25x(6.57)1/2x D = 8.33 D or say
8.5 D.
The quantity of stone apron in plains should therefore be provided as 8.5 D per foot.
However, if at any particular site the angle of internal friction (  ) is lower, the design
should be adjusted accordingly.
iii. Width of Stone Apron
Spring (1903) recommended normal width of stone apron=1.5 D.
Where:
5.5.6.1 Stone Aprons in Hilly Areas
In hilly areas the rivers have steeper slopes, wide ranging gradation of river bed
material and formation of local armoured layers. For these river reaches, a stone
launching apron is not feasible against scour. The aprons will have to be constructed
in their final launched position at a pre-established slope and maximum scour depth,
by excavating and backfilling the river bed as necessary
Where the bed material includes a sufficient quantity of large size of coarse material
which cannot be transported by normal river discharges, the formation of the
armouring layer can be anticipated. This layer develops as the finer material is
transported downstream. Vertical degradation occurs at a progressively lower rate
until the armouring layer is of sufficient depth to end the process. The reduction in the
BARRAGES
river bed level due to anticipated armouring of bed material (or degradation depth) is
added to the predicted maximum local scour depth.
The armouring layer thickness and depth from the original river bed to top of armouring
layer (or degradation depth) may be calculated using the following equations:
 1 
yd  ya   1 ............... 5-45
 p 
where:
yd = depth from the original river bed to top of armouring layer or degradation depth
(ft)
ya = thickness of armouring layer (ft)
= 3Dc(three layer thickness at non transportable material to form an armour)
 p = decimal percentage of original bed material larger than armour size, “Dc”.
Dc  1.88Vm2 ............... 5-46
where:
Vm = mean river velocity
Dc = diameter of armour materialin (mm)
c) Apron Stone Size
Two empirical methods, given below can be used to determine the apron stone size.
The larger stone size “(D50)” resulting from either of the two methods will is selected.
i. Isbash Method
The Isbash equation in an expanded form for determining the apron stone size is:
1/ 2
     w 
V  C 2 g  s  D50 1 / 2
   w 
Where 1/ 3
............... 5-47
 6W 
D50   50 
  s 
where:
V= average velocity (ft/sec)
γs= specific weight of stone = 165 (lbs/ ft3)
γw= specific weight of water = 62.5 (lbs/ft3)
W50= weight of stone, 50% weight of total material containing stone of less weight (lb)
D50= equivalent spherical diameter of stone having the same weight as W 50 (ft)
g= acceleration of gravity (ft/s2)
C=Isbash constant equal to 1.20, recognizing the low turbulence flow near stone apron
The related hydraulic design chart for “Velocity Vs Stone Diameter”, is reproduced in
Figs. 5-29 and 5-30.
ii. Maynord Method
The basic Maynord equation for determining the stone size at low turbulence is:
2.5
  0.5
  V 
D30  S f .CS .Cv .Ct .d  w
   ............... 5-48
     0.5 
 s w   K1 .g.d 
BARRAGES
BARRAGES
BARRAGES
where:
D30= stone size for which 30% is finer than (mm).
Sf= safety factor = 1.1
Cs= stability coefficient for incipient failure= 0.30 forangular stone
Cv= velocity distribution coefficient = 1.25 at end of dyke
Ct= blanket thickness coefficient = 1.0
d= discharge flow depth(ft)
K1=side slope correction factor = 1.0
s= specific weight of water = 62.5 (lbs/ ft3)
w= specific weight of stone 165 (lbs/ ft3)
g= acceleration of gravity (ft/s²)
V= average velocity (ft/s)
The expanded Maynord equation is:
2.5
    V 
0.5
D30  0.41d  w

   ............... 5-49
  s   w   g.d  
0.5
where various symbols means as above.
D50  D30 D85 / D15 

0.32
............... 5-50
where:
D50 = average stone size
D30, D85, D15 =stone sizes for which 30%, 85%, 15% respectively are finer than
iii. Minimum Stone Size
The function of stone apron is to launch and protect the scoured subaqueous slope
below pitching level. The stone size (D50/W 50) to be laid in apron should be at least of
same size or larger than that determined for the slope pitching.
d. Apron Stone Grading
The size gradation of apron stone shall be established as an envelope based on the
following relations and as shown in Fig. 5-7.
W100 (max = 4.0W 50(min
W100 (min = 2.0W 50(min
W50(max = 1.5W 50(min
W15(max = 1.0W 50(min
W15(min = 0.4W 50(min
Typically, a stone size grading of 40 lbs to 250 lbs is used.

Slopes Protection
5.5.7.1 General
The best form of protection system for the river bank hydraulic structure slopes against
waves and current attack is a properly designed layer of hammer dressed stone
pitching underlain by transition spall and filter layers. A common requirement for
protection is the bank preparation having a stable slope. This slope is normally limited
by the angle of repose of the protection stone and by those physical characteristics of
the bank material which influence the slope stability. Mostly it is not feasible to flatten
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the bank slope to satisfy soils stability criteria. For a steeper bank slope, a stone
protection has to be provided on the slope. It provides the strength and stability
required together with the flexibility, not weakened by slight movement of the
embankment resulting from settlement or other adjustments. The local damage or loss
is easily repaired by addition of stone where required.
For hydraulic structures located in the barrage pond or bank of a wide river or
embankment lying across the river flow the action of waves or current or a combination
of both are considered for stone protection on the bank slope. The stone protection
for all other hydraulic structures and river banks slope are designed against transverse
forces due to the velocity and turbulence of current action.
For all type of bank slopes the stone size gradation of 40 lbs (18 kg) to 250 lbs (113
kg) is used. The stone material is composed of angular quarried stone eighty (80)
percent of which by weight are equal and larger than W 50. The remaining twenty (20)
percent quantity may be lighter rock (W 15 to W30) to fill the voids between larger stones.
5.5.7.2 Design of Slope Protection
Till recently the structural measures for protection of slope of flood works has been
confined to hammer dressed stone pitching designed on the basis of the following
empirical relationships:
 Old Manual of Irrigation Practices, Punjab (1943)
Stone thickness =1.3(ft)
Spall/Filter layer =0.7(ft)
Total thickness =2.0(ft)
 IRI - A General Recommendation
Total thickness =3.25(ft)
 Spring (1903)
Spring prepared a table 5.15 based on channel slope and grain size of the
alluvium through which the river flows.
 Gales
Total thickness =4.0(ft)(1.2 m)
 C.C. Inglis Formula
T = 0.06(Q)1/3 ............... 5-51
where:
T = thickness of pitching (ft)
Q = discharge (cusecs)
This equation yields normal results for discharges up to 300,000 cusecs (8,500
cumecs) but the thickness increases abnormally for discharges above 400,000
cusecs (11,300 cumecs).
 Sethi Formula
T=K(Q/f)1/3 ............... 5-52
where:
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T = thickness of pitching (ft)

Q = discharge (cusecs)
K = constant
This equation yields slightly high but consistent results subject to correct
selection of the constant K.
Considering the merits and shortcomings of the above methods and general river
alluvium the recommendation of IRI (total thickness = 3.25 ft (1.0 m)) appears to be
most rational. This thickness has been provided at some spurs and has held very well.
Spring’s table yields results similar to those of the IRI for rivers in plains with fine
sediments and a ruling slope of 1 in 5000.
However, the design of slope protection is carried out for both velocity and wave wash
effects utilizing the latest state-of-the-art and scientific knowledge available
internationally and discussed in the subsequent sub-sections.
Sample calculations for a typical case are included at the end of this section as
Annexure A.
5.5.7.3 Protection against flow currents
Two empirical methods given below should be used to determine the slope protection
stone size against current attack. The larger stone size (D50) resulting from either
method may l be used.
a) Isbash Method
The Isbash equation given in the expanded form for determining the stone size on a
slope for low turbulence is:
1/ 2 1/ 4
     w   Sin2 
V  1.202g s  1  2  D50 1/ 2 ............... 5-53
   w   Sin  
where:
V= average velocity (ft/sec)
γs = specific weight of stone= 165 (lbs/ft³)
γw= specific weight of water= 62.5 (1bs/ ft³)
θ =bank slope angle to the horizontal (degree)
ɸ = angle of repose for the stone (degree) (normally 40o)
D50 = equivalent spherical diameter of stone having the same weight as W 50 (ft)
W50 = weight of stone 50% weight of total material containing stone of less weight (lb)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft/s2)
The Isbash equation can be further expanded as:
1/ 3
 6W 
D50   50  ............... 5-54
  s 
3 3 / 2
V 6 . s   w   Sin2 
W50  0.0219 3   1  2  ............... 5-55
g   s   w   Sin  
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b) Maynord Method
The basic Maynord equation for determining the stone size on a slope for low
turbulence is:
2.5
  0.5
  V 
D30  S f .CS .Cv .Ct .d  w
   ............... 5-56

 s     . . 0.5 
w   K 1 g d 
where:
D30 = stone size for which 30% is finer than (mm)
Sf= safety factor= 1.1
Cs= stability coefficient for incipient failure = 0.30 for angular stone
Cv= velocity distribution coefficient= 1.0 for straight channels and inside of bends
= 1.283 – 0.2 log (R/W) for outside of bends (1.0 forR/W > 26)
R= center-line radius of bend(ft)
W= water-surface width at upstream end of bend( ft)
Ct= blanket thickness coefficient = 1.0
d=discharge depth at 20% upslope from toe of bank slope.
K1 = side slope correction factor
=-0.672 + 1.492 cot θ-0.449 cot2 θ+0.045 cot3 θ
θ= bank slope angle to the horizontal (degree)
γs= specific weight of stone= 165 ( 1bs/ft3)
γw = specific weight of water = 62.5 ( 1bs/ft3)
g= acceleration of gravity (ft/s2 )
V= average velocity (ft/s)
The expanded Maynord equation is:
2.5
  0.5
  V 
D30  0.41d  w
   ............... 5-57
  s   w   K1 .g.d  
0.5
D50  D30 (D85 / D15 )0.32 ............... 5-58

where:
D50 = average stone size
D30, D85, D15 = stone sizes for which 30%, 85%, 15% respectively are finer than
5.5.7.4 Wave Attack Protection
For the embankment slopes which are subject to wave action, it is necessary to predict
wave characteristics in order to provide information for determining the free board and
for the design of stone pitching for embankment protection.
First the wave characteristics are determined and then applied for establishing the
protection stone size.
a) Wave Run-up
The wind velocity, duration and direction at the location of hydraulic structure and
adjacent topography affect the generated wave heights. The wave run-up is measured
above the still water level that would theoretically exist if there is no wave action.
Waves prediction methods are based on semi-empirical relationships, as discussed in
the following paragraph:
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i. Wind Data
Normally, wind data to establish the design wind velocity over land (U land) is obtained
from the meteorological station with nearest to the hydraulic structure. For cases
where wind data is not available from the nearby station then the value of “U land” may
be taken as 50miles/hour (80 km/hour), the value established for Taunsa Barrage by
Zaidi.
The wind velocities over water (Uwater), because of smoother and more uniform
surface, are considered to be higher than those over land (U land). The following table
5-24 lists the ratio of “Uwater“ to “Uland” as a function of fetch distance .
Table 5-24: Wind ratio’s for various fetches
Fetch (mile) Wind RatioU water
U land
0.5 1.06
1 1.13
2 1.21
4 1.28
5 (and over) 1.31
The “Uland ” are adjusted by the wind velocity ratio to obtain“ U water”.
Source: Ipen – Estuary hydrodynamics
ii. Effective Fetch (Fe)
The characteristics of wind-generated waves are influenced by the distance that wind
travels over the water surface in the fetch direction. For hydraulic structures there is
less water surface for the wind to act on. The value of “Fe” ranges from one (1) mile
(1.6 km) to ten (10) miles (16 km) depending upon the maximum straight line length
of water surface to which the face of the embankment is exposed.
iii. Significant Wave Height and Period
With the established “Uwater” and “Fe” the significant wave height and period in deep
water are computed from the following three equation;
 Saville Method :
0 .47
gHs  gF 
2
 0.0026  2e  ............... 5-59
Uw  Uw 
0.28
gTs  gF 
2
 0.46  2e  ............... 5-60
Uw  Uw 
where:
Hs = significant wave height, the average of the highest 1/3 waves in the
spectrum (ft)
Ts = significant wave period, the average interval between successive crests or
troughs of groups of the higher waves (s)
Fe= effective fetch (ft)
Uw= wind velocity overwater surface (ft/s)
g= acceleration of gravity (ft/s2)
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The Fig. 5-31 reproduced from Ippen and Wood presents relationship between
the wave run-up ratio (R/Hs) and wave steepness (Hs/Lo) for deep water include
definition of deep water
where:
R = wave run-up as vertical height (ft)
Lo= wave length = 5.12 Ts2( ft)
Figure 5-31: Wave run-up ratios VS wave steepness and embankment slopes
(A.T. Ipen & Muir wood)
 Bretschneider Method
2
H s  0.0555(U w Fe ) 0.5
2
............... 5-61
Ts  0.50(U w Fe ) 0.25
where:
Hs = significant wave height(ft)
Ts= significant wave period( s)
Uw= wind velocity ( knot)
Fe= effective fetch ( nautical mile) (1.15 statue mile = 1.0 nautical mile)
Shallow water wave-height (Hs’) = 0.65 Hs Creager and Justin Method
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F 0.37 .U 0.48
H ............... 5-62
3.41
where:
H = wave height (ft)
F= fetch (mile)
U = wind velocity (mile/hour)
The following table shows the wave heights (in ft) with reference to reservoir/ pond
fetch in miles and wind velocity in mph.
Table 5-25: Wave height versus fetch and wind velocity
Fetch Wind velocity Wave height
(mi) (mi/h) (ft)
1 50 2.7
1 75 3.0
2.5 50 3.2
2.5 75 3.6
2.5 100 3.9
5 50 3.7
5 75 4.3
5 100 4.8
10 50 4.5
10 75 5.4
10 100 6.1
Source: Seville et. Al. (May 1962)
b) Wave breaking on slope
When a wave strikes on the front slope of embankment, it breaks completely or is
partially reflected creating standing waves which are sometimes twice the height of
incident waves. To avoid these standing waves the front slope has to completely break
the wave train. The front slope competency could be checked by satisfying the
following equation:
0.5
8 H 
tan   s  ............... 5-63
Ts  2g 
where:
α= bank slope angle to the horizontal (degree)
Hs = significant wave height (ft
Ts = significant wave period(s)
g= acceleration of gravity(ft/s2)
c) Wave Run-up or Ride
The run-up “R” of a braking wave, measured vertically above the mean water surface
level, is given by “HUNT” as
𝑹 𝑲 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶
= 𝟖 ............... 5-64
𝑯𝟏 𝑯 𝟏
𝑻 𝟏 𝟐
( )
𝟐
Where
R = Wave run up (ride)
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H = Wave height
K = Surface roughness coefficient for the embankment slopes which is usually
assumed as 2.3’ for smooth facing.
Refer sample calculations in Annexure B.
d) Free Board
In the design of water retaining structures the crest of the embankment / structure is
to be kept higher than the level of water to be contained. This margin is necessary for
safety against overtopping due to rise in water levels on account of disturbances in
water like, waves, wind setup, river set in case of river ponds and seiches. Some small
margin is also necessary for contingent requirement as factor of safety. In some cases
the depth of frost zone may be the controlling factor.
Refer sample calculations in Annexure C.
e) Protection Stone Size
The semi-empirical Hudson and Jackson formula for determining the required weight
of the stone is:
Wr H 3
W50  ............... 5-65
K RR S r  1 C ot
3
1/ 3
 6W 
D50   50  ............... 5-66
 Wr 
where:
W50 =median stone weight in gradation by weight (lb)
Wr=unit weight of the stone= 165 (lbs/ft3)
H=design wave height (ft)
Sr=specific gravity of stone = W r / W w
W w=unit weight of water = 62.5 (lbs/ft3)
θ=slope measured to horizontal (degree)
KRR =stability coefficient for graded angular stone = 2.0 for double stone units
armoured layer
D50 =equivalent spherical diameter of stone having the same weight as W 50 (ft)
The value of “H” may determine using the following equations,
H = 1.25 Hs ............... 5-67
where:
Hs = significant wave height (ft)
5.5.7.5 Stone pitching protection
The slope protection will consist of hammer dressed stone pitching underlain with
transition layer of well graded rock spall and filter layer of well graded gravel or crushed
stone, up to the crest level. Typical details of stone pitching protection on embankment
slope are shown in Fig. 5-32.
a) Stone Pitching Layer
All stones should be contained within the thickness of stone pitching layer to provide
maximum resistance against erosive forces. The larger stones should not protrude
above the general surface of the stone pitching. As a normal requirement the minimum
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thickness of stone pitching layer is 1.5 feet (0.45 m) for containing the larger stone.
Minimum thickness of stone pitching layer =1.5D50  1.5 ft(0.45 m)
b) Rock Spall Transition Layer
It is recommended to provide standard six (6) inches (150 mm) thick rock spall
transition layer between the stone pitching layer and filter layer. The spall layer should
be well graded from two (2) to four (4) inches (50 mm to 100 mm). Not more than
fifteen (15) percent should be larger than four (4) inches (100 mm) and not more than
five (5) percent should be smaller than two (2) inches (50 mm).
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c) Filter Layer
To prevent infiltration of the material susceptible to draining into the filter, the following
requirement are met:
D15 percent size of filter material  5(stability) ............... 5-68
D85 percent size of material being drained
D50 percent size of filter material  25 (segregation) ............... 5-69
where:
D15, D85, D50 = material size for which 15%, 85%, 50% respectively are finer than
To assure that the filter material is much more permeable than the material being
drainedthe following requirement is met:
Permeability:
D15 percent size of filter material  5 (permeability) ............... 5-70
The permeability of a soil is approximately proportional to the square of its D 15 particle
size. Therefore, the criterion given by above equation assures that the filter material is
at least twenty five (25) times more permeable than the material being drained.
The maximum six (6) inches (150 mm) thick filter layer of gravel or crushed stone
should be well graded from two (2) inches (50 mm) down. Not more than fifteen (15)
percent should be larger than two (2) inches (50 mm) and not more than ten (10)
percent should be smaller than one sixteenth (1/16) of an inch (1.5 mm).
Geotextile Filter
5.5.8.1 General
Geotextile filter may be used on bank slope protection where gravel or crushed rock
filter materials are not readily available or are not cost effective due to transportation.
However, a problem which may occur with geotextile filter is that overland flow beneath
the geotextile can cause the development of gullies in bank material and bulges in the
geotextile.
5.5.8.2 Geotextile Filter Design
The following two factors control the design of geotextile filter:
a) Filtration
The flow path through the geotextile mesh must be fine enough to prevent continuous
infiltration and passing of soil, yet large enough to allow water to pass freely. The
following criteria should be used to select the geotextile filter.
i. For filter geotextile to be placed adjacent to granular materials containing
fifty (50) percent or less fines as those soils that will pass a U.S. Standard
Sieve No.200 (0.074 mm), the following ratio should be satisfied:
W85 percent passing size of soil(mm) 1 ............... 5-71
EOS of geotextile filter No. (mm)
where:
EOS = the equivalent opening size of geotextile filter
To reduce the chance of clogging, no geotextile should be specified with an EOS
smaller than the opening of the U.S. Standard Sieve No. 100 (0.149 mm)
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ii. For geotextile filter to be placed adjacent to all other type of soils, the EOS
should not be larger than the opening of the U.S. Standard Sieve No. 70
(0.211 mm). Also, the soil must have at least fifty (50) percent but not more
than eighty five (85) percent fines by weight.
iii. The “GR” of a given geotextile soil filtration system is the ratio of the
hydraulic gradient over the one (1) inch of soil immediately next to the
geotextile (if ) to the hydraulic gradient over the two (2) inches of soil
between one (1)inch and three (3) inches above the geotextile (ig).
if
GR  3 ............... 5-72
ig
b) Chemical and Physical Properties
The design selection of geotextile filter must ensure for its chemical and physical
(strength and slippage) properties. These two properties are
i. Chemical strength requirements
The plastic yarn used to manufacture geotextile filter should consist of a long chain
synthetic polymer and contain stabilizers and/or inhibitors added to the base plastic to
make the filaments resistant to deterioration due to ultraviolet and heat exposure.
ii. Physical strength requirements
The geotextile filter must conform to the following three physical strength
requirements:
 Tensile strength(ASTMD 1682)
 Puncture strength (ASTMD 751)
 Abrasion strength (ASTMD 3834)
To control relative slippage between the soil slope and geotextile or the geotextile and
stone protection securing pins should be used to keep the geotextile in place.
The pins spacing and length are recommended to be as the following
Spacing:
Slope < 3H:1V = 2.0 ft(0.6 m)
Slope ≥ 3H:1V = 3.0 ft(1.0 m)
Pin length:
Firm soils = 18 inch long steel pin
Loose soils > 18 inch long steel pin
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5.6 BARRAGE DESIGN

Introduction
Barrages are hydraulic structures constructed to raise the water level in a river to the
elevation required for efficient feeding of the off-taking canals. Two types of
investigations preclude the design computation exercises, namely “Preliminary” and
“Detailed”.
Preliminary Investigations
a) Study of all available surveys and maps
b) Regional and site geology reports
c) Foundation strata and anisotropy
d) Initial review of available hydrological data
e) Water requirements and availability
f) Communications facilities and availability
g) Climate (rainfall, temperatures, humidity, evaporation)
h) Availability of construction materials and other commodities.
Detailed Investigations
The initial investigations provide the basic information and requirement for further
detailed studies, as introduced in the following paragraphs.
a) Topographical and bathymetric surveys
These surveys provide information on the topography of the area, channel plan and
cross sections. Contour maps of the barrage location and canal command areas.
These also facilitate preparation of the longitudinal profile of the river at the barrage
site.
b) Hydrological studies
The hydrological data i.e. rainfall, run-off water levels and discharges for the river
channel at the barrage site, are collected and analyzed to determine the probable
maximum flood at the barrage location.
For gauged channels, the following statistical distributions may generally be used for
hydrological analyses to determine river discharges for various return periods.
A Max Annual maximum distribution
L- Logistic distribution
GL Generalized logistic distributions
GEV Generalized extreme value (Gumble’s) distribution
G Gumble’s distribution
LN3 Log Pearson Type-III distribution
P3 Pearson Type-III distribution
E Exponential distribution
GP Generalized pareto distribution
For rivers in Pakistan the Gumble extreme value (GEV) model suits the best, but Log
Pearson type III is a close follower.
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For un-gauged basins, Stochastic methods are used utilizing the rainfall data for the
river basin using the method of probability and return periods, like curve number and
unit synthetic hydrograph method.
For any un-gauged site the data of upstream and downstream sites if available can be
utilized through interpolation / extrapolation with reference to the gauged site data.
The above analyses not only determine the probable maximum flood (PMF) these
are also utilized for assessing the design discharge capacity of the barrage and
preparation of a gauge discharge relationship i.e. rating curve that may be used in
barrage design.
c) Sediment Data
It is necessary to know the sediment discharge (size and charge) of the river at various
points in time of the year to determine the requirement of sediment exclusion from the
canal withdrawal and ejection from the canal, and also to select the pond levels, both
seasonal and annual.
d) Surface and subsurface 0characteristics
These include:
i. Foundation capacity and geological characteristics of the alluvium at the
barrage location, which include Atterberg Limits and Shear / Plasticity of the
soil.
ii. If piers or abutments are to be designed with reinforced concrete pile
foundation, the bearing capacity of the piles should be determined by driving
test piles prior to finalizing the design of the pile system.
iii. In sandy strata, standard dynamic and static penetration tests should be done
below the position of each structure e.g. abutments, piers, divide walls, centre
of each bay etc. for estimating the bearing pressures, likely settlement and
necessity of settlement joints, etc and for boulder strata, plate bearing tests
should be done.
iv. Normally the both upstream and downstream flow of the barrage, are designed
as gravity floors to counteract uplift pressure. Wherever the main floor of the
structure is to be designed as an RC raft supported on an elastic medium, in-
situ tests to determine the modulus of sub-grade reaction at the proposed
foundation level should be conducted. If there is a wide variation in the
properties of the foundation material, the length of the structure should be split
up into suitable sections isolated from each other by means of double piers and
the modulus of sub-grade reaction must be determined at every section.
v. Soil samples should be collected at suitable depth intervals and their properties,
such as classification, unit weight, angle of internal friction, void ratio, specific
gravity, grain size distribution etc. should be determined by sieve analysis and
other laboratory tests.
vi. Wherever clayey strata is encountered, undisturbed samples of the clay layer
should be obtained, one from the proposed foundation level and another 5 ft
below the foundation level for each bay. These samples should be analyzed to
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determine the cohesion, unconfined compressive strength, moisture content,

dry density and sensitivity and consolidation characteristics.
vii. Wherever clayey strata is proposed to be treated through use of sand drains or
stone columns, coefficients for permeabilities and consolidation should be
determined in the vertical as well as radial directions.
viii. Elevation of the sub-soil water table in the vicinity of the barrage or weir site
should be measured. The effect of higher pond levels in raising the downstream
water table and related problems thereof should also be investigated.
ix. Field permeability tests should be carried out to assess the extent of seepage
losses from the pond and the dewatering requirement.BARRAGES
x. Communication system access to barrage site
xi. Other miscellaneous / related studies are:
a. Pond area survey to acquire data for the area submerged and losses to
private properties.
b. Environmental / sociological surveys including navigation, fish culture,
wild life, recreational or tourism and overall ecology.
c. Historical, cultural and archeological monuments
Location and alignment
The first essential elements of a river diversion structure, such as like a barrage are
its location and alignment
5.6.4.1 Location
The suitability of any site for locating a barrage or weir has to be analyzed by taking
into considerations the components of the barrage such as the under sluices the
main weir and the head regulators, each one having its own requirements to be
satisfied for efficiency. An ideal site is one which satisfies the requirements of all the
three components. But it is very difficult to find such a site in general. Hence a balance
has to be struck after considering the various merits and demerits.
In Pakistan, the practice up till now has been to construct barrages in dry or on a bye
river and then divert the main river through the structure after completion of
construction. This results in inherent oblique approach channel of the river to the
barrage. One of the reasons for failure of Islam Barrage in 1929 was due to improper
location of the barrage
5.6.4.2 Consideration of the River Channels
The best site for locating a diversion structure is in a straight reach of the river, where
the velocity of the flow is almost uniform and the sectional area of the river almost
constant. The bank should be firm, well defined and in erodible. A narrow gorge may
reduce the length of the structure, but due to higher velocity and depth of flow, heavier
sections may be needed. On the other hand, a wider river section may induce siltation
due to reduced velocity in addition to requirements of longer marginal bunds.
However from the considering the entry of list into the canals, certain amount of
curvature to the river course is desirable. Due to the curvature, helical flow is
developed and the bottom layers of silt charged water, is diverted away from the canal
off-take on the outer side of the curve. When the canals take off on both the banks,
the one on the inner side of the curve will draw more silt.
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It has also to be noted that the course of the river has not changed for many years at
the prospective site of the structure. In the case of shifting river course, proper
measures are needed to contain the river in its present course.
5.6.4.3 River Slope
If some storage is envisaged on the upstream of the proposed barrage, the structure
should be located in a mild slope reach.
5.6.4.4 Conditions of the Banks
The river banks at the proposed location should preferably be firm or reasonably so to
avoid channel side protection works.
5.6.4.5 Confluence of Channels
The location should be reasonably downstream of the confluence of rivers / channels
to avoid hazardous channel interaction with in the guide bank zone.
5.6.4.6 Working head for the off-taking canals
The structure should be located to provide a reasonable working head across the
canal regulator because, higher the working head, higher the cost, however with lower
the working head the canal operation is sub optimal. A trade off scenario should
therefore to be adopted.
5.6.4.7 Alignment / Orientation
For the location and orientation of a barrage with respect to the river axis, the following
terms are used.
Khadir Axis - is a line passing centrally in the river course between the two high
banks for a length to which the back water effect is experienced.
Barrage length - is a line along the crest of the barrage.
River Axis - is a line parallel to the Khadir axis at the centre of the barrage
width between the abutments and perpendicular to the barrage
axis.
Barrage - is a line perpendicular to the barrage length at the middle of the
barrage length.
Special model studies in the Irrigation Research Institute indicated the Following
conclusions regarding the orientation and location of a Barrage may be drawn from
the special model studies conducted by the Irrigation Research Institute (IRI):
i. If the angle θ between barrage axis and river axis is large, invariably there is
concentration of flow on one side and island formation on the other within the
guide banks e.g. at Islam and Balloki. Maximum safe value of θ is 10°.
ii. If the river axis is to the right of the barrage axis, the concentration of flow is
generally on the left side with a tendency to form an island on the right and vice-
versa.
iii. When the barrage is located below the confluence of two rivers it should be
sufficiently below the confluence and due weight should be given as to which
of the two rivers is dominant.
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iv. In case of only one river, the alignment of the weir for good approach conditions
should be such that the angle between headworks axis and river axis is
minimum.
v. Location of the barrage on one side of the “Khadir” enhances the tendency to
form a shoal along the guide bank on that side. Greater asymmetry increases
the tendency to form a shoal, and calls for expensive training works.
vi. The most suitable position of a barrage when constructed in the dry is just below
the outer side of a convex bend, upstream of which the river is straight for some
distance.
vii. An inappropriate site on the inside of a convex bend produces oblique
approach to the guide bank head forming an island along it within the guide
banks and considerably increases the sediment entry into the canal taking off
from that bank.
The above conclusion from model tests can be used as guiding principles for the
location of a barrage in an alluvial river. Model experiments are always necessary for
any new location.
Estimation of Design Flood
The design flood for any given return period is usually estimated by the following
frequency distributions.
 Pearson and Log Pearson Type III distributions
 Gumbel’s Extreme value distributions
 Normal and Log normal distributions
Log Pearson Type III distribution has been adopted by United States Federal Agencies
whereas Gumbel distribution has generally been found to be suitable for most of the
streams in Pakistan.
Climate change effects
At present no definite models are available for estimation of climate change effects but
an addition of 10% to the 100 years frequency discharge is normally made, or a 200
year flood discharge is adopted whichever is higher.
Design Criteria
Before starting design computations suitable design criteria and methodology are
decided and shared with all concerned, parties/stake holders
5.6.7.1 Width of barrage
Following three considerations govern the width of a barrage, Design flood, Lacey
design width and the looseness factor. It is generally that by limiting the waterway, the
shoal formation on the upstream side can be eliminated. However, it increases the
intensity of discharge and consequently the section of the structure becomes heavier
with excessive gate heights and the cost increases, though the length of the structure
is reduced. A large variation in the seasonal discharges makes such determination
very difficult.
The design flood has been discussed in an earlier paragraph; the other two conditions
are discussed in the following paragraphs.
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5.6.7.2 Lacey’s regime width

Lacey Regime or stable width for an incised single channel is expressed as:
W = 2.67 √ Q ............... 5-73
Where Q is the design discharge in cusecs (ft3/sec).
The barrage is designed for a width exceeding W, to allow for obstructions caused by
the barrage itself (barrage components).
5.6.7.3 Looseness factor
The ratio of adopted width of the barrage to the regime width is termed as the
“looseness factor”. The values used have varied from 1.98 to 0.9, the larger factor
being applied in the earlier designs. From the performance of these structures, it
appears that with high Looseness Factor, there is a tendency for shoal formation
upstream of the structures, which causes damages and maintenance problems. The
most appropriate looseness factor to provide reasonable flexibility keeping the adverse
effects to the minimum should be adopted.
5.6.7.4 Barrage width
The width of a barrage between flanks is the sum total of the regime width of the river
plus total width of the piers, divide walls, fish ladders, and navigation lock /bay i.e.
Barrage width = Regime width + ∑ Width of barrage components along the gate line .......... 5-74
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5.7 DESIGN FOR SURFACE FLOW

Afflux
The rise in maximum flood level of the river upstream of the barrage as a result of its
construction is defined as “Afflux”. The afflux, effect significant for a short length of the
river upstream of the barrage, extends gradually very far up till the backwater slope
maladies that of the river channel in general.
In the design of barrages/weirs founded on alluvial sands, the afflux adopted is
between 3 to 4 feet - more commonly 3 feet. The afflux will determines the top levels
of guide banks and their lengths, and the top levels and sections of flood protection
bunds. It governs the dynamic action, as greater the afflux or fall of levels from
upstream to downstream the greater is the action. It also controls the depth and
location of the hydraulic jump / standing wave. By providing a high afflux, the width of
the barrage can be narrowed but the cost of training works increase and the risk of
failure by out-flanking increases. Selection of a realistic optimum value is imperative.
Tail water rating curve
Tail water rating curve for the barrage has to be established by an analysis of the
downstream gauge discharge data. The proposed tail-water level for new design is
established by subtracting the designed retrogression values from the existing
minimum tail water levels.
Retrogression
The word “Retrogression” is used for the degrading phenomenon, both for the bed and
water levels.
5.7.3.1 Retrogression of bed levels
Retrogression of bed level is the phenomenon through which the scouring process
lowers the bed levels significantly to end up in general degradation of the channel bed
levels. Due to this or due to some other reasons the water levels also drop.
5.7.3.2 Retrogression of water levels
Retrogression of levels is a process triggered by the construction of pick-up weirs or
humps across natural streams and permeable foundation and results in the
degradation of stream bed with subsequent lowering of water levels downstream of
the weir.
Construction of a barrage across a river affects the river regime and channel
equilibrium resulting in the following changes.
i. Slope of the river upstream of the weir flattens due to ponding up of the supplies
and dropping of sediments
ii. Due to (i) above, bulk of the silt charge of the river water deposits in the pond,
thickly forming irregular shoals.
iii. There is a progressive degradation / retrogression of bed levels downstream,
due to picking up of bed silt by relatively silt free water escaping over the weir.
iv. These effects continue for the first few years but later due to continuous silting
up of the pond and increasing tortuosity, the bed levels of the stream tend to
rise as the bed levels at the weir are fixed. An increase in tortuosity necessarily
enhances the rise of levels due to weir afflux with the result that this rise is felt
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higher up the river than would otherwise be the case. As a result of this
progressive rise of bed levels, there is a tendency for the river to regain its
original slope.
v. A stage will come when upstream pond absorbs no further silt burden. Owing
to the off-taking canals drawing comparatively silt-free water, the excess of silt
passes downstream of the weir while the amount of water passing over the weir
is less than the normal due to canal withdrawals. The river below the weir will
thus, have to carry an excessive silt charge with a lower water discharge. This
results in progressive silting up on the downstream, an increase in tortuosity
and, therefore, a recovery of bed levels downstream.
The changes in the river regime discussed above are important for the design of the
weirs as explained below: -
In the first few years following construction of a barrage, the retrogression of bed levels
downstream is rapid and progressive. Generally it ranges between 4 and 7 feet. This
lowering of the bed levels in the early stages if improperly incorporated in design may
result in a failure like that of the Islam weir in 1929. The retrogression may undermine
the stability of a structure by an increase in the exit gradient beyond the safe limits. It
increases the destructive action of the hydraulic jump as with the increased fall and
decreased depth" of downstream water due to lowering of the water levels at that
location and, the jump will tend to travel down to the cement concrete blocks and loose
stone protection area.
As a result of the retrogression in levels, while the low water levels have dropped from
4 to 7 feet, the maximum flood levels have not dropped by more than 1 to 1.5 ft. The
initial magnitude of retrogression depends on the crest levels, discharge, sediment
load and extent of pond area.
5.7.3.3 Restoration of original slope upstream of the weir
With time, the river upstream regains its original slope which implies that the effect of
afflux due to the construction of the weir is not confined in magnitude and length to the
usually accepted distance as determined by the back-water curve. It travels further up
and is felt in the full, all that distance.
5.7.3.4 Recovery of downstream bed levels
Process of recovery of the downstream bed levels after the initial retrogression, is slow
but steady. It may take about 20 years but the bed levels in some cases may rise
higher than those existing before construction of the weir.
5.7.3.5 Provision in Design of Barrages
Provision for the mitigation of a retrogression of 3 to 4 ft is generally included in the
barrage design.
5.7.3.6 Effects of Retrogression
As the barrage is designed for the worst conditions, the extent of retrogression
experienced by the structure is a critical feature.
Lowering of tail-water levels below the designed minimum levels causes reduction in
the tail water depths. This naturally results in depths less than the conjugate depths
required for the formation of good hydraulic-jump at the proper place and level for
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effective energy dissipation. The difference in actual and designed levels results in the
formation of an unstable jump, much below the required safe levels with a secondary
jump at the end of the impervious floor or on the block apron. This causes significant
amount of scour and negative pressures in the block area and loose stone apron and
consequently resulting in lifting and washing away of the stone and settlement of PCC
blocks. Several barrages have experienced such conditions.
5.7.3.7 Conclusion
A reasonable amount (say 3 to 4ft) of retrogression of downstream water levels is
incorporated in the design of any new barrage.
Accretion of Levels
Accretion of levels, in-fact creates effects that are contrary to retrogression. In this
phenomenon, sedimentation takes place on the downstream bed causing general
aggradation.
Interestingly, both the phenomena result in reduced discharge capacity of the barrage.
While retrogression limits the capacity due to unstable / washed out hydraulic jump,
the accretion raises the downstream water levels, renders the barrage non modular
with reduction in the coefficient of discharge and consequently the discharge capacity
reduces.
Both the phenomena are vexing maladies.
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5.8 ENERGY OF FLOW/SPECIFIC ENERGY

To understand the dynamics of an open channel or free surface fluid flow, clear
understanding of the term energy of flow is essential.
The energy of water flow in a natural or man-made channel is made up of three types
i.e. potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. The sum of all the three
energies is the total energy of the fluid flow at any particular point in the channel.
This total energy above the channel bed is called the energy of flow “Specific Energy”.
The old term “Energy of flow has been repaved as specific Energy. The consideration
of this energy is helpful in solving any surface flow problem.
Mathematically, the specific energy is:
𝑽𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑫 + 𝟐𝒈 ............... 5-75
where
E is the “Specific Energy” expressed as head in feet of water above the bed. When
total energy line is plotted, the Specific Energy is the depth between the bed line and
the total energy line.
V is the mean velocity in fps of a stream.
D is the depth below the water surface of the stream.
g is the acceleration due to gravity, also called the “gravity constant”.
If E is plotted against various depths ‘D’ for various discharges Q & q a series of
hyperbolic curves is obtained. Such a plot for discharge intensity range of 1 to 400 cs
is presented in Fig. 5-33 prepared by AMR Montague. The lowest point in the energy
curve depicts the minimum energy of flow required for flow to continue. The flow at
this stage is called critical flow which is very unstable.. In this plot, the flows
represented by the E on the left of the minimum value is termed as Super Critical flow
and to the right as subcritical flow i.e. the point of minimum E or E critical is the
conversion point of super and subcritical flows. The minimum depth of flow is critical
depth and the velocity is termed as critical velocity. The plot establishes that the depth
of flow increases as the flow enters the sub-critical stage.
Total Energy Line
All hydraulic phenomena are controlled by the concept known as the total energy line.
Over a channel, this is really a theoretical line on a section of the channel. This line
represents, with reference to a fixed datum, the total energy of all particles of water
flowing in the section. The continuous fall from point to point of the total energy line
represents the energy lost in friction by the flowing stream. One other cause for a
variation in this total energy line is the case of hydraulic jump which is signified by an
abrupt drop in the level of the total energy line.
Variations in the bed or sides of a channel result by changes in velocities. These
results in a change in position of the water surface of the stream, but whatever these
changes, the total energy for every particle of water in the stream is represented by
the total energy line.
Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic jump is a phenomenon in which a sudden and normally turbulent condition
of flow results in dissipation of kinetic energy of flow in lowering of flow velocity to
values lower than critical values and in increasing the inflow depth above critical value
thus transferring the flow from Supercritical to sub-critical stage. The phenomenon can
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also be called as the limiting condition of flow surface curve wherein it tends to become
perpendicular to the stream bed.
It can also be defined as the phenomenon in which a jet of water moving with
supercritical velocity is converted into a body of water flowing at subcritical velocity,
with almost abrupt change in velocity and depth accompanied by loss (dissipation) of
energy of flow.
𝟐
The fundamental = n is 𝑫𝟐𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐𝟏 = 𝒈 𝒒 (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 ) ............... 5-76
where
q = discharge intensity / ft width
g = gravity constant (Acceleration due to gravity)
D1V1 + D2V2 are defined in the above Figs. 5-34 (a+b)
Theoretically the phenomenon takes place instantaneously. In practice surging and
turmoil, accompanied by aeration, occur below the hydraulic jump for a Considerable
distance and it is this single factor which causes difficulties in practice and damage to
works.
In theory the supercritical jet moves freely and un-obstructed until it reaches the point
at which the hydraulic jump occurs. In practice, the jump wave invariably falls forward
and covers the jet with a film of water of varying thickness which alters the
characteristics of the jumps itself. However, theoretical allowance can be made for
such film or load of water, on a static basis. In practice, the “load” of water is in constant
super-turbulent motion. This condition is called as a “loaded trough state”. The
theoretical phenomenon with no load is referred to as “Empty trough slate” and is
easier to analyze.
One of the characteristics of the jump with loaded through, is that there are limits of
discharge and drop below which the hydraulic jump does not form at all. If the hydraulic
jump does not form, the surplus energy can only be destroyed in friction in the Channel
and when this occurs in an earthen channel, violent erosion and scour takes place.
5.8.2.1 Empty Trough Analysis
To understand the problem of the hydraulic jump, it should be noted that the loss in
energy is due to a change in momentum which is due to a difference in pressures. For
many years, it was a compulsion to work out each problem on these lines. CBI
Publication # 4 also presents diagrams, loosely termed “Pressure plus Momentum”
diagrams, for the quick graphical solution of hydraulic jump problems, on these lines.
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Depth “D” in
feet
Figure 5-33: Energy of flow curves (AMR Montague)

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Figure 5-34 (a): Hydraulic jump
Figure 5-34 (b): Hydraulic jump

Balanger’s basic equation can be recast to give the loss of energy in a hydraulic jump.
The fundamental equation is:
𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑯𝑳 = 𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈 (𝑫𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐 ) ............... 5-77
𝟏 𝟐
but q = V D = Vc Dc ............... 5-78

𝟑 𝒒𝟐
where 𝑫𝒄 = √ 𝒈 ............... 5-79
Combining these equations
𝟐
𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 (𝑫𝟏 + 𝑫𝟐 ) = 𝒈 𝒒𝟐 = 𝟐𝑫𝟑𝒄 ............... 5-80
This relationship defines the depths (and, therefore, velocities) above and below a
hydraulic jump in terms of q, the discharge per foot width of the channel.
These equations have been the subject of close study by many investigators. They
have been reduced to dimension less equations and plotted for rapid solution of
hydraulic jump problems.
The quantity most usually defined in practice is the “drop” or head loss i.e. the
difference in level between the total energy lines above and below the hydraulic jump,
i.e. HL. On this basis the most useful form of curves for graphical solutions, is due to
Blench. He depicts “q” on abscissae q Ef2 ordinates or in the curves for HL. AMR
Montague also produced such curves, refer Fig. 5-35.
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Figure 5-35: Hydraulic jump curves (AMR Montague)

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5.8.2.2 Theory for Loaded Trough

The supercritical jet is ordinarily covered by a film or “load” of turbulent water. The
effects of this condition were studied by Blench and equations for the worst possible
condition were evaluated i.e. maximum loading when the trough is full of water. These
are:
𝟐𝒒
𝑫𝟐𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐 𝟏 (𝟐𝑫𝑳 + 𝑫𝟏 ) = (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 ) ............... 5-81
𝒈
𝟏 𝟏
𝒒𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = 𝑫𝑳 + 𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐
(𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 ) 𝟐
............... 5-82
𝒈
𝟐𝒒𝟐
𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 (𝑫𝟐 − 𝑫𝟏 ) = = 𝟑𝑫𝟑𝒄 ............... 5-83
𝒈
where DL is the depth of the water blanket/load at the point where the hydraulic jump
forms.
It is to be noted that “for every value of HL there is a limiting value of q beyond which
a standing wave will not form”. This limitation is particularly important at low drop.
The second point for observation is that, for equal values of HL and q, the value of Ef2,
required is invariably large for a “loaded” trough.
For falls and barrages, the hydraulic jump is the most efficient phenomenon or tool for
energy dissipation on the glacis preceding the stilling basin.
Hydraulic jump superimposes a specific set of conditions. For instance, during the
maximum flood when the total head over the weir is no more than 3 feet. The uplift
pressures at any point of the weir due to sub-surface flow cannot exceed 3 feet. But
the hydraulic jump have troughs of 9.4’ and 11.2’ which represent the unbalanced
heads or uplift pressures at these troughs. The floor thickness will have to be designed
to withstand these pressures of 9.4 to 11.2 ft. Again, the hydraulic jump is not
stationary. It moves downstream with the retrogression of levels and reduction of
discharge per foot run. The depths of trough in all cases are about 10 ft. so that in the
region of the hydraulic jump the floor will have to be designed to withstand these uplifts,
with due allowance for spread.
Thus, the final thickness of the section at each point will have to be designed for uplift
due to sub-surface flow or the hydraulic jump, whichever is higher. The thickness of
the sloping floor could be very small if only the seepage flow were considered. But due
to the standing wave it has to be at least as large as, that of the horizontal floor.
Next consider the case of, the hydraulic jump forming on the permeable apron. The
unbalanced head in this case may be about 6 feet. This head will suck out sand from
beneath the loose stone and, to a smaller extent, from below the filter bed and will
soon lead to undermining of the floor with consequent risk to the structure. It has been
stated above that the position of the hydraulic jump forming on a smooth horizontal
floor is unstable. It can form on the pacca horizontal floor or can travel down to the
pervious floor downstream with its attendant dangers mentioned above. For a
structure to be safe, the hydraulic jump should, therefore, be confined to the sloping
glacis and not permitted to form on the horizontal lower down than the toe of the glacis.
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5.8.2.2.1 Thickness of floor as determined by the hydraulic jump

In determining the thickness of the floor for the trough of the hydraulic jump, it should
be remembered that:-
a. The actual position of the hydraulic jump is somewhat upstream of the
calculated position by a distance approximately equal to (D2—D1). (See
Fig. below). This is a provisional Fig. which experimental evidence may
confirm or modify.
Figure 5-36: Diagram showing observed and computed positions of the

hydraulic jump
b. Due to the forward movement of the upstream end the jump, the actual
depth of trough is somewhat smaller than calculated.
c. The uplift due to the maximum depth at the trough will operate only at the
deepest point of the trough. It will become smaller on either side. Since the
floor slab has always got some beam action, it may be designed in sections
for the average uplift over each section. This point is of great importance as
the hydraulic jump can form all over the glacis in different stages of supply
and if no allowance is made for spread, the entire length will have to be
designed for the very maximum uplift—a course which would be wasteful.
d. At the toe of the glacis and some distance above and below, the jet of water
flowing down the glacis will exert a downward force on the floor equal to the
rate of change of momentum in the vertical direction. At the toe this force is
considerable and may be as much as two thirds the thickness of jet. It
becomes smaller at points removed upstream of the toe. It can be easily
calculated for the straight glacis as well as for a curved one. In the latter
case acceleration equals V2/R where V is the velocity of the jet and R the
radius of curvature of the glacis near the horizontal floor.
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Due to this downward force the thickness of the floor at the toe and some distance
above and below can be correspondingly reduced.
5.8.2.3 Efficiency of Hydraulic Jump
The ratio of the energy head after the jump (E2) to the energy head before the jump
(E1) is defined as the “efficiency of the jump”, and may be computed by using the
following equation:
E2

 3
8F12  1 2  4 F12  1
E1 
8F12 2  F12  ............... 5-84
Where:
F1= Froude number of flow before the jump
 E1 
Energy dissipation (%) = 1  .100 ............... 5-85
 E2 
Height of jump (hj) is given by the equation:
1
hj (1  8F12 ) 2  3
 ............... 5-86
E1 F12  2
For more details, consult relevant reference books like “Open channel hydraulic” by
Ven Je chow, “Open channel flow” by Hanif Chaudhary, “Hydraulics of open channels”
by Boris. A. Bakhmeteff, and research works of Sir CC Inglis et el.
5.8.2.4 Types of hydraulic jump
On the basis of physical model studies, the USBR has categorized the hydraulic jump
types as narrated in the following:
“Where the energy of flow in a spillway must be dissipated before the flow is
discharged into the downstream river channel, a hydraulic jump stilling basin is an
effective device for reducing the exit velocity to a tranquil state. The jump that occurs
in such a stilling basin has distinctive characteristics and assumes a definite form,
depending on the relation between the energy of flow that must be dissipated and the
depth of the flow.”
A comprehensive series of tests have been performed by the Bureau of Reclamation
to determine the properties of the hydraulic jump. The jump type and the flow
characteristics can be related to the kinetic flow factor, 𝜐 2 /𝑔𝑑, of the discharge
entering the basin; to the critical depth of flow, dc; or to the upstream Froude number,
υ/(𝑔𝑑)½ .
Characteristics forms of hydraulic jump with reference to various ranges of Froude
numbers are exhibited in the following Fig. 5-37 taken from “Engineering monograph
# 25-USBR). (May 1984)
When the Froude number of flow is 1.0, the flow is at critical depth and jump cannot
form
When the Froude number rises close to 1.7 surface rollers generate mild turbulence.
These rollers intensify and at a Froude number of 2.5, a very weak jump forms.
Between Froude number values of 2.5 to 4.5 an oscillating jump forms with damaging
surface waves carried far downstream of the structure.
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For Froude numbers of 4.5 to 9.0 a stable and well balanced jump is formed.
For Froude numbers more than 9.0 rough and strong surface waves are formed and
carried beyond the jump.
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Figure 5-37: Characteristic forms of hydraulic jump related to the

Froude number (USBR Standard 288-D-2423)
5.8.2.4.1 Hydraulic Jump Basin
USBR after detailed analyses and model studies have developed stilling basin types
for each of the above ranges of Froude number as follows.
1. For Froude number up to 2.5, basin type I is recommended.
2. For Froude number between 2.5 to 4.5 basin type IV is recommended.
3. For Froude number between 4.5 to 9.0 basin type III for small flows is
recommended.
The Froude number at a majority of structures (barrages) in Pakistan generally is in
the range of 2.5 to 4.5 and thus stilling basin type IV is indicated and employed for
jump type basins. In this type of stilling basin depth of water should be 10% more than
the conjugate depth (d2).
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5.9 DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design steps for the design of a barrage are presented below.
a) Known data
a. Probable maximum flood discharge
b. Maximum flood level
c. Minimum water level at the proposed/selected site
d. River bed level at the selected site.
b) To decide / assume the attributes/components
a. Afflux
b. Pond level
c. Length of water way
d. Discharge intensity per foot run
e. Crest level
c) To determine through calculations the parameters of various components of the
barrage; the calculations lead to:
a. Total length of impervious floor, and depths and location of cut-offs.
b. Type of floor, gravity or raft.
c. Exist gradient at the end of the impervious floor,
d. Shape of crest.
e. Shape and thickness of downstream glacis.
f. Level and length of horizontal part of the downstream impervious floor.
g. Thickness of down Stream impervious floor.
h. Energy dissipation devices.
i. Design of flanks.
j. Length and thickness of upstream and downstream aprons.
k. Inverted filter.
l. Length, shape and free board of guide banks.
m. Position of the undersluices vis-à-vis the weir and their design.
n. Design of the divide wall.
o. Design of the head regulators.
p. Design of the gates and gearings.
q. Design of piers and pier foundations.
r. Design of the bridge.
s. Design of river training works.
t. Design of fish ladder and navigation locks.
d) For design of a particular barrage:
a. The method for determining the maximum flood discharge has been
outlined in an earlier paragraph.
b. The known flood levels are collected for available gauges or local
enquiry.
c. The minimum water levels at a selected site are those recorded at the
minimum flow in the river.
d. The bed levels of the existing river channel are observed.
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e) Assumptions of the general attributes:

a. Afflux
The afflux (the amount of proposed raising of water level) is generally
assumed as 3 ft (range of 1-4 ft except in rare cases where afflux of the
magnitude is outside the general range). Examples are:
i. Sukkur barrage – 0.93 ft
ii. Old Rasul weir – 0.70 ft – (Reconstructed as a barrage with 2.0’
afflux)
iii. Rupar barrage – 4.7 ft
However the afflux adopted at all the barrage in Pakistan except Sukkur is
2 or 3 ft.
b. Pond level
The pond level at a barrage is adopted in line with the objective of feeding
the off-taking canals. A working head of at-least 2.0 ft at the canal head
regulator is provided.
c. Clear and Total waterway
The clear waterway at a barrage is generally taken as the minimum stable
channel width as calculated by Lacey’s Equation
𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕√𝑸 ............... 5-87
where
W = clear waterway in feet
Q = Design discharge for the barrage in causes/ft (vfs)
The clear waterway determined is divided into suitable number of bays with
60’ width (the most cost effective and operation friendly width). However at
some existing barrages the undersluices bays are 30’ wide. To this
waterway the widths of the fish ladders, navigation lock, piers and divide
walls are added to get the overall width of the barrage between the two
abutments.
Looseness factor
It is the ratio of total width to clear waterway of a barrage
𝑾𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
L.F. ............... 5-88
𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒚
Generally the LF in Punjab is up to 1.98 in Punjab and no more than 2 in

South Asia.
d. Discharge per foot run (also called intensity of discharge), or unit
discharge denoted by the symbol “q”.
These are two values:
i. Through the barrage opening given by
𝑸 (𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔)
............... 5-89
𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒚 (𝒇𝒕)
ii. Over the whole length of the barrage
𝑸 (𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔)
............... 5-90
𝑾𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒂𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 (𝒇𝒕)
With the computed values of various parameters, we may start the actual
design Calculations.
 The cross section components
 The upstream floor
BARRAGES
The upstream floor is basically an impervious membrane to increase

the path of substructure seepage. The length is decided on the basis
of the head across the structure, the flow intensity (q)’ and length of
seepage path required to keep exit gradient within specified limits i.e.
total length of impervious floors.
The thickness is generally kept as 2 or 3 feet just to safeguard against
failure under the sediment deposit load.
 The Crest Block
The crest block comprises upstream glacis, width of the weir top and
downstream glacis.
i. The upstream glacis
The upstream glacis thickness is the same as the upstream floor and
a slope of 2:1 to 4:1 (normally 3:1), the length depending on the level
difference between the upstream floor and crest level.
ii. Crest Level
To set the crest level, the pre project total energy line (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 +
𝑉2
) is determined. Adding afflux to this will yield the upstream total
2𝑔
energy line (TEL).
The flood flow is free flow with all regulation gates fully open.
Applying free flow weir formula:
𝟑/𝟐
𝒒 = 𝑪𝑯𝟏 ............... 5-91
where
q = discharge per foot run
C = Coefficient of discharge
H1 = Effective head over the crest = H + Ha
𝑽𝟐
= Water level – crest level + ............... 5-92
𝒈
For initial computation level value of “C” can be taken as 3.09
𝒒 𝟐/𝟑
So 𝑯𝟏 = ( 𝒄 ) ............... 5-93
C and the crest level – Total upstream TEL – H1
This is iterated to determine the final value..
iii. Crest Width
The crest width effects the value of “C” (coefficient of discharge)
which ranges from 3.09 to 3.8 for modular working. Referring to
width, the weirs are categorized as:
Sharp crested weirs are those having a sharp (ideally a knife edge)
flow over edge and give accurate calculations but cannot be used on
prototypes and are thus limited to laboratory use.
Broad crested weirs are those weirs where the crest width is usually
governed by the requirements of shuttered weirs, which require
space for the shutter lying flat. Bligh prescribed the following
relationship:
𝒕 = √𝑯 + √𝒉 ............... 5-94
where
t = crest width
BARRAGES
H = weir height above the floor, and

h = depth of water over the crest
Short Crested Weir have the width between sharp crested and broad
crested weirs. Normally the crest width is kept as 6’ in view of the
requirements of the regulation gates and gearings control
mechanism.
Discharge Calculation Methods
The discharging modes at a barrage may be classified as:
1) Free flow – with all gates fully above water surface or fully open.
2) Submerged flow with all gates up
3) Regulated flow:
a. Free orifice
b. Partially submerged orifice
c. Submerged orifice
For free flow conditions
Q = CLH3/2 ............... 5-95
where
Q is the total discharge
C is the coefficient of discharge
L is the length of waterway
H is the effective head = H1+Ha
where in
H1 = Head over the crest, and
Ha = Head due to velocity of approach
𝑉2
= 2𝑔
V being the average velocity of approach, and
g is the gravity constant or acceleration due to gravity
The value of ‘C’ is generally taken as 3.09 but it is different for different types of flows
and may approach a maximum value of 3.8 for modular weir operation (Gibson).
However to design a new barrage by physical model studies should be conducted to
determine value of “C” or drowning ratio in Gibson’s curve or basic orifice formula as
dictated by site conditions. For ogee shaped sharp crests the value may be up to 4.0.
5.9.1.1 Discharge through a barrage (Submerged flow conditions)
The flow over the weir is modular when it is total independent of the variation in the
downstream water level. For this to occur, the downstream total head over crest (E 2)
must not be higher than eighty (80) percent of the upstream total head over crest (E 1).
The ratio (E2/E1) is the “drowning ratio” and the “modular limit” is the value (E2/E1 =
0.80) above which the flow ceases to be modular.
5.9.1.2 Fane’s Curve
For submerged flow, the discharge coefficient in equation (1) above should be
multiplied by a reduction factor. The reduction factor depends on the drowning ratio
(E2/E1) and the values of reduction factor ( Cr ) listed in table 5-26. These are from
BARRAGES
Fane’s curve which is applicable to weirs having an upstream ramp and sloping
downstream glacis with 2H:1V or flatter: slope:
Table 5-26: Reduction in discharge coefficient due to submergence
“E2/E1 “ Value of “ Cr ”
0.80 0.99
0.85 0.99
0.90 0.98
092 0.96
0.94 0.90
0.95 0.84
0.96 0.77
0.97 0.71
0.98 0.61
Source: Fane and Sharma (1939)
The submerged discharge is given by the equation:
Q = 3.09. Cr .b .E11.5 ............... 5-96
where b = width of the weir (waterway)
5.9.1.3 Gibson’s Curve
Q  C'.b.E1.5 ............... 5-97
where:
Q = submerged discharge over crest (cusecs)
C' = submerged discharge coefficient
b = width of weir (ft)
h1 = upstream depth of flow above crest (ft)
h2 = downstream depth of flow above crest (ft)
For submerged Condition the free flow discharge coefficient ( C  3.80 ) is multiplied
by a reduction factor ( C' C ). The reduction factor depends on the drowning ratio
(h2/h1). The values of reduction factor “ C' C ” given in the table below are from
Gibson’s curve.
Table 5-27: Reduction factor for ‘c’ per Gibson’s curve
h2/h1 C' C C'
0.70 0.86 3.27
0.80 0.78 2.96
0.90 0.62 2.36
0.95 0.44 1.67
Source: USBR and Cood & Partners (1963)
5.9.1.4 Regulated Discharge
The gates installed at regulating structures create an orifice flow condition when the
bottom of the gate is touching the water surface or dips in to water.
BARRAGES
5.9.1.5 Free Flow

Free flow below a gate occurs as long as the roller of the hydraulic jump does not
submerge the section of minimum depth of jet at vena contacta which is located
downstream of the gate. (Fig. 5-38) For jet sweeping effect against tail water
submergence creating a free flow at the vena contracta the free flow discharge is given
by the equation:
Cc
Q bL 2gh ............... 5-98
1 Cc b
h
Q =Cdb.L 2 gh ............... 5-99
Cc
Cd = ............... 5-100
1 C c b
h
where:
Q = Free flow discharge over crest (cusecs)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
Cc = Coefficient of contraction
b = Gate opening (ft
L = Width of the gate (ft
h = Upstream depth of water above crest (ft
g = Acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2)
Free flow discharge from sluice gate stony type
Figure 5-38: Free flow discharge

BARRAGES
The limiting value of Cc as b/h approaches zero is 0.611 and it does not vary by more
than a few percent from this value over the entire practical range of b/h so long as the
jet is not affected by downstream effects. Thus the equation of Cd for free flow from a
sluice gate can be written as under:
0.611
Cd = ............... 5-101
1  0.611 b
h
The equation for Cd for a Tainter gate which is a function of Cc, b/h and lip angle β is:
𝑪
𝑪𝓛 = 𝟏+𝑪 𝒄𝒃/𝒉 ............... 5-102
𝒄
The coefficient of contraction Cc for Tainter gate is adopted from the following Table
for a given value of b/h and angle β.
Table 5-28: Cc for tainter gate

β= 45o β = 90o β = 135o β = 180o
b/h
Cc Cc Cc Cc
0.0 0.746 0.611 0.537 0.500
0.1 0.747 0.612 0.546 0.513
0.2 0.747 0.616 0.555 0.528
0.3 0.748 0.622 0.566 0.544
0.4 0.749 0.631 0.580 0.564
0.5 0.752 0.644 0.599 0.586
0.6 0.758 0.662 0.620 0.613
0.7 0.768 0.687 0.652 0.646
0.8 0.789 0.722 0.698 0.691
0.9 0.829 0.781 0.761 0.760
1.0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Source: Hunter and Howe – Basic mechanic of fluids
5.9.1.6 Submerged Flow
When a gate discharges with the jet submerged due to back water from the
downstream side (Fig. 5-39) the discharge coefficient becomes equal to that for a two
dimensional orifice or slot of similar proportions. That is the effective head on the
opening is the difference between the surface levels on the two sides of the gate and
the coefficient of contraction is determined from the Table 9.3 above for the given
value of b/h and β = 90 for sluice gate.
The discharge coefficient for a Tainter gate must be determined by a scale model.
However, it may be estimated with fair approximation through the use of coefficient of
contraction based upon the lip angle “β” and the ratio b/h. The submerged flow
discharge through the gate opening is given by the following formula:
Q  Cd bL 2gh ............... 5-103
Cc
Cd  ............... 5-104
1  Cc b / h
Q = Submerged flow discharge over crest (cusecs)
b = Gate opening (ft)
L = Length of gate (ft)
BARRAGES
Cc = Coefficient of Contraction to be determined from Table 5-28 for given

value of b/h and angle “β”
h = (h1 – h2)
Figure 5-39: Submerged discharge

5.9.1.7 Downstream glacis
The main aspect for downstream glacis is its profile: The main types used are:
a) Vertical drop face
b) Parabolic profile
c) Sloping profile
These above three profiles are discussed below:
The vertical drop type was used general by on all old structures. This type suffered
with the necessity to provide air injection below the flow sheet (Nappe) and a deep
cistern (stilling basin) virtually akin to plunge pool formation below the flip bucket. This
type was ultimately replaced by other types and is not used in new designs.
US Army Corp of Engineers introduced the parabolic profile in their publication titled,
“Hydraulic design of spillways – 1990”, which gave the following equation for glacis
profile.
BARRAGES
gx2
Y  x tan  ............... 5-105
2(1.25V ) 2 Cos2
where:
x and y = horizontal and vertical coordinates measured from the beginning of the curve
(ft)
 = angle between the horizontal and the floor at the beginning of the trajectory
(degree)
V = velocity at vena contracta (ft/s)
The value of “  ” is zero and equation 9.9 becomes:
gx 2
Y  ............... 5-106
2(1.25V ) 2
The glacis profile given by the above equation (9.10) may also be compared with the
following equation established by Montague a well-known Chief Engineer of Punjab
Irrigation Department.
x = v (4y/g)1/2 + y ............... 5-107
where:
x = horizontal distance along the ordinate (ft)
y = vertical distance below the horizontal (ft)
v = initial velocity of water leaving the crest (ft/sec)
Both the above equations (9.10) and (9.11) produce parabolic profiles which
correspond to the falling jet trajectory. Due to construction difficulties the designers did
not like this type, and it was used only at Taunsa Barrage.
The 3rd type i.e. sloping profile has stood the test and is now in general use, but slopes
steeper than 3:1 are not used, because of flow problems.
Now, profiles of 1 in 3 to 1 in 5 slopes are normally used as this range is considered
to be work suitable both for the maximum energy dissipation and economy
Design of undersluices pockets
As already defined, “The undersluice pockets” in a barrage consist of depressed bays
near the head regulators of the off-taking canal/canals, separated from the main weir
by divide walls.
The undersluices / pockets bays may be provided on either or both flanks of the river
depending on the off-taking canals from both the flanks.
5.9.2.1 Functions
Some of the important functions of the pockets are:
i. To provide a quiet (almost still) pocket of water to enable reduction in sediment
entry into the canal.
ii. To sluice away the coarse sediments with suitable devices such as silt
excluders etc or through partial sluicing.
iii. To help development of a regular channel in front of the canal head regulators
and approach front.
BARRAGES
iv. Facilitate the flushing of the silt deposited in the pocket if still pond system is in
use.
5.9.2.2 Layout of the undersluice pocket
The following guidelines help in determining the optimal layout:
i. The dimensions and bed levels of the pocket should be effective for reducing
silt entry into the off-taking canals.
ii. The diversions are conducive to maintaining a clear and defined channel
towards the canal head.
iii. The capacity is also influenced by the diversion requirements.
5.9.2.3 Size of the undersluice pocket
The size and layout of the undersluice pocket are finally determined through model
study. However a few general guide lines are:
1. To ensure a proper scouring capacity, the discharge capacity of the
undersluices at the selected pond level should not be less than twice the canal
capacity.
2. While there is no hard and fast rule for percentage of the barrage discharge to
be passed through the undersluices, usually the undersluices are designed to
pass 10% to 20% of the designed discharge of the barrage by each of the
undersluices.
3. The width of undersluices should be not less than 1.5 times the width of the
canal head regulators.
These are only guidelines for preliminary design; the final setup and design should be
confirmed through model studies because these are affected by configuration and flow
patterns of the river.
Stilling Basins
The stilling basin essentially comprises a horizontal depressed floor located in
continuation of downstream toe of glacis which connects to the crest of the structure
and is thus the end part of the impervious structure.
Functionally, the stilling basins can be classified as:
i) Impact type basins;
j) Jump type basins;
k) Combination of the above two types.
Till recently the stilling basins have been designed as impact type and provided with
appurtenances, such as, impact blocks and friction blocks etc. These basins mainly
depend on appurtenances for dissipation of energy which create intense turbulence,
rollers and jetting and thus sustain varying level of damages at high discharges.
In late 1970’s United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) conducted detailed
analytical and experimental studies and developed several types of jump basins as
discussed in later paragraphs. Based on prototype performance, the hydraulic jump
type basins have become popular and are freely used on large structures like
barrages.
BARRAGES
5.9.3.1 Design of impact type basins

Impact blocks, baffle piers, chute blocks etc are provided in the stilling basin and at
the downstream end of the stilling basin, an end sill is provided.
The design of stilling basin is normally based on two methods known as the "Method
of Conjugated Depth", and Crump's Method. Although both the methods are regarded
as approximate but successful performance of various barrages and regulators
designed by these methods their usefulness as a design tool. Performance of stilling
basin is checked for various discharges to ensure that the hydraulic jump is
submerged and contained on the glacis.
It is now customary to check or carryout the stilling basin design using the criteria given
in “Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipaters, USBR”.
5.9.3.2 Stilling basin level
The top surface level of stilling basin is fixed initially by Crump’s Method (Fig. 5-40).
To compute critical flow depth (C = (q2/g)1/3) above the crest, the discharge intensity q
is increased by twenty (20) percent for possible flow concentration. The downstream
energy head is increased by ten (10) percent to allow for a possible drop in the flood
level due to any reason.
Sample calculations for a typical stilling basin using Fig. 5-40 follows:
Calculation of stilling basin level using Crumps method
Discharge per foot run = q=264 cusecs
Total energy line upstream (TEL) = FSL upstream + Vel. Head)
= 648.00 + 1.00 = 649
Difference between upstream TEL
And retrogressed downstream water level = 649.00 – 646.00 = 3.00
𝑞2
Critical depth, C = 3√
𝑔
1/3
264 2
= (32.2 )
= 12.9
𝐿 3
∴ 𝐶 = = 0.23
12.9
From Crumps graph
𝑥
= 0.53
𝑐
𝑦
= 1.675
𝑐
𝐾+𝐹
= 2.23
𝐶
∴ x = 0.53 x C = 0.53 x 12.9 = 6.8

Y = 1.675 x C = 1.675 x 12.9 = 21.0
K+F = 2.23 x C = 2.23 x 12.9 = 28.8
where K = 19.0
∴ F = 28.8 – 19.0 = 9.8
∴ Stilling basin level = 630.0 – 9.8 = 620.2
Length of stilling basin= 5 (y-x)
= 5 (21.0 – 6.8) = 71 ft (After Crump)
BARRAGES
5.9.3.3 Determination of stilling basin level by analytical method

Various steps for determining of stilling basin level by iterative or trial and ever method
are as follows:
a) The elevation of total energy line upstream and downstream are computed.
b) An arbitrary basin level for the particular discharge is initially assumed.
c) Ef1 = upstream TEL – Assumed stilling basin level.
d) From the known values of Ef1 and q, d1 can be calculated from the relationship
𝒒𝟐 𝒒 𝑽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒈𝒅𝟑 or 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟑/𝟐 = 𝟑/𝟐 = ............... 5-108
𝟏 √𝒈(𝒅𝟏 √𝒈(𝒅 √𝒈𝒅𝟏
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

BARRAGES
Figure 5-40: Crumps method for fixing stilling basin level

BARRAGES
e) The upstream (pre-jump) Froude number F1, it may be calculated from the
following relationship.
𝒒𝟑
𝑭𝟏 + 𝒈𝑫𝟑 ............... 5-109
𝟏
f) From the calculated values of d1 and F1 d2 can be calculated from the following
relationship.
𝒅𝟏
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐
(−𝟏 + √𝟖𝑭𝟏 𝟐 + 𝟏) ............... 5-110
g) The required stilling basin level would be equal to the retrogressed water level
for that discharge minus d2.
h) Most likely the initially assumed stilling basin level (step b) and the calculated
stilling basin level (step g) may not be the same which indicates that the stilling
basin level assumed initially was incorrect and needs to be raised or lowered.
After assuming a modified stilling basin level, the various steps should be
repeated again till the assumed and calculated stilling basin levels match with
each other. The exact values of d1 and d2 will thus be known. This method is
also called as the “iterative” or a “trial and error method”.
Hence generally the trial and error method is preferred as it gives more accurate
results.
The stilling basin level can also be determined from direct calculations based on the
analytical method introduced in the publication titled “Open channel flow” by M. Hanif
Chaudhry (second addition) as the analytical method for direct calculation of stilling
basin floor level. An example appearing in the above reference is reproduced below:
Example
The reservoir level upstream of a 30-m wide spillway for a flow of 800 m3 /s is at EL
200m. The downstream river level for this flow is at El 100m. Determine the invert level
of a stilling basin having the same width as the spillway so that a hydraulic jump is
formed in the basin. Assume the losses in the spillway are negligible.
Given:
Q= 800 m3 /s
B= 30m
Upstream water level = El 200m
Downstream water level = El 100m
Determine:
Stilling basin invert elevation to form the jump?
Solution:
Let z be the invert elevation of the stilling basin. Then referring to below figure 5.41.
y2 = 100-z. Since the losses on the spillway face are negligible and assuming
y1 to be small,
𝐕𝟏 = √𝟐𝐠(𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳)
Now, Q = BV1y1 Hence
𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝐲𝟏=
𝟑𝟎 ×√𝟏𝟗.𝟔𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝐳)
BARRAGES
𝟔.𝟎𝟐
=
√𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝐳
Substituting expression for y1 and V1

𝐕𝟏𝟐
𝐅 𝟐 𝐫𝟏 = 𝐠𝐲𝟏
𝟏𝟗.𝟔𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝐳)
= 𝟗.𝟖𝟏×𝟔.𝟎𝟐/√𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝐳
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳)𝟏.𝟓
Figure 5-41: Sketch for stilling basin design

Substitution of expression for y1 , y2 and F 2 r1 into
𝒚𝟐 𝟏
𝒏− = 𝟐 (−𝟏 + √𝟏 + 𝟖𝑭𝟐𝒓𝟏 )
𝒚𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐳 𝟏
= 𝟐 (−𝟏 + √𝟏 + 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳)𝟏.𝟓 )
𝟔.𝟎𝟐√𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝐳
Simplifying this equation, we obtain

(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳)/√𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳 = −𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 + 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏√𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝟔(𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐳)𝟏.𝟓
Solving this equation by trial and error
Z = 84.18m
Thus, the stilling basin invert should at El 84.18 to form the jump.
5.9.3.4 Length of Stilling Basin
As a preliminary design, the length of stilling basin without appurtenances (i.e. no
chute blocks, baffle blocks or end sill) is determined by the Conjugate Depths
formulae:
BARRAGES
 2gz  Ha  d1  2
1
V1  q ............... 5-111
d1
where:
V1 = velocity of flow at the toe of glacis (ft/s)/jump formation location
q = discharge intensity (cusecs/ft)
d1= flow depth at the toe of glacis (ft)
Z = fall between upstream - level and stilling basin top level (ft)
Ha = approach velocity head
= V2/2g(ft)
V = approach velocity (ft/s)
For design calculations discharge intensity (q) is increased by twenty (20) percent for
possible flow concentration.
Also
d2 1 
d1
  1 8F12
2
  1
2
1

............... 5-112
where:
d1 = flow depth at the toe of glacis (ft)
d2 = tail water depth above stilling basin (ft)
F1 =Froude number
1
= V1 /(gd1 ) 2
V1 = flow velocity at the toe of glacis (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s2)
For margin of safety the theoretical depth “d2” is multiplied by a factor 1.05.
Length of stilling basin without appurtenances = 1.05 x 5 (d2 – d1)
Length of stilling basin with appurtenances may then be determined using the
equation:
Lb  Kd1F11.5 ............... 5-113

where:
Lb= length of stilling basin (ft)
d1= flow depth at the toe of glacis (ft)
F1 = Froude number
1
= V1 /(gd1 ) 2
V1 = velocity of flow at the toe of glacis (ft/s2)
g= acceleration due to gravity (ft/s2)
K = stilling basin length coefficient ranging between 1.4 and 2.0, depending upon the
appurtenances.
Table 5-29: Stilling basin length coefficient
Stilling basin type “K”
Stilling basin with a vertical or sloping end sill and one or two
1.4
rows of baffle blocks.
Stilling basin with a vertical or sloping end sill 1.7
Stilling basin with a sloping end sill and one or two rows of
2.0
baffle blocks
BARRAGES
Source: USACE – Hydraulic design of spillways (1990)

However the effect of stilling basin appurtenances like impact blocks, frictions blocks
etc. is almost unquantifiable, so better design for maximum.
5.9.3.5 Choice of Stilling Basin Type
The design of energy dissipaters is based on hydraulic principles. However, because
of the use of appurtenances such as chute blocks, baffle blocks and end sill, to
stabilize the jump and to shorten the length of horizontal apron the design of proposed
energy dissipater should be essentially confirmed by the physical model studies.
5.9.3.5.1 Jump type Stilling Basin
In view of the excessive turbulence and jetting stilling basins, USBR carried out
detailed investigations and model studies on stilling basin design and results were
documented in the publication “Engineering Monograph number 25: titled “Hydraulic
design of stilling basins and energy dissipaters”. This publication recommended
various types of basins on the basis of upstream/pre-jump Froude number abstracted
in the following:
Basin Type-I: Plain horizontal basin. Jump occurs on the floor with no chute blocks,
baffle blocks or end sill provided. Usually not recommended because of excessive
length, but it provides a grounding in the basic hydraulics of all other stilling basin
types.
Basin Type-II: For use on high spillways, large weir structures etc, for Froude numbers
above 4.5. The jump and stilling basin length are reduced by about 33 percent over
the Basin Type-I with chute blocks and a dentated end sill.
Basin Type-III: For use on small spillways, small weir structures etc, where the velocity
at the glacis toe does not exceed 50 to 60 feet (15 to 18 m) per second and the Froude
number is above 4.5. The jump and stilling basin length is reduced by about 60 percent
over the Basin Type-I with chute blocks, baffle blocks and sloping end sill.
Basin Type-IV: For use with jumps of Froude number 2.5 to 4.5. This basin reduces
the excessive waves created in imperfect jumps with chute blocks and sloping end sill.
Basin Type-IX (Baffled Chute): For use in falls where water is to be lowered from one
level to another. The chute baffles prevent undue acceleration of the flow as it passes
down the chute. Since the flow velocities entering the downstream channel are
relatively low, no stilling basin is required. The chute may be designed to discharge up
to 60 cusecs per foot of width and the drop may be as high as structurally feasible.
Figs. 5-42 to 5-46 (5 sheets) show the details of these basins. Selection is based on
the Froude number and these basis are suitable for almost all locations except some
very rare exceptions. Because of mild slopes of alluvial rivers in the Indus plains, and
low afflux provided at pickup structures the values of Froude number generally remain
between 2.5 to 4.5 thereby indicating the adoption of Basin number 4. This adoption
may also be checked by the analytical methods outlined above and verified through
model studies.
Excerpts from pages 44 to 46 of Engineering Monograph # 25 USBR “Hydraulic
Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipaters” (1984) are reproduced as the
following:
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Figure 5-42: Types and details of stilling basins (USBR)

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Figure 5-43: Types and details of stilling basins

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Figure 5-44: Types and details of stilling basins

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5.9.3.6 Stilling basin – design – froude number 2.5 to 4.5

5.9.3.6.1 Development tests
The best way to combat a wave problem is to eliminate the wave at its source by
altering the condition which generates the wave. For the stilling basin preceded by an
over fall or a chute, two schemes were apparent for eliminating waves at their source.
The first was to break up the entering jet by opposing it with directional jets deflected
from baffle piers or sills. The second was to bolster or intensify the roller by directional
jets deflected from large chute blocks.
The first method was unsuccessful in that the number and size of appurtenances
necessary to break up the jet occupied so much volume that the devices themselves
posed an obstruction to the flow. This conclusion was based on tests in which various
shaped baffle and guide blocks were systematically placed in a stilling basin in
combination with numerous types of spreader teeth and deflectors in the chute. The
program involved dozens of tests, and not until all possible ideas were tried was this
approach abandoned.
5.9.3.6.2 Final tests
 Deflector blocks
The second approach, that of attempting to intensify the roller, yielded better results.
Large blocks, similar to but larger than chute blocks, were placed on the chute; no
changes were made in the stilling basin proper. The object was to direct a jet into the
base of the roller in an attempt to strengthen it and thereby stabilize the jump. After a
number of trails, using blocks with a curved top, the roller was actually intensified and
the jump action was improved. Only two schemes showed promise, although many
variations were tried.
The tests showed that it was desirable to place as few appurtenances as possible in
the path of the flow, as volume occupied by appurtenances helps to create a backwater
problem, thus requiring higher training walls. Also, random placement of blocks is apt
to create a new wave problem in addition to the original problem. The number of
deflector blocks shown in Fig.5-47 is a minimum requirement to accomplish the
purpose set forth. The width of the blocks is shown equal to D, and this is the maximum
width recommended. From a hydraulic standpoint it is desirable that the blocks be
constructed narrower than indicated, preferably 0.75D1. The ratio of block width to
spacing should be maintained as 1:2:5. The extreme tops of the blocks are 2D, above
the floor of the stilling basin.
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Figure 5-47: Proportion for Froude number 2.5 to 4.5 – (Basin IV)
The blocks may appear to be rather high and, in some cases, extremely long, but this
is essential as the jet leaving the top of the blocks must play at the base of the roller
to be effective. To accommodate the various slopes of chutes and ogee shapes
encountered, the horizontal top length of the blocks should be at least 2D. The upper
surface of each block is sloped at 5ᴼ in a downstream direction as it was found that
this feature resulted in better operation, especially for discharges lower than the design
flow.
5.9.3.6.3 Tail water depth
A tail water depth 5 to 10 percent greater than the conjugate depth is strongly
recommended for Basin IV. Since the jump is very sensitive to tail water depth at these
low values of the Froude number, a slight deficiency in tail water depth may allow the
jump to sweep completely out of the basin. The jump performs much better and wave
action is diminished if the tail water depth is increased to approximately 1.1 D 2.
5.9.3.6.4 Basin length and end sill
The length of Basin IV, which is relatively short, can be obtained from the upper curve
in Figs. 5-48 and 5-49 (2 sheets). No baffle piers are needed in the basin, as these
will prove a greater detriment than aid. The addition of a small triangular sill placed at
the end of the apron for scour control is desirable. An end sill of the type used on Basin
III is satisfactory.
5.9.3.6.5 Performance
If designed for the maximum discharge, Basin IV will perform satisfactorily for lesser
flows. Waves downstream from the stilling basin will still be in evidence but is of the
ordinary variety usually encountered with jumps of a higher Froude number. Basin IV
is applicable to rectangular cross sections only.
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Sample calculations for atypical weir design for surface flow appear as Annexure D.
Figure 5-48: Stilling basin for spillways and barrages

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Figure 5-49: Stilling basin for spillways and barrages

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5.10 BARRAGE DESIGN FOR SUBSURFACE FLOW

Development of Design
The procedures for the design of weirs and barrages have been developed over
several decades. In the Punjab Irrigation System the Khanki weir (1892) was the first
constructed according to an arbitrary design and failed in 1895. It was repaired several
times and finally remodeled extensively in 1935 and is now being replaced by a new
barrage.
The failure of weirs and barrages may be attributed to:
a) Undermining due to piping caused by excessive exit gradient.
b) Blowing up of downstream floor due to excessive uplift forces (seepage uplift
plus trough effect).
c) Excessive scour upstream or downstream of the structure or on both ends.
d) Other causes such as, faulty regulation, faulty construction, deferred
maintenance etc.
Col. Clibborn (1895-1897) conducted model studies at Hydraulic Rsearch Station
(HRS) Roorkee during 1895-1897 for the confirmation of D’Arcy’s (Darcy) law of flow
through permeable soils which states:
𝒌𝒉
𝑽= ............... 5-114
𝒍
where
V is the velocity of flow,
his the head,
l is the length of seepage path, and
k is a constant.
He found a good agreement.
Ottley and Higham presented their hydraulic gradient theory, which was furthered and
perfected by Bligh in 1910. This was acknowledged universally and came to be known
as Bligh’s theory.
Bligh assumed that the hydraulic gradient is constant throughout the length of creep
in homogeneous non-cohesive soil. The length of seepage path is called the creep
length.
Bligh believed that the structure is safe against undermining if the creep length under
the impermeable structure has certain ratio to the head to which the structure is
𝐿
subjected and is given by the relationship - 𝐻 = 𝐶
where
L = length of creep
H =operative head
C = A constant
Minimum safe values of Bligh’s ‘C’ were considered to be:
For very fine sands and silt - C = 18
For fine sands - C = 15
For course sands - C = 12
For gravelly sands or sandy gravels -C=9
For loamy soils and stone sand mixtures -C=5
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The second condition is that the weight of the structure at all points should be more
than the uplift pressure. Bligh also believed that the effect of creep length is the same,
be it horizontal or vertical, and that the pressure drop is proportional to distance of the
point under consideration when compared with the total creep length as the seeping
water loses the head along the creep length (seepage contact line with bottom surface
of the structure).
Due to its simplicity, Bligh’s theory received general acceptance, while some works
designed on the basis of Bligh’s theory failed and others survived.
The general criticism of Bligh’s method was:
1. The slope (hydraulic gradient) is considered to remain constant over the entire
creep length. Actually as the late developments in seepage theory shows, that
this gradient varies substantially at different points of the seepage path;
2. The creep length is the total path travelled by the seepage along the structure
contact line, be it horizontal or vertical i.e. there is no special effect of vertical
obstructions; and
3. It assumes the flow to occur along the line of contact of flow with the bottom
surface of the structure i.e. the total creep length = horizontal length + vertical
faces of the obstructions, i.e. cut-offs or sheet piles.
Lane’s Theory
During the next 30 years, it was gradually recognized that vertical sections of the line
of creep contribute more towards reducing the danger of piping than that of horizontal
sections of equal length.
To take into account the greater efficiency of vertical sections of the line of creep. Lane
modified the original Bligh’s procedure assuming that every horizontal section of the
line of creep was only one third as effective as a vertical section of the same length.
The calculation of weighted creep distance or percolation path is explained in the
following:
For flow passing under the structure:
h
Lu   Vv  ............... 5-115
3
For flow passing along the side of structure:
Ls  0.75Vq  hh ............... 5-116
where:
Lu = weighted creep distance under the structure (ft)
L s = weighted creep distance along the side of the structure (ft)
V v = vertical path along vertical surface (ft)
q= horizontal path along horizontal surface (ft)
V h = horizontal path along vertical surface (ft)
h h = horizontal path along vertical surface normal to axis of structure (ft)
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Surfaces inclined by forty five (45) degrees or more to the horizontal are considered
as vertical surface and surfaces at less than forty five (45) degrees are considered to
be horizontal for computing the creep length.
The weighted creep ratio is given by:
∑𝑯
+∑ 𝑽
𝑪𝝎 = 𝟑
............... 5-117
𝒉𝝎
where:
𝒉𝝎 is the maximum differential head
H is horizontal length of the structure and
V is the depth of vertical cut-off
In which 𝐶𝜔 is the Lane’s weighted creep ratio. Lane’s theory is based on his review
of the various works which stood the test of time and also those that had failed. Based
on an analysis of about 280 dam foundations of which 24 had failed, the values of
weighted creep ratio 𝐶𝜔 were suggested, which are listed in Table 5-30.
Table 5-30: Weighted creep ratio
Nature of Foundation material 𝐶𝜔
Very fine sand 8.5
Fine sand 7.0
Medium Sand 6.0
Coarse Sand 5.0
Fine gravel 4.0
Medium gravel 3.5
Coarse gravel 3.0
Boulders and gravel 2.5
Lane’s weighted creep approach is an improvement on Bligh, but still it is purely
empirical and leads to a design with an unknown factor of safety. According to Lane,
if there is lack of or poor contact, then water percolating along the line of creep meets
with less resistance than that which travels through undisturbed soil.
Lane’s theory is still popular in the USA and less- important dams are designed on its
basis. For important cases, result obtained by mathematical approach of subsoil flows
are accepted universally.
5.10.2.1 Appraisal of Lane’s theory
Lane’s theory an empirical approach based on long experience and a safe design is
possible by using thus theory but taking into consideration limitations. The factor of
safety of works designed on the basis of this theory would be is uncertain and the
design in some cases may be quite wasteful.
Modern approach to design of weir and barrages
The modern approach to the weir design is that:
a) seepage takes place according to the theory of seepage flow throughout the
underling strata; and
b) that the stability of granular particles depends on the limiting value of hydraulic
gradient at the upper surface of the granular material , and this gradient to
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satisfy the consideration of equilibrium is to be smaller as suggested by terzaghi

in 1925 and picked up independently by khosla a few years later.
5.10.3.1 Factor of Safety
It is unacceptable to design a structure so that the exit gradient at the tail-end just
equals the critical value. Theoretically, such a structure should be safe and
economical, a minor increase in the value of exit gradient for whatever reason, will
upset the stability of the sub-soil at the exit end. Therefore a generous factor of safety
is necessary since there are a large number of uncertain factors in the sub-soil. This
factor of safety has also should cover cases where due to retrogression or scour of
downstream bed, the soil at the tail-end is dislodged resulting in an increased exit
gradient.
In all cases, it must be remembered that the damage can occur from excess exit
gradient due to seepage flow alone or in conjunction with those imposed by the
oscillation in the flow surface. It has further been established that:
The exit gradient at the end of an un-depressed horizontal downstream floor is infinite,
thus rendering it unsafe. In other words, all works must terminate in a vertical cut-off,
whose efficiency in reducing the exit gradient increases rapidly with its depth.
This discussion shows that the safety of the work against piping depends on the depth
which in turn depends on the maintenance of the cover downstream of the
downstream pile line. This is generally provided by having blocks over an inverted filter
to give a permanent porous floor.
Safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient floor length and
reasonably deep cutoff walls at the end of floor of the structure. The safety is then
checked by using Lane’s weighted creep coefficient and Khosla’s safe exit gradient.
Both Lane and Khosla use terminology for soil types that is purposely flexible to allow
the user to exercise judgment. For the sake of consistency creep coefficient and safe
gradient have been related to modern geotechnical soil descriptions on the basis of
judgment, as listed in the following table.
Table 5-31: Lane’s creep coefficients and Khosla’s safe exit gradients
Soil Type Geotechnical Soil Type 1/Safe
Creep
According Description and According to Exit
Coefficient
to Lane Characteristic Khosla Gradient
Very Fine 8.5 Unifrom (D60/D10 <4) Very Fine Sand 7.5
silts, fine sandy silts,
silty fine sands and fine
sands, <5% clay size
(0.02mm), Plasticity
Index less than 7 [MI,
SM,SP1]
Fine Sand 7.0 Well graded (D60/D10 Fine Sand, 6.5
<6) sandy silts, silt Medium Sand 6.0
sands, fine sands and
medium sands, <5%
day size (0.002mm),
Plasticity Index less
than 7 {SW,ML,SM}
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Soil Type Geotechnical Soil Type 1/Safe

Creep
According Description and According to Exit
Coefficient
to Lane Characteristic Khosla Gradient
Coarse 5.0 Well graded (D60/D10 Coarse Sand 5.5
Sand* <6) medium and
coarse sands, <30%
passing the #200 sieve
[0.075 mm), Non
plastic {GW,SW,SM}
Gravel and 3.0 to 3.5 Uniform or Well graded Fine Gravel, 5.5
Sand* medium and coarse Medium Gravel
sands and gravel, <5%
passing the #200 sieve
{0.075mm), Non plastic
{GW,GP,SW}
Boulders 2.5 to 3.0 Uniform or Well graded Coarse Gravel 5.5
and coarse sands and including
Gravel* gravel and boulders Boulders,
, <5% passing the #200 Boulders with
sieve {0.075mm), Non some Cobbles &
plastic {GW,GP} Gravel
Clays 1.6 to 3.0 Inorganic clays silty Soft Clay, SPT 2- 3.0
clays, clayey silts, 4 3.0
sandy day, <5% Medium Clay, 4-8 2.5
passing the #200 Hard Clay, 8-32 2.0
(0.075mm) sieve, Low Very hard Clay,
to medium plasticity, >32
Index more than 7
[CL,MI,SC]
Note: * Gap graded material will generally need to be classified into a category
corresponding to the characteristics of the finer fraction only.
1 Unified Soil Classification Designation (See Table 5-36)
Khosla’s Theory
The distribution of uplift pressure is not linear. This, of course, follows from the fact
that seepage is governed by the Laplace equations and appropriate boundary
conditions. If the Laplace equations could be integrated for the given set of boundary
conditions, mathematical solution of the flow net is obtained for those conditions. This
equation however is subject to complex boundary conditions, particularly the shape of
the base of the foundation or an actual work.
The principle of the method of independent variables presented by Dr. A.N. Khosla
consists of breaking up a complex profile into a number of simple profiles, each of
which is independently amenable to mathematical treatment. Mathematical solutions
of flow are available for a number of such simple standard forms, the most useful of
which are:
a) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at either
end;
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b) A straight horizontal floor, depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut off;
and
c) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate position.
The results of the mathematical solutions of these forms have been discussed in
publication No 12 of the Central Board of Irrigation and Power Index titled “Design of
weir on permeable Foundation” by Khosla, Bose, and Taylor (1936). The solutions are
given in the forms of curves from which the percentage residual head to the total
seepage head can be determined at Key points Fig. 5-50. The pressures at
intermediate points are assumed to vary linearly, which does not introduce any
appreciable error.
Khosla has shown that the percentage pressures observed from the curves for the
simple forms into which the profile is broken up is valid for the assembled profile as a
whole, subject to certain corrections as given below:
a) Correction for Floor Thickness: In the standard forms with vertical cut-off the
thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible and hence the values
observed from the curves refer to the top level of the floor. However, due to the
thickness of the floor, corrections are to be applied for the points at the bottom
of the floor and these are interpolated by assuming a straight line variation. The
correction may be positive or negative according to the points under
consideration. In Fig. 5-51. The correction at point E1is negative and C1
positive.
b) Correction for Mutual Interference of Sheet Piles: The correction for the mutual
interference of sheet piles is given by the formula.
𝑫 𝒅+𝑫
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟗√ 𝒇 × ............... 5-118
𝒃𝑺 𝒃
where:
C is the correction as percentage of head.
bfS is the distance between the two pile lines (see Fig. 5-52)
D is the depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on
the neighboring pile of depth d, D is to be measured below the level at which
interference is desired.
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Figure 5-50: Khosla’s curves for uplift pressure 1
1
Source: Central Board of Irrigation, India paper # 12 in 1936 “Design of Weirs on Permeable
Foundations”
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Figure 5-51: Uplift correction for floor thickness
b
E2 C2
E2 C2
bfs
D2
Figure 5-52: Mutual interference of piles

d is the depth of pile on which the effect of pile of depth D is to be determined
and
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b is total floor length (end to end)

The correction is positive for points in the rear or backwards and negative for
points forward in the direction of flow. This correction equation does not apply
to the effect of an outer pile on an intermediate pile if the latter is equal to or
smaller than the former and is at a distance less than twice the length of the
outer pile. The effect of interference of a pile is determined only for the face of
the adjacent pile to-words the interfering pile. For example, in Fig. 5-52, pile No
2 interferes with the downstream face of pile No 1 and upstream of pile No 3.
c) Slope Correction. For sloping parts of a floor, a suitable percentage correction
is applied. The correction is positive for down slopes and negative for up-slopes
following the direction of flow (Fig. 5-53). The values of the correction are as
listed in table 5-32.
Table 5-32: Value of Slope Correction2
Slope (V : H) Correction: % of pressure
1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3
1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 2.0
The correction is applicable to the point fixed at the beginning or at the end of the
slope. The percentage correction given in table 5-32 is to be multiplied further by the
ratio of the horizontal length of slope to the distance between the two pile lines in
between which the sloping floor is located.
Floor thickness
Having determined the percentage residual head at various desired points of the
structures, the residual head percentage is converted into the actual head at the
particular point by the following.
𝑹𝑯
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑯𝒑 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝑯............... 5-119
Floor thickness at this point required to counteract the uplift pressure (Hp) is:
𝐻𝑝
For the point in dry condition: 𝑇 = 𝜌
𝐻𝑝
And for the point just submerged = 𝑇𝑑𝑟𝑦 = – (this value is mostly adopted)
𝜌−1
Where
H = Total operative head across
T = Floor thickness in feet
Hp = Pressure head in feet
𝜌 = Specific gravity of the construction material for concrete (plain) = 2.3 and for
reinforced concrete f = 2.4.
Typical / sample calculations for floor thickness appear as Annexure E.
2 Source: Central Board of Irrigation, India paper # 12 in 1936 “Design of Weirs on Permeable
Foundations”
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Figure 5-53: Uplift correction for floor slope (A.N. Khosla)

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5.10.5.1 Thickness of floor required for negative pressure created by trough

The hydraulic jump produces/creates severe hydrodynamic conditions. During the
maximum flood when the total head across the weir is generally not more than 3 feet,
the uplift pressures at any point of the weir due to sub-surface flow cannot exceed 3
feet. But the hydraulic jump has much larger troughs which represent the unbalanced
heads or uplift pressures at the trough locations. The floor thickness is designed to
withstand these negative pressures also. The hydraulic jump is not stationary, and
may move along the glacis for different discharge intensities and downstream water
levels. Consequently in the region of the hydraulic jump the floor is designed to
withstand these uplifts, with due allowance for spread as addition to the uplift
pressures calculated for sub-surface flow. Total floor thickness at any section is
designed for the worst combination of uplift due to sub-surface flow and the hydraulic
jump. The thickness of the glacis slope could be very small for seepage flow alone but
due to hydraulic jump it is as large as, and at places even larger than, that of the
horizontal floor.
In determining the thickness of the floor for the trough of a hydraulic jump, the following
general rules are considered:
a) The actual position of the hydraulic jump is somewhat upstream of the
calculated position by a distance approximately equal to (d2-d1). Due to the
forward movement of the upstream end of the jump, the actual depth of trough
is somewhat smaller than calculated.
b) The uplift due to the maximum depth at the trough will operate only at the
deepest point of the trough. It becomes smaller on either side. Since the floor
slab has always got some beam action, it may be designed in sections for the
average uplift over each section. This point is of great importance as the
hydraulic jump can form all over the glacis during different stages of supply and
if no allowance is made for spread, the entire length has to be designed for the
maximum uplifts, a course which is wasteful.
c) Around the toe of the glacis, the jet of water flowing down exerts a down ward
force on the floor equal to the rate of change of momentum in the vertical
direction. At the toe, this force is considerable and may be as much as two-
thirds the thickness of the jet. It becomes smaller at upstream points, and can
be easily calculated for the straight or curved glacis.
Effect of scour and sedimentation on exit gradient and uplift pressures
5.10.6.1 Scour
a) The scour upstream of the upstream sheet pile wall increases uplift pressure
under the upstream floor, but has no effect beyond the crest.
b) Scour on the downstream floor increases the exit gradient but reduces the
residual uplift pressures under the downstream floor with no effect upstream of
crest block.
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5.10.6.2 Sedimentation
a) Sediment deposit upstream of the upstream sheet pile reduces the uplift
pressures under the upstream floor, but has little affect downstream of the crest
block.
b) Sediment deposit downstream of downstream sheet pile wall reduces the exit
gradient but increases the residual uplift pressures underneath the downstream
floor.
Sheet piles / sheet pile lines / sheet pile walls
Sheet piles are basically steel sheets, hot rolled or cold formed into various shapes
such as U,Z, AZ and straight with interlocks at both ends. When driven or installed
with interlocks sealed with an approved sealant, they from an impervious wall cutting
off all seepage. The main functions of the sheet pile walls are:
i. Lengthening the path of seepage and creep in the soil beneath the impervious
structure reducing the strength of piping action.
ii. As a sequel to the above reducing the exit gradients.
iii. They also affect the residual pressures under the structure in different ways.
iv. Mitigating the scour at the two ends of the impervious section of the structure.
The number of pile walls to be provided under a structure has been under discussion
over a substantial period. The necessity of two end piles was acknowledged from the
beginning of the pile wall concept but the necessity of intermediate piles was realized
much later for additional safety in case the end pile walls develop infirmities and
leakage, causing unfavorable variation in exit gradient and uplift pressures.
5.10.7.1 Upstream sheet pile wall
The upstream sheet pile wall is a protective structure mainly against scour and thus
its depth is designed to cover the anticipated scour. It has no ultimate effect on residual
uplift pressures under the downstream floor (stilling basin) although it does reduce the
uplift pressures under the upstream floor.
5.10.7.2 Intermediate Pile Walls
The intermediate pile walls are carried to the same depths as the upstream and
downstream end pile walls. Bottom level of downstream pile walls usually by the
amount of afflux provided with the structure, but this is not a firm rule and required
flexibility can be provided by the downstream pile wall.
The downstream pile wall provides a protection against scour and exit gradient at the
downstream end of the structure. The depth has to be an optimal trader off between
the two attributes because the deeper the downstream pile the lower the exit gradient
but higher the residual uplift pressures and vice versa.
Opinions differ as to the number of intermediate pile walls. However overtime,
provision of four pile walls, one at the upstream end, 2nd at the joint of upstream floor
and upstream glacis, the 3rd one at the joint of downstream glacis and the downstream
floor (stilling basin) and the fourth and the last one at the downstream end of the
impervious structures, has been / adopted by most designers.
In case four pile walls are provided, the depth of the two piles walls upstream of the
crest is governed by the scour depth on the Upstream of the structures. The depth of
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the sheet pile walls on the downstream of the crest, normally have the bottom tip lower
than the tip of upstream pile walls by about the quantum of “Afflux” used for design,
but this is not a firm rule and required flexibility can be achieved by adjusting the depth
of all pile walls except the last pile wall on the downstream of the structure which
controls the exit gradient also.
Exit Gradient
5.10.8.1 Introduction
A weir is subjected to a static head equal to the difference of water levels on the
upstream and downstream sides, which causes seepage flow through sub-soil under
the foundation. Weir failure from seepage can occur by:
i. Undermining of the sub-soil.
ii. Uplift due to pressure under the floor being in excess of the weight or resisting
force on the floor.
Failure by undermining is most common. Therefore a knowledge of its causes and of
the measures to prevent it is of utmost importance both for design of new works and
for ensuring the safety of existing ones.
The undermining of the sub-soil starts from the tail end of the work. It begins at the
surface due to the residual force of seepage water at this end being in excess of the
restraining forces of the sub-soil which tend to hold the latter in position. Once the
surface is disturbed, the dislocation of sub-soil particles works further up and being
progressive, leads to the formation of cavities below the floor into which the latter may
collapse. According to the commonly accepted ideas, this undermining is supposed to
result from what is known as “piping”, that is, the erosion of sub-soil by the high
velocities of flow of water through it, when such velocities exceed a certain limit.
Moreover, water has a certain residual force at each point along its flow through the
sub-soil which acts in the direction of flow and is proportional to the pressure gradient
at that point. At the tail end this force is obviously upwards and tends to lift up the soil
particles.
Thus the force acting on any particle in the sub-soil consists of:
𝑑ℎ
i. a force 𝐹 = acting in the direction of flow and
𝑑𝑙
ii. the submerged weight of soil W = Wg (1-E) (ρ-1)
where W = Weight of unit volume of water
ρ = specific gravity of sand particles
E = pore space in unit volume
If at the exit end, the force F equals or exceeds the submerged weight W g, the soil
particles start to be lifted up and ‘float’. The gradient of pressure at which this occurs
is called the critical or flotation gradient and is given by:
𝑮𝑬𝟏 = 𝑾 (𝟏 − 𝑬)(𝝆 − 𝟏) ............... 5-120
Taking W=1, 𝜌=2.65 and E=0.4, failure theoretically occurs when the exit gradient GE
is 1. The frictional resistance, of the adjacent soil may be considered in certain cases,
but once the surface particles are disturbed, the resistance against upward pressure
of water is further reduced, causing a progressive erosion of the sub-soil and the
dislocation of particles is accelerated. The structure is thus progressively undermined.
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The subsurface flow underneath an impervious structure is governed by the difference

of head of water between the two ends. The flow gradient at any particular point is
termed as the hydraulic gradient or pressure gradient.
The pressure or hydraulic gradient at the end of the structure is called the exit gradient.
The value of exit gradient indicates the flow conditions at the end of the structure. It is
well known feet that the soil particles under the structure at the tail end will start to
move with flow at a certain value of the hydraulic gradient. This value being critical is
also called the “critical gradient” or “floatation gradient”.
To ensure safety of the structure against piping created by migration of soil particles,
the exit gradient should not exceed the critical value.
Calculation of exit gradient
5.10.9.1 Khosla’s Theory
A.N. Khosla’s formula (1936) for calculating the exit gradient and commonly used in
Pakistan and South Asia is
H 1
Ge  ............... 5-121
d  
where:
Ge = Critical exit gradient
H= Total Head
d= Depth of downstream end pile (the exit gradient is controlled by the
downstream pile)
1 1  2
 ............... 5-122
2
 =b/d, and
b = Total floor length
Exit gradient being a ratio is dimensionless.
On the basis of calculations, Khosla prepared a graphical solution which appears as
Figs. 5-54 and 5-55 (2 sheets).
5.10.9.2 Malhotra’s time saving approximation:
Since calculation for  takes some time, Malhotra worked out the following simple and
almost exact (about ± 1%) relationship;
𝑯
𝑮𝑬 = 𝟓𝒅(𝒃+𝒅) ............... 5-123
where
H is the maximum operative head,
d = depth of downstream sheet pile
b = total length of concrete structure
This gives acceptable results for a quick analysis of existing structures if b>5d.
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Figure 5-54: Exit gradient (A.N. Khosla)

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Figure 5-55: Exit gradient (A.N. Khosla)

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5.11 FLOW NET

Definition
Flow net may be defined as a graphical plot of flow streamlines with equipressure
(equipotential) lines for flow under an impervious (structure) on a permeable soil.
Or “A flow net is a 2-D diagram of equipotentials (lines of equal head) and flow lines,
which are built from field observations and / or theoretical conditions,” equipotentials
are the loci of points of equal potential (or head) and flow lines (or stream lines)
correspond to the direction of subsoil flow.”
Application
The flow nets facilitate graphical determination of uplift pressures, discharges and exit
gradients. (see below Fig. 5-56)
Figure 5-56: Equipotentials and streamlines

Rules for Drawings flow nets
i. Head drops between adjacent equipotentials must be constant
ii. Equipotentials must match known boundary conditions.
iii. Flow lines never cross each other.
iv. Refraction of flow lines must account for differences in the hydraulic
conductivity.
v. For isotropic media
a. Flow lines must intersect equipotentials at right angles.
b. The flow line-equipotential polygons should approach curvilinear
squares, as shown below in Fig 5-57.
vi. The quantity of flow between any two adjacent flow lines must be equal.
vii. The quantity of flow between any two adjacent streamlines is always constant.
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Figure 5-57: Flow Net polygons, approach curvilinear squares

Drawing Procedures
i. Draw the boundaries of the flow region to scale so that all equipotential lines
and lines thatare drawn can be terminated on these boundaries.
ii. Sketch lightly three or four streamlines, keeping in mind that they are only a few
of the infinite number of curves that must provide a smooth transition between
the boundary streamlines. As an aid in spacing of these lines, it should be noted
that the distance between adjacent streamlines increases in the direction of the
larger radius of curvature.
iii. Sketch the equipotential lines, bearing in mind that they must intersect all
streamlines, including the boundary streamlines, at right angles and that the
enclosed Figures must be (curvilinear) squares.
iv. Adjust the locations of the streamlines and the equipotential lines to satisfy the
requirements of step iii. This is a trial-and-error process with the amount of
correction depending upon the position of the initial streamlines. The speed with
which a successful flow net can be drawn is highly contingent on the experience
and judgment of the individual. A beginner will find the suggestions in
Casagrande (1940) to be of assistance.
v. As a final check on the accuracy of the flow net, draw the diagonals of the
squares. These should also form smooth curves that intersect each other at
right angles.
Issues of isotropy variation
Flow net can be drawn both for isotropic and an isotropic media. isotropic soils only
are considered here because the soils in Pakistani plains are generally isotropic. The
user if interested may refer to relevant books for reference e.g. list a couple.
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Forchheimer’s method
Forchheimer proposed a graphical method for drawing flow net by trial and error. If on
two stream lines AB and CD (see Fig. 5-58) equipressure lines, Ǿ1, Ǿ2 ………… are
drawn to form a curvilinear seuqre with ℓ1 = a1, having a drop of head h=(Ǿ1-Ǿ2), then
if other equipressure lines Ǿ3, Ǿ4 ……… Ǿ8 are drawn in such a manner that between
any two consecutive equipressure lines, the head loss is the same and is equal to h,
Forchheimer proved that for such a flow net, any other mesh, say between Ǿ6 and Ǿ7
must have 16 = a6. As already shown, the discharge ∆q between two adjacent
streamlines is constant and the velocity is inversely proportional to the tube width,
taking depth perpendicular to the plane of the paper as unity.
Figure 5-58: Flownet sketching by trial and error drawing equipressure lines
on two stream lines
Writing Darcy’s equation:
𝑯
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨 𝑳 ............... 5-124
For elements between (Ǿ1 - Ǿ2) and (Ǿ6 - Ǿ7), the loss of head between (Ǿ1, Ǿ2) =
…………(Ǿ6 and Ǿ7) = ………= h and discharge ∆q between the stream lines being
constant
𝒉 𝒉
∆𝒒 = 𝒌𝓛𝟏 𝓵 = 𝒌𝓛𝟔 𝓵 ............... 5-125
𝟏 𝟔
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟔
or = ............... 5-126
𝓵𝟏 𝓵𝟔
Since a1 = ℓ1 (by construction)
Therefor ∴ 𝒂𝟔 = 𝒍𝟔 ............... 5-127
which proves that the element between Ǿ6 - Ǿ7 is also a curvilinear square. For the
same reason meshes of the flow-net so constructed are also curvilinear squares.
Forchheimer's flow-net under a structure is reproduced in Fig. 5-59.
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Figure 5-59: Forchheimer’s flow net under a structure

A simple flow net in horizontal flow is shown in Fig. 5-60:
Figure 5-60: Flow lines under simple floor

Procedure for Flow Net Construction
A flow-net is essentially drawn by trial and error. The structure and the boundaries are
drawn to a scale and first three or four lines are lightly drawn in freehand. At sharp
angles of the structure or at the boundary, the stream line is rounded to provide a
smooth curve. Streamlines at all U or right angled turn should have a smooth elliptic
or hyperbolic from respectively. Note that the distance between the two streamlines is
less when the radius of curvature of the stream is small and vice-versa. For an infinite
depth of stratum the stream line emanating at a distance more than half the length of
the structure tends to assume a semicircular or semi elliptical shape.
Over the first two or three streamlines sketched in freehand, equipressure lines are
drawn by dividing the space between the first streamline under the structure as well
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as in the first two streamlines to make the length and the width of each mesh equal
thereby forming curvilinear squares.
In drawing a flow-net as recommended above, care should be taken that (a)
equipotential lines meet the solid boundary of the structure nearly perpendicularly and
(b) these should cut the streamlines nearly orthogonally and (c) the first and last
equipressure lines where Ǿ =H and Ǿ = O must coincide with the upstream and
downstream permeable boundaries. The space between the equipressure line Ǿ=H
andǾ=O is divided into convenient integers, say 5, 8, 10,…25, so that each space
between any two adjacent equipressure lines represents a drop of H/5, H/8, H/10,
H,25, respectively.
If a first trial gives a fractional number of divisions of equipotential meshes, say 5.3, a
new retrial for drawing the flow-net should be made.
The flow-net can be extended in depth by drawing under each of the squares a new
square, the outside of this square will form the next stream line. The stream lines, as
they approach the outer limit, will have to be adjusted according to the dictates of
infinite or finite depth requirements stated above.
It has to be kept in mind that for a given structural design and boundary conditions,
one and only one flow pattern will be completely correct. After having drawn the flow
net, a check for curvilinear squares and right angle intersections of the two sets of
curves at all places is necessary. The accuracy however, depends on what we
understand by a curve linear square, how we can construct it or check the same. A
well-known method based on the principle that all intersections must be 90°and all
medians or diagonals must essentially be equal, forming a new set of squares in
themselves has been applied for drawing and checking the flow net for many problems
in fluid mechanics by different authors.
However for the problems of seepage under hydraulic structures Leliavsky considers
that this method has serious limitations and suggested a principle of circle method to
improve the accuracy of the flow-net. He defined the curvilinear square as “four curves
which intersect at right angles and are tangents to a central common circle”. Leliavsky
circle method useful for checking and improving the accuracy of the seepage flow-net.
A flow net for horizontal floor and a sheet pile is shown in above Fig. 5-60.
The graphical methods described above, give only approximate and indicative results.
The generation of flow nets from mathematical calculation is rather too complicated to
be included in this manual and is thus not included.
Determination of seepage discharge, uplift pressure and exit gradient
from Flownet
As indicated earlier, discharge between two stream lines in a flow net is constant and
between any two consecutive equipotential lines the head loss is the same. If there
are N number of Ǿ lines (N = 20, in Fig. 5-61), with a drop of dh between any two
consecutive Ǿ lines, the total loss of head H is given by:
H = NǾ dh ............... 5-128
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Figure 5-61: Determination of seepage discharge, uplift pressure and exit

gradient from flownet
Consider an element abcd, of the flow-net. The discharge through this element for unit
depth perpendicular to the plane of the paper
v.dn = ∆q ............... 5-129
𝒅𝒉
and 𝒗 = 𝒌 𝒅𝒔 ............... 5-130
where dn and ds are the dimensions of the curvilinear mesh between stream lines and
equipressure lines respectively.
Substituting the value of dh from Equation
𝑯 𝟏
𝒗 = 𝒌. 𝑵 . 𝒅𝒔 ............... 5-131
Ǿ
𝒅𝒏 𝑯
And 𝒒 = 𝒌. 𝒅𝒔 . 𝑵 ............... 5-132
Ǿ
In the flow net, dn = ds, therefore

𝑯
∴ ∆𝒒 = 𝒌 𝑵 = 𝒌 𝒅𝒉 ............... 5-133
Ǿ
If there are NΨ stream lines (NΨ=6, in above Fig.the total discharge is equal to:
𝑸 = 𝑵𝜳 𝒌𝒅𝒉 ............... 5-134
Substituting for dh from Equation …….,
𝑵
𝑸 = 𝒌 𝑵𝜳 𝑯 ............... 5-135
Ǿ
𝑸 𝑵𝜳
or = ............... 5-136
𝒌𝑯 𝑵Ǿ
Note the Equation obtained from theoretical treatment.

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𝑸 𝑲𝟏 𝑵𝜳
= 𝟐𝑲 = ............... 5-137
𝒌𝑯 𝑵Ǿ
where K1 and K are elliptic integrals of the first kind with modulus m 1 and m. Again
comparing with Equation we have:
𝒒 𝒂 𝑲𝟏
= 𝟏 = 𝟐𝑲 ............... 5-138
𝒌𝑯
where a/1 is the ratio of the sides of a mesh of a flow net. The physical meaning of the
non-dimensional ratios of the parameters involved. Equation 5-138 is that the seepage
discharge depends only on k, H and the ratio of the number of the stream tubes and
equipressure compartments.
Example
Calculate pressure, exit gradient and discharge from the flow net in Fig. 5-61.
Pressure at Point P
Number of stream tubes NΨ = 6
Number of potential drops NǾ = 20
Total heads H = 30 ft
𝟐𝟎−𝟏𝟑
Loss of head at point P which is on 𝑵Ǿ𝟏𝟑 = × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒇𝒕
𝟐𝟎
Or pressure head, h = 30-10.5 = 19.5 ft head of water above downstream water level.
Exit gradient
The exit gradient at the toe is computed by dividing the loss of head dh between the
last pressure line and zero pressure line by the distance of last pressure line to the
one coinciding with the permeable boundary at the toe.
𝒅𝒉 𝑵Ǿ𝟏
Or [ 𝒅𝒔 ]
𝑶
ds = ab = 4.1 ft
dh = 𝑯/𝑵Ǿ𝟏 = 30/20 = 1.5 ft
𝒅𝒉 𝑵Ǿ𝟏 𝟏.𝟓
[ 𝒅𝒔 ] = = . 𝟑𝟔𝟔
𝑶 𝟒.𝟏
𝒅𝒉 𝟏.𝟓
Exit gradient 50 feet downstream of the toe at X GEX = = 𝟏𝟖.𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝒅𝒔
Discharge
𝑸 = 𝒌𝑯 𝑵Ǿ /𝑵𝜳
If k = 5 x 10-1 per hour
NǾ = 20 and NΨ = 6
𝟏 𝟔
𝑸 = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎 × = 𝟒. 𝟓Cft per hour per foot width of structure.
𝟐𝟎
It is to be noted that the above calculations are for a limited number of flow lines. For
an unlimited depth of foundation, the calculation of exact seepage discharge is neither
possible nor essential.
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Flow lines provide only approximate analysis and the values of residual pressure and
exit gradients, and in comparison with the available simple and accurate mathematical
methods are used only rarely.
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5.12 DESIGN OF HEAD REGULATOR AND CROSS REGULATORS

The head regulators and cross regulators are basically the canal falls. The design of
a fall is very similar to a barrage except the side protections and allied works.
Hydraulic Jump
The hydraulic jump analysis is exactly similar for a barrage or for a fall.
Downstream protections are somewhat lighter in sections than those for a barrage but
principles of design are the same.
Exit Gradient
The same methodology as that for a barrage is issued.
Uplift pressure
Calculations for determining the uplift pressure under the floor follow the same
methods and formulae as those for a barrage.
Floor Thickness
Process is similar to that of a barrage.
Gates
Gates for canal structures are smaller in size and have different design requirements.
Gate design is beyond the scope of this manual.
A sample calculation is presented in Annexure F.
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5.13 OPERATION & REGULATION RULES AND PROCEDURES

Approved regulation rules available at the barrages are in use. However in some cases
the changed conditions require amendment of these rules to make them more effective
and compatible with the current conditions. Such amendments are approved by the
Chief Engineer and are barrage specific. Therefore no general rules can cover all the
operational or maintenance issues. Anyway the generalized generic regulation rules
can be following:
Operation and Regulation Rules
For each barrage, appropriate regulation rules and operating procedures have been
prepared, approved by the competent authority and are in vogue at all barrages. The
engineers in charge of barrages are changed with the responsibility of ensuring that
these rules are followed (implemented in full and details). The regulation rules
comprise:
a) Design data
b) The pond level limitations
c) Gate operation constraints
d) Rate of raising and lowering of pond level
e) Methods for calculating river discharge
f) Silt sampling and analysis
g) Gate operation and regulation of supplies
Operational Guidelines
The operation of a Barrage is very important and sensitive process. A small mistake
or irregularity can trigger many serious problems. Normally, rules and regulations
prescribed for the operation, maintenance and control of a barrage, commonly called
the “Regulation Rules” include all necessary instructions on this issue.
Objective of Good Operation
The operation of a Barrage should effectively achieve the following objectives:
a) To maintain the approach of the dominant river channel in three distinct streams
approaching the undersluices and the central part of the weir.
b) Control sedimentation in guide bank zone to eliminate or contain the deposits
close to or in the pockets.
c) To ensure indented supplies in the off-taking canals.
d) To control silt entry in the canals within their carrying capacity.
e) To ensure safe passage of flood discharges.
f) Manage the flood flows at flow intensities close to uniform over the whole
Barrage, and if necessary vary the discharges through adjacent bays, and limit
the variation to 10%.
g) Check that the barrage is not over strained in any section or component.
h) Maintain the pond level to designated limits.
i) Limit head across the barrage within the permissible range.
j) The discharge intensities through all bays to remain within prescribed limits.
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Pond Level Limitations

The pond level should generally be kept at the lowest level needed. When the warning
of a flood exceeding 50% of designed discharge is received, the upstream pond should
be lowered gradually in advance by about 2 ft to accommodate the impact of high
discharge.
Rate of Raising and Lowering of Pond Level
The raising or lowering the upstream pond level should be very gradual, since it can
have serious implications for the upstream as well as downstream training works in
addition to its impact on the barrage structure itself. Table 5-33 lists the recommended
rates of raising the upstream pond level at various values of Head Across.
Table 5-33: Recommended raising rates for pond level
Sr # Head Across (in feet) Rate of Raising of the Pond Level in
feet per Hour
a) Up to 10 feet 2.0
b) 10 to 15 feet 1.0
c) 15 to 20 feet 0.5
d) Above 20 feet 0.25
For lowering of the pond level the lowering rates is in reverse order as given in the
following:
Table 5-34: Recommend rates for lowering of pond
Sr. # Head Across Rate of Lowering of the Pond Level
in feet per Hour
a) From existing to 20 feet 0.25
b) From 20 to 15 feet 0.50
c) From 15 to 10 feet 1.00
d) From 10 to downwards 2.00
It is not possible to keep the pond level on the upstream of the entire barrage at the
same level. Due to presence of very active eddies and cross currents, the upstream
pond levels in the right pocket and the left pocket may differ considerably, even under
steady conditions of flow. Therefore, the gauge and pond level on the left flank are to
be considered as the representative/reference gauge of the pond for all practical
purposes.
5.13.5.1 Methods for calculating river discharge
River discharges are calculated according to various gate openings, pond level and
other hydraulic features existing at site. Various formulae in use follow:
5.13.5.1.1 Free fall condition (Gate clear or No Gates)
a) Downstream water level is below the crest and fall over the crest is
unobstructed and free. Standing wave is below the crest level.
Q = 3.3 x (H + Ha)1.5............... 5-139
where
B = Total width of gate opening between piers in feet.
H = Actual head of water on the upstream side above the crest in feet
Ha = Head due to velocity of approach in feet
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= V2/2g; V is the actually observed flow velocity along the divide wall.
b) Downstream water level is above the crest (gates clear or no Gates)
In this case the fall over the crest is unobstructed and free. However, after the
formation of standing wave the water level on the downstream side is above the crest
by 'd'.
Q = C B (H + Ha)3/2 ............... 5-140
where
C = Variation in the coefficient due to drowning ratio as listed in Table 5-35.
Other notations B, H & Ha have the same meaning as defined earlier.
Table 5-35: Variation of discharge coefficient ‘C’ due to drowning ratio d/H
d/H C
0.95 – 0.96 3.00

0.94 – 0.95 3.05
0.90 – 0.92 3.10
0.80 – 0.90 3.15
0.70 – 0.80 3.20
0.60 – 0.70 3.30
5.13.5.1.2 Floor through gate openings (fall over the crest is not free)
a) Orifice free on the downstream side
Q = 3.2 B {(H1 + Ha)3/2 – (H2 – Ha)3/2} ............... 5-141
where H1, is the upstream head over the crest and H2 is the downstream head
over the crest
b) Orifice submerged on the downstream if gates submerged on downstream)
𝑸 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝑩𝑫√(𝑯)𝑾 ............... 5-142
Orifice partially submerged or jump downstream of gates
𝑸 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟏𝟐 × 𝑩 × 𝑫√(𝑯𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝑫) + 𝑯𝒂 ............... 5-143
where
B = width of waterway, D is the gate opening, H1 is head over the crest, and Ha is the
head due to velocity of approach.
5.13.5.1.3 Silt Sampling & Analysis
The methodology for silt observation, its frequency, the equipment required, the
detailed methods and the sites from which samples have to be collected, are explained
in detail in a later section 5-18.
Sub Engineer Hydraulics is responsible for silt sampling. The Sub Engineer is assisted
by a qualified Silt Analyst to carry out the field observations under his supervision.
5.13.5.2 Gate operation and regulation of supplies
The inflow at a barrage is regulated to:-
 Maintain three channels on the upstream, one approaching each pocket and
one in the central part of the weir, those approaching the pockets should be
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deep and may be narrow while the one in the central part of the weir may be
wide and shallow.
 The gate openings so that designed intensities for various water levels are not
exceeded in any case and hydraulic jump always forms above the toe of the
downstream glacis.
The following instructions are complied with for regulation of discharge through various
components. Any deviation will require written permission by the Executive Engineer,
who for major departures a deviations may consult higher authorities if he deems
necessary.
5.13.5.3 Pockets and undersluices
The maximum designed intensity per foot run should never be exceeded except in real
necessity and that too with specific approval from the Executive Engineer.
Generally the pockets are operated on a still pond system which requires the
undersluices to be kept closed and only decanted water allowed to enter the canals.
The canal regulator crests are normally set at about 50% of the pocket depth. The
level of settled sediment is kept under observation and when the depth of settled
sediment reaches about 35% of the pocket depth canals are closed and undersluice
gates opened to safe openings to flush out the settled sediment to the level of the
undersluice crests. Thereafter the undersluice gates are again closed to create still
pond conditions in the pocket and canals are reopened.
Still pond system is considered mandatory when the approach to the pocket is straight
and more or less central to the barrage. In the case of oblique approach, the still pond
system is replaced with partial sluicing to create such curvilinear flow conditions in the
pocket that place the Head Regulator of the canals on the outside of flow curves.
For high flood discharges, the undersluices are opened very gradually, keeping the
opening of the bays on both sides of the divide wall to be same. The gate opening in
the first and last bays should, however not exceed to 2 feet. Care should also be taken
that the head across the divide wall nose does not exceed the safe limit of 3 feet.
For silt excluders in the pockets, the regulatory instructions are prepared / to satisfy
the requirements of the silt excluders (Refer section 3.14 of silt excluder).
5.13.5.4 The Weir Section
The weir section gates can be operated as follows:
a) Uniform Gate Openings
This is suitable when the river approaches the barrage in a straight central stream.
b) Wedge Plan for Openings
The gates are opened with wedge shaped opening plan by keeping the central bay as
the pivot or nucleus. For rising discharges, the openings in central part are to be
maximum reducing towards flanks while in falling river discharge the order is reversed.
However in both cases, the openings of Bay on both sides of divide walls have to be
equal to minimize Head Across the noses of divide walls. The main aim of these
methods is to create three channels, two for feeding pockets and one for the weir.
c) The Need Basis
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This is different from the other two, in that the openings are determined keeping in
view the river approach, requirement of canals and cross flow tendency in the
upstream pond. This method in conjunction with wedge method is more appropriate
for a more balanced regulation. The barrage gates are opened so that the
requirements are met and also no parallel flow is allowed to be generated on the
upstream of the Barrage.
To avoid jamming up of the gates, each gate which has to remain closed for more than
48 hours must be lifted for about 20 minutes daily and silt deposit upstream of the gate
flushed down. The difference between the openings of two adjoining gates should
never exceed 2 ft.
d) Navigation or Rafting Bay
A navigation bay is provided in each barrage along one of the divide walls. The main
lock gate on the crest of navigation bay is kept closed usually up to half the designed
discharge. When the discharge exceeds medium flood mark, both the gates may be
opened taking advantage of the bay to create more waterway during high floods.
No traffic should be allowed to pass through the navigation bay when the river is in
medium flood or above or when the adjoining Bays of the undersluices are functioning.
In exceptional cases, if unavoidable, the traffic should be allowed to pass with the
written permission of the Executive Engineer and under the personal supervision of
the Sub Divisional Officer Headworks. Care must be taken that the boats are safely
embayed before they are allowed to pass the navigation bay and Jamadar on duty is
present. In case of timber, good swimmers should handle them. Account or note of the
traffic passed through lock gate be kept in Log Book and in the form of monthly
statement in Divisional Office to serve as statistical record for the future e.g.
incorporation in the Annual Headworks Report.
e) Fish Ladders
Two fish ladders one on the right and one on left are generally provided for easy
movement of the fish across the barrage. The ladders provide zigzag extended path
and 1 ft. fall / jump after every compartment. Each compartment, as well as the entry
and exit have been provided with slots for regulation by stop logs / karries. When the
downstream exit is under water, the karries in the compartment next to last should be
put in to create suitable conditions on the upstream. The depth at entry and, therefore,
the flow, also needs regulation and the flow should be blocked systematically from
bottom upwards to avoid too high velocities.
5.13.5.5 Flood Warnings
Flood warnings are issued to all the stakeholders and concerned civil authorities in
addition to the normal departmental authorities to whom discharge and flood data is
supplied. For the flood warnings to the local civil authorities and other concerned
departments, the latest instructions on the subject issued by the Irrigation Department
should be adhered to. Wireless worked by Police department during flood season and
all available means of communication should be utilized during flood as necessary.
5.13.5.6 Rates of canal discharge variation
For all canals the rates of variation in discharge will be as follows:
For raising
 Open with one fourth of the designed discharge or 2000 Cusecs
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 Raise by no more than 0.3 ft in the next hour

 Raise by no more than 0.2 ft per hour to desired level
For closing
 Lower by no more than 0.2 per hour to half the depth
 Lower further by no more than 0.3 per hour to one fourth or 2000 Cusecs
 Close final one fourth or 2000 Cusecs in one go.
5.13.5.7 Mode of placing and receiving indents
Indenting officer (normally SDO incharge) nominated for each canal has the authority
to place supply indents with SDO headworks. It is the duty of the Sub Divisional Officer
headworks to receive the indents and issue orders to the overseer headworks. Head
Jamadar to meet the indents as accurately as possible. If he is unable to do so, an
explanation to the indenting officer should be sent by wire. Indent should not be
entertained from any officer other than the indenting officer. The Sub Divisional Officer
headworks should occasionally supervise personally the adjustment of the indented
discharge. In case of opening the canals after closure or during winter, the authority
to open the canals must be obtained through the Superintending Engineer Incharge
of the headworks and the Superintending Engineers of each canal.
However in emergency such as a breach, the established request for reduction by
others may be entertained by the Executive Engineer.
5.13.5.8 Instructions on Regulating Canal Supplies
The canals off-taking from a particular barrage is regulated in accordance with the
prescribed instructions.
The silt samples should be analyzed carefully. Reference instructions are provided in
section 19. If the silt entry exceeds the carrying capacity of the canal it is closed to
avoid silting up in head reach.
5.13.5.9 Discharge measurement
For calculation of discharge through various regulators, regular measurements are
necessary. The subject being very important is discussed in detail in section 5-17.
5.13.5.10 Silt ejectors
The silt ejectors if provided in canals should be regulated according to the instructions.
Normally the discharge through the ejector is limited to 15% of the canal discharge.
5.13.5.11 General instructions
The operation of ejectors is not left at the discretion of the junior staff. Even for the
officers with some knowledge about the existing conditions and current behavior of the
canal would be necessary to regulate the operation of the ejectors, e.g., if the canal is
displaying some scouring tendency and the bed of the canal is already lowered than
the designed, more silt ejection would aggravate the problem. On the contrary if the
canal is silting up (though at some particular time less silt charge may be entering in
it), the operation of the ejector(s) is helpful.
It is also necessary to keep the ejectors always operative (and avoid clogging of its
barrels etc) and thus maintaining some flow through the barrels would be necessary.
Therefore a judicious decision is necessary to determine the gate opening and
discharge extraction. For this purpose, result of frequent observations of silt sampling
and their analysis are the guiding factors, as well as the availability of discharge that
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can be spared for ejection. Accordingly the decision to operate the ejector and the
amount of discharge that can be spared should be made by the Executive Engineer.
It would be necessary to ensure that all impediments restricting the flow either through
the barrels or escape channels are removed and the ejector with its mechanical parts
is in good working order. Therefore, the inspecting officers should check physically to
verify.
During each closure of canal and especially during annual closure of the barrage,
detailed inspection of the ejector including sounding and probing to detect damages
to its floor and aprons and their timely repairs shall be made. In this period any debris
or obstructing material (specially tree trunks etc which are heaped over the bed of the
canal or floor of the ejector or may be stuck up in the slit of the ejector, shall be
removed. This is necessary to avoid damage to the vortex tubes, tunnels, ejecting
barrels, gates and downstream floor of the ejector. During the closure observations to
determine the condition of bed on upstream and downstream of the ejector as well as
other masonry works shall also be made to decide about future operation of the
ejector.
While operating the ejectors it is necessary to ensure that it does not cause damage
to any other work. Besides the above, when difference in water level in the canal and
outside is less than a foot the silt ejector should be closed. Gates of the silt ejector
should never be lowered or raised so as to create difference in water level in the canal
more than 0.5 ft. and in the outfall channel more than 1 ft. at a time or per hour.
5.13.5.12 Sediment account/balance
The sediment account / balance at each ejector is determined as laid down in the
following. The sediment charge above 62 microns size is observed:
i. At 200 ft upstream of the ejector slit at three points in the channel prism i.e. at
the centre and two points 100 ft away from the centre at 0.8 (80%) depth from
the water surface i.e. 0.2 (20%) depth above the bottom.
ii. At 200 feet downstream of the ejector slit at three points in the channel prism
in a way similar to the upstream cross section.
iii. The sediment balance and account is calculated at the boil of each gate of the
outfall regulator with a D-49 depth integrating sampler.
Based on the discharges of channel at the upstream and downstream cross
section and discharge extracted through the ejector slit/tunnels.
This gives the sediment ejected compared to the extracted discharge, the
sediment in the canal on the upstream of the ejector and that still remains in the
flow downstream of the ejector, and help in determining the optimum extraction
ratio at the ejector and normal efficiency of the ejector.
This is done once a week in winter and thrice a week during kharif, i.e. 15 th April
to 15th October, at prescribed river discharges, with magnitudes of low and
above discharges.
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5.14 UNUSUAL EVENTS

The barrages generally experience the following types of unusual events.
i. Earthquakes;
ii. Airstrikes (in the war periods);
iii. Sudden heavy freshets due to failure of a storage structure on the upstream;
and
iv. Commotion, unrest and strikes.
Emergency preparedness plan
Emergencies and disasters of any type can be experienced by any infrastructure
anywhere, anytime and it is, therefore essential to have an emergency preparedness
plan available to start corrective / supportive works immediately on occurrence
forestalling the irreparable losses generated by uncontrolled emergencies.
5.14.1.1 Expected types of emergencies
The types of emergencies for a barrage can be categorized as:
i. Exceptionally high flood
ii. Damage to flood embankments
iii. Damage to road bridge
iv. Damage to railway bridge
v. Failure of main barrage structure
vi. Failure of silt excluder
vii. Failure of an upstream barrage
viii. Failure of an upstream dam
The above categories, their effects and necessary actions are discussed in the
following:
5.14.1.1.1 Exceptionally high flood discharges
The exceptionally high floods while they exert excessive stresses on the barrage
structure also threaten the protection levees and embankments. The operation rules
for the barrage are outlined in the O&M Manual. A special section containing
instructions for the protection of flood embankments is included in the flood fighting
plan which is updated every year to address the changed configuration and
morphology of the river channels.
5.14.1.1.2 Damage to flood embankments
If even after taking good care and following the instructions in the flood fighting plan,
a flood embankment is subjected to unbearable stress and fails, the following
instructions have are followed:
i. Immediate arrangements are made for closure of breach.
ii. Identify and direct the escaping water through existing creeks/depressions.
iii. Inform all concerned immediately and get help from:
a. Army for evacuation
b. Police for law and order
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c. Mechanical circle and agriculture department for borrowing the required

machinery
d. Civil administration for law and order and support in obtaining the
relevant materials that are sometimes not available due to various
business and logistics reasons
This is the area where dedicated and dynamic relief efforts are required in full.
5.14.1.1.3 Damage to road bridge
The damages to the road bridge can be:
i. Foundation Damage
This can only happen if, a barrage bay/span is washed out completely, because the
bridge foundation rests on wells/caissons which are well designed.
ii. Damage to the Bridge Deck
The bridge deck can only be damaged if over-loaded beyond the design capacity for
which there are no apparent reasons. However, damage to deck is normally in the
form of crushing of the deck slab which can be repaired easily without much problems.
5.14.1.1.4 Failure of main barrage
Barrages are rigidly constructed and normally are low head structures and never give
way suddenly. The failure of a barrage may generally occur in the following ways:
i. Failure due to surface flow, scour, foundation. This type of failure starts from
the end of stone apron and detected very early so can be repaired in-time.
ii. Failure due to subsurface conditions, uplift pressure, exit gradient etc. This is
indicated by the readings of piezometers.
iii. Discharges much higher than the design value can cause lethal damage to the
barrage structure.
iv. Unusual events such as earthquakes, air strikes, sabotage etc can cause
sudden failure. In case a sudden failure occurs, the stored water is released at
a fast rapidly, but the total storage upstream of the barrage at the high flood
stage is normally insignificant and thus of no serious concern.
5.14.1.1.5 Failure of silt excluder

Apparently there is no cause for failure of silt excluder. However any damages that
are detected during closure can be repaired within the closure period with ease.
5.14.1.1.6 Failure of an Upstream Barrage
The only problem that failure of an upper barrage can create is a freshet but generally
the pond capacity of Punjab barrages is very small. Therefore, so no significant effects
are expected at the lower barrage.
5.14.1.1.7 Failure of an upstream dam
The real problem caused by failure of a dam is the flood of large discharges. If the
flood is expected to be of a very high magnitude, some or all of the following steps
may become necessary.
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i. The pond level at the barrage is lowered by maximum amount keeping in view
the safety of the barrage and allied structures to create as much storage
capacity as possible.
ii. Prepare a gate operation plan as the discharge rises.
iii. Get such topographic maps and cross sections of the river Khadir and
depressions that could share extra discharge and save as much area as
possible from destructive inundation.
iv. Inform all the Government functionaries and NGO’s related with floods to take
up and start their share of flood protection program/steps.
v. Evacuation of population to high spots is very heavy and will have to be started
immediately.
vi. Arrangement of food stuff and drinking water for at least one week will have to
be made at all high spots.
vii. Later air dropping of life saving supplies will have to be resorted to.
viii. Mobile and spot dispensaries will have to be setup to save the people taking
shelter at such high spot camps.
ix. Rescue operations isvery heavy and demanding and defence forces and other
helicopters will have to be deployed for evacuation job.
x. Additional police force will need to be deployed to ensure law and order.
xi. With the improvement in telecommunication system, several channels of
communication are now available. If normal land lines fail, one could use cell
phone, and if at some time the cell system also falters, Satellite phones and
long range wireless are also available. So there is no chance of complete
severance of communication and higher authorities are always contactable for
verbal confirmation of local decisions.
xii. The emergency instructions contained in the flood protection plan do not require
any confirmation from higher authorities and it is understood that during any
emergency, if a local officer losses contact with senior hierarchy, he has full
authority to take appropriate decision. He is however responsible for his
decisions.
xiii. It has already been mentioned earlier that the flood protection plan is revised
every year before start of the flood season.
xiv. All operating staff are fully trained in their duties including emergencies and the
O&M Manual lays down the action to be taken by the field staff. The O&M
Manual thus covers a good part of the emergency preparedness plan.
xv. Flood warning messages must be issued in time.
Flood Emergency Plan
Flood emergency plans for each barrage are prepared and approved annually under
the title “Flood Fighting Plan” for implementation during flood events / seasons. The
contents of such plans are:
a) General description of the particular barrage;
b) Administrative setup at the barrage;
c) River training works functioning as allied works;
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d) List of flood protection / containing embankments and training works;

e) Brief history of past flood events;
f) Salient design data for the barrage;
g) Details of rehabilitation, improvement or remodeling works executed recently;
h) Flood discharge limits;
i) Time lags for various discharges;
j) Listing of high floods for the past years;
k) Flood fighting / management strategies;
l) Flood warning;
m) Flood fighting and watching arrangements;
a. Pre-flood arrangements;
b. Arrangements for flood period;
c. Scales for watching material and staff (labor) establishment for low,
medium, high, very high and exceptionally high flood period;
n) Sensitive / vulnerable sites and related arrangements of labor and materials;
o) Special arrangements for sounding observation during the flood period;
p) Arrangements for:
a. Lighting;
b. Rations
c. Fuel for vehicles and machinery;
d. Machinery deployment;
e. Transportation;
f. Law and order;
g. Medical treatments for field ailments;
h. Liaison with other agencies;
i. Role of army;
j. Communication and wireless systems.
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5.15 PERIODIC SAFETY INSPECTIONS OF BARRAGES

Need for Inspection and Evaluation of Safety
Barrages are the most important hydraulic structures and play a pivotal role in the
operation of canal systems. There are 14 barrages (including Mailsi syphon) in Punjab.
These structures are 45 to 120 years old (as of 2016), and some very serious damages
have occurred to several of them due to inadequacy of monitoring and safety
inspections / evaluation. Although the Sub Divisional Officers and Executive Engineers
are posted either at the barrage or close by to regulate operation and maintenance,
still some are not observed adequately. This is why special periodic safety inspections
/ evaluation is essential to avoid serious and sudden damages.
Types of problems affecting the safety of barrages
The types of problems that adversely affect the safety of barrage may be categorized
as:
a) Design insufficiencies
b) Construction deficiencies
c) Indifferent / deferred maintenance
d) Operational lapses or inadequate performance in implementing the Standard
Operation Procedures (SOP) / Prescribed Regulation Rules
e) Unique unforeseen occurrences, like seismic events (earthquakes)
f) Defective hydraulic and structural performance
g) Aging effects
Barrages being the hubs of irrigation system activities need the evaluation/monitoring
processes most of all types.
5.15.2.1 Purpose and phases
The purpose of safety evaluation is to determine the status of a structure for its
structural and operational safety. The evaluation identifies the problems and
recommends remedial measures, operational restrictions and/or modifications or
analysis and further studies needed to determine solutions to the problems.
The phases of safety evaluation consist of reviewing the design, the construction
operations and operational history by studying the available records; examining the
behavior and condition of the existing structure; making necessary analyses;
developing final conclusions and preparing a report ending in appropriate
recommendations.
5.15.2.2 The site visit and inspections
5.15.2.2.1 General comments
The site visits and inspections are an essential part of the safety evaluation of
structures. The visit should identify potential hazards from the conditions that may
have developed progressively which local operators may not have recognized, or that
previous visit did not detect. The evaluation must be guided and determined by
continued awareness, recognition, and understanding of the primary causes of
barrage failures. The detection of changes or indications of impending changes, and
of developing structural and hydraulic weaknesses are fundamental objectives of the
safety evaluation. The visit should also determine if different components are being
operated as designed.
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a) Checklist. Ideally, a checklist should be developed for each barrage. Each

member of the Examination Team should review and revise as required the
standard checklist for the specifics to be examined in his discipline during the
site visit. The checklist should be a short outline of information and special
instructions for conducting the examination. A list of special items requiring
specific answers is to be included as an Annex to the main checklist. A checklist
at best is only a guide and should not limit the examination. A sample
generic/tentative check list appears as Annexure G.
b) Photography. The Team should carry at-least one good camera. Telephoto
and wide-angle lenses are very useful. A good quality flash attachment is also
required. Digital color slides are better than color prints because of their
versatility. The photographer should keep in mind that photography material is
relatively inexpensive, so he should take photographs liberally. The
photographs of a given subject should be shot in the same orientation as
presented in past reports to facilitate a comparison of structural conditions with
the previous ones.
c) Examination tools. A small steel pocket tape is very helpful. A good pair of
power field glasses/binoculars improves the ability to observe; a small
notebook, pocket tape recorder, flashlight, thermometer, hand level, Abney
level and compass is the additional facilities. The team is the best judge of any
additional tools needed.
d) Visit scheduling. The visit should be scheduled at a time when the water users
is the least inconvenienced; during a time of year when most features are
visible, and when most of the equipment can be exercised during the
examination e.g. low supply / closure period.
The Team should determine whether the stilling basins should be examined by
dewatering or by using a diving team. The field representative should provide
the necessary equipment for dewatering and access.
The Team should establish the period of time required for the examination. The
complexity of the discussions with the field representative should be used as a
guide. Sufficient time should be allotted to permit a thorough, unrushed
examination of the facilities.
5.15.2.3 Features to be examined
All recorded or observed events, incidents, or changes relating to the barrage and
appurtenances should be examined for their characteristics, locations, and occurrence
time. Many of the problems are generic or of a universal nature regardless of structure
type or foundation class.
The concrete surfaces should be examined for leaching and deterioration caused by
weather, unusual or extreme stress, alkali or other chemical reaction, erosion,
cavitation, temperature differential, vandalism, pattern cracking, cracking at
embedded metal work, and differential movement.
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Cracks and spalls noted during past examinations should be evaluated for any change
of condition. New cracks and spalls are noted and examined to determine the type,
such as tension or crushing, and the reasons for their existence. Photographic
documentation of a crack or spall condition aids in evaluating the changes from one
examination to the next.
All fill adjacent to the structure should be examined for subsidence or soil movement.
The contacts between the fill and the structure should be examined for evidence of
creep. All cut or fill slopes adjacent to the structure should be examined for unstable
conditions.
The bridges and hoist decks, along with their supporting members, should be
examined for condition and proper function. All guides for gates, or other mechanical
features should be in good condition, such as electric conduits, pipes, and fixtures.
The stain outlines, on the walls or piers of the structures for various discharges, should
be studied for an indication of flow characteristics through the structure.
5.15.2.4 Mechanical equipment
Mechanical and associated electrical equipment should be operated through the
maximum possible operation range under actual operating conditions to confirm that
the equipment performs satisfactorily. The equipment should be checked for proper
lubrication and smooth operation, without jamming, vibration, unusual noises, and
overheating. The adequacy and reliability of the power supply should also be checked
during operation of the equipment. Auxiliary power sources and remote control
systems should be tested for adequate and reliable operation. All accessible parts of
the equipment should be examined for damaged, deteriorated, corroded, cavitated,
loose, worn, or broken parts.
Wire ropes should be examined for proper lubrication. Deformed, broken, or rusted
wires and ropes should be noted. Rubber, neoprene or other gate seals should be
examined for deterioration, cracking, wear, and leakage. Hydraulic hoists and controls
(if existing) should be checked for oil leaks contamination and for rough areas that
could result in damages. Gate structure and couplings should be examined for
corrosion, broken or worn out parts, and condition of protective coating. Leaves, metal
seats, and seals of gates should be examined for damage due to cavitation, wear,
misalignment, corrosion, and leakage.
Operating instructions should be posted near associated equipment and checked for
clarity. Each operating device should be permanently and clearly marked for easy
identification. All equipment controls should be checked for proper security to ensure
that unauthorized persons do not have the access to operate or tamper with the
equipment.
Mechanical and associated electrical equipment should be examined for adequacy of
weather protection and for damage resulting from inadequate protection. Ventilation
and heating systems should be operated and checked for adequate capacity to control
damp environments for mechanical and electrical equipment. Access ladders,
walkways, and handrails should be examined for deteriorated or broken parts or other
unsafe conditions. Stoplogs, bulkhead gates, and lifting beams should be examined
to determine if they are available and in good condition. The availability of equipment
for moving, lifting, and placing of stoplogs and bulkheads, should also be verified.
During or after the site visit, discussions should be held with the operators to determine
if there are any unusual operating conditions or problems with the equipment. The
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discussions and operation of equipment should be used to verify that the operator
understands and is qualified to operate the equipment. Maintenance and exercising
practices should also be discussed to determine that they are adequate and in
accordance with the DOC and SOP.
Auxiliary Power. An adequate auxiliary power supply should be available for
emergency operation of gates and other necessary equipment during periods when
the normal source of sufficient capacity to operate at the maximum intended load as
described in the DOC and SOP is not available. The fuel supply should be sufficient
to operate the auxiliary power unit for the maximum anticipated outage of the normal
power supply.
During an examination, the auxiliary power supply should be used to operate gates
and other equipment to determine if the system is operational and adequate. Fire
protection, proper venting of exhaust gases, and protection should be examined
against vandalism. Operating instructions, clearly describing the procedures required
to manually place the auxiliary power supply in operation, should be posted. Automatic
system should be checked for proper operation. These systems do not normally
require operating instructions.
5.15.2.5 Access roads
The safe operation of a barrage depends on adequate and safe means of access.
Usually the only access to a barrage is by road. The road should be of all weathers
construction suitable for the passage of automobiles and any required equipment for
servicing the barrage during any weather conditions. Surfacing material should be
adequate to support anticipated loads. All cut and fill slopes, should be stable under
all conditions.
5.15.2.6 Site visit notes
Each member of the examination Team should carry a checklist or a small notebook
during the examination. The checklist should be categorized by structure notes and
separated into individual items examined such as floors, walls, riprap,
5.15.2.7 Site discussions
Members of the examination Team should discuss the operation of each appurtenant
feature of the barrage with the barrage operators. The discussion may indicate if the
features are operating as designed. The discussion will also serve to pinpoint
problems which might require further investigations.
5.15.2.8 Frequency of evaluation visits to site
Evaluation visits to the site can be classified as follows:
5.15.2.8.1 Initial evaluation visit
An initial evaluation visit is the first inspection of a barrage/structure just after
commissioning, or when there has been a change in the configuration of the structure
(e.g. widening, strengthening or remodeling).
5.15.2.8.2 Routine evaluation visit
Routine inspections are regularly scheduled inspections consisting of observations
and / or measurements needed to determine the physical and functional conditions of
the barrage / structure to identify any changes from “Initial” or previously recorded
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conditions, and to ensure that the structure continues to satisfy the current service
requirements.
Depending on the site location, size, age and condition, each barrage should be
assigned a schedule for the periodic evaluation. Normally every 5 years, a
multidiscipline team should conduct a formal safety examination of the barrage.
5.15.2.8.3 Emergent inspections
An emergent inspection is an unscheduled inspection to assess the structural
problems resulting from environmental factors or human action. The scope of
inspection should be sufficient to determine the need for emergency restrictions and
the level of effort necessary to effect a repair.
5.15.2.8.4 In-depth inspections
An in-depth inspection is a close-up, hands-on inspection of one or more members
above or below the water level to identify and record deficiencies, not readily
detectable in routine procedure.
5.15.2.8.5 Special inspections
A special inspection is an inspection scheduled at the discretion of the owner. It is
used to monitor a particular known or suspected deficiency, such as foundation
settlement or scour or other conditions specially after a strong earthquake or an
exceptionally high flood.
5.15.2.9 Evaluation report
An evaluation report is to be prepared upon completion of the site visit and submitted
to the owner within 30 days of the completion of site visit for his consideration and
appropriate action.
5.15.2.10 What to look for; features, events and evidence
5.15.2.10.1 General
The performance of barrages and allied structures depends on:
(1) their design,
(2) construction process and construction materials,
(3) the nature of their foundations,
(4) level of maintenance, and
(5) operational adequacy/capacity.
The fundamental objective of barrage safety evaluation is the detection of any existing
or developing structural or hydraulic weakness evident from the complex
interrelationships of the "performance controllers". For identifying these weaknesses,
barrage evaluators must recognize and understand the following:
5.15.2.10.2 Changes in the characteristics of material
Observe for defective, inferior, unsuited, or deteriorated materials. The quality and
durability must always be determined in each case and the need for such critical
examination and what to look for as depicted in the following be established.
5.15.2.10.2.1 Concrete
(l) Alkali-aggregate reaction, and pattern crazing and cracking,
(2) leaching,
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(3) frost action,

(4) abrasion,
(5) spalling,
(6) general deterioration, and
(7) strength loss.
5.15.2.10.2.2 Stone Products
(1) Disintegration,
(2) softening, and
(3) dissolution.
5.15.2.10.2.3 Soils
(1) Degradation,
(2) dissolution,
(3) change texture,
(4) strength loss, and
(5) mineralogical change.
5.15.2.10.2.4 Soil-Cement
If needed
(l) loss of cementation, and
(2) crumbling.
5.15.2.10.2.5 Metals
(1) electrolysis,
(2) mechanical or chemical corrosion,
(3) stress corrosion,
(4) fatigue,
(5) tearing and rupture.
5.15.2.10.2.6 Timber
(l) rotting,
(2) shrinkage,
(3) combustion, and
(4) attack by organisms.
5.15.2.10.2.7 Lining fabrics and geotextiles
(1) punctures,
(2) steam partings,
(3) light deterioration,
(4) disintegration of boundary seals, and
(5) loss of plasticity and flexibility.
5.15.2.10.2.8 Special moulded membranous water stops
(l) hardening,
(2) loss of elasticity,
(3) heat deterioration, and
(4) chemical degradation.
5.15.2.10.2.9 RubberError! Bookmark not defined.
(l) hardening,
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(2) loss of elasticity,

(3) heat deterioration, and
(4) chemical degradation.
5.15.2.10.2.10 Joint sealers
(1) loss of plasticity,
(2) shrinkage, and
(3) melting.
5.15.2.10.3 General occurrences
5.15.2.10.3.1 General
Observe generic occurrences for their characteristics, locations, and timeline. These
occurrences are of a universal nature regardless of structure type or foundation class.
The details of what to look for in observing these generic occurrences, actual or
evidential are:
5.15.2.10.3.2 Seepage and leakage
1) discharge - increasing or decreasing,
2) turbidity and piping,
3) color,
4) dissolved solids,
5) suspended solids,
6) location and pattern,
7) temperature,
8) taste,
9) evidence of pressure,
10) boils, and
11) time of occurrence and duration.
5.15.2.10.3.3 Cavitation
(1) surface pitting,
(2) sonic evidence, and
(3) vapor pockets.
5.15.2.10.3.4 Debris action
Evidence of floating debris pressure on stability of structures, lifting gate hoists,
obstructing gate leaves, and operational and mechanical installations.
5.15.2.10.3.5 Stress and strain – evidence and clues
(1) in concrete; cracks, crushing, displacements, offsets, shear, and creep;
(2) in steel; cracks, elongation, contractions, bending, and buckling;
(3) in timber, crushing, buckling, bending, shears, tension, and compressions; and
(4) in rock; and soils, cracks, displacements, settlement, consolidation, subsidence,
compression; and zones of tension and compression.
5.15.2.10.3.6 Stability – evidence and clues
(1) In concrete and steel structures-tilting, tipping, sliding, and overturning; and
(2) in embankment structures, cut slopes, natural slopes-bulging, sloughing, slumping,
sliding, cracks, and escarpments.
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5.15.2.10.4 Operation and maintenance

5.15.2.10.4.1 Service reliability of mechanical-electrical features
(1) broken or disconnected lift ropes and cables,
(2) operation including auxiliary power sources,
(3) reliability and service connections of primary power sources,
(4) verification of operators' understanding and ability to operate,
(5) functioning of lubrication systems.
5.15.2.10.4.2 Accessibility and visibility
(1) lighting;
(2) access roads and bridges; and
(3) communication and remote-control lines, cables, and telemetery systems.
5.15.2.10.4.3 Control of vegetation and burrowing animals on embankments
(1) harmful vegetation on embankments-oversize, dead root channels;
(2) harmful vegetation in structural concrete joints;
(3) porcupines, rats, hedgehogs, rabbits and other rodents.
5.15.2.10.5 Behaviors
Every attempt should be made to anticipate and have competent observers at site.
Resident operational personnel can often provide valuable information and may be the
only available observers (during earthquakes, sudden and short term accidents)
5.15.2.10.5.2 Warning, safety and performance instrumentation
(1) Piezometers, flow recorders, gauge observation points, surface reference
monuments, and stage recorders, etc;
(2) serviceability;
(3) access to readout stations;
(4) type and location suitable for condition being observed;
(5) need for recalibration;
(6) faulty readings, sources, and reasons;
(7) alarm systems operable and at appropriate set points;
(8) random check readings during examinations; and
(9) questioning operators to determine their understanding of purpose and functioning
of instruments.
5.15.2.10.5.3 During and after high floods
(1) Evidence of taxed capacity; and
(2) undesirable or dangerous flow patterns directly observed or deduced from flow
patterns/strains, erosion trails, swept vegetation, and deposition of solids.
5.15.2.10.5.4 After earthquakes
(1) Cracks, slumps, slides, displacements and offsets in structural features;
(2) escarpments, settlements in embankments, cuts slopes and fill slopes;
(3) toppled mechanical equipment;
(4) sand boils; and
(5) general procedures established following an earthquake.
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5.15.2.10.6 Concrete in component structures

5.15.2.10.6.1 Stress and strain – evidence and clues
(1) Cracks, crushing, displacements, offsets in concrete monoliths,
(2) typical stress and temperature crack patterns in slabs etc; and
(3) retention of design forces in post tensioned anchorages and tendons.
(1) Excessive or mal-distributed uplift pressures revealed by piezometers, construction
joints, and cracks;
(2) differential displacements of adjoining monoliths, and
(3) movement at construction joints.
5.15.2.10.6.3 Stilling basins
(1) Inadequate dissipation of energy,
(2) jump sweep out, and
(3) retrogressive erosion.
5.15.2.10.7 Mechanical components
5.15.2.10.7.1 Regulating gates
(1) unauthorized positioning,
(2) wedging,
(3) undesirable eccentric loads from variable positions of adjacent gates,
(4) gate-seal jaming,
(5) erosive seal leakage, and
(6) failure of lubrication system,
(7) availability of bulkhead facilities for un-watering, and cranes and lifting beams.
5.15.2.10.7.2 Operating deck and hoists
(1) Broken or disconnected lifting ropes and cables;
(2) unprotected exposure of electrical/mechanical equipment to weather, sabotage,
and vandalism; and
(3) structural members and connections.
Evaluation report
5.15.3.1 General
The purpose of the report is to provide the owner with documentation of the activities,
findings, conclusions, and recommendations resulting from safety evaluation of the
barrage. While brevity is essential, the report must provide sufficient information to
ensure complete coverage of all pertinent features affecting the safety of the barrage
to support the conclusions and recommendations of the Report, and to answer specific
questions that may arise from the recommendations. The Examination Report should
be objective, straightforward, and comprehensive. The condition of the barrage should
be stated in a manner which provides credence to the evaluation process and its
outcome.
5.15.3.2 Report contents
The report discusses briefly the data reviewed, the operational status, and elements
of structural safety of the barrage. The findings should support conclusions and
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recommendations. The report must be tailored to the specific conditions of the barrage
evaluated.
The terms satisfactory, fair, poor, and unsatisfactory indicate the following overall
evaluation categories:
5.15.3.3 Satisfactory
No existing or potential barrage safety deficiencies are recognized. Safe performance
is expected under all anticipated loading conditions, including such events as the MCE
(maximum credible earthquake) and the PMF (probable maximum flood).
5.15.3.4 Fair
No existing barrage safety deficiencies are recognized for normal loading conditions.
Infrequent hydrologic and/ or seismic events would probably result in a barrage safety
deficiency.
5.15.3.5 Reasonably fair
A potential barrage safety deficiency is recognized for unusual loading conditions
which may realistically occur during the expected life of the structure when
uncertainties exist as to critical analysis parameters which identify a potential barrage
safety deficiency; further investigations and studies are necessary.
5.15.3.6 Poor
A potential barrage safety deficiency is clearly recognized for normal loading
conditions. Immediate actions to resolve the deficiency are recommended; pond level
/ Head Across restrictions may be necessary until problem resolution.
5.15.3.7 Unsatisfactory
A barrage safety deficiency exists for normal conditions. Immediate remedial action is
required for problem resolution.
Photographs, particularly of irregularities, should be taken during the site visit;
referenced in the text, and included as an appendix to the Report. General drawings,
which show location, plans and sections of barrage and allied works, should also be
included.
Conclusions and recommendations
The finale of the evaluation Team's Report is the conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions and recommendations must be supported by the reported findings. Each
conclusion should be identified, separately in sequence. Each recommendation must
result from a conclusion. Recommendations should be written concisely and identify,
to the extent of knowledge available to the Evaluation Team, the specific actions to be
taken. The first word in the recommendation should be an action word (e.g., "Prepare"
or "Perform" etc). The recommendations should address all the identified safety
concerns.
Selected items to be considered for inclusion in the inspection /
evaluation report
Instrumentation is used to monitor the behavior of the barrage and its foundation.
When instrumentation data is available, the results of the past performance should be
assessed. If instrumentation is lacking, the need for instrumentation to monitor specific
aspects of behavior during the operational cycles should be recommended. When no
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instrumentation data or plots are available, an evaluation of the past behavior of the
barrage can only be determined by the site examination which is, at best, a surface
observation. Conclusions should be presented on instrumentation, and
recommendations made for specific items of structural performance.
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5.16 INSPECTION OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS

River training works
River training works are essentially required for:
i. Controlling the flow patterns in the river channels;
ii. Protection of important salient;
iii. Protection of flood spills containing embankments;
iv. Changing or modifying the river flow channels courses;
v. Guiding the river flow to pass smoothly through the barrage (guide banks).
River training works by virtue of their role of protection of other structures are the first
line of defence against erosive capabilities of a river channel and thus need to be
designed and maintained with care and due diligence under-designed or inadequately
maintained works fail resulting in significant damages to embankments or important
Salient Components.
River training works can be damaged by:
a) Overtopping
b) Settlement on prolonged saturation of the earthen body.
c) Runnels caused by
a. Old tree roots;
b. Solutioning of soluble materials
c. Rodent burrows, holes and dens.
d) Piping action through foundation alluvial materials.
e) Erosion by river flow.
f) Erosion by wave action.
g) Earthquake caused liquefaction of the body, core or foundation materials.
h) General land subsidence, though rare, is common to some typical soils.
i) Ravines caused by heavy rains, if not repaired expeditiously, may also result in
breaches.
j) Cracking and slope failure due to over saturation and inadequate design.
k) Accidental damages, vandalism and sabotage.
Inspections and Overall Surveillance
Since the shanks of training works on our rivers remain dry for most of the time (about
9 months a year) they are prone to develop all sorts of weaknesses. To ensure their
safety these works therefore need effective surveillance, in depth inspections and
resultant proper maintenance steps during dry period.
The current inspection procedure needs to be improved and the reports and
recommendations if any, neither provide details nor are of satisfactory quality and thus
do not lead to proper implementation steps.
The above discussions show that the existing annual inspection procedures need to
be amended for effective actions and satisfactory results.
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The Inspection Team

The training works are generally considered as somewhat of secondary importance
simple structures. This assumption is incorrect. As already explained earlier, they are
very important, and crucial structures.
It is also generally assumed that the training works do not require maintenance in dry
periods. This is also incorrect because continuous repairs, rehabilitation and
surveillance are the key to safety of these structures which provide protection to salient
components of exorbitant values.
Based on the above two questionable assumptions, a casual inspection by a randomly
picked team is usually considered adequate. This is not acceptable. The training works
are important earth structures that need a thorough inspection by a competent
evaluation team.
A three person inspection team comprising a competent leader, a hydraulic engineer
and a geotech engineer is a good evaluation outfit.
The inspection team is assigned to a detailed inspection and analysis of the training
works and to submit a comprehensive report containing observations, findings,
conclusions and recommendations within 15 days of the inspection date.
Details and methodology for the inspection assignment follow.
Data Collection
The inspection team should collect the data required for an assessment of safety and
may be but not limited to the following:
Current approved L-section
Designed cross sections
5.16.5.1 Existing Data
i. Top levels
ii. Top widths
iii. Side slopes
iv. Observation of mile gauges along the bunds
v. Water levels for various discharges
vi. NSL on both sides
The data which is not available will be observed by the staff incharge under the
directions of the inspecting team.
Safety Inspection and Evaluation
The safety evaluation team will inspect the training works on a pre-specified date. The
maintenance staff incharge of the flood bund will also be available during the visit..
The inspection / safety evaluation team is expected to carry out the listed in the
following paragraphs. The team may however amend the task program if dictated by
the site specific conditions:
Review the design according to the state of the art design methods/procedures, point
out any deficiencies to be corrected and suggest suitable action to withstand the
accepted PMF (Probable Maximum Flood).
Carryout physical inspection of the works and look for/observed:
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i. Top Levels
ii. Unwanted Vegetation and Debris
iii. Encroachments
iv. Slope/Section Stability
v. Settlement
vi. Land Subsidence
vii. Damaged Armour
viii. Flood Wall Damage
ix. Runnels Caused by:
a. Old tree roots
b. Solutioning of Soluble Materials
c. Rodent burrows, holes and dens
d. Piping action through foundation alluvial materials.
e. Damage by river flow.
f. Erosion by wave action.
g. Ravines caused by heavy rains
h. Accidents
i. Vandalism
j. Sabotage.
The observations/findings of the inspection team should be briefly reported in a
checklist for quick overview. A sample generic format for such a checklist appears in
the following:
Frequency of Safety Inspections
The safety inspection in a normal or wet year should be carried out twice in a year; A
pre flood inspection during April / May and a post flood inspection during
October/November.
However in dry years the October/November inspection visit can be dropped.
Special Inspections can also be instituted after accidents and major rehabilitations,
up-gradation or new construction.
Inspection / Evaluation Report
After inspection, analysis and view sharing meetings will be amongst the team
members and incharge maintenance staff, the committee will formulate its
inspection/evaluation report and submit it to the owner/requesting authority within 15
days of the inspection.
This report will normally comprise an introduction, location of the training works,
analysis for design parameters, physical inspection results i.e. observation and
findings, conclusions and recommendations. The report will be signed by all the team
members and the officer incharge of the facility or his authorized representative. A
sample checklist for site inspection appears as Annexure H.
River Surveys
Periodic surveys of river channels and khadir (active flood plain) are to be carried out
every year after flood season in November. The survey includes:
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5.16.9.1 Topographic survey

Topographic survey is to be carried out across the khadir normally extending to about
*15000 x afflux) feet on the upstream and 25000 ft on the downstream of the barrage.
This survey shows the areal placement of river channels, their variations, erosions and
shoals and changes in the meanders of the river channels. Survey maps are to be
prepared and submitted to SE concerned.
5.16.9.2 Bathymetric surveys
This survey comprising the cross sections across the river khadir and bed levels for
the channels and land levels in the inter channel bars is plotted in the form of spot
level grid and contours are drawn.
The topographic and bathymetric survey products (plans, cross sections contour maps
etc) are submitted to the concerned superintending engineer by mid-December with a
detailed annual river survey report.
Soundings and probings as summarized earlier on the upstream and downstream are
carried out during May and November each year to assess the condition of the
structure, plotted and presented in an approved format in the probing books.
River channel morphology and meandering
Flow channels of different rivers and different reaches of the same river exhibit
different characteristics in alignment, cross sections, slope and bed and back material.
These aspects depend on several factors like discharge, longitudinal and transverse
slopes, sediment charge and grade, geology, boundary resistance, hydraulic
structures spanning the channel, training works, containing embankments etc.
5.16.10.1 Classification of river channels
River channels may be classified as:
i. Straight channel
ii. Braided channel
iii. Meandering channel
5.16.10.2 River classification
Cross section and prism wise the rivers may be called:
a) Incised rivers which always flow in a deep cut channel and never spill.
b) Spilling rivers have shallow and wide channels which spill over the low banks
while in flood and inundate the full khadir (active flood plain) and even the
country side in the absence of containing embankments.
c) The straight variety is rare and is found only as a variant of incised river.
d) The braided channel is formed of several bye channels which criss cross over
the main channel prism creating deep channels and shoals.
e) The meandering river keeps on moving sideways in almost a cyclic pattern over
the khadir.
f) An off shoot of meandering type with flow divided into more than one sub
channels is termed as anastomosed or anna-branching river.
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5.16.10.3 Meandering of Alluvial Rivers

A river channel in an alluvial reach is said to be in equilibrium and the channel in
regime when its slope is just sufficient to carry its silt charge with the available
discharge. However, in alluvial reaches such a situation seldom occurs. The river
changes its course continuously.
5.16.10.3.1 The Meander
A meander is defined as a sinuous change in the river course in a cyclic order. The
basic factors controlling meandering are slope, discharge and boundary resistance i.e.
resistance due to bed and banks. Valley slope is the overall slope of the river bed
measured along the axis of the valley. Boundary resistance is characterized by the
nature of the boundary material and its resistance to erosion. Any obstacle to flow on
the river, disturbs the silt charge. If the silt charges become excessive for the slope
and discharge, primary meander is developed. If the slope is in excess of silt charge
and discharge, scour causes development of secondary meanders.
The speed with which the material is removed and the course is changed depends,
among other things, upon the strength of the banks. A river having a considerable
discharge variation changes its course more often than a river with uniform discharge.
5.16.10.3.2 Molloy’s river regime theory
R.A Molloy of Punjab irrigation Department published the technical paper no. 118 of
Government of India, presenting his river regime theory commonly known as Molloy’s
River Regime Theory which postulates:-
Alluvial rivers tend to move in a sinusoidal pattern and divide themselves into main
river and side channel. The river makes bends alternately from one bank to the other.
At the crest of each bend the channel is deep and in the length where river changes
over from one side to the other, silt is deposited in the bed forming shallow bars. Bars
are formed by the action of the side channels. Withdrawal of discharge in the side
channels at the off-takes results in reduction of velocities in the main river, thereby
forming bars or shallow crossing by side deposition.
In high flood season, the portion of the main river, between the outfall of the side
channels and the next off-take, which carries combined discharge of the main river
and the side channel, is deep and has a steep gradient. On the other hand, the surface
gradient over the bars is flatter than the mean gradient.
While the flood is rising and the bars are silting, there is a tendency for a greater
discharge to pass down the side channels or bye-rivers. If this happens over a
sufficient period of time, the side channel occurs and the main river may begins to flow
through side channel abandoning its previous course. The previous course will then
get silted up resulting in a shortened main channel. This process continues to produce
sinuous loops of main channel.
5.16.10.3.3 Extent of meandering of alluvial rivers
The following Fig. 5-62 exhibits the meander belt of an alluvial river in a plain.
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Figure 5-62: Extent of meandering of river

In this Fig.:
‘W’ is the representative width of the river
ML is the length of a river loop measured between the crests of successive loops along
a straight line and is called the “Meander Length”.
Mb is the width between extremities of a loop, measured across the loop and is called
the “Meander width” or “Meander belt”.
‘R’ is the radius of the meander loop curve.
Based on the model studies and other studies, the following empirical relationship
have been developed:
ML = 29.6 √𝑄
Mb = 84.7 √𝑄
W = 4.88 √𝑄for spilling rivers
And 2.48 √𝑄for non spilling incised rivers
R = 2.0 √𝑄
5.16.10.3.4 Natural avulsion / cut-off
A river in alluvium continuously erodes its banks on the concave or the outer side of
the curve and throws the sediment towards the banks on the convex or inner side of
the curve, causing the river bends to continuously shift gradually in the downstream,
direction, thus making the bend sharper and sharper. When the neck or chord of the
loop becomes short, the river cuts a straight path through it and starts flowing through
the short cut path leaving the loop high and dry. This phenomenon of short circuiting
is called “Natural avulsion / Natural cut-off. This takes place during high flow.
During high water stage, the whole valley / active flood plain is flooded and the water
tends to follow a straight course. Since, the length of the chord or the neck is small, it
develops a short and shallow channel along the chord. The cross section of the
channel goes on widening and deepening, which ultimately develops into a deep
channel in the whole length of the chord, which is termed as natural avulsion or cut-
off.
For some distance, upstream and downstream of cut off, the effect of this shortcutting
can be observed prominently. In these reaches a state of utter confusion is exhibited
which includes banks caving, channel silting and channel forming until with low flow
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season where this utter chaotic condition subsides. During the next flood season,
however, lesser chaotic condition are witnessed, till such time the river channel
increases its length by meandering and adjusts its slope and the silt conveying
capacity. This usually takes place by the formation of loops. The condition stabilizes
for a short period of time, when the next cut-off occurs and the process restarts.
Thus the river in alluvium remains in the quest for an equilibrium or regime moving
from one bank to the other, adjusting its length, sharpening the bends, developing the
cut-offs, and repeating the process over and over again.
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5.17 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

Discharge measurement of off-taking canals
The discharge measurement at the head regulator of a canal can be done by
calculations or by observations.
5.17.1.1 Calculations
The calculations follow the methods used for the barrage and relevant formulae are
used. The barrage calculation models are presented elsewhere section 9. The
observation methods are presented in the following paragraphs.
5.17.1.2 Discharge coefficient
The discharge coefficient undergoes minor variations with changes in the crest and
mechanical works. The calculated discharge is compared with the observed to confirm
and the value of ‘C’. This revised value can also be determined through model tests
at the hydraulic research station of Irrigation Research Institute.
Instructions on discharge measurement
5.17.2.1 Introduction
The discharge at any barrage has a special significance in connection with distribution
of supplies between the off-taking canals. Correct knowledge about accurate gauges
and discharges passing down in rivers and that diverted into various canals is essential
to implement the inter-provisional water accord and ensure equitable distribution of
supplies among the provinces.
The data is also useful for any possible future use in allocating and distributing flows
for new projects / extension of existing facilities. In addition, the correct record of
gauges and accurate determination of discharges in the canals is also necessary to
monitor the performance and equitable distribution of water in the respective canal
systems.
Stream flow or discharge, is defined as the volumetric rate of flow of water including
any sediment or other solids that may' be dissolved or mixed with it. The units in which
discharge is commonly expressed in Punjab is the cusec: which is an abbreviation of
"cubic feet per second. A cusec for ease in understanding can be explained to be the
quantity of water that would flow through a cross sectional area of 1 sqft. with a velocity
of 1 ft. per sec or “the volume of water in cubic feet that crosses a plane in one second”.
The ST unit commonly used in other countries is cumec “cubic meters per second”. A
gauge determines the height of water surface elevation above a crest of a fall or the
bed of channel as well as its height in RL (RL stands for reduced level and also for
height above mean see level). Thus if the gauge reading is in feet the discharge can
either be determined by actual measurement of velocities and cross sectional area of
the site (depth and width of stream) or by empirical formulae or by gauge discharge
rating curve / table generally available at site. The accuracy of the later, however,
depends on various constants involved in the formulae are chosen / selected.
Discharge measurements required at a barrage
At any barrage actual observation of the following discharges is required:
 River discharge passing the barrage.
 Discharge passing the head regulators of the off-taking canals.
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Since the duties for actual measurements of all river discharges at specified location
(which include the site just downstream of the Barrage) have been assigned to the
staff especially employed with the Discharges Division Lahore. It is only the discharge
of the canals which has to be observed by Sub Engineer Hydraulic and Sub-Divisional
Officer Headworks as per schedule prescribed for them. River discharges passing
down the barrage are however calculated with formulae that are well established, but
their validity is often checked by comparing the results with those obtained through
actual observations by independent agency / staff of Discharge Division. Also the
discharges are determined each time when gate openings or condition of pond level
and water elevation on downstream side are changed.
5.17.3.1 Discharge observation sites and reference gauges
5.17.3.1.1 Discharge observation sites
Prior to actual observations of canal discharge, suitable discharge observation sites
are selected. In case of permanent locations, it would be preferable to construct meter
flumes in the head reaches of the canals.
Such sites are selected so that there are no curvature effects and the site is located in
straight reaches of the canals. The sites are also not influenced by the proximity of
masonry works and from the effect of turbulence or fluctuations in the water surface
elevation that is frequently prevalent the reaches in the immediate vicinity on the
downstream of canal head regulators.
5.17.3.1.2 Reference gauges
For canals the gauges are fixed in the gauge wells downstream of their head
regulators; and for river the gauge is located in the left gauge well downstream of the
Barrage.
Direct observation of discharges
The determination of discharge requires the measurement of the depth of water and
the mean velocity prevailing between the water surface and the bed of channel at a
number of predetermined points at a definite distance apart across the section. The
product of the velocities and corresponding areas added together gives the total
discharge. However, prior to actual observation of a suitable discharge site is selected.
5.17.4.1 Determination of depth of water
The depth of water can be measured in a number of ways but those commonly used
are either by sounding rod or by log line as explained in the following paragraphs:
5.17.4.1.1 By sounding rod
In this method, the depth at various verticals is measured by a rod marked in feet and
tenths and having base 6" or so in diameter to prevent the rod from going into the bed
of the channel. The rod is generally circular, but may be streamlined to reduce
obstruction to the flow of water. It is generally convenient to measure depths up to
about 15-20 feet with a sounding rod 25 feet long.
5.17.4.1.2 By log line
The log line consists of a flexible wire with a copper core, having a suitable weight tied
at the leading end to keep it taut and straight when immersed in water. The sounding
weights now used are the Columbus weights, commonly called the C type. The
weights are streamlined to offer minimum resistance to flowing water. Each weight has
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a vertical slot and a drilled horizontal hole to accommodate a weight hanger and
securing pin. The weight hanger is attached to the end of the sounding line by a
connector. The current meter is attached beneath the connector. Since heavier
weights are difficult to manipulate. The weights commonly vary from 11 to 57 pounds
(5 kg to 26 kg).
The modus operandi is to throw the weight U/S, to let the line loose and to measure
the depth as soon as the weight touches the bottom. Considerable experience is
required for measuring depths in flowing water with a log line and only experienced
men are employed to do it. This method is used for taking soundings in depths greater
than 20 ft.
5.17.4.1.3 Sonar equipment
Recently sonographic equipment has become available to operate from boat and give
direct depth readings (digital). It is also capable of recording the depths graphically
giving a cross section. They are quite reliable and will rapidly replace the above
manual methods.
5.17.4.2 Use of current meters in determination of velocities
The most common method of velocity measurements at a given location is by use of
current meters; though other methods to determine the mean velocity are also in use.
Other methods, if current meter is not available include
a. usage of velocity rods
b. estimation from surface velocity
A current meter is an instrument used to measure the velocity of flowing water. The
principle of operation is based on the proportionality between the velocity of the water
and the resulting angular velocity of the meter rotor. By placing a current meter at a
point in a stream and counting the number of revolutions of the rotor during a
measured interval of time, the velocity of water at that point is determined.
The number of revolutions of the rotor is obtained by an electrical circuit through the
contact chamber. Contact points in chamber are designed to complete an electrical
circuit at selected frequencies of revolutions. Contact chambers can be selected
having contact points that will complete the circuit twice per revolution, to once per five
revolutions. The electrical impulse produces an audible click in a headphone or
registers a unit on a counting device.
The counting intervals are measured by a stopwatch. Current meters generally can be
classified into two main types, those meters having vertical-axis rotors and those
having horizontal-axis rotors. The comparative characteristics of these two types are
summarized below:
i. Vertical - axis rotor with cups or vanes.
a. Can operate in lower velocities than do horizontal axis meters.
b. Bearings are well-protected from silty water.
c. Rotor is repairable in the field without adversely affecting the rating.
d. Single rotor serves for the entire range.
ii. Horizontal-axis rotor with vanes
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a. Rotor disturbs flow less than do vertical-axis rotors because of axial

symmetry with flow direction.
b. Rotor is less likely to be entangled in debris than the vertical-axis rotors.
c. Bearing friction is less than for vertical-axis rotors because bending
stresses on the axle are eliminated.
iii. Vertical-axis current meters
The most common type of vertical-axis current meter is the Price meter, type AA. This
meter is used extensively by the Geological Survey. The standard Price meter has a
rotor 5 inches high with six cone-shaped cups mounted on a stainless-steel shaft. A
pivot bearing supports the rotor shaft. The contact chamber houses the upper part of
the shaft and an eccentric 'contact that wipes a bead of solder on a slender bronze
wire (eat's whisker) attached to the binding post. In other type a separate reduction
gear (pentagear), wire, and binding post provide a contact each time the rotor makes
five revolutions. A tailpiece keeps the meter pointing into the current.
The types of current meters in use in Punjab, however are:
 Gurley Type 623
 Gurley Type 622
5.17.4.2.1 Watt meter
Gurley type 623 which is almost the same as price meter type AA is a delicate
instrument and needs to be handled with care. The number of each meter is engraved
on the yoke and the commutator boxed in the upper arm. The lower end of the vertical
spindle on the bucket wheel rests on the pivot point and upper end passes into the
commutator box. Six cups of uniform shape and size revolve anti-clock wise in a
commutator, where velocities upto 5 ft. per second can be easily observed with the
single commutator. For higher velocities a "Penta Commutator Box" is used. The cam
fitted to the upper end of the bucket wheel shaft in a single commutator is replaced by
a worm which gears with the toothed wheel in the commutator.
Gurley type 622 differs from Gurley type 623 in having only one commutator box which
is fitted with two terminals; one for single and the other for penta observations. Thus
the change is simple through change of cable connection.
5.17.4.2.2 Watt meter is different from Gurley 623 both in shape and size.
Recently digitally recording meters and pigmy type meters have been introduced for
measuring very low velocities of the order of 0.05 to1.5 fts.
Distances across the section for determination of partial areas of the
cross section
Basically, the discharge passing a section of a flowing channel is given by the product
of area of the section and the velocity across it. However in actual practice, the velocity
varies at different points of the section. Therefore there is a need to determine the
value of a 'mean' velocity across the section to calculate the discharge. Similarly the
'mean' velocity in different segments of the cross section are also at variance with each
other. The velocity in the 'end' sections being much less than the velocity in the middle
sections due to variation in boundary friction. Similarly slight reduction in velocity at
the top is caused by the atmospheric resistance. Experiments have shown that the
velocity taken at 0.6 depth from the top represents the mean velocity in the cross
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section. The cross section is therefore divided into suitable segments with appropriate
width of the segments. Depth of water and the mean velocity between water surface
and bed of channel at a number of points at a definite distance apart across the section
are observed. The product of velocities and the corresponding areas added together
gives the total discharge.
Previous practice in discharge observation
To divide the section into 5 main segments,
a) One central segment
b) Two side segments
c) Two slope segments.
This was done so that Simpson and Weddle's Rules could be applied to the central
and slope segments, respectively. Discharge observations on canals are governed by
the same principles as those applying to the observation of river discharge at sites
demarcated with wire ropes.
The central segments (6W3) is roughly of full surface width less three or four times the
general depth and if possible a multiple of 6, so that Ws was a whole number. If that
could not be arranged, it was kept a multiple of 3.
The width of the side segments W2 and W4 was equal to each other extending as
nearly as possible to the foot of the slopes, while the balance of full surface width i.e.
after deduction of the width of central segment was divided equally between the slope
segments W1 and W5.
Weddle's Rule was used for the central segments only and the area was calculated
as:
3 W (s umofodd)  5(s umofeven
)  s umofeverthir ate, excludinge
y dor din 
xtr emes
Area = 10 3 ..... 5-144
3 W ( D  D  D  D )  5( D  D  D )  D 
= 10
3 3 5 7 9 4 6 8 6
............... 5-145
Simpson's Rule was used for the slope segments only where the base was divided
into any even number of equal parts, (which was two in case of canals) and depth was
measured at two points in each slope segment. So the area was determined as:
1 W1 4( D1  D11 )  D2  D10 
Area = 6 ............... 5-146
In this method of observation the section selected was preferably to be in the middle
of a lined reach and soundings observed at each point of the section immediately
followed by velocity observation at 0.6 of the depth of water at that point.
Special forms bound into books are available for record of discharge observations of
canals with the above method.
Recent practices
More recently with the use of current meters however, the practice has grown to divide
the total section into a number of small or partial sections in such a way that
approximately not more than about 5% of the flow passes through each section. At the
same time the number of vertical section (which may not be equal on account of
restriction of discharge) are neither too large nor too small and work can be completed
within reasonable time. Generally the number of such sections is not less than 20.
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There are two methods of current meters observation which are employed for
calculation of discharge. However, in both of them viz. Mean section method and Mid
section method discharge is the summation of the products of the partial areas of the
stream cross section and their respective average velocities.
Thus
Q = ∑(a v) ............... 5-147
where
Q = total discharge,
a = is an individual partial cross section area, and
v = is the corresponding mean velocity normal to the partial area
5.17.7.1 Mean section method
In the mean section method the velocities and depths at successive locations are
averaged whereas the section extends laterally from one observation point to another.
Therefore discharge is the product of average of the two mean velocities, the average
of the two depths and the distance between the location.
5.17.7.2 Midsection method
In this method if the cross section is defined by depths at location 1,2,3,4……10 as in
the Fig. below the partial discharges can be calculated as:
 (b x  b( x 1) (b( x 1)  b( x ) 
qx  Vx    dx
 2 2  ............... 5-148
 (bx 1  b( x 1) 
qx  Vx   dx
 2  ............... 5-149
Where
qx = discharge through partial section x
Vx = mean velocity at location x
bx = distance from initial point to location x
b(x-1) = distance from initial point to preceding location,
b(x+1) = distance from initial point to next location,
dx = depth of water at location x.
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EXPLANATION
1,2,3…………n Observation points
b1, b2, b3……bn Distance, in feet, from the initial point to the observation point
b1, b2, b3……dn Depth of water, in feet, at the observation point
Dashed lines Boundary of partial sections; one heavily outlined discussed in
text.
Thus, for example, the discharge through partial section outlined in fig. 1) is
 (b  b 
q4  V4  5 3 d 4
 2  ............... 5-150
The procedure is similar when x is at an end section. The "preceding location" at the
beginning of the cross section is considered coincident with location 1; the "next
location" at the end of the cross section is considered coincident with location n. Thus
 (b  b 
q1  V1  2 1 d1
 2  ............... 5-151
and
 (b  bn1 
qn  Vn  n dn
 2  ............... 5-152
The summation of the discharges for all the partial sections is the total discharge of
the stream.
Mid-section method as explained above is simpler and also slightly more accurate
than Mean section method as established by experiments
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Velocity observations
Velocity measurements are taken by several different ways depending upon the kind
of support used by the observer / hydrographer in crossing the stream and manner in
which the current meter is held in the desired position in the water. The different types
of discharge measurements can be
 Boat measurements
 Bridge measurements
 Cableway measurements
The velocity observations can however, be made in each vertical section by either the
2 point method or the single point method. In the two point method, velocity is
measured at 0.2 and 0.8 depth below the water surface. The average of the two
velocities gives the mean velocity in the vertical. In single point method (used for
smaller streams and canals) the velocities is observed only at 0.6 depth below the
water surface of the stream, because it has been shown experimentally that the mean
velocity lies at 0.6 of the depth measured from the water surface and thus the practice
has grown to observe a single velocity at 0.6 of the depth to obtain the mean velocity
in any vertical.
Equipment required for discharge measurements by current meter
In addition to the current meters other equipment for discharge measurements are
following categories:
 Sounding equipment (Sounding rods, Log lines, Sounding weights etc
 Width measuring equipment
The distance to any point in a cross section is measured from an initial reference point
on the bank. Cableways and bridges used regularly for discharge measurements are
commonly marked at 2, 5, 10, foot intervals by paint marks. Distance between
markings is estimated, or measured with a rule or pocket tape.
For the measurements made from boats, or from unmarked bridges, steel or metallic
tapes or tag lines are used.
Tag lines are made of 1/32, 1/16, 3/32, or 1/8 inch diameter galvanized steel aircraft
cord with tags at measured intervals to indicate distances. The standard arrangement
of the tags is
Number of tags Interval (feet) Arrangement or station
1 2 0-50
1 5 50-150 .
1 10 150 to end
2 0,10,20,40,50,150,250,350,450
3 100,200,300,400,500
the standard lengths of tag lines are 300, 400, and 500 feet, but other lengths can be
adopted
Equipment assemblies
Special equipment is needed for each type of current meter measurement, which may
be divided into the basic groups of cableway, bridges, boat, etc.
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For measurement from a bridge, the meter and sounding weight may be supported by
a headline or by a sounding reel mounted on a micro crane trolley or bridge board. All
cranes trolleys are designed so that the super structure can be tilted forward over the
bridge rail far enough for the meter and the weight to clear most rails.
Measurements made from boats require special equipment not used for other types
of measurements. Extra large tag line reels are used on wide streams.
A utility line consisting of 30 feet of 3/22 inch diameter cable with a harness snap at
one end and a pelican hook at the other end is connected to the free end of the boat
tag line and fastened around a tree or post, thereby preventing damage to the tag line.
After the tag line is strung across the stream, the reel is usually bolted to a plank and
chained to a tree. The tag line is placed at appropriate intervals.
Special equipment is necessary to suspend the meter from the boat when the depths
are such that rod suspension cannot be used. A crosspiece reaching across the boat
is clamped to the center of the crosspiece extending out over the bow. The crosspiece
is equipped with a guide sheave and clamp arrangement at each end to attach the
boat to the tag line and make it possible to slide the boat along the tag and can be
attached to these clamps so that a tug on the rope will release the boat from the tag
line in an emergency. The boom consists of two structural aluminum channels, one
telescoped into the other. The boom is equipped with a reel plate on one end and a
sheave over which the meter cable passes on the other. The sheave end of the boom
is designed, so that by adding a cable clip to the sounding cable, a short distance
above the connector, the sheave end of the boom may be retracted when the meter
is raised out of the water. The raised meter is easy to clean and is in a convenient
position when not being operated.
In addition to the equipment already mentioned, the following items are needed when
making boat measurements:
 A stable boat large enough to support the hydrographers and equipment.
 A motor that can move the boat with ease against the fastest stream current.
 A pair of oars for standby use.
 A life preserver for each hydrographer.
 A bailing device.
5.17.10.1 Miscellaneous equipment
Several other miscellaneous items that have not been described above are necessary
when current meter measurements are made. This equipment includes timers,
equipment, and waders boots.
Procedure for discharge measurements by boat (using current
meter)
5.17.11.1 Following procedure is followed
Estimate the width of the stream and string a tag line or measuring tape for
measurements. Sting the tag line at the measuring section by unreeling the line as the
boat moves across the stream. Some tag line reels are equipped with brakes to control
the line tension while unreeling. After a tag line without a brake has been stretched
across the stream, take up the slack by means of a block and tackle attached to the
reel and to an anchored support on the bank.
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Determine the spacing of verticals, generally using. about 30 partial sections. With a
smooth cross section and good velocity distribution, fewer sections can be used,
although the ideal measurements is one which is not a partial section and has more
than 5% of the total discharge in it. However, this is very seldom accomplished when
about 30 partial section are involved. Make the width of the partial section less as
depth and velocities become greater.
After the cross section has been selected and the stationing determined, assemble
the appropriate equipment for the current meter measurements. If the depth of the
stream / canal is not large the meter is suspended from a suspension rod, which is,
either mechanically operated by a rack and pinion fixed on the boat. Both mechanical
and hand suspension rods are so marked that a foot on the rod is actually equal to
0.6'. This facilitates submergence of the meter to 0.6 depth.
The meter is attached to the suspension rod through a swivel whose length is such
that the horizontal axis of the bucket wheel remains at 0.6 ft. below the suspension
rod. Before submerging the meter it is essential that it is free to swivel. For a check
two meters are used, the second one being suspended from bracket fixed to the
suspension rod.
Prepare the measurements note sheet to record the observations. For each discharge
measurements record the following information:
 Name of stream / canal and location to correctly identify the established
gauging station.
 Date, party, type of meter suspension, and meter number.
 Time measurement was started using standard time
 Bank of stream that was the starting point.
 Control conditions.
 Gauge heights and corresponding times.
 Water temperature.
 Other pertinent information regarding the accuracy of the discharge
measurement and condition which might affect the stage discharge relation,
such as wind velocity direction etc.
 Identify the stream bank by either LEW or REW (left edge of water or right edge
of water, respectively, when facing downstream).
Once the equipment and the note sheet have been prepared, start the measurement.
Mark on the note sheet the distance from the initial point to the edge of water.
After the meter is placed at the proper depth permitted to become adjusted to the
current before starting the velocity measurement, the time required for such
adjustment is usually only a few seconds if the velocities are greater than 1 ft. per
second.
Once the meter is adjusted to the current, count the number of revolutions made by
the rotor for a period of 40 - 70 seconds. Start the stopwatch simultaneously with the
first signal or click, counting "zero" not "one".
End the count on a convenient number given in the meter rating table column heading.
Stop the stopwatch on that count and read the time to the nearest second, or to the
nearest even second if the hand is on a half second mark. Record the number of
revolutions and the time interval.
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Precautions for use of current meters

A brief description of the checks on the condition of a meter and necessary care and
cleaning needs during daily field use follows:
 Before and after each discharge measurement, examine the meter cups or
vanes, pivot and bearing, and shaft for damage, wear, or faulty alignment.
Before using the meter, check its balance if on a hanger, check the alignment
of the rotor axis with a hanger or wading rod, and adjust the conductor wire to
prevent interference with meter balance and rotor spin.
 Clean and oil meters daily when in use. If the measurements are made in water
carrying noticeable suspended sediment, clean the meter immediately after
each measurement. Surfaces to be cleaned and oiled are the pivot bearing,
pentagear teeth and shaft, cylindrical shaft bearing, and thrust bearing at the
cap.
 After oiling spin the rotor to make sure it operates freely. If the rotor stops
abruptly, determine the cause and correct the trouble before using the meter.
On Notes for each measurement, record the duration of spin. Obvious decrease
in spin duration indicates that the bearings need attention.
 The pivot needs replacement more often than other parts of the meter. Examine
the pivot after each measurement. Replace a fractured, rough or worn pivot.
 Keep the pivot and pivot bearing separated except during measurements.
When the meter is not in use the lock nut provided at the bottom of the vertical
spindle of bucket wheel should be lowered so that the bucket wheel does not
ride on the pivot; for pygmy meter, replace the pivot by the brass plug.
 Most minor repairs can be made in the field. Repair attempts, however, should
be limited only to minor damages. This is particularly true of the rotor because
minor dents in the bucket wheel or cups can have a large influence on the meter
rating. Unless minor dents in the cups can be straightened out to "like new"
condition. The entire rotor should be replaced with a new one. Badly sprung
yokes, bent yoke stems, misaligned bearings and tailpieces, should be
reconditioned in shops equipped with the specialized facilities.
Maintenance and rating of current meters
On completion of each day's observations, the instructions for its upkeep, as detailed
in the History Book accompanying each meter, should be strictly followed and the
meter properly cleaned and oiled as directed therein, before it is put back into its box.
Pages are set aside in the History Book for recording the date and the time at which a
meter is used. A meter should' be returned to the Discharge Division for re-rating or
exchange after it has been used for 180 days (a day = four working hours), or after six
months of its issue from the Discharge Division whichever is earlier. All observations
lasting for four hours or less are counted as one day and those lasting for over four
hours as two days. A meter unused for two months should also be returned to the
Discharge Division for check and storage.
Irrespective of whether current meters are used by the Discharge or any other Division,
it is the responsibility of the Discharge Division that all meters are kept in proper order
and that Division is the Controlling Agency for all meters in the Punjab Irrigation
Department.
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5.18 SEDIMENT MEASUREMENT – SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

General
From the very beginning sediment "silt" has been a source of concern in the
maintenance of canals fed from alluvial sources (rivers / streams). When inundation
canals were built and sediment cleaned out of their beds a stage soon came when it
was easier to abandon the existing heads and banks and construct new ones than to
continue to clear the old ones. Thus even now, there are a whole series of ancient
canal banks in some locations running side by side across the landscape testifying
how this problem had to be grappled.
Classes of unstable channels
As a result of the experience, it was realized that apart from the consideration of banks
there were the following three classes of unstable channels.
Channels in which the beds (and even banks) were scoured without objectionable
deposits. Conditions in which sediment free water or discharge with sediment less
than carrying capacity of water flowed through the channel.
Channels where objectionable sediment deposits occurred without scour e.g.
conditions where large quantities of coarse sediment entered with the inflowing water
and the canal ran through sections of scour resisting material.
Channels in which scour and objectionable deposits were both present: e.g. conditions
in which water carrying large quantities of coarse sediment entered and the banks and
bed of the canal were composed of material which had little resistance to scour.
The particles forming the sediment have wide variation in their sizes. In the same
range of sizes, the dominance of particular sizes of particles in a sediment carrying
channel impart different properties of flow to it.
It can thus be logically concluded that a canal has to be designed such that it is capable
of transporting the required quantity of water and sediment carried by it without having
objectionable scour or sediment deposits over long periods of time. However, as such,
sediments are introduced into the channel (having been diverted alongwith water
carried from elsewhere) by the streams (alluvial rivers). A knowledge of the nature,
origin source, sizes, movement and characteristics of the sediments is important for
all those dealing with the development and management of water and land resources.
Sediments in alluvial streams
The sediments in alluvial channels may consist of mineral and organic matters. The
organic sediments originate from a wide variety of wastes but the mineral sediment is
the fragmental material derived primarily from the physical and chemical disintegration
of rocks from the earth's crust. Such particles may, therefore, range in sizes from large
boulders to colloidal fragments; with rounded to angular shape; and may also vary in
specific gravity and mineral composition etc. But once the mineral sediment particles
are detached they may be transported either by gravity or water or else by combination
of these agents. When the transporting agent is water, the sediment is termed "fluvial
sediment" and the process of moving or removing the particles from their resting
places is called "erosion".
Depending .on the size of each sediment particle, the stream may transport the
sediment by maintaining the particle in suspension with turbulent currents or by rolling
or skipping the particle along the stream bed. The finer sediments move downstream
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at about the same velocity as the water, whereas, the coarsest sediment may move
only occasionally and remain at rest most of the time.
Thus the sediment supply from the stream or channel may be classified in the following
two types.
5.18.3.1 Bed load
"Bed load" remains essentially in contact with the channel bottom except when it is
forced to jump over large particles or other obstacle. Only on such occasions its
contact with the bottom may be interrupted but for a short distance. However,
depending upon the velocity of flow some coarse particles may even reach the water
surface at times.
5.18.3.2 Suspended load
In contrast to "Bed load", movement of suspended sediment is, in general, more
balanced. This is because sediment particles move at a velocity which is almost the
same as that of the water. So the particles travel for a great distance without coming
into contact with the bed.
However, the forces keeping sediment in suspension are subject to continuous
variations with corresponding variations in the quality and quantity of sediment load.
Thus the distribution of the suspended sediment sizes in vertical direction may vary
from stream to stream and from cross section to cross section within the same stream.
Generally, however, the finer sediments, are distributed uniformly throughout the
vertical and the coarser particles are concentrated near the stream bed. But if the force
keeping sediment in suspension is reduced the coarse particles gradually settle to the
bottom, whereas if the suspending force is increased further larger fractions may be
picked up. However such changes are gradual, less pronounced; and occur invariably
with certain transition.
Silt sampling at a barrage
Information on the bed material is generally required for research studies, i.e. for the
study of the long term changes in the channel condition and for use in computation of
total load. Thus in Punjab, samples of bed "silt" have only been taken and analyzed to
evaluate the nature of material forming the bed and also any periodical variation of its
grading. At the time of sampling, hydraulic data of the channel was also observed to
study Lacey's silt factor and other problems connected with the silt.
At headworks, observations for suspended sediments are made to determine the total
amount and concentration of specific sizes in the river in flow (entering into the
pockets), i.e. for working of silt excluders. Such observations of sediments passing
through each bay of the regulators are also made in order to supply the information to
the officer incharge of regulation as it facilitates his work. Similar observations are also
required in connection with the design and operation of silt ejectors.
Similarly analysis of Water: Sediment samples obtained from highly turbulent flow, i.e.
from the boils on the downstream of head regulators provide information on the total
quantity of sediments (bed plus suspended) that enters the canal and helps in deciding
if closure of the canal is needed to stop excess entry (more than permissible limit) of
such objectionable sediments that are likely to disturb the regime flow in the canal.
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Required frequency of observations

During normal flows and periods of low supply in the river (Oct. to April), the effect of
oblique river approach is negligible or very mild and the established pattern of the
distribution and concentration of sediments is not appreciably disturbed anywhere in
the river cross section. Also as the discharges remains almost constant for some
period, uniformity of sediment distribution pattern is fairly maintained. Thus, if silt
sampling in the two pockets and in various bays of canal head regulators, is done once
a day (in the morning), it can serve the purpose. Similarly, if the regulation gates of the
silt ejector are not disturbed and discharges through them are maintained,
observations made once a day could remain valid for the whole day (till conditions in
the canal and on the downstream of the excluder do not change).
Location of sites for collection of samples
Accessibility of a site for collection of water sediment sample plays a major role in its
selection as a sampling station. Therefore bridges, if available, are naturally the
favorite places, since they provide relatively ease of observation and also ensure data
accuracy and thus silt sampling in each bay on the downstream of the regulator
becomes easy. Likewise regulation platforms of silt ejectors provide facilities for
collection of water sediment samples from the effluent ejected by each barrel. Similarly
divide walls make it feasible to obtain desired samples of river discharges at the
required places/location.
Collection of water: sediment samples
For obtaining information on the magnitude of suspended silt transported (or a part
relating to its specific sizes), water samples are initially obtained using samplers from
the river or canal prisms. These samples containing a certain volume of sediment:
water mixture are then analyzed & weighed and particle size characteristics of the
suspended load determined by separate measurements. However, as much of the
routine sampling is done by locally trained semi-literate observers (whereas analysis
of these samples is always done by some trained technician preferably from Irrigation
Research Institute) the work of these observers usually requires considerable
supervision to ensure data accuracy and to accomplish other specified goals. Thus,
when a field man / observer is sent on a sediment data collection assignment, he
should be made fully conversant with not only what specific information is required, its
importance, how the information is to be collected but also what type of equipment is
required to collect the best samples, how the equipment has to be assembled and
what are the precautions necessary for its use, and lastly how the samples are to be
collected and stored / transported to the laboratory.
Equipment required for collecting water samples
A wide variety of suspended sediment samples are in use but they are all designed to
collect samples without disturbing the flow. The most widely used silt sampler in
Punjab has been a bottle sampler which consists of a brass frame holding a one liter
bottle fitted with rubber stopper. The stopper is operated by a lever at the top of the
suspension pipe. The length of the suspension pipe of the sampler is varied to suit the
depth of water in the channel at the sampling site. The two essentials regarding the
working of the sampler are:
 The mouth of the bottle should be opened only when it reaches the required
depth.
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 The mouth of the bottle should be kept open for the minimum time required to
fill the bottle.
 If the bottle is kept open for a longer time than that required for actually filling
the bottle, coarse silt particles keep on falling into the bottle even after it is full.
 Internationally the pressure improved suspended sediment samples are
classified into following general types.
o Depth integrating samplers
o Point integrating samplers
A simple depth integrating sampler collects samples continuously and accumulates
them as it is lowered to the bottom of the stream and reversed back to the surface. In
this process the sampler is however moved vertically at a uniform rate in given
direction but it is not necessary that to have equal in both the directions.
The point integrating sampler is, on the other hand, used to obtain a depth integrated
sample from deep or swift streams by holding the valve at a specific point in the
vertical.
Studies on the efficiency of samplers have resulted in the evolution of highly accurate
designs (e.g. the American samplers D - 43 and P - 46). The samplers DH - 48 and D
- 49 were introduced by the Oxford Sediment Laboratory of US Department of
Agriculture (USDA). The D - 43 may be considered to be a fore runner to the D - 49.
The sampler now being used at some barrage is D - 49 and is briefly described below.
A short description of P - 46, which is point integrating type, is also included for
reference purposes. It is recommended that while D -49 may be used for sampling in
the pockets P - 46 may also be used for observations of samples at specific single
points from boils on the downstream of regulators.
5.18.8.1 D - 49 Depth Integrating Suspended Sampler
It is a 62 lb. cast bronze sampler for taking samples of suspended sediment in streams
not deeper than 18 ft. It is 24 inches long and encloses a round pint-size milk bottle as
a sample container. To orient the instrument in the stream, it is provided with tail vane
assembly. It is also provided with a nozzle in the head and a port pointing downstream
on the side of the sampler's head for air to escape from the container.
To obtain a sample, the D-49 sampler is suspended with a steel cable and lowered at
a uniform rate from the water surface to the bottom of the stream. Without touching
the bottom, the movement of the sampler is reversed and the sampler is raised to the
water surface. The sample bottle is then taken out from the sampler and replaced by
a new bottle for the next sample collection. It is important that the movement of
sampler is at a uniform rate in the given direction but it is not necessary that rates in
both the directions are equal. This operation requires a well-trained person.
Samples of suspended sediment are usually taken at three vertical sections in the
stream, located in such a way that each represents approximately one third of the flow.
At low stages when the water is relatively clear, only one sample taken in the middle
of the stream may give the required results.
5.18.8.2 The P - 46 point integrating sampler
The USP - 46 consists of a 100 pound (46 Kg) streamlined cast bronze shell. an inner
recess to hold a round pint milk bottle, a pressure equalizing chamber and a tapered
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three position rotary valve operated by a solenoid which controls the sample intake
and air exhaust passages. The three positions for the valve are:
 Intake and air exhaust closed and pressure equalizing passage open
 Intake and air exhaust open, equalizing passage closed
 All passages closed
As the sampler is submerged, water enters the pressure equalization chamber through
a permanent opening in the bottom of the shell, and this compresses the air in the
chamber and sample container.
In this case, three samples may be taken at each vertical, one at the surface, one at
the middle depth and one near the bed of the stream. There are, however, no
restrictions on the number of vertical sections where samples are taken.
For streams with a stable cross section and a rather uniform lateral suspended
sediment distribution, sampling at a single vertical usually is adequate.
Precautions for the use of equipment
Before using the equipment at site it is desirable to check several items such as
nozzles, gaskets, and air exhausts on samplers as well as the other necessary
equipment. If a sample bottle does not fill in the expected time, the nozzle or air
exhaust passages may be partly blocked by bug nests, organic material etc. The flow
system can be checked by blowing through the nozzle with a bottle in the sampler. It
is desirable to use a short length of 1/4 inch rubber tubing to blow into the nozzle
because of contamination by the polluted water and because of possible blocking of
the nozzles hole. If air does not circulate freely, or not at all, check the nozzle first to
see if it is clear and remove and clean if necessary. If the air exhaust is closed for
reasons other than being damaged or broken, it may generally be cleared by using a
flexible piece of multi-strand wire. While checking the flow system of a point sampler,
make sure that the valve mechanism is in the sampling position.
In Punjab the D-49 depth integrating suspended sampler is preferred due to the site
conditions for varying the sediment flow conditions at all observation points. However,
the older types have to be phased out.
A handheld D H-59 sampler can also be used, but it requires more expertise and
experience for correct and reliable sampling and should be used only in exceptional
conditions.
Method of sample collection and transportation to the laboratory
After opening the box or sampler housing, the observer is to insert a clean sample
bottle into the sampler while taking samples. The sample bottles are usually standard
pint size glass milk bottles with a cap on top. So before inserting the bottle, the cap
must be removed. The sampler is then lowered to the water surface so that the nozzle
is above the water and the tail vane is in the water for proper upstream & downstream
orientation of the sampler. After orientation of the sampler, depth integration is
accomplished by lowering the sampler to the streambed at a constant travel rate.
When the bottom of the sampler touches the stream bed, the operator is to
immediately reverse the travel direction and raise the sampler to surface. Although it
is not necessary that both the rates for in lowering and lifting the sampler be same, but
both rates must be constant. The rates should be such that the bottle fills to near its
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optimum level (approximately 2 inches below the top or 350 - 400 grams for the pint
size bottle).
When a stream is transporting heavy loads of sand, the observer should take at least
two bottles or complete depth integration as close together in time as possible. Each
bottle constitutes a sample, but for the purposes of the record, two or more bottles are
sometimes composited in the laboratory, where they are called a set. This set is then
a sample in time with respect to the record. If there is an unusually large quantity or a
difference in the quantity of sands between bottles, then another sample from the
same vertical should be taken immediately. The sample suspected of having too much
sand should not be discarded; but instead, an explanation, .such as "too much sand"
should be clearly written on the bottle. If by chance a bottle is overfilled, that is closer
than 1.5 inches (4 cm) from the top or if a spurt of water is coming out of the nozzle,
the sample should be discarded. A clean unused bottle is to be used for each sample.
The sample bottles are properly tagged before they are transported to the laboratory
(field laboratory set up at the barrage office). This makes their identification easy.
Bottles may be usually stored and transported in wire, wooden or fiber board cases
holding 20 to 30 bottles each. However, in the field it is desirable to use a small bottle
carrier which may hold six, eight or ten bottles as needed.
Analysis of samples
Natural sediments are irregular in shape and in most instances, even the
approximation of spheres is not possible. Thus one single dimension would obviously
be insufficient for characterizing the sediment. Yet as a single dimension is desirable
for practical considerations, the diameter and the terms "sieving" and "settling"
diameters are used almost exclusively for describing the sediment sizes. They are
defined as:
The sieving diameter: The smallest sieve opening through which the particle under
consideration just passes.
The settling diameter: The diameter of sphere having a specific gravity identical to that
of the particles, the fall velocity of which is the same as that of the particle under
consideration, assuming the fluids are identical.
The sediment classification generally recommended by American Geophysical Union
is also based on the grain size analysis. Thus the most obvious type of sediment
analysis and commonest of all tests for determination of grain size is by mechanical
analysis.
A number of grain size classifications have been proposed. Of these developed by US
Bureau of Soils, recommended by American Geophysical Union (AGU) and G. Gillboy
can be mentioned. The first one by AGU is most commonly used but the last one by
Gillboy is easier to understand and remember.
These classifications are summarized in the following table 5-36:
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Table 5-36: Classification of sediment according to size

(By American Geophysical
By US Bureau of Soil By G.Gillboy
Union
Size in Nomenclatur Size in Nomenclatur Size in

Nomenclature
millimeters e millimeters e millimeters
Small boulders 500-250

Large debris. 250-130
Small debris 130-64
Very coarse 64-32
gravel
Coarse gravel 32-16
Medium gravel 16-8
Fine gravel 8-4
Very fine gravel 4-2 Fine Gravel 2-1
Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00
Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 1-0.5 Coarse sand 2-0.5
Coarse
sand
Medium sand 0.50-0.25 0.5-0.25 Medium 0.5-0.2
Sand
Sand
Fine sand 0.25-0.125 Fine sand 0.25-0.1
Fine Sand 0.2-0.06
Very fine sand 0.125- V.fine sand 0.1-0.05
0.062
Coarse silt 0.062- Coarse silt 0.06-0.02
0.031
Medium silt 0.031- Silt 0.05- Medium silt 0.02-0.006
0.016 0005
Fine silt 0.16-0.008 Fine Silt 0.006-0.002
Very fine silt 0.008-
0.004
Coarse clay 0.004- Coarse clay 0.002-
0.002 0.0006
Medium clay 0.002- Medium play 0.0006-
0.001 0.0002
Fine clay 0.001- Clay below Fine colloids below 0.0002
0.0005 0.005
Very fine clay 0.0005-
0.00024
It may be noted that in the above table 19.1 various sub divisions or fractions chosen
for classification are purely arbitrary. They could be designated by numerical values
of their limiting diameters: would be advantageous in many respects to use this
system rather than names which has become the more common practice. Also the
names which have been given to various fractions sometimes constitute a second
meaning of the terms used, e.g. sizes falling under "clay" may not have other
properties attributed to them (such as plasticity etc). It is also not worthy that in Punjab
the word "silt" is commonly used to denote all sedimentary material upto 3.5 mm
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diameter whether in suspension or moving on the bed or deposited on it. Particles

above 3.5 mm diameter are termed pebbles or small shingle.
Grain size distribution determination (of coarse materials) can be easily determined
by passing a sample through a set of sieves and measuring / weighing the sediments
retained on each sieve. A partial list of sieve series in current use is added. The Tyler
series are specified by mesh, which is the number of openings per inch of screen. The
sieves of the US Bureau of Standards are numbered: the numbers are based on the
size of opening.
The finest screen which is practicable is 200 mesh, with openings of 0.074 mm. If the
sample being analyzed contains a large proportion of grains below this diameter or
finer materials are also required to be studied methods other than mechanical analysis
i.e. hydraulic analysis, are used. Though soil particles do not pass through the 200
mesh sieve with as much ease as they do through the coarser sieves, yet an accurate
determination of the percentage passing 200 mesh is possible through wet analysis.
Various types of grain size distribution (fine grain material) may require:
 Successive sedimentation
 Observation of total sediments
 Observation of the amount of sediment per unit volume at a given point in the
sedimentation tube
The successive sedimentation is perhaps the most obvious method for determination
of various grain sizes and weights while hydrometer method which employs the
principle of measurement of specific gravity of the liquid is used to determine the of
total concentration of fine sediments in a sample.
In alluvial planes, the size of suspended sediment particles involved is seldom greater
than 2 mm, though other sizes may include even colloidal size fine grained particles.
However, as colloidal sizes do not contribute to objectionable depositions in the head
reaches of large canals, the analysis may be restricted to determine the coarse and
medium sand only. Also, whenever the total content of sand (coarse + medium)
entering any of the off-taking canal exceeds the carrying capacity of the canal, this is
immediately brought to the notice of regulation officers for further action by them.
Equipment required for analysis of sediment samples
The field laboratory at a Barrage is always to be kept well equipped for the analysis of
various sediment samples that are brought from different locations. The equipment
generally required for the analysis of sediments is,
 Stainless steel or enameled iron bucket
 Glass graduated cylinder of 1000 CC capacity
 Graduated silt measuring / sediment tubes
 Glass beakers
 Glass funnel
 Glass wash bottle with bent glass tubes fitted through a cork on the mouth of
the bottle
 Distilled water.
 Set of sieves
 Weighing Balance
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 Drying oven
 Evaporating dishes (of China clay)
 Pippets
 Syringes
 Clean dry cloth / dusters
 Hydrometer
 Filter papers
Analysis Procedure
The procedure for analysis will include following steps.
 The analysis already washed and dry bucket be thoroughly cleaned with neat
dry cloth so as to remove any dust or other particles sticking to its inner surface.
 Bottle(s) containing samples for analysis, should be well shaken so that the
sediments are thoroughly mixed with the water.
 The sample bottle(s) are then emptied in the bucket.
 While the sediments in the bucket have not yet settled in the water: sediment
sample is passed through a set of sieves the part passing through the sieves is
safely transferred to the graduated cylinder. Precaution should be taken so that
no part spills over in the process.
 Reading on the graduations marked on the cylinder is noted for the volume of
sample in it.
 Wash bottle is filled with the distilled water and sediments retained on each
sieve are collected / gathered at one end of the sieve by slightly tilting the same
to facilitate the movement of sediments.
 The sediment contents from each sieve are then transferred to the graduated
silt measuring tubes. Separate tubes are required to be used for transfer of the
contents from each sieve but if the contents on anyone sieve are more than the
holding capacity of the tube additional tubes should be used. In this process
small pressure exerted in the wash bottle by blowing through the bent tube can
be helpful.
 The readings for sediment contents in the silt measuring tube(s) which are
graduated to read up to 0.02 cc are then noted.
 The weight of sediment in grams per liter is then calculated by using density of
sand as 1.4 in the formula
volume of sediment in the tube (in cc ) x 1.4 x 1000
Sediment in grams per liter = -------------------------------------------------------------------- ..... 5-153
total volume of water sample in the cylinder (in CC)
 Wash the bucket, cylinder, beaker and tubes. Clean them with dry cloth before
storage for reuse.
An alternate method to determine the weight of the sediments retained on each sieve
would be through the use of drying oven and weighing balance by transferring the
sediment to evaporating pans instead of silt measuring tubes and weighing the oven
dried sample. A syringe can be used to draw the excess water passed with the
sediment into the evaporating pans before it is placed in the oven.
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If the total sediments (including coarse and fine grained /colloidal sizes) contained in
the sample are also to be evaluated, the water sediment mixture in the cylinder should
also be utilized. A properly calibrated hydrometer may be used to determine the
concentration of sediments in the above. To this the portions of coarse sediments
already determined may be added.
However, during summer months (May to September) when incoming river discharge
swells, approach of the river may disturb the distribution of sediment charge and
fluctuations occur at various locations in their vertical places/sections. Changes in the
river discharge also occur frequently (sometimes even several times during the same
day). Thus the above process makes it necessary to adjust the above schedule in
order to effectively control the entry of sediments into the canals. For monitoring the
efficacy of the silt ejectors vis-a-vis induction of silt in the canals more than once daily
observation are made as indicated by site conditions.
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5.19 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Proper inspection, maintenance and operation of barrages are necessary for safety. If
not done properly, these aspects could lead to failures. It is also necessary that a
history of the barrage, including a record of the damages, repairs and maintenance
operation are kept available so that the maintenance and operation could be reviewed
and modified wherever necessary.
Inspection and maintenance
Regular and careful inspection and maintenance of all the component works must be
carried out, both under water and above. Necessary repairs should be done in time
before additional damages occur. These could be:-
Upstream and downstream aprons
After the monsoon, sounding and probing should be done both on the upstream and
downstream sides by sounding rods or echo sounders over the c c block and loose
stone protections. Contour maps and sections may be prepared to determine the
location of scour, its extent launching etc. The effectiveness of the downstream
inverted filter should also be determined. Wherever scour is extensive, the apron
should be replenished to the designed values.
Impervious floors
Both upstream and downstream impervious floors should be thoroughly inspected for
cracks, wear and tear, cavitation etc. Energy dissipating devices, like chute blocks,
friction blocks and sills etc, should also be checked for damages. While dewatering
deep downstream basins for inspection, it should be ensured that the design uplift
values for the pond level condition are not exceeded. Necessary repairs should be
carried out expeditiously.
Sediment excluding devices
Sediment excluder tunnels and deflectors should be thoroughly inspected for cracks,
choking etc, with the help of divers and underwater lamps. Wherever necessary
desilting of chocked tunnels and channels should be carried out and other repairs.
5.19.4.1 Piers
The piers should be inspected carefully for settlement, cracks, tilting etc. The noses of
the piers should be checked for damage. Necessary repairs must be done immediately
for proper functioning of the gates, stoplogs, bridges etc.
5.19.4.2 Abutments
The abutments should be inspected similar to the piers. In addition, the backfill should
also be examined for settlement and if necessary, it should be made up and properly
compacted.
5.19.4.3 Flank walls
Inspection and maintenance of flank walls are similar to those for the abutments.
Damaged C.C. blocks of the flared out walls, if any should be replaced so that
hydraulic performance of the structure is not impaired.
5.19.4.4 Divide walls
In addition to the inspection like that for the piers, the effectiveness of the divide walls
for satisfactory hydraulic performance should also be observed and necessary
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corrective measures adopted. The protection works around the noses and shanks of
the divide walls should be checked up by sounding and replenished. The head across
the nose should be restricted design values.
5.19.4.5 Bridges
The beams, slabs and the wearing coats of the bridges should all be checked for
cracks, wear and tear, joint etc, and repairs carried out so that smooth traffic is
ensured.
5.19.4.6 Fish ladder
A part from the usual inspection necessary for the concrete structure of the fish ladder,
its effectiveness for the smooth movement of fish from upstream to downstream and
vice versa should be studied and corrective measure adopted wherever necessary.
5.19.4.7 Navigation Lock
The concrete structures of the navigation lack should be thoroughly inspected for
cracks, settlement, etc, and repairs carried out. If the lock chamber and also the
navigation channel are silted up, necessary desilting operations should be carried out.
It must be ensured that the filling and emptying times are able to be maintained as per
design values. Approaches to both the upstream and downstream part of the
navigation locks should be maintained properly to avoid any congestion and damages.
5.19.4.8 Head regulators
The inspection and maintenance of the head regulator are similar to those of the main
barrage weir.
5.19.4.9 Instruments
It is necessary that regular performance reports are prepared, based on the different
instrument observations. The observations could be broadly classified under (i) Uplift
pressure (ii) Suspended sediment (iii) Settlement (iv) Retrogression (v) Aggradation
and (vi) Discharger distribution and cross flow.
5.19.4.10 Retrogression
It is necessary to measure the retrogression on the downstream. If the prescribed
values are exceeded, necessary remedial measure be taken on time to ensure the
safety of the structure.
5.19.4.11 Discharge distribution and cross flow
Design assumes certain concentration of flow through the different bays of the
diversion structure. Hence it is necessary to know the discharge distribution through
the bays so that the design, could be checked up for the safety of the structure.
Similarly cross flow should also be observed and proper remedial measure taken for
ensuring the safety of the structure. This can be done by suitable modification of the
gate regulation pattern.
5.19.4.12 Inspection and maintenance of mechanical and electrical works
Like the civil works the mechanical and electrical works should also be inspected and
maintained regularly. If they are not kept tidy and in proper working order, they would
fail at the time of emergency leading to damages to the entire structure. Under the
mechanical and electrical works the following could be included (i) Gates (ii) gate
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grooves and seals (iii) Steel wire ropes (iv) Roller train and fixed rollers (v)
Winches/hoist (vi) Flood lighting (vii) Bridge bearing and super structures etc.
5.19.4.13 Gates
The gates should be kept clear of the debris and silt accumulations and they should
not be allowed to rust. The upstream face of the skin plate coming into contact with
water should preferably be painted with suitable primer and subsequently with epoxy
paint for long life. While painting the surface, all necessary precautions should be
observed. The surfaces should be repainted whenever needed.
5.19.4.14 Gate grooves and seal
Gate grooves and particularly their machined faces should be kept clean and
lubricated well and all their sticky deposits should be prepared off before applying the
lubricant and also examined for wear and tear and deterioration. Their replacement
whenever necessary should be done immediately.
5.19.4.15 Steel wire ropes
All steel wire ropes should be cleaned to remove all the dust accumulation and
lubricated with suitable greases at least once a year. The portion of the wire ropes
submerged in water, after lubrication, should be wrapped with gunny bags which
should be securely fastened to the ropes. The clamping devices also should be
inspected for their efficacy.
5.19.4.16 Roller trains and fixed rollers
The roller trains and fixed rollers should be cleaned, free movement ensured and
greased for smooth operation. Worn out rollers and pins should be replaced and bolts
tightened etc.
5.19.4.17 Hoists
Hoists and lifting drums should be kept clean and greased properly for smooth and
easy operation. Alignment of shafts should be checked and coupling bolts tightened.
In the case of electrically operated hoists, all the electrical wirings, switches, bearings,
reducing gears, etc should be checked for a safe and trouble free operation. The
platform should be examined and properly protected.
5.19.4.18 Operation of gates
The gates should be operated according to prescribed guidelines. When the gate
operation is of wedge type the gates should be opened in installments not exceeding
12 inches at a time.
5.19.4.19 Flood lighting
During the flood season all flood lighting and site illumination should be checked daily
and during slack season, it may be done once in a week.
5.19.4.20 Bridge bearings and super structures
The bridge bearings over the piers and abutments should be cleaned and greased
once in a year after the monsoon season. The painting of super structures should be
done once in years.
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5.19.4.21 Electrical works / systems

Electrical works or systems are generally hazardous, sensitive and fragile and
comprise:
i. Electrical machines;
ii. Electrical transformers;
iii. Distribution lines;
iv. Lighting system; and
v. Allied gadgetry
The O&M and safety aspects require voluminous manuals from manufactures. This
manual can accommodate only very short text. Brevity is the essence of the following
instructions:
5.19.4.21.1 Safety Instructions
 Only authorized personnel can operate, handle and maintain the facility
/ equipment.
 Personal protection articles must be used.
 Insulation condition of electrical safety equipment and devices should be
checked and tested regularly.
 Safety tools should be keep in good condition.
 Insulating rubber sheet is placed on floor of UPS room of control building
to reduce safety risk of operator. Insulating shoes should be wear while
maintenance or operating staff working, insulating gloves also should be
worn if necessary.
 Maintenance or operating staff should get close or touch 11KV
equipment.
 Automatic protection devices should be kept in use.
 Prior to maintenance /replacement/ repairs or installation, power should
be shut down or special personnel be deployed.
 Once electrical equipment is dismantled, charged conductor should be
removed. If those conductors must be retained, bare ends should be
wrapped with insulation.
 Alarm signal on equipment must be attended to.
 Do not operate electrical equipment with wet / bare hands.
 If the electrical equipment or electrical wiring catches fire, cut off power
supply first, and then take further steps for extinction.
 If somebody gets an electric shock, immediately cut off the power supply
and then rescue.
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5.19.4.21.2 Specific Interventions for Various Situations
Conduct "Safety" briefing before operation, inspection, and

maintenance
Wear proper clothing and protective devices during the work.
Wear a safety belt when working at heights.
Do not operate the machine without safety covers.
Never touch rotating parts.
Shut down the machine in case of emergency
Do not operate the machine without the interlock
Close terminal boxes

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Do not touch high temperature parts such as bearing parts.
Do not conduct maintenance, adjustment, disassembly, and

reassembly work when the line is alive
Take proper countermeasure to avoid unexpected start-up
Follow the diagram when connecting wires between equipments
Be sure to ground the machine
5.19.4.21.3 Distribution Transformers

5.19.4.21.3.1 Operation
As per power supply distribution company rules and regulations
5.19.4.21.3.2 Maintenance
To ensure that the equipment is operation under normal condition, "daily and periodical
inspection" must be performed to find out fault and deal with it in time.
5.19.4.21.3.3 Daily inspection
Daily simple visual inspection needs to be performed by caretakers.
5.19.4.21.3.4 Periodical inspection
These refer to inspection performed regularly at intervals of six month or one year and
related maintenance. Inspections are carried out by experts visually and by means of
instruments is accordance with a detailed checklist available in manufacturer’s
manuals.
5.19.4.21.4 Generators
5.19.4.21.4.1 Electrical troubles and Solutions
Refer to O&M manual from the manufacturer.
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5.19.4.21.4.2 Operation
Before start check the following:
 Engine, alternator and controls;
 Engine oil;
 Fan and fan belt;
 Filters;
 Breaker terminals;
 Battery connections;
 LV cables connected with generators
After start during running check:
 Line to Line Ampere
 Phase to Phase Voltage
 Phase to line Voltage
 Power factor
 RPM
Ensure the equipment is operated under normal conditions, "daily inspection" and"
periodical inspection" shall be performed to find out fault and deal with it in time. The
maintenance schedule provided by the manufacturer should be strictly followed.
A brief maintenance Schedule follows:
A Daily or every 8 hours
B Every 150 hours
C Every 250 hours or 6 months
D Every 1000 hours or 12 month
E Every 2000 hours
A B C D E Operation
• Check the quantity of coolant
• Check the condition and the tension of the drive belt
• Renew the element of the fuel filter
• Ensure that the atomizers are checked
• Check the amount of lubricating oil in the sump
• Check the lubricating oil pressure at the gauge
• Renew the engine lubricating oil
• • Clean or renew the air filter element
• Check water pump
• Ensure that the turbocharger impeller and
compressor
Casing are clean
Ensure that the alternator and the starter motor are
•
in order
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5.19.4.21.5 400/230 Volts Switch Gears

5.19.4.21.5.1 Operation
Check that:-
 Panel is free of damage
 Panel is fitted properly
 All the breakers, controls are free of damage
 Panel is free of rusting
 Breaker terminals are in order
 Cables / wires connected with panel properly
 Cables / Wires are not loose
 Line to Line Ampere
 Phase to Phase Voltage
 Phase to line Voltage
To ensure that the equipment is operating under normal condition, “daily and periodical
inspections” are performed to find out fault and deal with it in time.
Daily inspection needs to be performed by caretakers include daily cleaning and
simple checks of the facility. You can use a blower (flow is about 2~3m3/min) or clean
brush (width 100mm) to clean the debris or dust in cabinet. If you find any of injure/
rusted / abnormal situation to replace or repair it at timely.
instruments is accordance with a detailed checklist.
Control
Check Control (inspected) at the
Elements to be controlled (inspection)
points following intervals
method
Surface clean status Annually Visual check
Indicator status weekly Visual check
LV
Line connection status weekly Visual check
Panel
Components status weekly Visual check
Control function Monthly test
Cable tray status weekly Visual check
LV
Cable trench status weekly Visual check
feeder
Main hole status weekly Visual check
5.19.4.21.6 Lighting Control Panel
5.19.4.21.6.1 Operation
Ensure through physical examination that:
 Panel is free of damage
 Panel is fitted properly
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 All the breakers, control etc are free of damage

 Panel is free of rusting
 Terminals of the Breaker are in order
 LV cables connected with panel properly
 LV Cables are not loose
To ensure that the equipment is operating under normal conditions
Daily inspection needs to be performed by caretakers include daily cleaning and
simple visual checks of the facility. You can use a blower (flow is about 2~3m3/min)
or clean brush (width 100mm) to clean the debris or dust in the cabinet.
Check Control (inspected) at the Control(inspection
Elements to be controlled
points following intervals )method
Surface clean status Annually Visual check
Indicator status weekly Visual check
Lighting
Line connection status weekly Visual check
Panel
Components status weekly Visual check
Control function Monthly Test
Cable tray status weekly Visual check
LV Cable trench status weekly Visual check
feeder Main hole status weekly Visual check
Decrease in thickness Annually Visual check
5.19.4.21.7 Electric Motors
5.19.4.21.7.1 Operation
See that:
 Electric Motor is free of damage
 Electric Motor is fitted properly
 Electric connections
 Cables are properly connected
 Cables are not loose
 Electric Motor is running properly
 Electric Motor is not making noise
To ensure that the equipment is operating under normal condition, "daily and periodical
inspection" must be performed to find out fault and deal with it in time.
Daily inspection needs to be performed by operators. You can use a blower (flow is
about 2~3m3/min) or clean brush (width 100mm) to clean the debris or dust.
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Following inspections shall be performed periodically.
 Measurement of winding resistances
 No-load and short circuit measurements
 Efficiency measurement
 Dielectric test
 Measurement of insulating resistance
 Over-speed test
 Measurement of starting current and torque
 Air gap measurement
 Measurement of motor vibrations
 Measurement of noise level
 Heat test run
 Measurement of shaft current
 Measurement of insulation resistance
 Measurement of motor vibrations
5.19.4.21.8 Cables
To ensure that the equipment is operating under normal conditions.
5.19.4.21.8.2 Periodical inspections
related maintenance. Inspections with TJB/cabtray are carried out by experts visually
and by means of instruments is accordance with a detailed checklist.
Check Control (inspected) at the Control(inspection
Elements to be controlled
points following intervals )Method
Surface status Annually Visual check
Cable Termination Annually Visual check

Testing
Insulation status Annually
Instrument
5.19.4.21.9 Cable Tray
Ensure that the cable trays are operation under normal condition, "daily and periodical
inspections" must be performed to find out fault and deal with it in time.
Daily simple visual inspection needs to be performed by caretakers. Injury, rust or
abnormal conditions are observed, repairs or replacement must be done in time.
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5.20 MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS

Maintenance Terminology
Maintenance is generally defined as the act of keeping up; to preserve from loss or
deterioration; to keep in any particular state or condition and or to keep in good working
condition. In general it signifies upkeep and surveillance with the object of keeping the
system of works in a top operating condition. It also includes data observation and
preparation of reports. For senior supervisory staff, it even includes initiating corrective
action with respect to defective structures and facilities, obtaining necessary approvals
and ensuring timely execution of various approved proposals for the upkeep of the
system.
The maintenance effort with respect to barrage can be sub-categorized as depicted in
the following Table 5-37:
Table 5-37: Maintenance
Sr. # Term Description of the Term
1 Maintenance (General) It is the process of keeping the barrage and
associated facilities in good repair and good
working condition so that all parts of the project
facilities can fulfill the intended purpose for which
they were originally designed.
2 Preventive maintenance Preventive maintenance is a program for taking
care of the causes creating the maintenance
needs when they are only a minor problem,
rather than allowing them to go unattended until
they become a major and expensive problem.
3 Restoration/corrective/ Restorative/corrective maintenance is a program
maintenance/breakdown of efforts aimed at making up the deficiencies as
and when they are detected. this is basically
restoration of the damaged component to its
original conditions.
4 Routine maintenance Routine refers to the usual maintenance
activities that are conducted at a Barrage every
year at regular intervals.
5 Emergency When unusual conditions occur that jeopardize
maintenance the safety of the barrage and allied structures,
then the required urgent maintenance is termed
as the emergency maintenance.
6 Deferred maintenance Deferred maintenance is the accumulation of
maintenance needs; mostly because of a
shortage of funds or other reasons.
7 Catch-up maintenance Catch-up maintenance is a program for taking
care of the accumulated priority deferred
maintenance needs in order to upgrade the
hydraulic performance of the system.
8 Rehabilitation Rehabilitation involves the renovation or carrying
out of remedial work on existing barragefacilities
in need of repair, and on those facilities whose
performance fails to meet the original criteria and
needs of the barrage.
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Sr. # Term Description of the Term

In most cases, rehabilitation is required because
the accumulated deferred maintenance needs
have become so great that the operation of the
Barrage is significantly hampered.
The Barrage, bunds, other structures and mechanical and electrical equipment, which
are parts of a Barrage complex have to be maintained in good operating condition at
all times. Following the basic principles and planned maintenance program result in
better service, fewer emergency repairs, better working conditions and lower
maintenance cost. In fact in actual practice we have come to adopt "break down"
concept of maintenance which needs to be changed to the concept of "preventive
maintenance" which ensures a continuous efficient working of the structure.
5.20.1.1 Routine maintenance or maintenance during normal conditions
It includes the tasks which must be performed on daily or weekly basis such as oiling
and greasing of machinery, gauge painting, filling of rain-cuts and dressing of top
surface of embankments etc.
5.20.1.2 Annual maintenance
It includes underwater works which can only be done during the closure period.
5.20.1.3 Unscheduled and emergency maintenance
These items become necessary during the year due to several elements of nature,
such as rains, windstorms, floods etc and have to be attended top priority.
Main weir, undersluices, divide walls, fish ladders, navigation bay, canal head
regulators, piers, abutments/flank walls, flared-out wall, stairs and gauge wells mostly
remain submerged under high water. Therefore their maintenance can only be done
during closure period.
Maintenance during normal operating conditions
Since most parts of the works listed above, generally remain under water; only a few
items fall under this category of maintenance. They include painting of gauges, repairs
to safety devices such as railings, some repairs to masonry works, stairs gauge wells
etc: in the portions that stand out above water level, re-calibration of peizometers
(rarely), repairs to regulated deck and fittings of the overhead bridge; filling of rain-cuts
and small repairs to pitching i.e. above the water level; raising and strengthening of
embankments.
Maintenance during closure period
Annual closures at various Barrages are so timed as to cause minimum loss of
precious winter water supplies in the process of depleting and filling upstream ponds.
The annual feature demands the maximum preparedness, energy and input from the
entire Headworks staff. The works to be executed during a closure may be of the
following categories:
1. Works of annual nature such as painting of gates etc.
2. Other damages or repair works the existence of which is known before the
commencement of the closure.
3. Damages which become known after the submerged parts are exposed.
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The staff should be prepared to tackle works of category (i & ii) above and they can
take up these works as soon as the site conditions permit. However, for works falling
in category (iii) there is an element of surprise as the nature and magnitude of the work
will come to light only during the closure for which no previous preparation exists, but
such works may have to be taken up and completed within the closure period. Such
works are normally a test of the ingenuity, resourcefulness and management capability
of the officers and staff.
Detailed inspections of barrage floors, glacis, friction blocks, divide walls, fish ladders,
navigation bay, masonry works such as piers, abutments, canal regulators, excluder
and all other structures such as silt ejectors, inlets, and outfall structures on the canal
have to be carried out during the closure period to determine what deterioration, if any,
has occurred during the flow period. The major closure period inspections are to be
carried out by the SDOs and their staff. For minor structural defects and other
scheduled action should immediately be taken to prevent further deterioration. More
extensive repairs which cannot wait till next closure should be immediately brought to
the notice of higher officers. The Chief Engineer, Superintending Engineer (SE) and
Executive Engineer (XEN) will conduct sufficient inspections to check the condition of
the structure and facilities and to arrange their timely repairs. Detailed instructions in
this regard already exist as having been issued vide Secretary Irrigation & Power
Department letter No. SO(OP)2-1/88-83 dated November 07, 1983. It is absolutely
necessary that accurate and detailed records be kept and the results of each annual
inspection and repairs carried out be recorded in detail and kept on record and
submitted in annual closure report. It has however, to be clearly understood that:
i. The most lethal and hidden enemy of the safety of any hydraulic structure, is
"piping" caused due to excessive hydraulic gradient. Thus any unusual
occurrence, such as formation of springs or sand boiling anywhere on the
impervious floors of structures, on pervious floors or sand beds of canal or
rivers in their vicinity, on any part of the structure or at its back and / or near toe
of embankments must be brought to the attention of senior officers for decision
and guidance for remedial measures.
ii. All control structures have to meet the conditions specified on the as-built
drawings and / or as modified by subsequent authorized change orders and
marked appropriately on the drawings.
iii. All structures have to be maintained in good condition with no loose or missing
brick/rock, open cracks or other defects. Required repairs cannot wait for one
year.
iv. Cracks in the masonry works need to be immediately attended to and brought
to the notice of officers i.e. for their decision regarding repairs. New cracks
which cannot be repaired should be marked with tell tales and should be
watched (along with old ones) for their development and determination of
urgency and extent of repairs.
Protection works aprons of main weir, undersluices, divide walls and
guide bunds
i. All protection works must be brought to section during winter working season
before the floods.
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ii. All flexible loose protections and pitching of guide bunds, the Barrage and
various other training works on its upstream and downstream, must be repaired
and replenished to authorized sections during winter, before the flood season.
iii. Flexible bed protection and pitching of canal head regulators, silt ejectors and
their outfalls, inlet and the cross regulator must be checked and inspected
whenever possible but necessarily during canal closures. In any case, these
have to be properly repaired before flow is let into the canals.
iv. D/S areas of all water control structures and bridges must be protected from
scour; both bank erosion and bed scour by accepted maintenance procedures,
riprap being the most convenient.
Later on, proper maintenance will require close and continuous examination of all
facilities and timely repair and replacement program.
For annual maintenance program, surveys and investigations, soundings and probing
are invariably to be taken in May, i.e. before the beginning of the flood season and
later during October, i.e. after the end of flood season. These observations should be
plotted and are to be submitted along with the Headworks report. The fixed line and
points where soundings and probing are to be taken are marked at site to facilitate
observations and repairs.
These observations shall form the basis of repairs for all protection works and loose
stone apron etc. as described earlier.
Additional instructions
Navigation equipment, such as launch, motor boats, country boats Sukkur type boats
have been provided at the Headworks and must be kept in working order for daily use.
For use in emergency life buoys or belts on both flanks and the launch and boats must
be available at site. All staff employed must be good swimmers.
Approved quantities of stone reserve stocks are to be kept in readiness to meet
emergency repair needs. A thorough inspection of the structures at the end of each
closure period should be carried out by Executive Engineer himself or SDO before
issuing orders for bringing them into operation. Other foreign material littered on the
floor or stuck in the mechanical structure is removed. Emergency lighting
arrangements should be kept ready for night watch repairs etc.
In the sprawling complex of the Headworks, the need of quick communication cannot
be over emphasized. In case of an emergency at some distance, quick communication
with the central control may prove to be a life saver. The project has a telephone and
wireless network to meet this objective.
Responsibility for maintenance
The officer incharge, Executive Engineer/SDO, are responsible for the maintenance
of the barrage and the connected work. The following must be attended to:
i. All protection works must be brought to section as designed during winter
season before the flood season.
ii. All flexible loose protections and pitching of guide banks, the barrage, the
defence bunds and spurs must be repaired and replenished to authorized
sections during winter before the flood seasons.
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iii. All roads on top of banks, defense bunds are kept motor-able throughout the
year for easy approach and inspection of works.
iv. All area on and around Headworks are kept clean and all masonry works
maintained to proper section.
v. The plantation avenues along the bunds, the gardens, the grassy plots should
be maintained properly and developed.
vi. The gauge wells and fish ladders be kept clean and frequently checked by
officers to see that they are functioning properly.
vii. Prescribed quantities of reserve stock of stone should be kept in proper stacks
leaving regular passage on the top of guide banks and spurs:
viii. HFL on both the upstream and downstream of left and right flanks should be
marked as a line with value of RL marks on the piers to indicate the distance
below which the hydraulic jump standing wave should not be allowed to travel.
The barrage staff should also be vigilant and report any defect that they notice in the
facilities owned by others and losses on the barrage structures.
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5.21 RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED

The following records shall essentially be kept and maintained at every barrage
a) Gauge registers, wherein gauges at all important locations are to be kept in
properly bound registers, with gauge readers.
b) Discharge register, containing discharges for all components are prepared,
kept and maintained by the discharge observation mistry (team leader).
c) Barrage log book (main)
The main log book or the English log book is maintained by the sub-engineer
headworks section and contains the following information.
i. 6 hourly gauges and discharges for the barrage components and canals.
ii. Gate openings for the barrage and canals.
iii. Discharge data for other barrages.
iv. Rainfall, wind, temperature and humidity data.
v. Instructions by the senior officers and their compliance report.
vi. All incidence reports, problems and their resolution.
d) Jamadar charge book
It is maintained by the Naib, Jamadars and contains hourly gauge, discharge,
gate opening and related data.
e) Barrage register is basically a record of assets.
f) Closure log book contained the closure data of observation damages and
repairs and also proposal for next year.
g) Probing books
These contains the bi-annual sounding and probing record for the barrage and
allied works and is the most important record with main log books, maintained
by sounding mistry and SBE headworks.
h) Silt deposit register for pockets and canals containing the sediment deposit
records to facilitate correct regulation patterns. To be maintained by sounding
mistry and SBE hydraulics.
i) Sediment observations and data register.
This contains the record of sediment entry into the canals and that in the river
upstream and downstream and divide walls etc, to be maintained by silt
observer and sub engineer hydraulic section.
j) Mechanical and electrical works data i.e. inventory and maintenance.
To be maintained by the foreman and sub engineer mechanical.
Log book of routine maintenance
Uptill now the main log book and Jamadar change book have been used for this
purpose. However it is better and convenient to have a separate log book in which all
the repair and maintenance data is kept on daily and commodity wise basis. This log
book in addition to better executive control will also be a helpful document for correct
accounting of materials etc.
River Survey Map
 River survey maps produced in survey exercises from a part of annual river
survey report and kept on office record of drawing branch.
 Inventory of workshop equipment and spare parts etc
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 Complete records of equipment, spares and other materials / goods is already

kept in the form of T&P registers and stock registers. An asset register needs
to be added to workshop records to monitor assets.
The sub-divisional officer incharge of the barrage has the responsibility of checking
and initiating all the data record regularly at prescribed intervals.
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5.22 PERIODIC MONITORING REPORTS

Constant surveillance of an important and multipurpose structure like a barrage is
necessary as is the monitoring to observe the trends and behavior so that safety issues
are detected and safety ensured at all times and best possible results of its operation
are obtained.
The typical pattern of flow is that the discharge keeps on rising as the summer season
approaches until the beginning of monsoons. The monsoons bring rains, high
discharges and floods. Due to high volume of discharge and extensive inundation, the
fast moving river impinges on the protection / training works and resulting in complex
hydrodynamic action at the barrage while bed configuration also changes. The whole
complex thus remains under severe strain during the high flow period. After the
subsidence of floods, the river discharge falls rapidly cutting new channels in its active
flood plain (Khadar) exposing a changed and new pattern of river bed, configuration,
creeks and belas. In winter, although the river discharge is low, the high water level
maintained on the upstream for feeding the off-taking canals results in high head
across the barrage, putting it under stress. The barrage is thus subjected to high heads
throughout the year and requires active surveillance and extensive monitoring.
Monitoring During Normal Days
Barrages and weirs are generally designed based on the surface and subsurface flow
analysis. The floors / section of the barrage is designed as a gravity or raft mattress to
with stand the uplift pressure produced by the head across the structure. In order to
monitor subsurface conditions, instrumentation becomes necessary. By reviewing
recorded observations, actions necessary for ensuring its integrity / safety of the
structure can be initiated in time.
Internationally three types of instruments (soil stress meters, structure meter and
piezometers) are used. In Pakistan and majority of South Asian countries, however,
only pressure pipes / electronic piezometers are most commonly utilized.
Observations of pressure pipes are taken with the help of a bell-sounder, while the
hand held units or remote sensing methods are used for piezometer observations.
Due to time needed for that bell sounder observations the data is analyzed fortnightly
while for electronic / vibrating wire piezometers, it is available instantly. This is why the
old pressure pipes are gradually being replaced by VW Peizometers. Data record
formats are exhibited in the periodic reports. The locations underneath the structure
where piezometers are generally installed are shown in Fig. 5-63.
Piezometers Observations
Piezometers are the only instruments providing signals about the health of the
structure i.e. uplift pressures under the barrage floor and other important locations.
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Figure 5-63: Key points for determining uplift pressure

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Piezometer observations in the barrage area should be recorded at least twice a

month. The Sub Divisional Officer should check and initial each one of these
observations at least once in a month. He should bring to the attention of Executive
Engineer any marked deviation from theoretical values of these pressure. Sudden
changes in the pressures and choking of stand pipes should be investigated. The
observation so made and data analyzed shall be consolidated and submitted to the
higher authorities. It should be noted that the actual values of  at any location
(particularly downstream of the crest) is not more than the design value for the same
location. Also the total uplift pressure is not in excess of the weight of floor and depth
of water (if any) over it. If so, the head across will have to be reduced.
The standard values of residual pressures at various locations are shown in Fig. 5-64.
Silt analysis
Regular silt observations are made for canal regulation and to control silt entry into
them i.e. for maintaining their regime. For silt observations, a qualified silt analyst is
employed under the supervision and control of SDO Headworks for observation and
analysis of silt samples. Detailed instructions on Silt Sampling and Analysis are
presented in section 19. When the silt entry in any off-taking canal exceeds its carrying
capacity, it has to be closed to avoid heavy siltation of the canal at design discharge.
Therefore, bed samples should also be taken daily (or more frequently) from the
pockets and head reaches of the canals and if needed analyzed properly. Samples of
suspended silt and other ingredients in water should also be taken daily at the following
sites and analyzed:
i. Pockets upstream
ii. Canal Regulators downstream
iii. Silt excluder tunnel exits
iv. Silt Ejectors downstream and upstream in the main canal and also outfall
channel when a silt ejector is functioning.
These samples should be analyzed and the resulting data and the efficiency of the
excluder and ejectors shall be worked out and recorded in the register to be maintained
for the purpose by the Silt Analyst and in the Divisional Office.
Silt Depths in pockets and canals
For uniformity and case of observation, the markers for sounding and probing lines
are permanently installed at site and also shown on a plan on 'which the observations
are marked every time that they are taken. During non-flood season silt soundings in
the two pockets shall be observed once a week and in the canals at 500 ft. interval
from head to the silt ejector once every fortnight. These observations should be
properly recorded in bound registers maintained for the purpose.
Hydraulic jump location
The hydraulic jump should not be allowed to form beyond the toe of downstream
glacis, in any case.
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Figure 5-64: Graphical presentation of residual pressures under the floor

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Observations during flood period

5.22.6.1 Location of hydraulic jump & turbulent zones on the downstream
side
The cardinal principle about hydraulic jump reiterated above shall be observed. In
addition it is noted that the turbulence in the flow ceases before the flow leaves the
limit of downstream floors (d/s end sill).
5.22.6.2 Frequency of silt analysis
The frequency of observations and analysis of data are of greater importance during
floods, which depend upon the actual requirements of the site, to be decided locally
by the officers. However, when the canal is closed due to high floods, although
observation shall not be required yet a note is made in the registers.
5.22.6.3 Silt depths in pockets and canals
During the flood season (i.e. July to September), the silt soundings shall be taken in
each undersluice pocket twice a week on the prescribed lines and points. Silt
soundings shall be taken in each canal daily when the river is in flood and twice weekly
at other, times at 500 feet intervals from head to the silt ejector.
Observations during post flood period
5.22.7.1 Sounding and probing on works
Sounding and probing should invariably be done in May (i.e. before the beginning of
the flood season) and in October (after the flood season). They should be plotted in a
bound book which is submitted along with Headworks report. Note that the probings
on the floor and aprons with the help of a pointed steel rod which is engraved with
markings to read depth in feet shall be necessary to determine their actual elevation if
they were buried under silt deposit. The lines and points where these observations are
taken are already marked. Probings are also to be taken in the middle of each bay and
in line with piers. The cross section, lines along which such probings are to be taken
in the undersluice and the weir portion indicating the point along with the central line
of each Bay, are marked at site for use. Special soundings and probings shall be taken
at any time at a particular place for the information of officers when there is reason to
suspect any undue action or damage in the vicinity of that area. Soundings and
probings shall be observed during the winter season after the passage of every freshet
of some marked intensity. Record of soundings and probings is maintained in a
prescribed format in the probing book.
5.22.7.2 River survey
Survey of the active Khadir area 15 miles upstream and 10 miles downstream of the
barrage along the River and from high bank or defence bund to high bank across the
river should be carried out every year as soon as the river subsides after the floods
and must be completed by November. Annual Headworks report based on the above
survey work and other data with recommendations for repairs to be completed is
prepared by the Executive Engineer and submitted to higher authorities by middle of
November. Permanent locations marks along both banks for survey is verified every
year so that the survey work every year has the same reference.
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The main aim of the survey is to:

i. Examine the past flood channel pattern to study the river approach towards the
barrage and the training / protection works.
ii. Observe sounding and probing in all parts of the barrage and its appurtenances
to determine the extent and nature of damage if any. (item (i) & (ii) will form part
of Annual Headworks report
iii. Chalk out a program for repairs to restore the health of the barrage to enable it
to face the high flows and floods of the next season.
iv. All of the above action steps including the execution of the works, has to be
done in a very limited period of a few winter months and in any case the barrage
has to be made fit for the next high flow season.
v. To meet these objectives in a systematic manner, a number of reports have
been prescribed which are discussed below:
A river survey report along with the survey plans and cross sections, bathymetric data
is submitted one month after completion of survey work in January each year.
5.22.7.3 Annual head works report
Annual Headworks Report is based on preliminary survey of the River 15 miles
upstream and about 10 miles downstream of the barrage. It is carried out soon after
the floods and it describes marked changes in the river course that occurred since the
last survey, behavior of its major creeks and their likely future behavior; other data
including statistical record about monsoon, rainfall, River supplies and canal
discharges; river behavior during the floods i.e. river approach on the upstream and
downstream of the barrage, damages sustained by various training works; system of
regulation adopted at the Barrage; retrogression and aggradation of levels; repairs
carried out at various locations during previous closures; analysis of pressure pipe
data and suggestions / recommendations for further repairs. This report is prepared
by the Executive Engineer and it is submitted to higher authorities/ Superintending
Engineer (SE) by middle of November. This report is typed on half margin of the paper
to enable the SE / higher officers to add their comments and recommendations. An
album showing results of soundings and probings at various points of different cross
section lines accompany the report to enable the higher authorities to scrutinize the
data and facilitate decision about repairs to be carried out.
The recommendations of the Superintending Engineer is discussed by the Chief
Engineer during his annual visits to the barrage and the recorded works found
necessary to be carried out during ensuring closure.
5.22.7.4 Annual river survey report
This report covers results of detailed survey of the earlier mentioned reach of the river
i.e. between two high banks or between defence bund to high bank across the river
with complete cross-sectional data, ground levels, position of various creeks and belas
etc. This survey is to be completed by December every year. The report also describes
likely effect of changes in river course and includes recommendations for any
additional training works so that the same (after necessary approval of estimates etc)
may be executed before next flood season. This report is to be submitted by Executive
Engineer to higher officers by the end of December.
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5.22.7.5 Observations during closure period

Detailed inspections of the barrage components such as floors, glacis, chute blocks,
divide walls, fish ladders, navigation bays, masonry works such as piers, abutments,
canal regulators and all other structures such as silt ejectors, inlets, and outfall
structures on the canal are done during the closure period to determine if any
deterioration, has occurred during the last flow period. The major closure period
inspections are to be made by the SDOs and their staff.
5.22.7.6 Annual closure report
A detailed report after the end of each closure period should be prepared by the
Executive Engineer and submitted to the SE of circle / higher officers. This report
describes the background, details of various repairs carried out and method adopted
for the same as well as the repairs that could not be carried out but were either planned
or approved along with their likely effects. It also contains suggestions to mitigate any
adverse effects of the same.
5.22.7.7 Flood reports
This report which is to be submitted by the Executive Engineer just after floods include
brief details and approximate cost of extraordinary repairs needed to restore damages
sustained by various installations during the flood. This report reviewed by higher
offices is then consolidated at the provincial level to provide a base for the allocation
of funds under the appropriate head of account by the government.
5.22.7.8 Annual history of the barrage
A history of the Barrage complex for the previous year concerning weather, rain,
behavior of river and all other evens etc., and works carried out during the year should
be completed by the Executive Engineer and submitted to higher authorities for
printing and circulation by the end of March. This history will also contain the list of
incumbents who remained in charge of the barrage during the period under report viz.
the Executive Engineers and SDOs.
5.22.7.9 Accidents and other emergencies
Whenever an accident occurs to the works, a brief report thereof should immediately
be submitted by the SDO Headworks Sub Division to the Chief Engineer, SE and
Executive Engineer within 24 hours and a detailed report thereafter should be
submitted as soon as possible by the Executive Engineer.
5.22.7.10 Piezometers observations and analysis report
This report should be prepared by the SDO and submitted to Executive Engineer every
fortnight. It will contain the pressure data observed during the fortnight and its analysis
with his suggestions. The Executive Engineer after review refers any important issues
with his recommendations to higher officers for consideration and decision.
5.22.7.11 Evaluation of safety of barrages
Barrages constructed across the rivers to facilitate diversion of water into irrigation
canals, which are the life-line for the irrigated agriculture, the most effective and
reliable base for our predominantly agri-based economy, play a vital role in our largest
contiguous and complex irrigation network.
Unfortunately the hydraulic structures especially the barrages, are not recognized the
way they should be and do not receive the level of attention, they actually deserve.
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The main inadequacy lies in regular monitoring and periodic evaluation of safety which
so far have been insignificant.
No dedicated systems for effective and regular monitoring and periodical safety
evaluation are presently in place. These are absolutely essential and if not done
properly, result in accidents and damages to barrages and other hydraulic structures.
Although a lot of knowledge is available, it is scattered in patches.
There is a definite need for the regular, effective and careful monitoring and evaluation
of hydraulic structures, especially barrages and the implementation of safety
evaluation processes and procedures.
The safety evaluation processes thus include:
a) Design review;
b) Review of construction records;
c) Site visits if necessary;
d) Identification and recording the problems and weaknesses;
e) Data acquisition;
f) Review of technical records;
g) Review of design and construction reports;
h) Operation and maintenance procedures;
i) Aging aspects of component structures;
j) Problems and deficiencies identified through the above study.
The evaluation process can thus be initiated by the operating staff, carried out and
completed by a special monitoring team constituted for one structure, or a permanent
outfit to carry out the continuous evaluation process of various structures. The
evaluation report shall include:-
a) Data review;
b) Problems;
c) Site visits and discussions;
d) Conclusions;
e) Recommendations.
Some additional details are available in section 15. For further details, refer to relevant
references.
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5.23 PIEZOMETRIC NETWORK AT A BARRAGE AND METHODS OF

OBSERVATIONS, AND DATA ANALYSIS
Instrumentation in a barrage comprises mainly the peizometers installed underneath the
barrage at critical points for determining the residual or uplift pressures at these points.
The piezometers, therefore, are, as important for maintaining health of a barrage as a
sphygmomanometer is for a human being. These instruments require careful handling,
and their use for monitoring and observations, recording and analysis of measurement
are of paramount importance for reliable operation of a barrage.
Peizometers currently in use on barrages fall in two categories; (1) the stand pipes, also
called as pressure pipes and (2) the vibrating wire peizometers. Basically both types
measure / indicate the water levels pressure at the specific location of installation. These
are used for computation of uplift pressure underneath the structure.
In all the old barrage and untill recently, the old type standpipes (pressure pipes) have
been used. Recently the new and latest type of peizometers along with the stand pipe
have been installed under the barrage and sub-weir floors at Taunsa, Jinnah, Khanki and
Sulemanki barrages.
The stand pipe type
Stand pipe peizometers are installed to measure the uplift pressure underneath the
structure and to assess potential of problems due to adverse subsurface flow e.g.
 The uplift pressure at any point under the barrage floor must not exceed the
downward force comprising the weight of concrete floor and water and
reinforcement resistance.
 No cavities, piping or hollows are developed in the foundations of the barrage.
 Exit gradient at its end remains within designed limit.
The barrages are designed with the following assumptions:
a) The subsurface flow through the medium under the barrage floor is two
dimensional (only in the direction of the flow and not across it).
b) The sub stratum is homogeneous and deep. It is reasonably homogeneous in
particle size, its packing and resulting pore space.
c) There is no silt blanket or other semi impervious layers on the upstream or
downstream of the impervious (pacca) floor.
d) There is no temperature gradient in the direction of or against the flow.
Effect of time lag
When there are large fluctuation in the upstream and downstream water levels, for
instance during rising or falling floods or when supply is being ponded up to feed
supplies into the canals the pore pressures are likely to have time lag. This is due to
the fact that rate of flow in sub-soil is very, very slow and the water in the pipe takes
some time to deplete or recuperate as the pressure falls or rises. Thus if the upstream
water level rises the total head increases whereas the water levels in the pipes have
not had time to adjust to the raised pond level and therefore the reading is relatively
low. Similarly when pond level falls, the total head is decreased but the levels in the
pipes remain high and therefore give a relatively higher reading. Thus whatever
applies to variation in upstream level also applies to variation in downstream water
level.
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In rising flood when both upstream and downstream levels are rising the pressure
pipes reads relatively low. In a falling flood when both the upstream and downstream
levels are falling they will read high. However, if the gauges on upstream and
downstream remain steady for 48 hours, the results of observations are believed to be
reliable.
Method of analysis
The data, recorded in a printed standard form 5-38 is analyzed as below:
 The pipes are grouped by "lines" i.e. pipes on a single section from upstream
to downstream of the weir are treated as one line
 One page of the register printed on the standard form should be devoted to one
line of stand pipes.
For reference the data collected and recorded as mentioned above is plotted as
graphs. Since  = P/H x 100 remains constant provided the temperature of the in-
flowing water and the nature and depth of silt deposit or scour on the upstream and
downstream pervious floors does not alter, it serves as the basis of plotting the results.
Thus any variation in its value from the normal will indicate trouble unless this variation
can be explained by the variations in temperature or silt level.
a)  = P/H percent
b) River temperature
c) Subsoil temperature
d) Head = H
e) Downstream water level
f) Depth of silt or scour at upstream and downstream of the previous floors
These graphs showing the salient factors that are likely to influence the value of  are
kept up-to-date for all key points viz., points just under the weir floor on the upstream
and downstream of each vertical cut-off pile line and under or just downstream of crest
so that any unfavorable developments/identified in the sub soil can be discovered as
soon as they occur.
Layout of Piezometers
The layout of peizometers is in the form of rows or lines in specific bays, normally on
both sides and bottom of each sheet pile line.
Standard residual pressures
The design is based on Khosla’s method of “Independent Variable”. The residual
pressure values can also be calculated by drawing of subsurface flow nets. These
measurements show reasonable agreement with the values calculated with Khosla’s
method.
Interpretation of seasonal variations
With earlier explanation and with the knowledge of local peculiarities it is possible to
interpret the results of pressure observations and to predict any abnormalities. A lack
of such knowledge might lead to a false sense of security or unnecessary panic.
Plotting the observed data helps in its analysis. As a rule the resistance from point to
point will rise or fall more or less proportionately throughout the sub-soil under a weir.
If suddenly the resistance becomes disproportionately small in any particular portion
the possibility of cavities under that part/portion is indicated. The pipes in that case
BARRAGES
should be checked to see that they are functioning. If the pipes show no signs of
chocking the natural conclusion would be that an abnormality of some sort has
occurred.
Detection of cavity formation or loose contact under the barrage floor
The presence of loose contact under the barrage floor or cavity formation has been
found to cause concentration of flow lines towards such a location; and to reduce the
effective length of floor. Accordingly following peculiarities are associated with the
cavity formation.
a) Immediately above and below the cavity a gradient is steeper than normal
gradient
b) The gradient through the cavity is flat.
c) If the cavity happens to be near the upstream or downstream end of the floor
the hydraulic gradient at the entry or exit are steepened to a greater extent than
that for a cavity at any other location.
d) The effect of the cavity is local and cannot be felt at some distance from the
cavity.
Further analysis of pressures in such a condition is a complex process and beyond
the scope of this manual and should be referred for expert analysis.
Vibrating wire peizometers
The V.W. piezometers3 are a modern version of the water level measuring stand pipes
whom they are replacing gradually. The older version of direct measurement device
due to its constraints has yielded placed by the new version. The signals from the
measuring unit below the floor can be observe in direct reading units or in control room
through cable connections or the signals can be transmitted through were less
transmission to the control room where data loggers transform the signals into water
levels which are retrievable through computers in the control room. Such a system is
operational at Taunsa and Jinnah Barrages.
The description and process of installation of v.w. piezometers follows:
 The VW piezometer has a rigid cylindrical body, enclosing the sensing element.
The later consists in thin flexible diaphragm where a steel wire is attached. All
parts of sensors other than the wire are machined from a high-grade stainless
steel. A standard internal thermistor allows measurement of the temperature.
The piezometer is also fitted with a surge protector and resists electrical and
radio frequency interference as determined by tests compliant to IEEE and CEI
specifications. The transducer is fitted with several protections against water
intrusion: watertight connector, pointing, watertight feed through header, and o-
rings. A diagram of a VW piezometer is shown in Fig. 5-65.
3 Length = 8 inch, diameter = 1.5 inch, Stainless steel filter ~ 50 microns, ~ 10 kPa low air entry
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Figure 5-65: Schematic diagram of a typical v.w. piezometer

 The standpipe piezometer4 consists of a porous plastic filter inside perforated
rigid PVC body and is used with rigid PVC riser pipe. Water enters the riser until
water pressure inside the filter equals the water pressure in the soil. A water
level indicator can be then used to measure the depth of the water. The filter is
located in a sand intake zone at the location where pore-water pressure is to
be monitored. The bentonite pellet or chip seal is placed over the sand intake
zone and the remaining borehole is backfilled with grout.
4 Porous plastic, Length = 6 to 12 inch, diameter = 3 inch, plastic filter ~ 50 microns, ~ 10 kPa low air
entry. -Rigid PVC standpipe, 0.75 inch diameter, -Teflon tape for sealing threaded joints. - PVC cement
for bonding PVC pipe to filter. - Silica sand. Pressure gages for artesian conditions. – Cap: plain, slip-
fit, vented
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Figure 5-66: As-built details of typical vw piezometers in the barrage

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Figure 5-67: Location of Piezometers in the Barrage

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Core Drilling in Progress for Installation of Pieozemeter in Bay #

Installation of Piezometers 40
Figure 5-68: Photos illustrating Installation of Piezometers at the Barrage
Details such as Bay No. offset from centre line of Bay and sheet pile lines and tip level
of piezometers installed in the main weir are listed in a typical Table that follows.
Table 5-38: Details of piezometers installed in the barrage
OFF SET FROM Piezomet
Piezometer Center line er TIP
S. # Bay No.
Ref.No. of Bay Sheet Pile Level
Along flow (asl)
1 PBP-3A Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 5.0` U/S pile-X 414.60
2 3B Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 5.0` D/S pile-X 414.40
3 3C Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 3.0` U/S pile-F 403.70
4 3D Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 3.0` D/S pile-F 403.70
5 3E Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 3.0` U/S pile-Z 409.20
6 3F Bay - 3 6 ft, Left 1.5` D/S pile-Z 409.80
13.5` D/S pile-
7 3P Bay - 3 28.5 ft, Left 405.20
F
20.0` D/S pile-
8 3S Bay - 3 33.5 ft, Left 405.20
F
9 BP-14A Bay - 14 6 ft, Left 5.0` U/S pile-X 415.50
13 14E Bay - 14 6 ft, Left 3.0` U/S pile-Z 408.60
14 14F Bay - 14 6 ft, Left 1.5` D/S pile-Z 408.50
13.5` D/S pile-
15 14P Bay - 14 28.5 ft, Left 405.80
F
20.0` U/S pile-
16 14S Bay - 14 33.5 ft, Left 405.75
F
17 BP-19A Bay - 19 6 ft, Left 5.0` U/S pile-X 415.30
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OFF SET FROM Piezomet

Piezometer Center line er TIP
S. # Bay No.
Ref.No. of Bay Sheet Pile Level
Along flow (asl)
Piezometer Observations
Piezometer observations in the Barrage area should be made and recorded at least
twice a month. The Sub Divisional Officer should check and initial in token of check
each and every one of these observations at least once in a month. He should bring
to the notice of Executive Engineer any marked deviation from theoretical values of at
these pressure points. Sudden changes in the pressures and choking of stand pipes
should also be looked upon with utmost suspicion and investigated. The observation
so made and data analyzed (sample table 5-39 for old pressure pipes/stand pipes and
table 5-40 for vibrating wire piezometers) shall be consolidated and submitted to, the
higher authorities. It should be noted that the actual values of Ø at any location
(particularly on the D/S of the crest) is not more than the design value for the same
location. Also the total uplift pressure is not in excess of the weight of floor and depth
of water (if any) over it. If so, the head across shall have to be restricted.
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Table 5-39: Proforma for recording observations of piezometers (stand pipes)

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Table 5-40: Sample table for v.w. piezometers observational record (system
output)
TAUNSA BARRAGE INSTRUMENTATION
PIEZOMETERS DATA SHEET (MAIN WEIR / BARRAGE)
TIME START:- 09-30 AM READ OUT NO. Logger Net Date:-
18.06.2018
TIME FINISH:- 10.30 AM WEATHER:- Clear / Storm /Rain OBSERVER:- M. Ashraf
BARRAGE HYDROLOGY DATA
a Inflow (cfs) 226469
B Outflow (cfs) 199044
C Gauges Right Left Average Head Across (ft)
(A) (B)
U/S Gauges (ft) 446.20 446.20 446.20
14.35
D/S Gauges 432.20 431.50 431.85
VALUES IN PERCENTAGE
PRESENT HEAD
Sr. PIZO PRESENT
PIZOMETRIC LOSS DESIGNED DIFFERENCE
# Ref: (B-D)100/B= REMARKS
LEVEL (C) (A-B)=D (F) (E-F)=G
E
BAY NO. 3 PEIZOMETERS
1 BP-03-A 439.69 6.51 52.65 63.24 -10.59
2 BP-03-B 436.88 9.32 35.05 56.59 -21.54
3 BP-03-C 435.08 11.12 22.51 45.23 -22.72
4 BP-03-D 433.67 12.53 12.68 36.99 -24.31
5 BP-03-E 438.36 7.84 45.37 23.37 22.00 Not calibrate
6 BP-03-F 432.09 14.11 1.67 0.00 1.67
7 BP-03-P 434.03 12.17 15.19 0.00 15.19
8 BP-03-S 433.80 12.40 13.59 13.59 Stand pipe
BAY NO. 14 PEIZOMETERS
1 BP-14-A 434.93 11.27 21.46 63.24 -41.78
2 BP-14-B 434.98 11.22 21.81 56.59 -34.78
3 BP-14-C 434.44 11.76 18.05 45.23 -27.18
4 BP-14-D 432.80 13.40 6.62 36.99 -30.37
5 BP-14-E 432.59 13.61 5.16 23.37 -18.21
6 BP-14-F 431.40 14.80 -3.14 0.00 -3.14
7 BP-14-P 432.03 14.17 1.25 0.00 1.25
8 BP-14-S 433.30 12.90 10.10 0.00 1.-0.10 Stand pipe
The readers who wish to acquire more information about vibrating wire piezometers,
may refer to the manufacturer’s manuals for piezometers and read out units and other
equipment. Copies of the manufactures manuals for Roctest Telemec Canadian origin
v.w. piezometers (28 pages) are included as Annexures I & J.
Every manufacturer has a different manual and reference may be made to the
manuals of relevant manufacturer.
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5.24 ACCIDENTS ON BARRAGES

The importance of taking every reasonable precaution to prevent accidents, not only
to the personnel employed on the barrage but also to the works, is perhaps not
sufficiently realized by the officers and the staff employed for the barrage operation.
An accident at a barrage may not only cause loss of life or injury to personnel but it
can cause serious damage to and, in extreme cases, complete failure of a large area
of irrigated crops. Such damage to or failure of crops results in hardship to the
cultivators and, in most cases, the loss of a significant quantity of food and other
valuable crops.
A serious accident to a barrage may necessitate the closure of or the reduction of the
supply in a canal at a time when the demand for water for irrigation is very keen, so
every possible precaution must be taken to prevent accidents.
Accidents may generally be due to one of the following causes:
a) Failure to comply with the rules and regulations framed for the control and
maintenance of the barrage.
b) Defective gates, and regulating machinery.
c) Use of defective boats and employment of incompetent boatmen.
d) Failure to maintain embankments in good conditionor patrol them during floods.
Suggestions for Prevention of Accidents
The following suggestions are presented, which if rigorously followed will reduce the
number of accidents. Any accident which is found to be due to noncompliance with
any of the rules and regulations is considered as gross negligence by the person
concerned. Copies of these instructions, both in English and Urdu, should be available
in the barrage offices at all times and a copy should be in the possession of the
Executive Engineer (XEN), Sub Divisional Officer (SDO), Overseer, Head Jamadar
and all Naib Jamadars.
The main points requiring attention are:
 The SDO is responsible for recommending suitable persons and he should
make sure that they are healthy, able-bodied and competent swimmers. The
SDO should also arrange for proper training of the staff and he should
frequently satisfy himself that each person understands his duties. He should
take steps to maintain proper discipline at all times and the staff actually live in
the quarters provided for them.
 The regular observations of soundings and probings is most important as they
show any subsidence in the concrete blocks and loose stone protection and
enable the officer incharge to arrange additional protection before an accident
occurs.
 Marks should be made on pier and abutments should be marked to indicate a
line below which ‘hydraulic jump’ should not be allowed to form. If the jump
forms below this line a deep scour hole may occur into which the loose stone
protection and concrete blocks may settle or even get washed away.
 The position of the ‘hydraulic jump’ can normally be regulated by adjusting the
gate openings.
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 Observations of pressure pipes / piezometer indicate the uplift pressure on the

floor of a structure. Such observations are important in identifying necessary
action to be taken to strengthen the floor before it blows up.
 The most important care to reduce the accidents to a minimum is that either the
XEN or the SDO shall be present all the timeon the headworks during the
passage of a flood.
 Other suggestions for the prevention of accidents during floods are:-
o Reduce cross flow in the vicinity of the barrage to a minimum. Pay
special attention to the flow around the noses of divide walls, guide
banks and spurs.
o Distribute the flood discharge over the width of the barrage in such a way
as to reduce damaging action at the works to a minimum.
o Comply strictly with the rules regarding closing the canal during the flood
and re-opening after the flood has passed.
 Local rules should be framed for the working, maintenance and inspection of
machinery on headworks.
 Special attention should be paid to the moving parts of machinery and regular
inspections by competent mechanics should be carried out.
Boats
Local rules framed for the use and maintenance of boats, should inter alia, contain
instructions regarding:-
a) Recruitment and training of boatmen.
b) Boat equipment .
c) Selection of sites for mooring boats.
d) Use of only serviceable boats.
e) Use of boats for conducting observations in the vicinity of the gates of a barrage
or regulator.
Rafts and other vessels
Local rules should be framed for controlling the passage of rafts and country boats
across a barrage, inter alia, containing instructions regarding:-
a) Selection of sites for mooring on arrival at a barrage.
b) Navigation of rafts and country boats across the navigation lock of a barrage.
c) Record of country boats and rafts using navigation lock at the barrage.
Accidents in workshops
If reasonable precautions are taken very few accidents should occur in a well-
managed workshop. Accidents, which do occur, can generally be attributed to
ignorance or neglect of the rules framed for the safety of the workmen employed in a
workshop.
Standing orders for the safety of workmen should be framed by the officer incharge of
each workshop. A copy of the rules, both in English and Urdu, should be pasted at the
entrance to the workshop and at other suitable places and steps should be taken to
ensure that all employees understand them.
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The following suggestions will assist the officer incharge of workshops to frame
suitable local rules:-
a) The following parts of transmission machinery shall be securely fenced if in
motion and within reach:-
a. All shafts, couplings, collars, clutches, toothed wheels, pulley driving
straps, chains and ropes, except such that are in the opinion of the
Inspector, by construction or position equally safe to every person
employed as they would be if securely fenced or guarded.
b. All projecting set screws, keys, nuts or bolts on revolving parts except
such as are countersunk or otherwise made equally safe.
c. The underside of all heavy overhead main driving bolts or ropes if there
is any probability of persons having to pass under them.
b) The following parts of machine tools shall be securely fenced:
“The back gears and change wheels of lathes, the back gears and level gearing
of drilling machines, and the gear wheels of planning, shaping, slotting and
milling machines which are within reach.”
c) All emery wheels and tool grinding machines shall be fitted with strong iron
hood guards and shall also have a plate glass shield so fitted as to prevent
flying particles from entering into the operator's eyes.
d) All personnel hoist (where provided) gates shall be self-locking and only
capable of being opened when the cage is opposite the floor.
e) All circular saws of more than 6" diameter shall be provided with a strong metal
hood guard at the back of the saw. The saw under the table shall also be
completely guarded.
f) All band saws shall be fitted with expanded metal cage guards enclosing the
upper half of the machine. The saw under the table shall also be completely
guarded.
g) Every opening in the ground or in a floor, which by reason of its depth, situation,
construction or contents could cause personal injury, shall be so fenced as to
prevent such injury.
h) All important pulleys shall be provided with belt hangers or perches.
i) Suitable striking gear shall be provided and used to move driving straps on all
fast and loose pulleys.
j) Service platforms and gangways shall be provided for overhead shafting and,
where required by the Inspector, shall be securely fenced with guard rails and
toe boards.
k) No machinery in motion shall be cleaned with cotton waste, rags or similar
material held in the hand. No shall clean or oil any part of a machinery whilst
that part is in motion.
l) Every shafting ladder shall be fitted with either hooks or some effective non-
skid device.
m) No person, engaged in oiling or adjusting belts or in any work whatsoever within
reach of unfenced transmission machinery, shall be allowed to work whilst
wearing loosely fitting clothes.
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n) All water level gauge glasses of boilers of which the maximum pressure
exceeds 100 lbs. per square inch shall be securely guarded.
o) No additional weight shall be placed on the safety valve of any boiler unless
written authority has been received from the Boiler Engineer to do so.
Workshop fires
1. Every workshop shall be provided either with:
a. An ample supply of water maintained at a sufficient pressure to reach all
parts of the workshop together with the necessary hose pipes and
hydrants for making effective use of the water, during the time the
workshop is in operation, or
b. Both buckets and chemical fire extinguishers of the following scale:-
i. There shall be at least six buckets in every workshop and, if the
floor space exceeds 6,000 square feet, an additional bucket for
every 1,000 square feet in excess of the first 6,000 square feet.
Buckets shall be painted red and kept permanently on stands.
They shall be kept filled with water or sand at the discretion of the
officer incharge of the workshop.
ii. One extinguisher of at least two gallons capacity of soda acid or
compressed carbon dioxide type for a floor pace of 6,000 square
feet and an additional extinguisher for every additional floor space
of 6,000 square feet or part thereof.
2. All apparatus for extinguishing fires shall be kept in good order and shall be
periodically examined and tested.
A few suggestions regarding storage of inflammable liquids such as oil and petrol will
perhaps be helpful.
a) Inflammable liquids, such as oil and petrol should be stored in specially
constructed godowns. Godowns, in which inflammable liquids are stored,
should be located at least 200 feet from residential or industrial buildings. The
godowns should be well ventilated.
b) Receptacles containing inflammable liquids should be stacked in such a way
as to permit free passage of air between the receptacles.
c) No naked lights should be allowed inside the godown and smoking inside or in
the vicinity of the godown should be prohibited.
d) Materials, other than inflammable liquids, should not be stored in godowns
specially provided for the storage of inflammable liquids.
First Aid
In every workshop first aid appliances containing an adequate supply of sterilized
dressings, sterilized cotton, wool and a tannic acid spray for cases of burns, should be
maintained. The appliances shall be kept in good order and they shall be placed under
the charge of a responsible person who understands how to use them and who shall
be readily available during working hours.
The words "First Aid" shall be clearly painted on the box, cupboard or other receptacle
containing these appliances.
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5.25 REHABILITATION OF PUNJAB BARRAGES

Introduction
Consequent upon serious damages to structures on M.R. Link and failure of the outfall
of B.S. Link in 1998 the department took a serious note and assigned the task of
evaluation of safety of major hydraulic structures on canals and barrages in the
Province to Consultants.
Based on the findings and recommendations of the Consultants, canal structures were
rehabilitated during 1998-99. The following 8 Barrages/Headworks out of 14 were
identified for rehabilitation/remodeling etc.
Table 5-41: Barrages identified for rehabilitation
Sr. No. Name of the Barrage Age as of 1999
(years)
a Taunsa Barrage 41
b Jinnah Barrages 56
c Balloki Barrage 86
d Sulemanki Barrage 73
e Trimmu Barrage 62
f Panjnad Barrage 67
g Islam Barrage 71
h Khanki Headworks 107
Feasibility studies were prepared and works of different types and magnitude were
proposed for which the department prepared the P.C.I’s and took necessary action for
their approval. Since the cost involved was high, the department acquired financial
assistance from International Banks.
Major issues
The major issues to be addressed at various barrages can be categorized as;
a) Design deficiencies
b) Construction issues
c) Hydraulic problems
d) Structural problems, and
e) Aging issues
Safety Evaluation
As mentioned earlier, the study for safety evaluation of barrages were conducted in
1998-99. Based on the evaluation report, the feasibility studies were conducted during
2003 – 2006, which formed the base for rehabilitation/remodelling proposals and
projects.
Analysis and Redesign Proposals
The feasibility studies after necessary analysis of the prevailing conditions culminated
in basic design for projects, which were reviewed by the Review / Supervision
Consultants for individual structures, and relevant works taken up.
Brief introductory narration for each barrage follows;
BARRAGES
Taunsa barrage
This barrage, constructed during 1953 – 1958 across Indus River 16 kilometers from
Kot Addu Town, had multiple problems, right from commissioning. These were:
a) Design deficiencies
a. The tail water rating curve erred on the wrong side, i.e. it showed higher
tail water levels resulting in some inbuilt retrogression of levels.
Additional retrogression of levels due to sediment dropping on the
upstream of the barrage aggravated the safety further. Resulting
instability/fluctuation of hydraulic jump caused repeated serious
damages to the impact, friction blocks and the reinforced 1.0’ thick skin
layer.
b. The specific gravity of concrete was assumed as 2.48 affecting the floor
thickness calculations for the stilling basin.
b) Construction Problems
a. The stilling basin floor was placed in two layers; the bottom one of 1:4:8
mix over lain by a one foot thick 1:2:4 reinforced concrete skin. The lower
low strength concrete layer developed cracks and leak paths and
transmitted the total uplift pressure to the thin skin which blew up
repeatedly resulting in a precarious situation, and had to be restored at
substantial costs with no sustained stability.
b. The skin was also not properly anchored to the bottom layer and was
thus susceptible to lifting and rolling over, and had to be replaced a
number of times at substantial cost.
c. Similarly, the friction blocks were not anchored ending up in uprooting.
c) Hydraulic Problems
a. The retrogression resulted in jump instability and uncertain quality of low
strength base concrete and RC skin damages.
b. The pulsating and slipping of hydraulic jump downstream of the toe of
glacis caused repeated damages to the skin, blocks etc due to excessive
turbulence and dynamic and trough effects.
c. Oblique approach of river channel caused angular exit currunts and
unstable flow.
d. Due to unstable jump the turbulence was carried far downstream and
caused settlement.
e. Most of the pressure pipes became in effective and needed replacement.
d) Structural problems
These included damages to the impact blocks and uprooting of the friction
blocks. Repeated damages to the stone apron.
e) Aging effects
The under sluice gates were damaged and needed replacement, alongwith the
hoisting system.
With the above state of safety, the barrage could collapse any moment and needed
heavy remodeling on an emergent basis.
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5.25.5.1 Remedial measures

To mitigate the above mentioned problems, the following works were proposed and
implemented.
f) A sub-weir was constructed at 925 ft downstream of the barrage gate line to
raise the water levels downstream of the barrage to mitigate the effects of
retrogression.
g) The 1.0’ thick RC skin and one ft. out of the low strength base concrete were
dismantled and replaced with a 3 ft. thick R.C. layer to strengthen the stilling
basin floor.
h) The stilling basin was converted to Type-IV basin of USSR and provided with
chute blocks and end sill, eliminating the old damaged impact and friction
blocks. The stilling basin design was test in glass flume sectional model and
confirmed by IRI through the model study report.
i) New Vibrating Wire piezometers were installed under the stilling basin floor to
facilitate future monitoring.
j) The fish ladders, downstream divide walls and downstream guide banks were
also extended.
k) To reduce the silt entry into DG, khan canal a silt excluder was constructed in
the right pocket for excluding the coarser silt grade (size) and passing it
downstream into the river.
l) The under sluice gates were replaced and weir gates were rehabilitated.
m) Special equipment for gate repairs in ponded up conditions i.e. 5 bulkhead
gates , storage and launching jetty, tug boat, working boats, crane and winch
etc were also provided.
n) Crest level of DG Khan canal Head Regulator was raisedby 1.0 ft.
After the above modifications were completed, WAPDA constructed the following
structures for feeding Katchi canal.
a) Head regulator of Kachhi Canal.
b) Auxiliary Regulator of Kachi Canal.
c) Extension of silt excluder tunnels to cover Kachi head regulator
d) Construction of a new divide well increasing the width of right pocket from 4
bays to 7 bays.
5.25.5.2 Implementation
A special unit titled Project Management Office (PMO) was created for overall
monitoring and management of this first mega project through “the Engineer” / project
consultants. The project costing Rs. 11232 million was assisted by the World Bank
both financially and technical reviews. The Bank also monitored the quality through
their supervisory missions.
The project was completed within the approved cost i.e. no cost overrun (final outlay
was Rs. 10860/- million against the approved cost of Rs. 11232 million), within the
planned construction period and quality that was appreciated by all including the Vice
President of World Bank.
BARRAGES
5.25.5.3 Post Rehabilitation Feedback

The under water works of the project were completed in July 2007 and mechanical /
electrical works in October 2008. The remodeled barrage complex has performed
exceptionally well and in 2010 floods, passed a discharge of 961,000 cs, almost equal
to the design capacity of 1,000,000 cs quite efficiently and with no damage.
However an incidence of mal-regulation caused some damage to stone apron and CC
blocks in 2013. Corrective measures were taken to restore the effected permeable /
flexible protections.
With the above remodeling modifications, the Barrage is now fully equipped to handle
its design discharge and may be additional 10%.
Jinnah Barrage
This barrage was constructed across Indus River near Kalabagh town in 1943 and
commissioned in 1946 on completion of the canal system. The design capacity of this
barrage is 950,000 cs. The barrage performed quite satisfactorily till construction of
Tarbela Dam. The reservoir created by the dam captured almost all the sediment in
the river flow on the upstream of the dam. This resulted in reduction of silt charge, both
in grade and intensity which triggered a new retrogressive cycle. By 1988, the
downstream water levels were lowered to less than the retrogressed levels adopted in
the design, and the hydraulic jump during high flows went through pulsating and
sometimes washout conditions causing serious damages to the impact blocks and
permeable protection. After the closure of 1992 it was observed that some deflector /
friction blocks had been uprooted and the entire thickness of stilling basin floor had
been removed by turbulence and eddies. The number of damaged blocks was over a
hundred.
The barrage data was analyzed, which recommended construction of a sub-weir about
800 ft downstream of the barrage gate line to raise the water levels to designed values.
A project including the above and other recommended modifications was prepared,
approved and implemented. The following project works have been completed.
a) A subsidiary weir at 900 ft downstream of the main barrage.
b) Extension of guide banks.
c) Installation of new V.W. piezometers.
d) Replacement of regulating gates and hoist systems, with remote control
automated operation and related sub-weir.
Only the remote control including SCADA system and some building works are in
progress at the time of this write-up.
The project has been financed by the World Bank through a loan.
The Barrage after this remodeling is expected to perform satisfactorily.
Balloki Barrage
Balloki barrage was constructed across the Ravi river and commissioned in 1913. The
barrage is located near the town of Bhaipheru (now Phool Nagar). The design
discharge is 225,000 cs and a clear waterway of 1400 ft with a width of 1647 ft between
the two abutments.
BARRAGES
During the implementation of the Indus Basin Plan, it was proposed to increase the
capacity of BS Link and therefore the barrage was remodeled in 1967, with major
amendment being the raising of the crest and addition of sheet piles on the upstream.
With time, the relevant analysis indicated that the barrage capacity needs to be
enhanced to forestall operation of breaching section in the right side flood
embankments. Meanwhile, it was also noted that the stilling basin of the barrage
needed rehabilitation as the stone top layer has become loose due to mortar erosion
by high velocities of flood currents. For providing some environmental flow below
Sulemanki, the discharge capacity of BS Link was proposed to be raised to 25,000 cs.
Some aging effects were also noted.
A rehabilitation proposal was therefore made to address the above shortcomings. The
proposal comprised the following:
a) In order to increase the barrage capacity construction of an auxiliary weir in line
with the existing barrage with a discharge capacity equal to the difference
between maximum design flood and the existing capacity of the barrage.
b) Rehabilitation of the downstream floor.
c) Addition of bays to head regulator of BS Link.
d) Miscellaneous rehabilitation works.
The above proposal was approved and implemented through a Project Management
Unit (PMU) established for the execution of the Balloki-LBDC project with the financial
assistance of Asian Development Bank (ADB). The project is close to completion at
the time of rendering this write-up.
5.25.7.2 Post Rehabilitation Feedback
Since the rehabilitated works have not been commissioned as yet, the post
rehabilitation feedback is obtained later on after commissioning of the project.
Sulemanki Barrage
Sulemanki barrage was constructed across the Sutlej River near Haveli Lakha town
with discharge capacity of 325,000 cs in 1926. The width of the barrage between
abutments is 2223 feet.
The feasibility study and its upgradation established that:
i. The barrage capacity is less than the maximum flood discharge of 430,000 cs
established through a hydrological study.
ii. The barrage was heavily masked on the upstream side with a large bela build
up in the left half of the barrage. In addition the left side canals especially
Fordwah, suffered with high sediment entry and siltation of bed.
iii. The barrage did not have an upstream floor, nor a sheet pile at the beginning
of the upstream glacis.
iv. Due to abrasive action of high velocity currents, the downstream glacis and the
stilling basin floor had developed deep runnels, and in many areas even the
coarse aggregate had been dislodged.
v. The undersluice gates had been corroded badly and the hoisting systems and
grooves of the whole barrage needed major rehabilitation.
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vi. The canal regulator Walton type gates were damaged frequently causing a
couple of emergencies every year.
vii. The pressure pipes were inoperative and needed replacement.
The updated feasibility study recommended the following modifications:
i. Provision of a level floor of 20 feet with a sheet pile line on the upstream.
ii. Covering the downstream glacis and downstream floor with 3 inch thick 4000
psi fiber reinforced shotcrete.
iii. Installing new vibrating wire piezometers in the downstream floor.
iv. Remodeling of undersluice gates.
v. Replacement of canal regulator gates.
vi. Rehabilitation of the weir gates and replacement of hoisting arrangements.
vii. Partial removal of the bela masking the upstream left side of the barrage.
viii. Raising of guide banks to provide adequate freeboard over the new designed
HFL.
ix. Improving the electrification system at the barrage.
x. Provision of a bye-pass spill weir system to dispose of the flood discharge in
excess of the design capacity.
A project including the above proposal except the last one was prepared and
approved. It was considered that item (x) could be constructed later with local funding.
The project is being implemented with financial assistance from ADB through an
international contract and at the time of this write-up about 60% has been completed.
The project is planned to be completed by April 2017.
Trimmu Barrage
The Trimmu Barrage originally named as “Emerson Barrage” was constructed during
1936-1938 about 2 miles downstream of the confluence of Chenab and Jhelum rivers.
The designed discharge capacity of the barrage is 645,000 cs. The clear waterway of
the barrage is 2640 ft and the width between abutments is 3025 ft. Flood discharges
more than the design capacity have been experienced quite a few times requiring
operation of breaching section. With the development of the area, generally affected
by the escapage from breaching section, high resistance is likely to be exhibited by
the residents. The Feasibility Consultants proposed the following modifications:
i. Extension of the barrage waterway to accommodate the total flood discharge
of 800,000 cs with allied works of reconstruction of right guide bank, head
regulator of Rangpur canal and connected bridges.
ii. Rehabilitative repairs to the components of the existing barrage structure.
iii. Improving the road bridge deck; and
iv. Rehabilitation of regulating gates and gearings.
Based on the above, a project has been prepared and approved. The Consultants
have been retained and the construction contract signed with M/s. Sinohydro
Corporation of China. The project is planned to be completed in four years.
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Panjnad Barrage
Panjnad barrage was constructed during 1928 to 1932 about 3 miles below the
confluence of Chenab and Sutlej rivers near Alipur Town in Muzaffargarh district. The
design capacity of the barrage is 700,000 cs. The clear waterway is 2820 ft and the
total 3400 ft between abutments. Like Trimmu, Panjnad has also experienced/passed
flood discharges over and above the design capacity necessitating operation of
breaching section on the right side causing heavy loss to private properties and public
infrastructures. Consequently, a feasibility study was carried out which mainly
recommended conversion of the junction groyne into low crested bays to raise the
barrage capacity to 865,000 cs.
The project PC-1 has been approved and the Consultants have been retained but the
construction contract is likely to be signed around July 2017.
Islam Barrage
Islam barrage also known as “Pallah Headworks” was constructed during 1926 to 1928
on the Sutlej river near Luddan village in Vehari district on the right side and Hasilpur
in Bahawalpur district on the left side. The barrage capacity is 300,000 cs.
According to the updated feasibility study, the barrage capacity has to be increased
and the sub-weir constructed in 1951-1952 has to be remodeled along with
replacement of dislodged friction blocks. The regulation gates also need major
rehabilitative repairs.
The project at the moment is dormant/inactive but is likely to be taken up on completion
of Trimmu barrage project.
Khanki Weir
Khanki weir is the fore runner of the canal feeding weirs completed in 1892 on the
Chenab river near Wazirabad town. The feasibility study established that the weir had
outlived its useful life and should be replaced with a new barrage. Accordingly a project
was approved for Rs. 23 billion and construction work is in progress through an
international contract with the financial assistance from ADB. The project is going to
complete by 30th June 2017.
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5.26 BARRAGES FAILURES

Introduction
Diversion structures, barrages and weirs are essentially light structures whether
gravity or raft type. They are founded on permeable soils though there are quite a few
structures are founded on rocks. These diversion structure have been and are being
built by taking calculated risks. Many structure have failed in the past and many
lessons have been learnt from their failures. In fact the modern designs of diversion
structures have been developed from the analysis of these failures. The various points
to be looked into and data to be collected in the event of a failure of a barrage or weir.
Causes of failure
The failures of the diversion structures can be attributed to the following main causes,
acting singly or in combination,
i. Undermining through piping resulting due to excessive exit gradient.
ii. Eruption / blowing up of floor caused by uplift pressures exceeding the gravity
/ resisting forces.
iii. Deep scour in the immediate vicinity, upstream or downstream of the
impervious floor.
iv. Faulty regulation.
v. Faulty construction.
vi. Severe flood, leading to overtopping and/or out flanking.
Undermining through piping due to excessive exit gradient
Excessive exit gradients cause piping below the floor of the structure which leads to
subsidence and ultimate collapse. Piping is caused by the absence of adequate depth
of downstream cut off absence and or non-functioning of the inverted filter downstream
of the floor, short circuiting of seepage flow carrying the foundation soil through cracks
and cavities in the floor, absence of cross cut-offs below the divide walls separating
the undersluices and spillways, thereby short-circuiting the seepage path, improper
sealing arrangements in the various joints, especially in the floors.
Such failure and damages have occurred in a number of weirs and barrages in the
past. Notable among these are Deoha barrage (1929), Khanki weir on the Chenab
River (1932), Anderson weir on the Damodar river (1935), Old Menugia regulator in
Egypt. Islamweir on the Sutlej river (1929), Marala weir on Chenab river (1934) and
Sarda barrage on sarda river (1956).
In the event of a failure due to excessive exit gradient, the remedial measures after
repairing the damages are to provide a deeper cut-off on the downstream and
provision of properly designed inverted filter below the C C blocks on the downstream.
In case it is not possible to provide a deeper downstream cut-off due to any reason,
the floor length can be increased on the upstream side subject to economic
consideration. However, it has be ensured that seepage path is not shortened thereby
decreasing the effectiveness of reducing the exit gradient.
Eruption / blow up of floor caused by excessive uplift
Such failure occurs when the floor thickness is inadequate of the floor is not provided
in the trough portion. The floor may contain several cavities rendering it to be
ineffective to resist the uplift pressure. Excessive lift pressures occur due to
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inadequate drainage below the floor or any locked up pressure due to clay pockets or
the downstream cut-off embedded in to an impermeable layer.
Failures due to eruption of floor caused by uplift exceeding gravity have occurred in
Narora weir (1898), Marala weir (1934), Rasul weir on Jhelum river (1929), Deoha
barrage (1929), Khanki weir (1932) and sarda barrage (1956). Punjnad barrage came
close to such a situation in 1955.
Remedial measures for such failure include in increasing the thickness of the floor with
due consideration for adequate cistern level for proper energy dissipation, grouting of
cavities formed, if any, and lengthening the upstream floor so that the percentage
pressures at key points, especially over the trough region can be reduced by
increasing the seepage path.
Formation of deep scours
Sometimes deep scours occur either or both on the upstream and downstream of the
floor. Failure occurs if the cut offs both on the upstream and downstream, are not
provided for adequate depths. Deep scour is caused by high intensity of discharge
through the structure. This may be due to inadequate waterway or faulty gate
regulation. If proper flexible protections are not provided, the foundation soil is
removed due to deep scour and consequently the structure fails. Scours also occur
due to improper energy dissipation.
Failures due to improper energy dissipation and formation of deep scour have
occurred at Islam weir on the Sutlej river (1929), Khanki weir (1932), Anderson weir
(1935), Marala weir (1934), Sarda Barrage (1956) and some Mississippi weirs in USA.
When such a failure occurs, it is necessary to lower the cistern level and provide
adequate energy dissipating arrangements, such as end sill, dentated sill, friction
blocks, chute blocks etc. The depth of the upstream and downstream cut-offs should
be adequate for scour mitigation. The upstream and downstream aprons should be
properly replenished to the designed values. Steeper glacis slopes may need to be
flattened to at-least 3:1.
Faulty regulation
Failures have also occurred due to faulty operation of gates, resulting in high
concentration of flow through the structure. In such a situation, energy dissipation is
not proper and deep scour occurs. Sometimes damages may occur due to one or
other causes mentioned earlier, but the gates might have been lowered giving priority
to feeding the canals. This may ultimately result in major damages, as happened at
Islam weir on Sutlej river in 1929.
In 2012/2013, mal-regulation caused major damages to the downstream pervious
protections at Taunsa Barrage.
Failure due to faulty gate regulation can be prevented only by training the operating
personnel about the significance of proper regulation and proper maintenance of gates
and other hoisting arrangements.
Faulty construction
Failures of diversion structure due to faulty construction are common. Faulty
construction also leads to other causes of failures, such as piping below the floor,
uplifting of floor due to uplift pressure, faulty regulation etc. Various items for faulty
construction include (i) stratification of concrete layers in the pucca floor and improper
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bond between different layers of concrete (ii) various construction and structural
design defects (iii) cracks in the downstream glacis leading to short circuiting of
seepage path (iv) improper foundation treatment leading to subsidence and
consequent disturbance in the alignment of gate track and jamming (v) cracking of
seal in the joints (vi) tearing of sheet piles and improper interlocking (vii) improper
foundation treatment of impervious layers leading to locked up seepage pressure (viii)
inadequate cover for reinforcement bars (ix) honey combing of bottom layers of floor
concrete and (x) improper concrete mix used resulting in structural failure.
In the recent past failures due to faulty construction include Islam weir (1929), Rasul
weir (1929), Anderson weir (1935), Marala weir (1934) and Taunsa Barrage several
times from 1962 to 2004.
Overtopping
Failures due to overtopping of the components of the diversion structure are mainly
due to estimation of the design flood. This results in more afflux than the estimated
amount and with less freeboard. There are a few instances where overtopping was
caused due to inadequate free board. Overtopping of guide bunds has occurred and
this coupled with faulty construction leads to collapse of the guide bunds and further
associate damages. When the top of the piers or abutments are not set properly,
damages to the bearings of road and rail bridges occur due to overtopping leading to
failures.
Remedial measures or rather preventive measures to avoid failures due to overtopping
include correct determination of the design flood for waterway and maximum flood for
free board and the provision of adequate freeboards all along.
Outflanking
Failures due to outflanking are related to the incorrect estimation of the flood discharge
and subsequent overtopping of afflux bunds, tie bunds, etc. Another reason may be
the improper location of the diversion structure in geologically weak spots, especially
the banks. On highly meandering rivers, if marginal embankments and jacketing of the
rivers are not done properly, failure due to outflanking cannot be ruled out. Improper
gate operation can also lead to outflanking and failures thereof. Inadequate length and
unsuitable geometry of upstream guide banks can also result into outflanking of the
barrage.
Record of failures and remedial measures
For each diversion structure, a barrage or weir, it is desirable to have a record of its
behavior, both hydraulic and structural. The record should contain, the relevant details
of its failures, if any, and remedial measures adopted from time to time. Necessary
relevant photos should also be available. These always help for future modifications,
needed for the structure and also for others components.
Data to be collected in the event of a failure
Whenever there is a failure of the diversion structure, necessary data have to be
collected for study and analysis so that suitable remedial measures can be adopted.
Such data includes the following:
i. Detailed drawings of the diversion structure, regulators, guide bunds, afflux
bunds, approach bunds, spurs, etc.
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ii. Detailed notes on the damages including history and remedial measures
carried out if any.
iii. Development of the damages.
iv. Photographs taken if any.
v. Discharge and water levels at various locations along the guide bunds, afflux
bunds, approach bunds, spurs, abutments, etc.
vi. Flow pattern observed, i.e. concentration of flow through some bays or
otherwise.
vii. Sounding data both upstream and downstream at the ends of the impervious
structure, cement concrete blocks, stone protection, around divide walls and for
a distance of 200 ft or so at 50 ft intervals.
viii. Gate operation during floods and at other times.
ix. Any seismicity experienced prior to or during the floods.
x. Data on settlement of piers, abutments, flank walls etc.
xi. Data on tilting of piers, divide walls, abutments, flank walls etc.
xii. Quantity and quality of bed materials and floating debris during the flood.
xiii. Details of upstream and downstream spurs.
xiv. Data on traffic over the structure during the floods.
xv. Details of constructions materials used including quality of construction for
various components including the different bunds.
xvi. Instrumentation data.
xvii. Details about stages of construction.
xviii. Details of any field investigations done for detecting hollows if any, and, results
thereof.
xix. Previous history of any damages and remedial measures thereof.
xx. Recommendations of any Technical Advisory Committee from time to time and
compliance.
xxi. Hydraulic and structural designs with assumptions made if any.
xxii. Any other data relevant to the ease under investigations.
After working out the necessary remedial measures and implementing them, it is
desirable to publish the causes of failures and remedial measures adopted in an article
for the benefit of designers and project authorities of the department and other
professionals working in the field /area.
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5.27 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF BARRAGE STAFF

Every member of the staff shall exercise due vigilance in undertaking his duties to
anticipate and detect any untoward events and to take necessary and timely action to
ensure safety of the staff and structures. Responsibilities and duties of the key staff
concerning operation and maintenance of barrage complex are as follows:
Executive Engineer
The Executive Engineer of the Barrage Division is the officer in overall control of the
barrage and shall be responsible for but not limited to:
i. To arrange and ensure the safety and security of the Headworks.
ii. To maintain the works in good order and condition in conformity with the
Drawings and Specifications in force or as approved from time to time.
iii. To maintain proper and updated record of the as-built drawings of the works,
instructions and all other matters relevant to the operation and maintenance of
the Headworks.
iv. To arrange collection and maintenance of all data concerning operation and
maintenance of the Headworks.
v. To ensure effective overall control on the SDO Headworks and the staff
subordinate to him through organized flow of guidance and instructions.
vi. To ensure regulation of the river and the canals in which behalf he shall issue
all important instructions in writing to the SDO Headworks or in preference
inscribe them in the Headworks Logbook.
vii. To convey clear and unambiguous instructions for operation and maintenance
of the Headworks to the SDO Headworks and other staff.
viii. To obtain timely administrative and technical advice in all matters beyond his
competency or knowledge from the officer next higher to him/competent officer.
ix. To ensure detailed and systematic checks and supervision of all field work
including surveys, soundings collection of field data etc to see that the basic
data is accurately observed, recorded, transcribed, plotted etc.
x. To arrange systematic observations of water levels in the piezometers, and
other support data, analyze each set of observations and keep higher offices
well informed about the behavior of the pressures under the floors.
xi. To prepare and ensure prompt submission of the reports prescribed or as
introduced from time to time to the concerned Superintending Engineer.
xii. To check and satisfy himself about the nature and extent of all the works
provided for approval and execution in the Annual Headworks Report.
xiii. For prompt on the spot action to protect works against unforeseen hazards
subject to informing the concerned Superintending Engineer at first opportunity
of the action taken by him and promptly arranging financial regularity.
xiv. The Executive Engineer, of the Barrage Division should not remain away from
his Headquarters for a period of more than 10 days during July to September
i.e. flood season. He will promptly rush to his Headquarters if a flood of low or
higher catagory is expected at the barrage. When the Executive Engineer is
away from his Headquarters, the SDO Headworks should in no case be allowed
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to leave his duty station, except under really pressing conditions and that too
with a proper substitute arrangement.
xv. To exercise control in selection and appointment of the working staff.
xvi. To prepare and submit reports pertaining to accidents to persons or property in
accordance with the rules or instructions in force.
xvii. To coordinate with other agencies and execute all measures necessary for the
security of the headworks complex that is a high category key point of National
Strategic importance for which he is the senior security officer and is the only
person having access to secret instructions for barrage safety.
xviii. During very high floods the Executive Engineer will camp at the barrage so as
to be available to meet any emergency without loss of time.
The above instructions are practiced in addition to the general administrative and
executive responsibilities of the Executive Engineer.
Sub Divisional Officer Head Works
The Sub Divisional Officer (SDO) Headworks is the officer in direct control of the
Headworks. He performs his duties under the administrative and technical control of
the Executive Engineer of the Barrage Division and shall be responsible but not limited
to.
i. To give and provide all necessary superintendence required in proper
maintenance, control and safe operation of the Headworks.
ii. To obtain instructions from the Executive Engineer as and when he is in any
doubt or encounters any difficulty.
iii. For speedy and methodical execution of all instructions issued by the Executive
Engineer.
iv. To assist the Executive Engineer in the selection and appointment of regulation
staff.
v. For the organization and discipline of the entire staff under him in all respects,
especially training, allocation of duties, performance, maintenance of discipline
etc.
vi. For regulation of the river and canals in accordance with the regulation rules,
instructions of the Executive Engineer or instructions of the Authority that may
be nominated from time to time for regulation of diversions into the canals.
vii. To issue all important instructions for regulation of the river and canals to the
Sub Engineer Barrage either in writing or by inscribing in the English Logbook.
viii. To inspect English and Urdu Logbooks as frequently as he visits the Headworks
(at least once a day) to ensure that the operational data is recorded properly
and accurately and to record his findings and orders in the Logbooks as and
when he inspects them.
ix. To complete and study weather forecasts or warnings, promptly discuss his
assessments thereof with the Executive Engineer and make a beneficial use of
them in programming the regulation.
x. To check and scrutinize the silt sounding registers daily during the high flow
period i.e. April through October and once a week during the low supply period
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October through March and shall promptly bring all matters of concern to the
attention of the Executive Engineer for obtaining his instructions.
xi. To issue flood warnings to all concerned.
xii. To immediately communicate to the Executive Engineer of the Division,
personally when Executive Engineer is at Headquarters or by the speediest
possible means when Executive Engineer is out of station, all events of
significant importance like any damage to Headworks components, high flood
discharges and the action considered necessary to mitigate the damages, or
any accident of a serious nature to a person or property etc.
xiii. To ensure that the gates, and operating gears etc. are maintained and operated
in accordance with the instructions prescribed for each and shall cause
necessary checks to be made under his direct supervision.
xiv. To exercise frequent and effective field checks on the data observations,
sounding and surveys conducted in maintenance and operation of the
Headworks.
xv. To submit by the 5th date of each calendar month, a report about the
maintenance and operation of the Headworks during the preceding month.
xvi. To check in person and in accordance with the prescribed rules and instructions
the works proposed in maintenance, repairs and renewals.
xvii. To supervise in person once in a calendar month or as ordered from time to
time observations of piezometers and other support data.
xviii. To analyze the piezometer data and to promptly submit the record of
observations and his analysis to the Executive Engineer for his scrutiny and to
report immediately in person any unwary results to the Executive Engineer.
xix. To conduct in person testing and calibration of piezometers.
xx. He will not be away from Headquarters during high flood season from July
through September both months inclusive without written permission of the
Executive Engineer.
xxi. To stay all the time at the Headworks and to arrange regulation of the barrage
and regulators gates under his direct supervision as and when the flood
discharge is in the high flood or higher limits and to continue till the flood drops
below the aforesaid limit.
xxii. To exercise surprise check on the staff for duty between 10 P.M. and 4 A.M. at
least once a week during the high flow period and once in a fortnight during
other periods of the year and to record the findings of his check in the English
or Urdu Logbooks, and also report to the Executive Engineer.
xxiii. To arrange and ensure that telephone contact with the regulation room is
maintained with least disturbance and to take particular care during the flood
period of July through September that faults, if any, are speedily corrected.
xxiv. To act as the security Officer for the Headworks complex where he shall enforce
Security Standing Orders instituted from time to time by the Government under
guidance by Executive Engineer, the Senior Security Officer.
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Sub Engineer Headworks

The Sub Engineer Headworks is the official incharge of day to day management of the
Headworks. The Sub Engineer Headworks shall perform his duties with respect to
operation and maintenance of the Headworks under the administrative and technical
control of the SDO Headworks and shall be responsible for but not limited to:
i. To ensure proper maintenance and safe operation of the barrage.
ii. To speedily implement all regulation orders issued by the Executive Engineer
and the SDO.
iii. To work out gates openings and provide them to the Jamadar for arranging
gate adjustments.
iv. To properly maintain all the gauges of the barrage and the canals so as to have
a proper record of reliable operational data.
v. To calculate river discharges and assist SDO Headworks to issue flood
warnings to all concerned or in the absence of SDO Headworks issue on his
behalf Flood warnings to all concerned.
vi. To neatly maintain English log Book in the prescribed Performa and to ensure
that the entries made in the log Book are on the basis of actual observations
and that all regulation messages, river conditions, floods, regulation instructions
etc., are suitably incorporated in the Log book.
vii. To produce the logbooks to the SDO and the Executive Engineer as and when
they visit the Headworks and obtain their instructions on all matters for which
he requires guidance.
viii. To arrange recording in English logbook hourly gauges and discharges of the
river as and when they visit the Headworks and obtain their instructions on all
matters for which he requires guidance.
ix. To remain all the time at the barrage as and when the river is in flood and
arrange regulation of the barrage and canals through on the spot supervision.
x. To prepare and submit to SDO all data necessary for compilation of reports
prescribed under the rules and as called for, from time to time.
xi. To exert and maintain effective control and discipline on all working and
regulation personnel.
xii. To regularly check attendance and performance of all the regulation staff to
whom leave shall be granted by him with the prior consent of the SDO.
xiii. To allocate duties in such a manner as to get an optimum level of works from
all the work personnel engaged in operation and maintenance of the barrage.
Since the barrage is to be operated on three shift basis, the Sub Engineer
Barrage shall ensure that the duties are rotated on weekly basis.
xiv. To allocate duties in such a way that at least one Mechanical Tradesman is on
duty in each shift for maintenance and operation of the gates and gearings.
xv. To arrange and ensure that most of the work charged regulation staff and in
particular all the skilled personnel remain available at call during the high flow
period from June through September.
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xvi. To maintain gates and gearing / hoisting equipment and other mechanical and
electrical installations in accordance with "Operating and Maintenance
Instructions for gates and gearing"
xvii. To arrange and ensure that the regulation staff is well trained in operation and
maintenance of the gates and operating gears and to frequently exercise
efficiency checks.
xviii. To frequently check the gates and operating gears by operation under his
supervision and to ensure that they all are in operational condition good to meet
any Flood emergency.
xix. To observe soundings, probing etc of all works in his charge in accordance with
the practices set in O&M Manual or as directed from time to time by Executive
Engineer or the SDO.
xx. To exercise regular checks on all works in his charge and to speedily execute
all works in repairs, maintenance and renewals that may be entrusted to him.
xxi. To observe piezometers in accordance with the instructions in practice,
complete residual pressure percentages from the observed data and to submit
the observed and computed data in prescribed Performa to SDO Headworks
and to bring any unwary increase residual pressures to the notice of SDO or
the Executive Engineer.
xxii. To immediately inform the SDO in case of any unexpected or unusual increase
in river discharge.
xxiii. Not to leave the Headquarters without written permission of the Executive
Engineer during the high flow period of June through September.
xxiv. To instruct the Head Boatman to place the boats and motor launch etc at
suitable berthing places when flood is expected.
xxv. To see that all the navigation equipment (motor launch, boats etcare in working
order; that life jackets are available on them.
xxvi. To maintain in good condition and to account for all the reserve materials in his
charge and also to maintain in best working order and account all the Tools and
Plants being used for operation and maintenance of the barrage.
xxvii. To see that rules governing fishing are properly enforced. This includes that
even licensees are not authorized to enter into the Headworks area without the
permission of Executive Engineer/SDO Headworks.
xxviii. To prevent any person other than an official on duty from approaching and
passing over the overhead bridge, regulation points, divide walls and entry in
the security area, two miles upstream and one mile on the downstream of the
barrage gate line.
xxix. To assist the SDO in enforcing Security rules at the Headworks.
Sub Engineer Hydraulic
Role of The Sub Engineer is to assist SDO Headworks with respect to the hydraulic
observations such as silt entry in the off-taking canals, silt depths in the pockets and
in the head reaches of canals as well as discharge observation for calibration of rating
curve. His responsibilities include among others the following:
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i. Collection and analysis of water, sediment samples as well as bed load sample
from the pockets, downstream of head regulators of the off-taking canals;
upstream and downstream of silt ejectors in the canal and in their off taking
channels at least once every day or as directed by the SDO.
ii. Will immediately bring to the notice of the SDO Headworks and Sub Engineer
Headworks whenever silt entry (coarse and medium sand) in any canal
exceeds the carrying capacity of any canal.
iii. A regular and proper record of silt data shall also be maintained by him. The
resulting data and the efficiency of the ejector shall be worked out and recorded
in register to be maintained for the purpose of silt analysis at Divisional Office.
iv. Observation of silt depth in the pockets and head reaches of the three off taking
canals and plotting of results on weekly basis or as directed specifically by the
SDO.
v. Observation of meteorological data such as rainfall, temperature, humidity etc
and maintaining proper record for the same.
vi. Discharge observations at the demarcated sites of the canals on weekly basis
or as directed by the SDO.
vii. Sounding and probing before and after the floods at locations demarcated by
the SDO. This data along with previous observations shall also be plotted in
different colors to bring out the damages etc.
viii. After the flood season, say in November, he will start detailed annual river
survey in a reach 23 Km (15 miles) upstream & 15 Km (10 miles) downstream
of the barrage and observe spot levels on various cross section lines at 1.6 Km
(1mile) apart and delineate all the creeks and belas5.
ix. To maintain an account for the reserve stock of stone on works that may be in
his charge.
x. To check attendance as frequently as possible and performance of all the staff
under his charge.
Sub Engineer Mechanical
The Sub Engineer Mechanical shall be incharge of the Workshop and all mechanical
and electrical instructions. He shall perform his duties under the technical and
administrative control of the SDO Headworks and is responsible for but not limited to:
i. To operate and maintain the workshop and equipment installed there in
accordance with the established workshop practices, and to execute all other
tasks that may be entrusted to him from time to time by the SDO Headworks.
ii. To maintain and operate the mechanical and electrical plants such as pumping
plants, electric generator, compressors and welding equipment etc used in
operation and maintenance of the Headworks.
iii. To assist Sub Engineer Headworks in identification and rectification of the
defects in the Barrage gates and operating gears as and when directed by the
SDO Headworks.
5 Bela is a silt deposit in the form of a high level exposed shoal with vegetation
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iv. To assist Sub Engineer Headworks or exclusively handle any electrical or

mechanical tasks that may be entrusted to him under a special written order by
the SDO, Headworks Sub Division.
v. To regularly check attendance and performance of the staff under his charge.
vi. Not to leave the Headquarter without written permission of the Executive
Engineer Barrage during the High Flood period from July through September.
Head Jamadar
The head Jamadar at a barrage occupies a unique and central position. He is
responsible for regulation of the barrage as per general instructions (Regulation Rules)
and special orders (if any) given to him by the Sub Engineer Headworks, SDO
Headworks and / or Executive Engineer. He is also responsible for maintenance of
discipline among his subordinate staff; and to coordinate their activities to become an
integral part of the overall plan.
It is on account of above that his selection and appointment has to be made after a
thorough consideration and all round assessment of the incumbents. He has to be a
seasoned hand, strict disciplinarian, a willing worker himself as well as conversant with
the system of regulation and standing orders issued from time to time. He is also to be
a man of moderate temperament and should be able to command respect from his co-
workers. The Head Jamadar is responsible to see that the Jamadar's Charge Book
and Log Books are filled in by his Naib Jamadar every hour punctually and correctly
as no slackness of any sort on the part of any body is to be tolerated in this respect.
Key responsibilities of Head Jamadar are to:
i. Assist Sub Engineer Headworks in proper maintenance, operation, and upkeep
of the BarrageError! Bookmark not defined..
ii. Assist Sub Engineer Headworks in exercising necessary control over the
Regulation staff.
iii. Allocate, with the prior consent of Sub Engineer Headworks, duties to all the
members of the Regulation staff and to arrange temporary relief in case of
absence or leave.
iv. Assist Sub Engineer Headworks in writing and maintaining the English log
book.
v. Check that gauges are observed correctly and transcribed in Urdu and English
logbooks.
vi. Be present at Headworks all the time as and when the river is in flood.
vii. Arrange and ensure that during high flood period, June through September, all
the regulation staff is available at call.
viii. Conduct and supervise all tests necessary in ascertaining the proper
performance of the gates and gearings.
ix. Ensure through boatmen that all-floating vessels are properly berthed.
x. Promptly report to the Sub Engineer and the SDO Headworks any damage or
injury to property or persons that may be noticed by him or be brought to his
notice.
xi. Check and ensure enforcement of safety requirements, security orders, and
instructions relevant to him that may be issued from time to time.
BARRAGES
xii. Keep a watch on entry of unauthorized persons on the Barrage piers, fish
ladders and overhead bridge etc.
xiii. Keep a watch on the floating material approaching the barrage especially for
mines and subversive activities.
xiv. Keep a constant watch on the pond level. It should not be allowed to be abruptly
lowered or raised because in both the cases it can be dangerous to the barrage
components and hazardous to other works on the upstream and downstream.
xv. Make sure that while raising or lowering of upstream pond levels the head
across the barrage is within permissible limits. Even for short period, unless
requested in writing by the Executive Engineer, the limit shall not be exceeded.
xvi. Take extra care to guard against leakages through the bunds located on the
upstream of the barrage and/or sloughing of their slopes when pond level is
high.
xvii. Keep a constant eye on the formation of hydraulic jump (be it low supply period
or flood season) and no where in the undersluice or weir bay it should be
allowed to cross the toe of glacis. Also if there is abnormal turbulence on the
downstream pervious floor or river bed downstream of the floors it should be
reported to the officers.
xviii. Watch the working of Barrage gates by operating few of them every day so that
they can be easily raised and lowered at all times.
xix. Watch for any structural development and report them immediately to officers.
Naib Jamadar
He is responsible for:
i. Neatly maintaining the Urdu Log Book in accordance with the instructions in
force and to arrange and ensure that the entries made in the Urdu log book are
on the basis of physical observations and that all regulation messages and
instructions, weather conditions; river-conditions, floods etc are suitably
incorporated in the Log Book.
ii. Regular inspect of all gauges at the barrage and in the canals to ensure that
they are in serviceable condition.
iii. Obtaining regulation instructions from Head Jamadar, Sub Engineer / SDO
Headworks if and when there is any confusion or ambiguity.
iv. Reporting to the Sub Engineer Headworks any damage or injury to the property
or persons immediately as and when it is noticed by him or brought to his
attention.
v. Arranging and ensuring that no one except the duty staff is allowed to go up the
high deck or fish ladders etc, except with the permission of SDO Headworks.
Head Boatman
The head boatman is responsible for:
i. Maintenance and proper repairs of all the navigation equipment in his charge.
BARRAGES
ii. Making sure that the crew under him is sturdy and excellent swimmers and well
conversant with the temperament and general behavior of the river they are
required to navigate.
iii. Every sort of misconduct or any indiscipline in the men under his charge.
Headworks Mistry
He must be a seasoned hand, well conversant with the maintenance of masonry
works, leveling, observations of pressure pipes and other observations as
soundings, probing so that he is able to help the SDO and Sub Engineers.
BARRAGES
REFERENCES:
1. Ayoob S.M. and Ali C.M., Alignment and Shape of A Spur Head, Proceedings
of Pakistan Engineering Congress, (1975).
2. Verma C.V.J. et. al., River Behaviour Management and Training, Volume I,
Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Dehli, India, (1989).
3. Chohan M.A. et. al, Some Experiments on Shape of Spurs, CIV-CON-87/5,
Institution of Engineers, Pakistan.
4. Sharma K.R., Irrigation Engineering, Volume I, India Printers, India, (1959).
5. HASKONING, DELFT HYDRAULICS and NESPAK, Joint Venture Consultants,
First Flood Protection Sector Project, Final Report, (1997).
6. Public Works Department, Government of Sindh, Bund Manual (4th Edition
2008).
7. Zaidi S.M.A., Wind Generated Waves and Their Effects on River Bunds,
Proceedings of Pakistan Engineering Congress. (1978).
8. Harr M.E., Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill Book Company, (1962).
9. Pakistan Engineering Congress, Golden Jubilee Publication 1963.
10. Spring F.J.E. River Training and Control of Large Rivers 1903.
11. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Mississippi, USA, Hydraulic Design Criteria (1988).
12. Maynard S.T., Riprap Design Guidance for Channel Protection, Seminar on
River Training Works, Irrigation Research Institute, Lahore, Pakistan, (1996).
13. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center,
Vicksuburg, Mississippi, USA, Shore protection Manual (1984).
14. Saville T. et.al., Freeboard Allowance for Waves in Inland Reservoirs,
Proceeding of ASCE, ( May, 1962).
15. Taylor K.V., Slope protection on Earth and Rockfill Dams, Commission
International Des Grands Barrages, Madrid , ( 1973).
16. Tomlinson. M. J., Foundation Design and Construction
17. Bell, F. G., Ground Engineer’s Reference Book
18. Peck, R. B., Hanson, W. E. and Thornburn. T.H. Foundation Engineering
19. Leonards G-E, Foundation Engineering hand book
20. HR Wallingford, August, Groynes and Training Works Affecting River Planform,
A literature Review, Report SR229, 1990.
21. Pugh C.A, Hydraulic Model Studies of Fuse Plug Embankments, USBR, (1985).
22. Luna B.A. and Choudhry M.A., Estimation of Discharge through Breach in Flood
Embankment, Technical Note, Irrigation Research Institute (IRI). Lahore,
(1973).
23. Teng W.C., Foundation Design, Prentice-Hall, Inc., USA.
24. Qureshi M.S. and Akbar A, Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, A-One Publishers,
Pakistan, (1997).
25. Hoffmans G.J. C.M and Verheij H.J, Scour Manual, A. A. Blkema, Rotterdam,
Netherlands, (1997).
26. Pemberton E.L. and Lara J.M., Computing Degradation and Local Scour,
Technical Guideline, USBR, (1984).
27. Farraday R. V. and Charlton F.G., Hydraulics Research, Willingford, U.K.,
(1983).
28. Chaudhry G.Q. Thesis on Scour At River Training Wall and Bridge Pier ,
Department of Civil Engineering University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.
,(1997).
BARRAGES
29. Copeland R. “ General Requirements for Streambank and Streambed

Protection” publ. Streambank Protection, U.S. Army Corpse of Engineers ,
CE Training Management Diversion , Huntsville , Albama USA.
30. Sir Thomas Foy and H. Spencer Green, Barrages and Dams on Permeable
Foundations
31. Bureau of Indian Standards, Indian Standard Hydraulic Design of Barrages and
Weirs – Guidelines 1989
32. Sharma K.R., Irrigation Engineering, Volume III, India Printers, India.
33. Coode and Partners, Design Report – Qadirabad Barrage and Works in
Connection Therewith, (1963).
34. Rouse Hunter and Howe J.W, Basic Mechanics of Fluids Third Edition, John
Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.
35. Peterka A.J., Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipaters.
Engineering Monograph No. 25, USBR, (1984).
36. Chow Ven Te, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw – Hill Book Company, (
1973).
37. , U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington D.C., USA, Hydraulic Design of
Spillways (1110- 2 –1603) (1990).
38. Shakir B.A., Design of Canal Falls, West Pakistan Engineering Congress,
(1963).
39. Khosla A.N. et.al., Design of Weirs on Permeable Foundations, Central Board
of Irrigation, India, Publication No. 12, (1936).
40. Mushtaq A,. Hydraulics of Structures on Permeable Foundations, National
Book Foundation, (1983)
41. Golden Jubilee Publication Pakistan Engineering Congress, Design of
Barrages, 1963.
42. Leliavsky S., Irrigation and Hydraulic Design, Volume –I, (1955).
43. Bowles J.E, Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw- Hill Book Company,
New York, USA, (1986).
44. USBR, Design of Small Dams, (1987).
45. King H.W. and Brater E.F, Handbook of Hydraulics, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
BARRAGES
DESIGN OF UNLINED CANALS
Chapter 6
DESIGN OF UNLINED
CANALS
Compiled by
Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid
Reviewed by
Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry

Mr. Aslam Rashid
Table of Content
6 DESIGN OF UNLINED CANALS ..................................................................... 6-1
6.1 IRRIGATION CANALS .............................................................................. 6-1
6.1.1 Design Discharge of a Canal ................................................................. 6-2
6.1.2 Cropping Pattern and Intensity .............................................................. 6-3
6.1.3 Crop Water Requirements ..................................................................... 6-4
6.1.4 Conveyance Losses ............................................................................ 6-10
6.1.5 Field Losses ........................................................................................ 6-11
6.1.6 Reclamation Requirements ................................................................. 6-11
6.1.7 Water Allowance ................................................................................. 6-12
6.1.8 Chakbandi ........................................................................................... 6-13
6.2 DESIGN WATER LEVEL......................................................................... 6-17
6.3 CANAL DESIGN THEORIES .................................................................. 6-21
6.3.1 Kennedy Theory .................................................................................. 6-21
6.3.2 Lindley's Approach (1919): .................................................................. 6-22
6.3.3 Lacey Regime Theory ......................................................................... 6-22
6.3.4 Classification of Regimes of Canals .................................................... 6-24
6.3.5 Simons and Albertson Regime Method (1957): ................................... 6-25
6.3.6 Kirmani Modifications for Design of Link Canals ................................. 6-26
6.3.7 Tractive Force Theory ......................................................................... 6-26
6.3.8 Practice for Design of Canals in Punjab Irrigation Department............ 6-27
6.4 SILT FACTOR FOR PUNJAB CANALS................................................... 6-34
SOURCE: IRRIGATION ENGINEERING BY DR. IQBAL ALI (1975 - PAGE 114) ................ 6-35
6.5 SEDIMENT EXCLUSION AND EJECTION ............................................. 6-35
6.5.1 Sediment Deposition ........................................................................... 6-36
6.5.2 Hydraulic Survey of Irrigation Channels .............................................. 6-36
6.5.3 Inspection of main canals and works during annual canal closure ...... 6-36
6.6 SOLVED DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR EARTHEN CANAL .......................... 6-37
6.7 DESIGN CURVES USED IN CANAL DESIGN ........................................ 6-40
6.8 BERM FORMATION ..................................................................................... 6-53
6.8.1 Longitudinal Spurs ............................................................................... 6-54
6.8.2 Cross Spurs......................................................................................... 6-55
6.8.3 Hanging Spurs..................................................................................... 6-55
6.9 OTHER CANAL STRUCTURES ...................................................................... 6-56
6.9.1 Foot Bridges ........................................................................................ 6-56
6.9.2 Village Road Bridges ........................................................................... 6-56
6.9.3 District Road Bridges ........................................................................... 6-56
6.9.4 Arterial Road Bridges .......................................................................... 6-56
6.9.5 Syphon ................................................................................................ 6-56
6.9.6 Culvert ................................................................................................. 6-56
6.9.7 Super Passage .................................................................................... 6-56
6.9.8 Drainage Inlet ...................................................................................... 6-56
6.10 CANAL ROAD ............................................................................................ 6-57
6.10.1 Patrol and Non-Patrol Banks for Canals .......................................... 6-57
6.10.2 Right of Way (ROW) and RD Mark .................................................. 6-57
REFERENCES CITED – UNLINED CANAL ......................................................... 6-61
List of Tables
TABLE 6.1: KHARIF FULL SUPPLY FACTORS ............................................................... 6-12
TABLE 6.2: SANCTIONED WATER ALLOWANCE FOR PUNJAB CANALS ......................... 6-12
TABLE 6.3: MINIMUM FREE BOARD (FB) .................................................................... 6-13
TABLE 6.4: CAPACITY STATEMENT ............................................................................ 6-17
TABLE 6.5: COMMAND STATEMENT ........................................................................... 6-19
TABLE 6.6: DRAW OFF STATEMENT........................................................................... 6-20
TABLE 6.7: VARIATION OF PERMISSIBLE TRACTIVE FORCE WITH TYPE OF SOIL ............. 6-27
TABLE 6.8: TRACTIVE FORCES RECOMMENDED FOR FINE NON-COHESIVE SOILS .......... 6-27
TABLE 6.9: RANGE OF RESISTANCE FACTORS ............................................................. 6-34
TABLE 6.10: AVERAGE VALUES OF SILT FACTOR ........................................................ 6-35
TABLE 6.11: RECOMMENDED W IDTH OF CANAL BANKS ............................................... 6-57
List of Figures
FIGURE 6.1: TYPICAL IRRIGATION CANAL SYSTEM ........................................................ 6-2
FIGURE 6.2: UNLINED CANAL IN OPERATION ................................................................ 6-3
FIGURE 6.3: TYPES OF CROPS .................................................................................... 6-5
FIGURE 6.4: TYPICAL FLOW CHART FOR ESTIMATION OF IRRIGATION W ATER
REQUIREMENTS FROM CLIMATIC DATA ................................................................. 6-6
FIGURE 6.5: BED FORMS IN ALLUVIAL CHANNELS ....................................................... 6-30
FIGURE 6.6: SCHEMATIC VARIATION OF FRICTION FACTOR Ƒ WITH BED FORMS [BASED ON
DATA ON D = 0.28 MM] ...................................................................................... 6-32
FIGURE 6.7: SCHEMATIC PROFILE OF T.P. LINK ......................................................... 6-32
FIGURE 6.8: UPPER DEPALPUR CANAL SYSTEM ......................................................... 6-33
FIGURE 6.9: TYPICAL SEDIMENT DEPOSITION AND BERM EROSION .............................. 6-53
FIGURE 6.10: REBUILDING BERM .............................................................................. 6-53
FIGURE 6.11: KILLA BUSHING TECHNIQUES ............................................................... 6-54
FIGURE 6.12: TYPICAL HANGING SPUR...................................................................... 6-55
FIGURE 6.13: TYPICAL SECTIONS OF MAIN CANAL & BRANCH CANAL .......................... 6-58
FIGURE 6.14: TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF A W ATER COURSE ................................... 6-59
FIGURE 6.15: TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF A DISTRIBUTARY....................................... 6-60
6 DESIGN OF UNLINED CANALS

Irrigation Engineers are involved in planning, Design, Construction and Operation of
1,000 miles of canals to irrigate fertile lands of the Country. The design of an unlined
canal is an important challenge in Hydraulics and Irrigation Engineering. The difficulty
is erosion and deposition of sediments depending upon whether the canal carries a
silt free water (from storages) or heavy sediment load coming during flow season of
Rivers. The above factors are very important and are to be given due consideration
while designing the system.
6.1 IRRIGATION CANALS
A direct irrigation scheme which makes use of a weir or a barrage as well as a storage
irrigation scheme which makes use of a storage dam or a storage reservoir, requires
necessary network of canals to irrigate the agricultural lands.
The entire system consists of Main Canals, Branch Canals, Distributaries and Minors
and Sub Minors and Water Courses and is to be designed properly for a certain
realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide
sufficient irrigation water to command areas of the main canals. The above canal may
have to be aligned and are excavated either in alluvial soils or non-alluvial soils,
depending upon the soils they are called as alluvial canals or non-alluvial canals.
These are open channels in character in which water flows with free surface.
The classification of channels can be based on their origin as natural channel /
reservoir / nullah / flashy streams / springs and artificial channels. The artificial channel
has a system of main canal, branch canal and each have a specific role in irrigated
agriculture. The artificial channel can also be a type of culvert, flume, chute, drops,
culverts and open free surface tunnel.
Their classification based on the function can be:
 Irrigation Canal: conveys water to the agricultural fields.
 Carrier Canal: besides doing irrigation it carries water for an another canal.
 Feeder Canal: constructed with idea of feeding two or more canals.
 Navigation Canal
 Power Channel
The classification of main canal, branch canal etc. explained above can further be
defined as below:
1. Main Canal (MC)
It off takes from Weirs / Barrages / Dams constructed over Rivers including Nullahs
and has following important reaches:
Head Reach: The canal head works is generally situated in this reach. It must be
aligned very carefully and has to be excavated in a deep cutting below natural surface
level (NSL).
Portion below Head Reach: Efforts are made to align the canal along the watershed
and as far as possible central to the command area, sometime in order to provide
safety to towns and villages, the canal are bypassed and excavated in the watershed.
2. Branch Canals (BC)
The branch canals mostly off takes from the Main Canal and provide water to the off
taking distributary canals in their entire length and at tail of the branch one, two or
more distributary canals off-takes. Normally it should be preferred that no direct

irrigation may be done through the branch canal but high lands can have direct outlet
from the branch canal.
3. Distributary Canals (DC)
These are small irrigation channels normally have a discharge of 300 cs. or less and
off take from the branch canal / main canal and distributes the canal supply through
outlets, which feed the water courses.
4. Water Courses (WC)
Water Courses feed the irrigation water to the farm units. Beyond water course there
can be field channel also supplying water for application of water to the fields.
The main canal getting supply from the source (River / Dam / Reservoir) are often
designated on the basis of location of their head regulators. The canal offtaking from
left bank is called Left Bank Main Canal and the one offtaking from the right bank is
designated as the Right Bank Main Canal depending upon the sides of the source, it
is off-taking.
Figure 6.1 shows a Typical Irrigation Canal System
Figure 6.1: Typical Irrigation Canal System

6.1.1 Design Discharge of a Canal
The Design discharge is the sanctioned volume of water flowing through a cross
section of a main canal, branch canal / distributary in a unit time. The unit used to
measure discharge is usually (ft3/sec-cusecs) or (m3 / sec-cumecs). The symbol used
for flow discharge is Q. Q can be calculated by using the following formula:
Q = AV
Q = Discharge (ft3/sec-cusecs)
A = Cross section area of flow (ft2)

V = Average velocity (ft/sec)
Figure 6.2: Unlined Canal in Operation

The discharge capacity of the canal is fixed so as to provide the maximum discharge
required for the command area.
It shall be fixed on the basis of following factors:
 The cultivable command area
 Water Allowance, i.e. the outlet capacity in cusec / per one thousand acres or
cumecs / per one thousand hectares considering the duty, cropping pattern,
intensity, and water availability, etc
 Transmission losses due to seepage and evaporation from canals water
courses and irrigated area. Field losses are also accounted for.
The carrying capacities of the canals and distributaries are worked out from Head to
Tail.
6.1.2 Cropping Pattern and Intensity
Cropping pattern indicates the area under different crops in Kharif and Rabi season.
The cropping pattern depends upon the following main factors:
 Availability of water
 Type of soil
 Climatic conditions
 Value of crops
 Socio-economic aspects
The selection of the crops is done as per availability of water at diversion headwork.
The cotton and rice crops needs relatively impervious soils. The crops needing more
water shall be grown in the season when rainfall is available. The market values of
crops are also helpful in the selection of the crop. The socio-economic aspects of the
region with special requirements can also be an important factor. The cropping pattern
in the Punjab province consists of Kharif and Rabi Crops and also the perennial crops
such as sugarcane and orchards (Figure 6.3 – Types of Crops). In the Punjab province
normally rice, wheat rotation is practiced in the upper part of the province and cotton,
wheat rotation is adopted in the southern part of the province. The selection of the
crops should be carefully made for the design of the system.
Intensity of irrigation is the percentage of the cultivable irrigation area, irrigated during
the given period of each year. The entire Cultivable Command Area (CCA) is generally
not irrigated. Normally irrigation intensity is fixed separately for Kharif crops (April to
September) and Rabi Crops (October to March). Generally in the Punjab Province
because of shortage of irrigation water, the design intensity for the year is adopted as
60 to 70% (Kharif to Rabi ratio 1:2). There are certain areas in the Punjab where the
average existing irrigation intensity is in the range of 125% to 150% and in some areas
it touches the figure of 200% where canal water is supplemented by ground water.
The general experience is as the intensity of irrigation increases the irrigation
management becomes difficult. Some of the times there is problem of salinity or of
water logging. The fertility of the soil is also decreased with time.
6.1.3 Crop Water Requirements
Crop water requirements may be defined as the depth of water needed to meet the
water loss through evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the plant of a
disease free crop, growing in large field under non-restricting soil conditions including
soil water and fertility and achieving full production potential under the given growing
environments. The combination of water lost from the soil surface by evaporation and
water used by the crop by transpiration is referred to as evapotranspiration (ET).
Computation of water requirements for irrigation crops is fundamental in design of an
irrigation canal system and for scheduling of irrigation in the project area. The pattern
of crop water use determines the capacities of the reservoirs. This information is also
used for determining the volume of the water required for meeting monthly and
seasonal water requirements for fields, farms and the project as a whole. In addition,
this information is essential for most water rights transfer from agriculture to other uses
and helps in regional allocation of irrigation water.
Water is essential for plant growth. However, too little and too much water adversely
affects plant growth. In areas of low rainfall, irrigation is applied to supplement crop
water needed. The main objective of irrigation is to supply the plant with the
appropriate amount of water at the proper time for its normal growth. The other
considerations, through equally important, are the control of groundwater at a safe
depth below the root zone and leaching of excess salts from the root zone area.
The Irrigation Delta values for important crops are as under:
Crop Irrigation Delta
Rice 44 inches (111.76 cm)
Sugarcane 40 inches (101.6 cm)
Cotton 20 inches (50.8 cm)
Wheat 12 inches (30.48 cm)
Maize 18 inches (45.72 cm)
Fodder 9 inches (22.86 cm)

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
Kharif / Rabi – Maize Crop Kharif / Rabi – Vegetables
Kharif – Rice Crop Rabi – Wheat Crop
Kharif & Rabi – Sugarcane Crop Kharif- Mango Crop

Figure 6.3: Types of Crops
The irrigation engineer or agricultural scientist should make sure that the definition of
Evapotranspiration, being used is completely understood and that written
documentation carefully identifies the basic definitions used in calculations, design, or
reports. Actual ‘E’ is estimated using equation here under:
Et = KcEtr or Et = KcEto
‘E’ refers to reference crop Et based on alfalfa and ‘E’ refers to reference crop
Et based on grass.
Figure 6.4: Typical Flow Chart for Estimation of Irrigation Water Requirements
from Climatic Data
Et is the principal factor in determining irrigation water requirements, but losses in
storage, conveyance and applying water, the inability to apply water uniformly, and the
need for soil leaching are additional factors. The planning and operation of irrigation
systems must take all these factors into consideration in determining water
requirements.
The objectives of the crop water requirements study are to:

 Formulate a feasible and profitable cropping pattern for the Project Area
on the basis of scientific water balance study.
 Provide supporting irrigation supply data for designing of the storage
capacity and field irrigation network.
 Provide guidelines for the operating agency and supply scientific
irrigation schedule to the farmers for maximization of crop production
through timely application of optimum crop water requirement.
 Provide guidance to the Provincial and Federal agencies involved in the
allocation of water for different purposes.
 Work out per unit cost of water to estimate gross margins of individual
crops.
 Avoid over irrigation which causes depression in crop yields through
reduction in soil aeration and restricting gases exchange between the
soil and atmosphere
 Maintain proper salt balance and remove salinity in field crop root zone.
There are three methods to estimate crop water requirements. These are:
i. Direct measurements using lysimeters
ii. Through field experiments
iii. Prediction of crop water requirements using agro-meteorological data
The first method is very accurate and reliable but needs high technical skill and is
expensive and time consuming. The second method is likewise more time consuming
and also expensive. The prediction method is quick, fairly accurate and less
expensive. Crop water requirements can be calculated with the following four popular
prediction methods, each using a set of climatic data:
Blaney - Criddle
Pan Evaporation
Radiation
Modified Penman - Monteith
All the four prediction methods give fairly good estimates of potential
evapotranspiration (ETo) and can be used depending upon the availability of climatic
data. According to the FAO publication, Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24; “Crop
Water Requirements” the corresponding accuracy of these methods is 75%, 80%,
85% and 90% respectively. The Modified Penman Monteith method provides the most
satisfactory results in areas where measured data on temperature, humidity, wind
speed and sunshine hours or radiation are available.
Modified Penman-Monteith Method
The Mathematical formula and equation used in this method is described below:
ETo = c[W.Rn + (1-W) f(u) (ea-ed)]
Where
ETo = Potential evapotranspiration or reference crop evapotranspiration
in mm/day.
W = A temperature and elevation related weighting factor used to
account for the effect of radiation on ETo.
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day.
f(u) = A wind related function.

ea = Saturation vapour pressure in millibars as a function of mean air
temperature.
ed = Mean actual vapour pressure in the air in millibars.
RH (Mean) x ea
ed =
100
RH = Relative humidity (%)
Rn = Rns – Rnl
In which
Rns = Net incoming short wave solar radiation
Rnl = Ra(1-) x (0.25+0.5n/N)
Where
Ra = Extra terrestrial radiation expressed in equivalent evaporation in
mm/day.
 = Reflection Co-efficient
Rnl = the net long wave radiation
= f(t) x f(ed) x f(n/N)
N = Possible sunshine hours at different latitudes
n = Actual sun shine hours
c = Adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night
weather conditions.
The consumptive use of crops (Kharif/Rabi as shown above) can also be measured or
estimated with the scientific method such as Blaney-Criddle Method, Modified Penman
Method, Pan Evaporation or Direct Measurement through Tank and Lysimeters.
Further details to above methods can be referred in FAO Publication No. 24.
A. Punjab Irrigation Department Practice
In this method guidance is taken from a similar existing projects and the water
allowance for an outlet is determined. The following terms which are used in
determining the water allowance must be understood.
1. Full Supply Factor: This means the duty of the canal which is in the design
stage. The word duty mean the area successfully irrigated during a base period (i.e.
the period for which the crop is standing on the ground) per cusec of average supply
at channel head.
2. Intensity of Irrigation: This is the percentage of the cultivable irrigable area
irrigated during a given period each year. The entire cultivable commanded area is
generally not irrigated. Normally the irrigation intensity is fixed separately for Kharif
(April to September) and Rabi crops (October to March). Theoretically, a maximum
intensity of 200 percent annually, i.e. 100 percent Kharif and 100 percent Rabi is
possible, but is never achieved in practice. The following factors influence the fixing of
irrigation intensity:
a. Shortage of Water: When the supply of water is inadequate the
irrigation intensity for the proposed project is decreased. As a general
practice a minimum of 40 percent or more is fixed. In cases where the
intensity comes to less than 40 percent the irrigation limits of the project
area are reduced.
b. Rest for Land: Primitive farming methods make it imperative that land
is rested between cropping seasons. This is done by the rotation of the
water supply to the CCA (Culturable Command Area). When modern

fertilizers are used then there is no need to decrease the irrigation
intensity for the purpose of resting the land.
c. Danger of Water Logging: In areas with a high ground water table a
low intensity of irrigation is provided to minimize the risk of waterlogging
and to encourage cultivators to sink tube wells so as to provide additional
irrigation water and also lower the water table.
3. Kharif-Rabi Ratio: Kharif crop like cotton and rice are grown from April to
October, whereas Rabi crops like wheat and grown from October to March. Kharif
crops require more water than Rabi crops. These crops continue to occupy the land
even when it is the sowing season for Rabi. Therefore, for irrigation purposes the areas
of Kharif and Rabi are treated separately. The area to be irrigated for Kharif as well as
for Rabi is fixed according to the type of mills or factories, the type of soil, the habits
of the farmers, cropping pattern, climate etc. The ratio of the area to be irrigated in
Kharif and Rabi is known as the Kharif-Rabi ratio.
4. Water Allowance: Total water per cusecs required at the outlet level to irrigate
1000 acres of CCA, is known as the water allowance.
B. Procedure for Calculation of Water Allowance
The procedure for fixing the channel capacity moves from the tail end of the channel
towards the head. Each longitudinal section where the change in discharge is
substantial, it is designed separately. The fixing of channel capacity and canal water
level starts therefore from the last outlet on the system. Thus, as a first step, the water
allowance for the outlets has to be determined, for which the full supply factor, irrigation
intensity and Kharif-Rabi ratios have to be known. The full supply factor is determined
on the basis of previous available actual values of duty in areas which are similar to
the project area under consideration. Irrigation intensity and Kharif-Rabi ratio are fixed
as a matter of policy for that area. An example is worked out below:
The Kharif duty for an area similar to the project area has been found to be 60
acre/cusecs. On the basis of the factors which influence the duty in the new project
area, the full supply factor is taken as 60 acres/cusecs.
Full Supply Factor 60 acres/cusecs
Gross Area of the Project 108,000 acres
Area unfit for irrigation 8000 acres
Area fit for irrigation (CCA) 100,000 acres
Irrigation intensity 80%
Area entitled to irrigation 80,000 acres
Kharif-Rabi Ratio 1:1
Kharif Area 40,000 acres
Amount of water required 40,000/60= 666.6 cs
at the canal head
Deducting Absorption Losses @ 10% 66.6 cs
Water Allowance 600 x 1000 / 100,000= 6 cs
Water allowance may have to be determined for separate tracts if the project area is
very large and prevailing conditions differ substantially.
After working out the water allowance for the various portions, the capacity of each
outlet is determined on the basis of the area under the command of each outlet. The
design discharge for each outlet is added and then by adding the losses in each
portion, the design discharge for various canal sections is fixed. The bed width, depth
and slope are thus calculated for each portion, and all the information is provided on
a drawing given the profile or longitudinal section of canal.
6.1.4 Conveyance Losses
Water enters the main canal at the Head works / Barrage through the head regulator
and flows through the branches, distributaries and the water courses and finally
reaches the field. Throughout its journey, there are continuous water losses which
have to be accounted for the design of channels. These losses are considerable,
especially in unlined canals. In some cases, the losses may be as high as one-quarter
to one-half of the water diverted in the main canal.
The losses in irrigation channels are mainly of the following types:
 Absorption losses
 Percolation (or seepage) losses
 Evaporation losses
 Transpiration losses.
Absorption and Percolation losses from the canal mainly depend upon the following
factors:
i) Permeability of Soil: The greater is the permeability of the soil in the
bed and banks of the channel, the greater are the losses.
ii) Depth of Water: The greater is the depth of water in the canal, the
greater are the losses.
iii) Velocity of Water: The losses decrease with an increase in the velocity
of flow in the channel.
iv) Amount of Silt: The losses decrease with an increase in the amount of
silt carried by the canal water.
v) Temperature of Water: The losses increase with an increase in
temperature of water because its viscosity decreases and the
permeability of soil is also increased.
vi) Age of the Channel: The losses are large in newly constructed
channels and they reduce as silt gets deposited with the passage of time
and relatively impervious silt layer is formed on the bed. This is also
called natural sealing of pores of soil.
vii) Level of the Ground Water Table: The losses depend on the position
of the water table with respect to the canal bed. The losses are more
when the water table is deep.
The empirical formula to calculate seepage loss in earthen channels is as under:
K = 5 (Q) 0.0625
where K = absorption loss per million square feet of wetted area
Q = Discharge in cusecs in any reach
As per practice in the Department the conveyance losses are considered generally
taken as 8 cusecs for million square feet of wetted perimeter for design of new canal
system.
The conveyance losses can also be actually measured through inflow, outflow and
ponding methods. Further details of these procedures can be seen in any Book of
Irrigation Engineering.
For the design of a new channel the conveyance losses of the existing system (s) in
the vicinity can also be utilized. For the existing channels the conveyance losses are
reduced due to normal sealing process of voids by clay particles of flowing water. It
has been observed that a system operating for 100 years or so, the losses can be
reduced by 50% of the design values.
In Pakistan, the average losses to be adopted in design of the canal system are
mentioned as Percentage (%) of the authorized discharge and are as under:
 Main Canal and Branches = 15 to 20%
 Major and minor distributaries = 6 to 8%
 Field channels = 20 to 22%
 During application of water to fields = 25 to 27%
6.1.5 Field Losses
The field losses are the percentage of the irrigation water that is not available for
consumptive use by the crops. A large portion of irrigation water is lost and is called
field loss and it depends upon the following main factors:
 Seepage and evaporation from the field channels
 Breaches in the water courses / field channels
 Percolation beyond the root zone
 Surface runoff through breaches in the field
 Poor land preparation
 Poor design of farm irrigation system
 Size of plots irrigated
These losses can be in the range of 25% to 27%.
6.1.6 Reclamation Requirements
The reclamation requirements depend on the following:
i) Soil characteristics
ii) Salt distribution in the soil profile
iii) pH value and total soluble salt content in soil
iv) Irrigation water quality and
v) Decrease in yield due to presence of salts
The leaching requirement is determined by the following equation:
LR = ECIw
ECdw
Where LR = leaching requirement (%)
EC = electrical conductivity (mmho/cm)
lw = irrigation water
dw = drainage water
During Kharif season when the extra water is available in the system, reclamation
shoots (pipes) are added to the outlets and extra water reclamation water allowed for
reclamation of salinity is supplied through these shoots. After the end of Kharif Season
this facility is discontinued and then from next Kharif season it is repeated and normally
it takes three (03) years to reduce the salinity in the outlet chak. Currently reclamation
shoots (pipes) are not being allowed by the Department.
6.1.7 Water Allowance
As defined earlier this represents the number of cusecs of outlet capacity authorized
for 1000 acres of CCA. This forms the basis for the design of the canal system. The
canals are designed for Kharif full supply factor at outlets.
The Kharif full supply factor for the important canals of Punjab is as under:
Table 6.1: Kharif Full Supply Factors
Name of Canal Fully Supply Factor at Outlet during
Kharif
Upper Chenab Canal 88
Lower Chenab Canal 58 to 98
Pak Pattan Canal 54 to 77
Depalpur Canal 54 to 55
Rangpur Canal 65.5
The sanctioned water allowance (cs/1000 acres) for perennial and non-perennial
important canals of the Punjab is shown in Table 6.2:
Table 6.2: Sanctioned Water Allowance for Punjab Canals
(cs per 1000 Acres)
Canal System Perennial Non-Perennial
Upper Jhelum Canal 3.03 3.25
Lower Jhelum Canal 2.84 4.30
Upper Chenab Canal 2.83 2.93
Lower Chenab Canal 3.17 4.30
Lower Bari Doab Canal 3.00 3.30
Haveli & Sidhnai Canals 3.00 4.80
Rangpur Canal -- 4.80
Depalpur Canal -- 5.50
Pakpattan Canal 3.60 5.50
Fordwah Canal 3.60 5.50
Malisi Canal -- 5.50
Bahawal Canal 2.50 5.50
Panjnad Canal 4.20 5.50
Abbasia Canal 4.25 5.50
Thal Canal 3.18 --
Muzaffargarh Canal -- 8.50
D.G Khan Canal -- 6.36
Normally for design of canal system a perennial water allowance of 3.5 to 4 cusecs is
recommended and for non-perennial as 4.5 to 5.0 cusecs may be adopted. There can
also be special allowance for military grass farms and also special water allowance for
sanctioned gardens and orchards. For the time being government has imposed
complete ban on sanctioned of extra water for special allowances.
The higher water allowance can cause water logging conditions in the system with a
operation of 10 to 15 years, so very high water allowance should not be taken up for
design in case of heavy soils.
The minimum recommended Free Board is given in the Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Minimum Free Board (FB)
Full Supply Discharge (Cs) Free Board (ft)
5-250 1.0
251-500 2.0
501-1000 2.5
1001-5000 3.0
5001 and above 4.0
The common practice is to adopt a berm width of ½ d to 3d whether the channel is in

cutting / filling where d is normal depth of flow (ft).
6.1.8 Chakbandi
The Chakbandi is the process of computing the area to be irrigated by a distributary,
minor or sub minors. The area to be irrigated in a chak must have the following
characteristics
1. The Chak is the area irrigated from one outlet
2. The factors determining the size of a chak area are:
a. Discharge which can be handled efficiently by the cultivator.
b. Nature and slope of the country to be irrigated
c. Political (opposed to “Natural” boundaries of villages and
holdings).
It has been found in practice that a two cusec outlet is generally the best. An average
cultivator can easily control this discharge and the time taken to irrigate a field is not
excessive. The water course discharge should not, in general, exceed three cusecs or
be less than one cusec. If for other reasons it is proposed to demarcate a chak
requiring less than on cusec, specific sanction of the Chief Engineer is required. One
the other hand, at the general request of the cultivators for discharges upto 4 cusecs
can be given.
3. The chak should be treated in all respects as miniature irrigation
scheme. The main watercourse should follow the local watershed, and
the boundaries of the chak should be the local drainage lines and the
branch watercourses in the same way, should follow minor ridges.
Where drainage cannot be avoided, adequate provisions for passing the
watercourse under or over the drainage system is essential.
In chaks where they are no marked ridges or depressions, the accurate
lay-out of watercourse is not so essential and more attention can be paid
to the requirements of village boundaries, etc. in chaks where there is a
more or less uniform slope from one boundary to another, the main
watercourse must obviously be carried along higher boundary, with

branch watercourses off taking at intervals.
4. It is difficult to over-emphasize the importance of the best possible lay-
out of a chak as determined by natural features. Any deviations
therefrom often involve actual engineering difficulties, and always entail
waste of water and a lack of efficiency in distribution.
In a new project, it is usual to reserve the areas occupied by drainages
with a view to improvements at a later date should such additions are
found necessary. It is advisable that this reservation should be carried
as far as possible. In addition, natural chaks should be delineated on the
maps and village boundaries made to coincide with them.
On established areas, this is not possible of course, but pressure should
be brought to bear on cultivators to induce them to irrigate from the outlet
indicated by natural conditions, rather than the outlet “belonging to the
village”. Cultivators frequently desired that two or more villages
especially where they are inhabited by different communities or parties
that do not pull on well with one another, should not be put on the same
outlet. If it is possible to accede to the wishes of cultivators without
transgressing any of the principals laid down about, it may be done.
Wherever possible the chak boundary should be along killa lines or
village boundary.
5. The first requirement in the selection of chaks is an accurate closely
contoured map of the area to be irrigated. In Punjab, the one foot interval
contour maps, to a scale of 4 inches or 6 inches to the mile, are usually
used. Before demarcating chaks, the positions of the distributary
channels and their irrigation boundaries are marked on the contoured
maps together with the principal drainages.
The local ridges and depressions (i.e., drainages) should then be
marked. Sometimes a natural local system of drainage will be self-
evident. Occasionally the country side may be so irregular as to make
marking of chaks on drawings difficult. The actual chak boundaries are
then sketched in, bearing in mind the limitation imposed by the
considerations in paragraphs above and the orders contained in
paragraph 13.1 of the Revenue Manual.
6. The next step is to extract the gross area of the chak. From this must be
deducted, first of all, un-commanded area; then the area reserved for
drainages, roads, villages and any area which is otherwise un-culturable.
The result is the culturable command area for which water must be
provided.
While theoretically water should be allowed only for the CCA in a chak,
in actual practice, small blocks of un-culturable and un-commanded
areas also rank for water. The exact orders in this respect vary from
canal to canal, as the application of general orders on the subject is
rendered difficult by established claims and rights. An ideal code of
orders would be as follows:
a. Exclude all ghairmumkin land
b. Exclude all sailaba areas.
c. Exclude all un-cultivable land except small patches of a few areas
in area surrounded by good culturable land.
d. Exclude all unallocated crown waste lands until such time as they
are allotted.
e. Of the balance include in the CCA all commanded areas except
the following lands:
i. In where sub-soil water level is within 3 ft of the natural surface
and drainage facilities do not exist.
ii. Lands are provided with well (chahi) and the spring level is
within 10 ft the ground.
f. Un-commanded areas are allotted water only in the following
cases:
i. To small patches of a few acres in area surrounded by
commanded lands,
ii. To those areas for which it has been decided to provide lift
irrigation (Chief Engineer’s sanction is necessary).
Such lift chaks are kept distinct from chaks provided with gravity
flow irrigation.
From the known culturable commanded area and the project
water allowance, the capacity allotted to the chak is calculated.
Preparation of Capacity Statement
The first step in the design of a distributary is to determine the capacity of each outlet
and off taking minor. For this purpose a capacity statement is prepared as shown in
Table 6.4, more or less, on the following:
The information in Column No. 4 - 10 is obtained from the Chakbandi Missal and
Chakbandi Register. The limit between large and small blocks of un-commanded area
in Column No. 6 and 7 will depend on the orders applicable to each canal. On some
canals small blocks of un-commanded area are not excluded from C.C.A.
The exact form of the capacity statement varies from canal to canal depending on the
orders that are followed on that canal with respect to the areas that rank for water.
Preparation of Command Statement
The process of design of an irrigation channel is dual. The method of determining the
discharge of a channel in its various reaches has been described in the preceding
paragraphs. The next step is to determine the levels at which water should be run in
a distributary system so that it may be possible to irrigate all the area that is included
in Column 10 of the capacity statement. This is done by preparing a command
statement as shown in Table 6.5 considering the following:
Columns 1 to 3 of the command statement require no explanation. In Column 4 the
controlling level in the chak of the outlet is entered, or in other words, level of the area
requiring the highest water surface level at the head of the watercourse. In selecting
this controlling level, care must be exercised not to raise unduly the water levels by
selecting a small patch of high land. Such patches should be excluded. On the other
hand, it is advisable to make two or three tests both of the actual highest areas to be
irrigated and also of areas possibly a little lower in level but farther away from the
outlet, to determine that controlling level which actually requires the highest water level
in the watercourse.
The distance of this controlling point from the outlet is measured to determine the fall
in water level from the outlet to this controlling point. It is usual to adopt a slope of 0.2
per square or rectangle length which is about 1,000 ft. This is entered in Column 5.
The water surface level required at the head of the water course is determined in
Column 6. This is the sum of Column 4 and Column 5+3 inches for the field command.
On some canals it is usual to add a further 3 inches as a margin to cover silting in the
head reach of the watercourse. This is a valuable precaution, because in the absence
of such margin any silting in the watercourse must affect the modularity of the outlet.
Column 7 is filled in only when a command statement is being prepared for an existing
channel. The highest water surface level, or marks thereof, are actually surveyed and
the observed levels are entered in this Column. Ordinarily the value in Column 7 and
that in Column 6 should agree, but if the difference is very marked it is worthwhile to
investigate the reasons thereof. If it is revealed that the watercourse is in bad
maintenance and the working head can be improved if the deposited silt is properly
cleared, the observed levels could be ignored. But in other cases actual observed
levels should be preferred to the theoretical value determined in Column 6. Column 8
should thus be filled in very carefully.
In Column 9, the R.L. of the proposed full supply level in the distributary is recorded.
This is obtained from the L section which is described in the following paragraph.
The working head of the outlet that is difference in Columns 9 and 8 is recorded in
Column 10. This should be enough for the outlet to work modularly. At this place, it
may be stated, however, that the minimum working head normally required for an
outlet is 0.2 x the full supply depth of the distributary. This is what would be required
for an open flume outlet set at bed level. Thus as a rough guide the working head in
Column 10 should be in excess of 0.2 x full supply depth in the distributary at the point.
Preparation of Draw off Statement
Having determined the capacity of each offtake through the capacity statement, the
next step is to find the capacity of the channel reach by reach. This is done by
preparing a draw-off statement as shown in Table 6.6 in the following form:
The following explanatory remarks will explain the preparation of the draw-off
statement.
Column 1- all irrigating channels are marked from head to tail by distance marks
placed 1,000 feet apart. This permits ready identification of any point on the channel.
Column 2 – Except at the tail cluster, where there may be a number of separate outlets,
every outlet must be on the right or left hand side of a channel when facing
downstream.
Column 3 – In this Column is recorded the capacity of every outlet and other offtakes
as determined in the capacity statement.
Column 4 – In this Column, the running total of Column 3 is entered by reaches. The
matter of reaches requires careful attention. Convenient reaches must be selected and
the experience of the designer is almost the only guide to their selection. Towards the
tail of the channel, where the discharge is small, these reaches must be short. Near
the head, the reaches may be longer. The point of offtake of a minor should always be
the end of a reach.
The most important consideration in the selection of reaches should be that (unless
there is a masonry work at the end of a reach), the variation in the section of two
adjoining reaches of a channel is not very marked. As a rough rule, reaches should be
so fixed that the section of the channel does not alter by more than 10% (limited to six
inches in small channels) in width and by more than 10% (limited to 0.2 ft in small
channels) in depths, from one reach to the next below.
Column 5 – In this Column the absorption in the reach is to be entered.
Column 6 – In this Column is entered the total net draw-off in the reach plus the
absorption loss in the reach.
Column 7 – In this Column the actual discharge of the channel from point to point is
given.
Column 8 – 11 – Show the designed data of the channel in its various reaches.
6.2 DESIGN WATER LEVEL
The design water level of a main canal / branch canal / distributary is the sanctioned
water line and is important parameter for checking the discharge distribution to outlets.
The design water level is fixed with respect to field level of the command area with
minimum working head of the outlet chak as 3 inches. The design discharge and the
design water level are obtained after preparing the Longitudinal Section (L- section) of
the canal branch / distributary. The longitudinal section is prepared on a distorted
scale. The horizontal scale generally adopted is 2 inches to a mile or some time to a
scale of 1 inch to a mile. Vertical scale generally adopted as 1/100. For small
distributary or minor a scale of 1/50 may be adopted. The following tables of capacity
statement, command statement and draw-off statement are prepared from the
Chakbandi / revenue missal and then the Longitudinal Section (L-Section) is prepared.
Once the L-Section is prepared then its sanction is obtained from the competent
authority as the case may be (Executive Engineer, Superintending Engineer and Chief
Engineer). This approved L-Section gives the design discharge and design water level
at the head of the canal, and thereafter the design procedure for the canal is started.
Table 6.4: Capacity Statement
Serial No.
1
R.D. of
Outlet
2
Capacity Statement
Side, Left or
Right
3
Gross
Area
4
Ghair Mumkin
5
6-18
Capacity Statement
Culturable Un-Commanded Area

Other Commanded
Discharge of Area
Total allowance Area for which
outlet at Allotted
Authorized e.g. Garden water is to be Column 4
cusecs per Area
Discharge or Paddock supplied – Column 5 Small Large
0/00 Acres Lift Area
Area – Column 6 Blocks Blocks
– Column 7
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
Command Statement
Water Surface
Actual prevailing Fall in Water
Finally accepted Level Required Controlling
Maximum R.L. of Level from Side
Water Level at at Had of Water N.S Level of R.D. of Serial
water surface at Outlet to (Right or
Head of Course (column Land to be Outlet. No.
head of controlling Left).
Watercourse 4 + column 5 + Commanded
Watercourse. N.S. Level
0.25 ft)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table 6.5: Command Statement
6-19
6-20
Draw Off Statement Command Statement
Total Working Head R.L. of

Absorption Total Drawoff Authorized Side-
capacity Reduced of outlet Proposed
loss in the of offtakes in Discharge of Right or
utilized in Distance (Column 9– F.S.L. in
reach the reach the off takes Left
the reach Column 8) Distributary
10 9
6 5 4 3 2 1
Table 6.6: Draw Off Statement
the Channel in
Discharge of
the Reach
7
Slope
8
Draw Off Statement
Proposed Data
Bed width
9
10
F.S. Depth
Lacey ‘s “f” or
Kennedy’s
Velocity
11
6.3 CANAL DESIGN THEORIES

The design of unlined canals consists of determining depth, bed width, side slope and
longitudinal slope of the channels so as to produce a non-silting and non-scouring
velocity for the given discharge and sediment load. The design theories developed for
use in the sub-continent are empirically in nature. The important theories for design of
stable alluvial canals are discussed below:
6.3.1 Kennedy Theory
This theory was developed by Mr. R.G. Kennedy, the then Executive Engineer in
Punjab Irrigation Department, in charge of Upper Bari Doab Canal who published his
work in 1895. His main conclusions from observation of 20 sites on Upper Bari Doab
Canal are as follows:
a) The channel neither silts nor scours
b) Eddies generated from the bed support the silt in suspension and
therefore the silt transporting power is proportional to the bed width and
not the parameter of the channel.
c) The critical velocity (Vo) is given by:
Vo = 0.84 D0.64
where D = Full supply depth of channel (ft)
Vo = Critical Velocity (ft per second)
He also introduced a factor ‘m’ critical velocity ratio to account for variation of the silt
grade from the standard conditions of Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC).
V = m x 0.84D0.64
where m = V = Critical Velocity Ratio
Vo
For sand coarser than the standard silt at UBDC the value of ‘m’ ranges from 1.10 to
1.20 and that for finer the value of ‘m’ ranges from 0.80 to 0.90.
6.3.2 Lindley's Approach (1919):
Lindley carried out an extensive survey of the Lower Chenab Canal System. On the
basis of this data, he developed the following equations.
V = 0.95 D0·57
V = 0.57 B0.355
B = 3.80 D1.61
Lindley's main hypothesis was that the sediment load carried in a channel controls the
bed width in the same way as it unquestionably defined the depth. This study
demonstrated the important effect of the canal section geometry on its sediment
transport capacity.
In examining data collected at different points of a canal system that has run long
enough to attain regime, great variations are observable which are sometimes due to
regime having been disturbed and sometimes to regime at different points being
naturally different. The main causes of these variations are:
 Silt clearance, berm cutting, the use of bushing and the working of
silting tanks
 Use of cross-regulators in heading up more or less at different times
 Running of feeder channels with varying discharges
 Breaches which scour the bed locally
 Difference between the silt drawing power of an off-take, not at present
measurable, but causing regime changes in the parent channel as well
as in the distributary; and
 Effect of different rugosities in allowing regime velocities to be attained
with lesser or steeper gradients.
6.3.3 Lacey Regime Theory
Gerald Lacey, who retired as Chief Engineer of United Province, PWD Irrigation
Branch published his first paper through the Institute of Civil Engineers London in
1929. Subsequently he made a few changes which were published in 1939. He made
a systematic study of the observed data and derived some empirical relations. It would
be wrong to call these empirical laws a theory, but nevertheless they have been used
extensively in the sub-continent for the design of unlined channels and have been
found quiet satisfactory.
He introduced a silt factor “f” and assumed it was related to mean diameter of the bed
material. The set of equations he obtained can be readily used to calculate the velocity,
area of cross-section, slope, bed width and depth of channel for a particular discharge
and “silt grade”. He analyzed all available data on the basis of V and R and plotted it
on a logarithmic scale and obtained the formula:
V = K R1/2
V has the same significance as Kennedy’s V and K is a constant.
For many years, the “silt grade” upon which Kennedy founded his formula was
recognized as standard. Lacey accepted this standard, and designated a “silt factor”,
f = 1 for silt-sand beds in Pakistan. He developed the formulae:
𝑉2
fVR = 0.75 𝑅
A f2 = 4.0v5
P = 2.668Q1/2
where
fVR = silt factor derived from velocity relation
R = Hydraulic Mean Radius (ft)
Q = Design Discharge (cs)
P = Wetted Perimeter (ft)
f = Lacey’s Silt Factor
S = 1 f5/3
1840 Q1/6
S = bed slope (ft/ft)
These are the standard formulae upon which Lacey Regime Theory is based. They
are also referred to as Lacey Regime Equations. The great appeal that the Lacey
equationhas may be in one or more of the following:
1) they are simple to use;
2) they require no information on the incoming sediment load, which is
difficult to obtain at any time;
3) they require no decision on the type of strength of bank materials.
The width of the channels depend only on the discharge. The Lacey’s Method was
accepted officially by the Central Board of Irrigation in 1934as a standard practice for
designing regime canals. Some of the major canal systems in Pakistan that have been
designed on the basis of the Lacey formulae are Haveli canal (1939), Thal canal
(1946), BRBD Link (1951), Taunsa Canals (1958) and Guddu canals (1962). The total
diversion capacity of these canals is 152,000 cs. Also many older canals have been
successfully remodeled in accordance with the method. These equations are empirical
in nature and are applicable to canals that operate under conditions similar to those
from which these equations were derived, namely steady operational discharges,
small bed load material, steep cohesive erodible banks, uniform sections, mild slope,
low Froude number, smooth alignments and bed material in sand size range. Lacey
tried to relate the silt factor to d50 of the bed material and the Manning’s Roughness
Coefficient by the empirical expression:
f = 1.76 √𝑑50
na = 0.0225 f1/4
d50 = median bed material diameter (mm)
Lacey called the variable “na” the absolute rugosity.
The Lacey assumptions for the development of the equations were:
(1) flowing discharge is constant;
(2) Alluvium in which the channel is flowing is incoherent, unlimited and of
the same characteristics as the sediment charge carried by the water.
Incoherent alluvium means the loose granular material which can be
scoured out as easily as it is deposited; and
(3) silt grade and silt charge are constant
The Lacey has classified the regime conditions into True Regime, Initial Regime
and Final Regime. The concept of the regime of the canals as narrated in the
Lacey’s theory is given below:
6.3.4 Classification of Regimes of Canals
According the Lacey the regime conditions i.e. stable conditions viz a viz bed width,
depth and slope, that is zero net erosion, or deposition over a hydrological cycle, shall
be established when:
1. Discharge is constant
2. The alluvium in which the channel is flowing, is incoherent, unlimited and of
the same characteristics as the sediment charge carried by the water.
Incoherent alluvium means the loose granular material which can be
scoured out as easily as it is deposited and
3. Silt grade and silt charge are constant
Obviously all the above requirements are unlikely to be fulfilled in nature, and therefore
regime conditions may not be obtained. Lacey therefore classified the regime
conditions as below:
True Regime
This is obtained when the above conditions are fulfilled. This happens most often in
sandy rivers in alluvial plans which have lateral freedom and by meandering adjust
their length and slope, which is determined solely by discharge and silt grade.
Artificial channel which no freedom of lateral movement can never achieve true
regime. They may achieve initial regime but only rarely final regime.
Initial Regime
Channels excavated in the first instance with defective slopes and with narrow
dimensions, can by immediately throwing down incoherent silt on the bed, increase
their slopes and by the generation of increased velocity achieve a non-silting
equilibrium which may be termed initial regime. Such channels are subject to lateral
restraint in that the scouring of the banks is not allowed. They attain a working stability
and therefore neither silt nor scour but they are not in final regime. Their slopes and
velocities are higher and the cross-section narrower than they would have been if the
sides were not rigid.
Final Regime
If the continuous action of the current eventually overcomes the resistance of the sides
and set up a conditions where the channel adjusts its perimeter, depth and slope
according to discharge and silt grade, final regime conditions are said to have been
achieved.
6.3.5 Simons and Albertson Regime Method (1957):
Simons and Albertson analyzed river and canal data in a wider context that contained
details regarding the bed and bank materials, as well as the rate of sediment transport.
The canals from which some 113 reaches were studied belong to Pakistan and USA.
The range of discharges studied was 5 to more than 9000 cusecs, with an average
sediment discharge of 156 to 8000 ppm. The mean size of the bed material varied
from 0.1 mm to 7.5 mm.
The types of canal bed and banks used by Simons and Albertson are:
1. Sand bed and banks;
2. Sand bed and cohesive banks;
3. Cohesive bed and banks;
4. Coarse non-cohesive material; and
5. Same as for 2, but with heavy sediment loads (2000 to 8000 ppm).
The proposed equations defining the geometry of the alluvial channel are:
P = K1 Q1/2
b = 0.9 P
b = 0.92 B - 2.0
R = K2Q.36
d = 1.21 R for R <= 7 ft.
d = 2 + 0.93 R for R >= 7 ft.
U = K3(R2S)m
The flow resistance equation is given by:
𝑈2 𝑈𝑏 0.37
= 𝐾4 ( )
𝑔𝑑𝑠 𝑣
Where b and B are mean and surface widths, respectively, and
Coefficients and exponents for the above equations are:
Channel Type
Coefficients 1 2 3 4 5
K1 3.5 2.6 2.2 1.75 1.7
K2 0.52 0.44 0.37 0.23 0.34
K3 13.90 16.00 - 17.90 16.00
K4 0.33 0.54 0.87 - -
m 0.33 0.33 - 0.29 0.29
6.3.6 Kirmani Modifications for Design of Link Canals

For large capacity canals, WAPDA adopted canals prism with composite side slopes.
The section with composite side slopes is called Kirmani Section after the name of
S.S. Kirmani, the then Chief Engineer of the Indus Basin Projects. In the lower half of
the section, side slope of 3:1 is provided whereas a slope of 2:1 is provided in the
upper half. This slope resembles more closely in natural alluvial channel than does the
Lacey section and therefore is less vulnerable to attack from meandering. Ample
provision exists for the section to adjust to the Lacey shape by scouring at the top of
the side slope and berming out of the upper slopes, without endangering the canal
banks. A part from the stability of side slopes, this section also provides additional area
and the wetted perimeter. In view of the additional area provided by the flatter side
slopes the bed width can be slightly reduced equal to the full supply depth.
Since a canal prism with multiple slopes is difficult to construct and maintain, the
Kirmani Section was modified and a uniform slope of 2:1 was adopted in some larger
capacity canals of the Indus Basin Project.
6.3.7 Tractive Force Theory
A concept of Tractive Force is also available for the design of alluvial canals. The
Tractive Force design theory is formulated on the basis that bank and bed material
stability is a function of the ability of the bank and bed to resist erosion resulting from
the drag force exerted by moving water. This concept has been widely applied to the
theory of sediment transport, both in the United States and in other countries, but only
to a limited extent in connection with design of cannels in fine alluvial materials. Three
distinct classes of instability have been defined by Lane, famous designer of stable
canals, while using tractive force theory and are follows:
 Channels subjected to scour that do not silt,

 Channels in which objectionable deposition occurs but do not scour,
 Channels in which objectionable scour and silting both occur.
Class I instability is the simplest of the three proposed and fortunately it is also the one
of primary importance because most of the present and future canals will convey clear
water.
The unit tractive force resulted on the bed of a running canal is calculated by the
formula:
τc = γRS
where τc = critical tractive stress (Ib/sq.ft)
R = hydraulic mean radius (ft)
S = bed slop (ft/ft)
The recommended design procedure was developed by considering:
 The distribution of tractive force over the channel periphery for different
side slopes with special emphasis on the magnitude of shear exerted on
the side as compared to the bed,
 The relative stability of soil particles on the bed and on the sloping sides of
the channel.
 The magnitude of safe tractive force for different mean sizes and
gradations of non-cohesive materials.
Table 6.7: Variation of Permissible Tractive Force with Type of Soil

Soil Permissible Tractive Force with type of Soil (Ibs/ft2)
Loam 0.062
Sand 0.102
Stony and Loamy Soil 0.182
Course Gravel 0.205
Very Compact Soil 0.256
Table 6.8: Tractive Forces Recommended for Fine Non-Cohesive Soils

Median Size of Material Limiting Tractive Force (Ib/sqft)
(mm)
1 2 3 4
0.1 0.025 0.050 0.075
0.2 0.026 0.052 0.078
0.5 0.030 0.055 0.083
1.0 0.040 0.060 0.090
2.0 0.060 0.080 0.110
5.0 0.140 0.165 0.185
The shear on the bed is approximately equal to γDS and on the sides is 0.76 of this
value. The channel is designed as per Manning and Kutter formula and then the
tractive force on bed is checked which should be less than the permissible value for
that type of soil. The tractive force theory is basically sound insofar as it has been
developed, for clear water conditions in course non-cohesive materials, but the results
obtained in case of sediment-laden water in Pakistan are not so good and the
equations are not considered applicable.
6.3.8 Practice for Design of Canals in Punjab Irrigation Department
In the Punjab Irrigation Department the new unlined canals are mostly designed on
Lacey’s Regime Theory and checked for velocity not to exceed Kennedy’s critical
velocity. The calculated Froude Number shall not exceed 0.3. The selection of the silt
factor is done from the canal system operating in the vicinity of the project to be
designed and is general practice that the value of the silt factor adopted at head of the
canal be suitably decreased towards the tail ends. Most of the stable irrigation canals
in the Punjab have Manning ‘n’ value of 0.022 to 0.0225. The operational
environmental for alluvial canals in Punjab is such that silt deposition takes place in
the high flow season (June to September) and scouring takes place during low flow
season (October to May) due to silt free water. So in this way mostly the behavior of
main canals / branch canals / distributaries is satisfactory. The adopted practice in the
Department is that the beds of distribution system (distributary, minor, sub-minor) are
desilted on yearly basis and their capacity restored during annual closure.
Sediment Transport in Alluvial Canal System

When the flow condition satisfy or exceed the criteria for incipient motion sediment
particles along an alluvial bed will start to move. In the motion sediment particles are
rolling, sliding, or sometimes jumping along the bed, it is called bed-load transport.
Generally, the bed-load transport rate of a river is about 5-25% of that in suspension.
However, for coarse materials, higher percentage of sediment may be transported as
bed-load. Some of the classical formulas for sediment transport were derived mainly
for bed-load.
The alluvial materials or sediment refers to the loose, non-cohesive material (such as
sand and silt) transported by water, which can be either suspended or deposited. A
channel cut through an alluvium transports sediment laden water, in general, the same
characteristics as in the boundary of the channel is termed alluvial channel. Such
channels invariably have extremely complex interaction with the boundary and as such
the available knowledge on the subject has a very heavy bias towards experimental
observations and empirical correlations.
Initiation of Motion of Sediment
When the flow of water in a channel having a non-cohesive material (such as sand) is
carefully observed, it will be found that in some cases the bed may also become
dynamic with the sediment particles moving on the bed, sliding or rolling or jumping
mode which can be observed in a laboratory channel where the flow parameters can
be controlled. If the motion of the bed particles is observed for a wide range of bed
shear stresses τ0 (= ϒ RS0), it will be noticed that while for small τ0 values there may
be no motion of bed particles at all, the flows with large values of τ 0 will have definite
observable motion. The condition of flow at which the bed particles will just begin to
move is known as the condition of critical motion or incipient motion. The bed shear
stress corresponding to incipient motion is known as critical shear stress or critical
tractive force and designated as τc. It should be realized that the motion of the bed
particles at τ0 = τc is not a step function at τc but it only implies that in a statistical sense
considerable number of bed particles will be set in motion when the critical shear stress
is reached.
Bed Forms
When the shear stress on the bed of an alluvial channel due to flow of water is larger
than the critical shear stress τc the bed will become dynamic and will have a strong
interaction with the flow. Depending upon the flow, sediment and fluid characteristics,
and the bed will undergo different levels of deformation and motion. As a result of
careful observations the following characteristics bed features are recognized:
1. Plane bed with no sediment motion
2. Ripples and dunes
3. Transition
a. Plane bed with sediment motion and
b. Standing wave
4. Antidunes
These bed features are called bed forms or bed irregularities or regimes of flow.
Schematically, these bed forms are shown in Fig. 6.4
The sequence of formulation of these bed forms are best understood by considering
a hypothetical laboratory channel with sediment bed where the slope and discharge in
the channel can be changed at will. Consider an initial plane bed and a very low
velocity of flow being admitted into the channel. The following sequence of bed forms
can be expected in the channel.
1. Plane Bed with no Sediment Motion
This situation corresponds to the case when the actual shear stress τ0 is less than the
critical shear stress τc. There will be no motion of the sediment and the bed will remain
plane. The friction offered to the flow is due to the resistance of the grains only.
2. Ripples and Dunes
a) Ripples: if the shear stress in the channel is increased (by increasing either
discharge or slope) so that τ0 is moderately greater than τc, the grains in the
bed will move and very soon the bed will be covered by a saw tooth type of
ripple pattern (Fig. 6.4). The height of the ripples will be considerably smaller
than their length. The sediment motion will be considerably smaller than their
length. The sediment motion will be essentially in the form of rolling and sliding
of particles on the ripple bed. The water surface will remain essentially calm
and plane. An interesting feature of the ripples is that they are not formed if the
sediment size is greater than about 0.60 mm.
b) Dunes: As the shear stress on the bed is gradually increased in the
hypothetical laboratory channel, the ripples gradually grow into larger size.
Then a different bed form known as dunes appear with ripples riding over them.
At higher shear stress values the ripples disappear leaving behind only the
dunes pattern on the bed.
Dunes are larger in size than the ripples with small height to length ratios. The
water surface will be wavy and out of phase with the dunes, (Fig. 6.4). The
sediment transport will be larger than in ripples and the dunes advance
downstream through with a velocity much smaller than that of the water flow.
The flow will be in subcritical ranges.
The flow in a channel with ripples and dunes in the bed is characterized by
separation of the flow on the lee side of the bed form. This in turn causes large
energy losses and particularly so in bed with dunes. The shedding of the
vortices from the separation region of the dunes cause ruffing of the free water
surface. In both the ripples and dunes, the bed form gets eroded on the
upstream side and some of this material gets deposited on the lee side of the
bed form in a continuous manner causing the crest of the bed wave pattern to
move downstream.
3. Transition
a) Plane bed with sediment motion: Further increase of the shear stress after
the dune bed pattern phase will lead to a transition phase where the bed
undulations get washed away progressively ultimately to achieve an
essentially plane bed surface (Fig. 6.4). The sediment transport rate would be
considerably larger than in dune phase. The flow, however, will be in subcritical
range with the Froude number of the flow being nearer unity.
b) Standing wave: Further increase in the shear stress beyond the plane bed
stage bringing the Froude number nearer unity and beyond it, would lead to
the formation of symmetrical sand waves with associated water surface
standing wave, (Fig. 6.4). The water surface undulations will be in phase with
the sand waves.
Figure 6.5: Bed Forms in Alluvial Channels

The above two bed features viz, plane bed with sediment motion and the standing
wave stage, are clubbed into one class called transition. The transition phase of bed
form is very unstable.
4. Antidunes
If the shear stress in the hypothetical laboratory channel is further increased beyond
transition phase, the symmetrical sediment wave and the associated standing wave
slowly start moving upstream. The waves gradually grow steeper and then break. The
bed form at this stage is called antidunes. A characteristic features of the standing
wave and antidune type of bed forms is that there is no separation of the flow at these
bed forms. As such, the energy loss is mainly due to grain boundary roughness.
It should be noted that while the sand waves move upstream it does so in a relative
sense due to a rapid exchange of sediment in the bed profile. The sediment in the lee
side of the wave gets eroded and some of it gets deposited on the upstream side of
the bed form to cause the wave crest to move upstream. The general flow of water
and sediment transport will be in the downstream direction. Further, the Antidunes
appear only in water-sediment interface into alluvial channels and have not been
noticed in air-sediment interface in desert environment. The flow at antidune bed form
stage will be supercritical and the sediment transport rate will be very high.
Bed Form and Resistance

In alluvial channels the different bed forms that can occur have a marked impact on
the total resistance to flow. In a mobile bed channel the total resistance to flow could
be considered to be made up of the resistance due to the grains composing the bed
and the drag resistance offered by the bed form shapes. Thus it is obvious that the
same channel may exhibit different resistances depending on the bed form present.
Fig. 6.5 shows schematically the variation of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor ƒ with
bed forms. Fig. 6.6 shows Typical Schematic Profile. This figure is based on laboratory
data of Simons for a sand of d = 0.28 mm and is meant only to illustrate qualitatively
the behavior of ƒ with bed forms. It can be seen that the friction factor ƒ has b sudden
increase at the onset of ripples, then onward the increase if gradual in ripples stage
and rapid in dunes stage. At the transition phase there is a sudden drop in the value
of ƒ. In the antidune stage the increase if fairly rapid.
Typical orders of magnitude of Manning’s coefficient n, friction factor ƒ and non-
dimensional Chezy coefficient C / √𝑔 at various bed forms are given Table 6.9. This
table highlights the impact of the bed forms on the channel resistance and the need
for proper identification of appropriate bed forms in studies connected with the
hydraulics of mobile bed channels.
To estimate the resistance due to the grain τ0I and due to bed forms τ0II it is usual to
consider the total shear stress τo to be made up of the two components such that:
τ0 = τ0I +τ0II
0.10
0.08 Transition
Ripples & Dunes
f 0.06
Plane Bed
0.04
Antidunes
0.02
0.001 0.01 0.10 1.0 1.5
Slope (Percent)
Figure 6.6: Schematic Variation of friction factor ƒ with bed forms [Based on
data on d = 0.28 mm]
Figure 6.7: Schematic Profile of T.P. Link

Figure 6.8: Upper Depalpur Canal System

Table 6.9: Range of resistance factors

Manning’s Coefficient ‘n’ Frictions factor ƒ and Chezy coefficient C / √𝒈 – at
various bed forms.
Bed Form Darcy Manning’s Non-dimensional
Weishbach coefficient Darcy coefficient
friction factor (n) (C / √𝒈 )
(ƒ)
Plane bed without 0.020 – 0.036 0.012 – 0.016 15 – 20
motion
Ripples 0.056 – 0.163 0.018 – 0.030 7 -12
Dunes 0.047 – 0.163 0.020 – 0.040 7 – 13
Plane bed with 0.020 – 0.040 0.010 – 0.013 16 – 20
sediment motion
Antidunes 0.040 – 0.065 0.012 – 0.018 11 – 16
(Breaking)
The following important approaches are used to determine the suspended load, bed
material load and total load:
 Brooks, N. H. (1965), “Mechanics of Streams with Movable beds of Fine
Sand” – Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 81 no. 668, pp, 668-1 – 668-28.
 Fortier, S., and F. C. Scobey (1926), “Permissible Canal Velocities”
 Einstein’s Approach (1942 – 1950);
 Einstein – Brown Approach (Brown 1950 developed a bed-load transport
function based on Einstein’s (1942) formula);
 Stochastic Approach;
 Regression Approach;
 Equal Mobility Approach;
 Lane and Kalinske’s Approach;
 Chang, Simons, and Richardson’s Approach
Further details can be seen in any Book of Sediment Transport Theory &
Practice.
6.4 SILT FACTOR FOR PUNJAB CANALS
The key element in Lacey’s method is the proper selection of silt factor value. The silt
factor is directly related to the size of the silt particles.
f =1.76√𝑑50
Where, d50 is the mean diameter of silt particles in mm. In order to ascertain the mean
diameter in the canals, samples of silt in the river water from where the canal is to off-
take, should be collected. Since the canal carries silt particles finer than those carried
in a river, 10% of the mean diameter of silt particles of the river should be deducted to
obtain the mean silt diameter in the canal. The above equation has, however, not been
recognized as an accepted basis for determining the silt factor since it gives only
approximate result. It is preferable that the value of “f” be estimated with the help of
the observed values of silt factors in stable canal system of the neighborhood. The
following relationship offvr and frs values in the existing canals are considered closer to
the actual.
fvr= 0.75v2 / R
This equation is applicable only to regime channel for fine silt to boulders.
frs= 0.75R1/3S2/3
This equation is useful in computing a working silt factor and is equally well
applicable for regime as well as non-regime channels.
fm=( fvr x frs)½
fm=mean silt factor
The average values of silt factor relating to bed material type are given below:
Table 6.10: Average Values of Silt Factor
Material Value of Silt Factor (f)
Massive boulders (diameter = 25 inches) 36.60
Large stones 38.60
Large boulders, shingle and heavy sand 20.90
Small boulders, shingle and heavy sand 6.12
Large pebbles and coarse gravel 4.68
Coarse sand 1.56 – 1.49
Medium sand 1.31
Standard Kennedy’s silt (Upper Bari Doab Canal) 1.00
Lower Mississippi Silt 0.357
Source: Irrigation Engineering by Dr. Iqbal Ali (1975 - page 114)

6.5 SEDIMENT EXCLUSION AND EJECTION
Unlined canals can get choked or silted by sediment brought by the rivers and diverted
into the canals along with the water. Special works may be constructed to control
sediments entering into the canals or sediments being carried away by water. These
works are called as silt controlling works.
1. Proper Channel Design
2. Works in the River
a. Guide Wall and Silt Pocket
b. Silt Excluder
3. Works in the Canal (Silt Ejector)
The basic idea behind the design for sediment exclusion works is that as the lower
layers of the flowing water carry a higher concentration of silt and therefore if the upper
layers of the water only can be skimmed into the canal, all the rolling bed silt and the
silt in the lower layers is excluded from entering the canal. This is achieved by a silt
excluder. This is a diaphragm slab supported on a number of tunnels. Tunnels are
placed parallel to the head regulator and discharge d/s through the under sluices. The
water above the silt excluder slab containing less silt is then diverted into the canal.
Another very practical method to exclude heavy sediment load is to locate the Barrage
axis on such portion of a river bend, where head regulators of off taking main canals
can be constructed on the outer curve of the bend. This condition can also be created
through setting of barrage gates. Normally the standard still pond and semi still pond
system also control sediment entry into main canals. In distribution system Silt Vanes
are also used and are very helpful.
6.5.1 Sediment Deposition
Sediment deposit may take place in canals which persistently operate a discharge
lower than the design discharge as shown in the figure which also shows canal bays
choked with sediment which results in erosion of banks.
Sediment Deposit due low running Sediment Choked Bay of

discharge Bridge causing bank erosion
6.5.2 Hydraulic Survey of Irrigation Channels
For assessing the hydraulic status of any channel (s), hydraulic survey is required to
be done at least once in two years to ascertain the depth of silt to be removed, restore
bed gradient as per design/ regime section (a non-silting and non-scouring section)
and the quantity of earth required to be filled in the eroded bank or bed. Survey for
longitudinal section of the channel is undertaken and plotted on graph sheet. The
designed longitudinal section of the channel is superimposed and areas of silting or
erosion worked out for removal or filling. For bank(s) also the designed cross-sections
are superimposed. The study of behavior of a canal for some time, may warrant
change in parameters in some reaches so that channel attains the regime section. In
cases of channels where regime is yet to be attained a regular and periodic watch is
needed. This can be accomplished only by conducting regular hydraulic surveys at
regular intervals.
6.5.3 Inspection of main canals and works during annual canal closure
Concerns are normally expressed by some quarters regarding adequacy of planning
and appropriateness of interventions under the ongoing / new projects as well as
closure works. This brings to focus the need to assess the health of irrigation network
as well as identification of realistic rehabilitation / improvement needs.
In order to conduct a comprehensive condition survey of irrigation network and to
identity / prioritize rehabilitation / improvement needs, the following course of action is
prescribed during the short canal closure / annual canal closure.
i) Every Executive Engineer, Superintending Engineer and Chief Engineer
will work out a detailed inspection program for his jurisdiction for
inspection of canals and hydraulic structures.
ii) Every critical canal reach and hydraulic structure will be thoroughly
inspected and photographic slides taken of the critical components
requiring urgent repair / rehabilitation. Videos may also be prepared for
demonstration purposes.
iii) The results of the inspections would be properly documented in the
prescribed manner for canals and hydraulic structures.
iv) The repair / rehabilitation needs will be identified along with indicative
cost for each structure / canal.
v) The repair / rehabilitation needs should be prioritized into emergent &
short term / medium to long term measures.
vi) Inspection of structures should be carried out in accordance with the
regime prescribed by specific O&M Manuals. Necessary safety
certificates should be recorded and signed by the Sub Divisional Officer,
Executive Engineer, Incharge and countersigned by the Superintending
Engineer and Chief Engineer.
The implementation of the above instructions should be ensured. The Chief Engineers
should closely monitor the progress in this behalf besides inspecting the sensitive
structures by themselves. These instructions should also be passed on to the Sub
Divisional Officers level and their acknowledgement kept on record.
Check List of Annual Canal Closure:
 Documentation (photographs of hydraulic structure and other workers
before, during and on completion),
 Sounding and probing plans,
 X-Sections at 1 mile interval on Main and Branch Canals,
 Installation of mile gauges,
 Fixation of Gauges at critical points and tails,
 Painting and lettering of data boards / distance marks,
 Maintenance of log books for all structures on Main / Branch canals,
 Inspection of Structures in accordance with O&M Manual,
 Inspection and repair to gates and gearing (regulation gates, hoisting
machinery and other steel structures),
 Inspection / checking by CE, SE & XEN,
 Inspection / checking by Zonal Committees.
 O&M Work Plan,
 Technical Sanction of Estimates ,
 Tendering / Acceptance of works, (adherence to codal formalities and
departmental instructions)
 Quality and quality control (execution of works according to specifications
and provision in the estimate).
6.6 SOLVED DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR EARTHEN CANAL
An earthen channel with full supply discharge of 1,000 cfs is to cross a country whose
grade is 1 : 8000. Lacey’s Silt Factor in the neighboring canal systems calculated from
the observed data comes to 0.9. Compute the hydraulic design parameters of the
canal.
Solution:
F. S. Q. = 1000cs
Adopt lacey Silt Factor ‘f ’ = 0.9
Grade of the country = 1 in 8000
Hydraulic Slope, S
S = 0.0005423 f5/3_
Q1/6
= 0.0005423 (0.9)5/3__
(1000) 1/6
= 0.0001439
S = 1 : 6,950
Since the calculated slope is steeper than the grade of the country, the design is not
feasible. The canal should be designed with the slope close to 1 : 8000. Silt factor
corresponding to the adopted slope comes to 0.83.
S = f5/3
1840 Q 1/6
1 = f5/3
8000 1840 (1000)1/6
f = 0.83
A = 1.26 Q5/6
f½
= 423.9 ft2
P = 2.67 Q½ = 84.4 ft
Adopting Lacey Section with ½ : 1 side slope.
A = BD + ½ D2
P = B + 2.236 D
Using Design Curves developed by WAPDA based on Lacey’s Equation
“Design of earthen channels” which have been included in this manual
for ready reference:
D = 5.7 ft
B = 72 ft
Adopted Parameters:
Bed Width = 72 ft
Full Supply Depth = 5.7 ft
Side Slope = ½:1
Bed Slope = 1 : 8000
DESIGN CURVES FOR UNLINED CANAL

6.7 DESIGN CURVES USED IN CANAL DESIGN
With Courtesy of Water and Power

Development Authority












6.8 Berm Formation

Berms are necessary to protect the toe of the embankments particularly below
structures and are formed by constructing traditional killa bushing and hanging spurs
which reduce the velocity of flow and induce sedimentation.
The creation of berms in new canals or repair of a canal berm in sediment laden water
is usually accomplished through killa bushing. The brush wood is placed in the eroded
zone which causes a decrease in water velocity, so that sediment accumulates behind
and downstream of the eroded zone. Berm formation is done through longitudinal
spurs, cross spurs, hanging spurs and any combination of these.
The operational experience indicates that even if canal water is over flowing in certain
reaches of channel and damages the banks at toes, but no breach occurs if the berms
have sufficient width. The berms support the safety of the canal. Three type of bushing
spurs are usually used:
Figure 6.9: Typical Sediment Deposition and Berm Erosion
Figure 6.10: Rebuilding Berm

6.8.1 Longitudinal Spurs

The longitudinal spurs are needed to check local scour and ensure safety of canal
banks. It consists of a line of stakes, 3 ft apart on one or both sides parallel to the
length of the channel with branches inter-twined behind the stakes and providing cross
spurs at 50 feet apart. This form of bushing is very effective. It can be laid properly in
a closure. If long reaches are bushed through by putting tiny branches between and
behind the stakes, it is least effective. The tiny hushing behind the stakes is useless
as it floats when the water comes. The Killa bushing techniques for longitudinal and
cross spurs are given below:
Figure 6.11: Killa Bushing Techniques

6.8.2 Cross Spurs

Sometimes there are double lines of stakes with jungle in between them. The cross
fixed spurs are no doubt effective. Their function is however, one sided. They serve to
reduce the horizontal velocity of water on the sides which results in silt deposits behind
them, but they do not stop the vertical eddies and are accompanied by erosion just
upstream of them especially near the nose. The berm formation thus obtained is very
zigzag. The cross spurs in combination with longitudinal spurs are most suitable.
6.8.3 Hanging Spurs
Large branches of trees are hanged with the supports of rob and fixed at a point.
Sometimes a stone is also tied with the branch to keep it floating in to the water due
to obstruction of flow sedimentation takes place very rapidly and local point scour is
checked. Typical Hanging Spur is sketched below:
The canal sectional staff (mistry/mate/beldars) is always well trained in killa bushing.
Figure 6.12: Typical Hanging Spur

6.9 Other Canal Structures

The major structures are to be constructed on a canal system are described in the
following subheadings:
6.9.1 Foot Bridges
The footbridge is constructed as per requirements of the village, local abadies and
farmers to cross from one-bank to the other-bank of the channel. The span width
ranges from 4 ft to 5 ft and with proper railing. The spacing between the foot bridges
is as per requirement.
6.9.2 Village Road Bridges
VR bridges are provided near villages but distance between two bridges may range
from 3 to 5 miles and also as per recommendations of the district government. The
clear span of the bridge is 12 to 16 ft
6.9.3 District Road Bridges
These are constructed where the canal cuts the existing metaled roads or at crossing
points of newly proposed district roads. The span width recommended is 20 ft and is
designed for Class-A loading
6.9.4 Arterial Road Bridges
These are the bridges constructed our major highways / express ways and inter-district
roads. The clear span width can be 25 to 30 ft. These are designed for AA-Class
loading (Tank Load).
6.9.5 Syphon
This is planned and constructed at crossing point of nullahs (storm surface drains) by
the canal system. The head losses are calculated as per standard practice and the
syphon can be a single pipe or multiple pipes or concreted barrels.
6.9.6 Culvert
This is provided at crossing point of distributaries and minors with roads and can be
concrete box type or pipe culvert. It can be designed from a clear span of 5 ft to 15 ft
further hydraulic loss for the design can be calculated as per standard design practice
consisting of inlet and outlet losses in the pipes or box culverts. A minimum freeboard
of 2 ft is normally recommended.
6.9.7 Super Passage
In the super passage the canal is taken below the drainage crossing and flow in the
canal is open channel flow. A super passage is required when canal full supply level
is below the drainage bed level. The drainage water is taken in trough supported over
the piers constructed on the canal bed.
6.9.8 Drainage Inlet
A drainage inlet is provided when the discharge of the crossing drains is very small as
compared to discharge of channel and drainage water does not bring heavy silt load.
It increases the discharge in the canal which is absorbed in the space under freeboard
above the FSL in the canal. Normally the inlet are gated to have a better control over
the discharge of the drain and also saves canal water from going out of inlet structure.
6.10 Canal Road

Canal road is an important component of the canal design as this helps in checking
the maintenance and operation of the canal. Public transport is prohibited on these
roads except in some cases the permit can be issued. It is usual to provide gates
equipped with lock at or near the site of important road crossing. The sites of the gates
are selected at or near the regulating sites or the Rest Houses where the Gauge
Reader or Chaukidar can attend to the gates.
6.10.1 Patrol and Non-Patrol Banks for Canals
The canal roads are provided along the banks and mostly in case of main canal and
branch canal. The service road is provided on both the banks in case of main canals
and branch canals. In case of major and minor distributaries the services road is
provided on one side only. The minor and sub-minor can have boundary roads at the
toe of 1 side of the bank. It is however recommended that the service road for all the
canals be provided at the top of the bank which facilitates better inspection and special
watching during the Kharif season. The recommended bank width and the service
roads width are given below:
Table 6.11: Recommended Width of Canal Banks
Top Width (ft)
Full Supply
Service Road (ft) Service Non-Service
Discharge (cs)
Road Side Road Side
5-500 10 15 5-12
501-1000 12 20 112
1000-2500 20 25 15
2500-5000 20 30 20
5000 and above 25 35 35
6.10.2 Right of Way (ROW) and RD Mark

The permanent land width the Right of Way (ROW) of the canal is the width of strip of
land required for the construction of the canal. It would cover the cannel section and
extend a little beyond the outer toes of the canal banks on either side. In reaches
where a longitudinal drain is provided alongside the canal, the permanent land width
should extend beyond the drain. In case, if is proposed to plant shade-line trees along
the canal, the permanent land width should extend beyond the limits specified above.
In general, the permanent land width is the distance between the outer toes of the
banks plus a few feet i.e. 10 to 20 feet on the both sides for the construction of a toe
drain and for planting of shade-line trees. The land width is marked on ground by the
canal boundary stones.
Distance marks (RD) are established for the location of any point or work on a channel,
usually 1000 feet apart. To serve their purpose they must be maintained in proper
order. The maintenance of distance marks usually comprises annual painting and
figuring if of metal, and of white-washing and figuring if of stone or of concrete; in the
latter case it is desirable to do the white-washing twice or thrice a year. Sometimes a
distance mark is broken or badly damaged, then it must be replaced at once.
A useful practice is that sub engineers (sectional incharge) maintain a record of

temporary reduced levels at the distance marks. Where this is done, any dislocation
in the distance mark should be specially looked into and the R.L. corrected.
Figure 6.13: Typical Sections of Main Canal & Branch Canal

Figure 6.14: Typical Cross Section of a Water Course

Figure 6.15: Typical Cross Section of a Distributary

References cited – Unlined Canal
REFERENCES CITED – UNLINED CANAL

1. Lindley, E.S. Regime Channel’s Proceedings, Punjab Engineering Congress,
Vol. 7, 1919.
2. Manning, Robert, Flow of Water in Open Channel and Pipes, Transactions of
Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Vol. 20. P. 161, 1891.
3. Lane, E.W. Progress Report on Results of Studies on Design of Stable
Channels, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Hydraulic Laboratory Report, Hyd. No.
352, 36. P. 1952.
4. Kennedy, R.G. Prevention of Silting in Irrigation Canals, Proceedings Institute
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 119, Part 1, P 281, 1895.
5. Lacey, G. Stable Channels in Alluvium, Proceedings Institute of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 229, P. 2599-284, 1930.
6. Blench, Thomas, Hydraulics of Sediment Bearing Canals and River,
Vancouver, B.C. Canada, Evans Industries, Limited, 1951.
7. Einstein, Hans A. The Bed Load Function for Sediment Transportation in Open
Flows, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin, 1026. P. 1-71, 1950.
8. Chitale, S.W. Design of Alluvial Channels, Q 20, R 17, 6th Congress ICID, Delhi,
P. 363-395, 1966.
9. Simons, D.B. “Theory and Design of Stable Channels is alluvial Materials” Ph.
D Dissertation. Department of Civil Engineering Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado, 1957.
10. Stevens, M.A. and Norden, C.F. Critique of the Regime Theory for Alluvial
Channels, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 113. No. 11, ASCE. P 1359-
1377. 1987.
11. Chitale, S.V. Common Behavioral Trends in Alluvial Canals and Rivers, Journal
of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 114, No. 1, ASCE. P 54-63, 1988.
12. ACOP Canal Equilibrium Data Taunsa-Panjnad Link. 1974-76 Data, Vol-III,
Report No. EWR-81-3, Water & Power Development Authority, Lahore,
Pakistan, October, 1981.
References cited – Unlined Canal
DESIGN OF LINED CANALS
Chapter 7
Compiled by
Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid
Reviewed by
Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry

Mr. Aslam Rashid
Table of Content
7 DESIGN OF LINED CANALS ............................................................................... 7-1
7.1 NEED FOR LININGS ........................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 LINING MATERIALS ............................................................................................ 7-1
Causes of Structural Failure of Concrete Lining ......................................... 7-6
Factors Affecting Canal Seepage ............................................................... 7-6
Soil / Cement Linings ................................................................................. 7-6
Asphaltic Concrete Linings ......................................................................... 7-6
Plastic Membranes ..................................................................................... 7-6
Compacted Earth Linings ........................................................................... 7-7
Buried Plastic Film Linings ......................................................................... 7-7
Factors Affecting the Design ...................................................................... 7-7
Side-Slopes ................................................................................................ 7-8
Bed Width of Depth Ratio ....................................................................... 7-8
Coefficient of Roughness ....................................................................... 7-8
7.3 DESIGN OF LINED CANALS ................................................................................. 7-9
Design Discharge ....................................................................................... 7-9
Design Level .............................................................................................. 7-9
Design Methods ......................................................................................... 7-9
Joints in Lining ......................................................................................... 7-10
Departmental Guidelines for Planning and Construction of Lined Canals 7-28
Design Example for Lined Canal .............................................................. 7-28
Diversion during Construction .................................................................. 7-29
7.4 MAINTENANCE OF CANAL LINING ...................................................................... 7-30
Maintenance Categories .......................................................................... 7-30
Role of Design in the Success of Lining ................................................... 7-32
Recommendations for Canal Lining ......................................................... 7-33
7.5 ISSUES FOR CANAL LINING .............................................................................. 7-34
Extent of Water Saving ............................................................................ 7-34
Water Level Fluctuations due to Change in Roughness Coefficient ......... 7-34
Economic Viability of Lining ...................................................................... 7-34
Operation during Construction Phase ...................................................... 7-35
Impact on Ground Water Recharge for Drinking Water Supply ................ 7-35
Sustainability of Lining in High Ground Water Table Areas ...................... 7-35
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 7-36
List of Tables
TABLE 7.1: VALUE OF COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS......................................................... 7-10
TABLE 7.2: DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF LINED CANALS IN PAKISTAN ............................... 7-12
List of Figures
FIGURE 7.1: TYPICAL SECTION OF BRICK LINING ................................................................ 7-2
FIGURE 7.2: TYPICAL PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE LINING CANAL SECTIONS ........................... 7-3
FIGURE 7.3: TYPICAL CROSS SECTION CONCRETE LINING................................................... 7-4
FIGURE 7.4: TYPICAL CROSS SECTION FOR LINING OF DISTRIBUTION AND MINORS ................ 7-5
FIGURE 7.5: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS ................................. 7-11
7 DESIGN OF LINED CANALS

7.1 Need for Linings
In the current millennium, the availability of water will play a major role in both national
and world affairs. The scarcity of water in developed and developing countries will
require severe restrictions on use and promote adoption of conservation measures.
One way this is being attempted is through lining of canals both to improve operational
efficiency and to reduce seepage losses. Lining of canals has become almost
synonymous with modernization of today irrigation. It is more or less universally
accepted that lining of canals is an effective means of saving water. However,
reduction of seepage from water delivery systems will require huge investments in
canal lining which aims at achieving the following objectives:
 To reduce or minimize seepage of precious good quality water thereby
making more water available for crops;
 To transfer the seepage water saved from the carrier channels to the field
for use by the crops, with the balance leaching the topsoil and replenishing
the groundwater aquifer;
 To check water logging, thereby reducing drainage need;
 To reduce operation and maintenance cost of the channel;
 To improve the environmental and avoid health problems;
 To reduce the land requirement for channels, thereby making more land
available for cultivation;
 To reduce the cross-sectional area of the channels, thereby economizing in
the cost of their excavation and of the structures;
 To prevent erosion and provide a stable section;
 To minimize tampering by farmers and damage by animals; and
 To minimize the risk of breaching by burrowing animals.
It is normally recommended that the canals in the Punjab province are generally to be
lined if the seepage loss is greater than 4 cusecs/million sqft of the wetted perimeterof
the canal and the soil is very porous and sandy. The quality of the ground water table
is saline in the area and the water loss in seepage cannot be recovered by tube-wells.
Canal lining is not recommended in fresh / sweet ground water area where the canal
seepage is not considered a loss.
7.2 Lining Materials
The types of canal linings being used all over the world can be classified into two main
categories, namely; (i) Hard Surface Lining and (ii) Flexible Lining as mentioned below:
Hard Surface Linings include:
 Brick and Tiles
 Reinforced Cement Concrete
 Plain Cement Concrete
 Shotcrete
 Prefabricated Cement Concrete Slabs
 Asphaltic Concrete
 Stone or Boulder Lining
 Soil Cement
 Compacted / Stabilized Earth
Flexible Membrane Linings include:

 Asphaltic membrane
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Synthetic rubber butyl membrane
 EPDM rubberized membrane
 Resinous membrane
 Fiberglass
 Pre-fabricated asphaltic membrane
 Polyethylene
 Bentonite layer
Mostly the PCC lining and Brick / Tile lining are currently used in the Punjab Irrigation
Department.
The above linings are explained as under:
Brick Lining: The laying of brick lining is simple. The bricks are laid on edge in a thin
1:3 cement sand mortar layer for proper bonding. All the joints are properly filled and
struck flush with the brick surface to achieve maximum smoothness of surface to bring
the value of 'n’ as close to the adopted value as possible. It can be single or double
brick lining with layer of cement mortar sandwiched between the layers.
Figure 7.1: Typical Section of Brick Lining

Plain Cement Concrete Lining:
Plain cement concrete lining is very common in Pakistan. Special precautions are
needed during placement of concrete lining so that durable bond is established
between the concrete and the sub grade. The sub grade should be properly
compacted and be provided filter material if necessary to permit drainage so as to
avoid built up of uplift pressures.
The main problem in laying the concrete layer on slope is the control of the slump and
workability. The low slump concrete, although maintains its thickness on the slope but
becomes unworkable and is very hard to finish, while increase in slump results in
flowing of concrete which also cannot be finished to proper thickness. It has been
observed that if laid without forms, the concrete with a slump of one inch to one and a
half inch can be worked to reasonable finish but poses problems in compaction of the
concrete layer.
However if forms are used, a slump of 2 to 3 inches provides adequately dense and
properly finished concrete. The compaction is effected by employing form vibrators.
The forms produced better panels, in density, surface, laying, line and grade. The
concrete mix of 1:2:4 is generally used. Sometimes a layer of Geo-membrane is also
used under the concrete layer to make it stronger against seepage control.
Excessive Velocity in Lined Channel Concrete Lined Distributary in LCC

Command
The construction of lining involves the following steps in working sequence:
i) Provision of an alternate supply channel termed as diversion.
ii) Preparing the subgrade.
iii) Cutting and shaping up the channel prism.
iv) The construction of profiles.
v) Laying base plaster.
vi) Laying the lining layer.
vii) Curing the lining.
The most difficult steps in the above sequence are preparing earthen sub-grade to
prescribed compaction percentage and lying of concrete on slopes.
Figure 7.2: Typical Plain Cement Concrete Lining Canal Sections

Figure 7.3: Typical Cross Section Concrete Lining

Figure 7.4: Typical Cross Section for Lining of Distribution and Minors
Causes of Structural Failure of Concrete Lining

Following are the causes for the structural failure and deterioration in concrete lining
 Poor quality of material or bad workmanship;
 Poorly prepared subgrade causing subsidence;
 Freezing / thawing cycles;
 Wetting / drying cycles;
 Un-appropriate spacing of transverse and longitudinal contraction joints;
 Hydrostatic pressure behind the lining caused by a rapid drawdown in the
canal level;
 Extreme water velocities causing lifting;
 Human and animal ingress into the canal.
Factors Affecting Canal Seepage
 Permeability of canal material;
 Depth of water in the canal;
 Depth of the water table and constraints to groundwater flow;
 Geometry of the canal;
Other factors of lesser importance include:
 Silt load in the canal;
 Micro-biological and chemical activity;
 Water salinity.
Soil / Cement Linings
There are two main types of soil cement mixtures: dry mix or plastic. The differences
in the two are described by the FAO. Dry mix soil / cement is made in situ, by mixing
soil and cement before applying water, and compacting by rubber tyred rollers. Plastic
soil / cement is usually made in mechanical mixers, and is applied in the same manner
as concrete linings.
The permeability of soil / cement mixture depends upon a well graded soil, with a
sandy, gravelly material preferred. Seepage rates of 0.03 – 0.06 m/day are quoted by
the FAO for both types of soil / cement, and this agrees well with the average of 0.05
m/day obtained from the data.
Asphaltic Concrete Linings
Asphaltic concrete is made by mixing aggregate with an asphaltic (bituminous) cement
at elevated temperatures. It is two main advantages over cement concrete, in that an
inferior quality aggregate may be used, and that the lining may be placed in cold
weather at a time when there is no irrigation demand. The seepage rate obtained from
asphaltic concrete linings depends mainly on the grade of aggregate used, and the
degree of compaction at the time of laying. The FAO estimates seepage rates of 0.03
m/day.
Plastic Membranes
Many types of plastic and synthetic rubber membranes have been successfully
adopted for use as canal linings. In general however they have a low resistance to
puncture and may be sensitive to sunlight, and for these reasons the US Bureau of
Reclamation regard them as more suitable for buried linings. In recent years however
various composite lining materials have been produced, which have typically a nylon
reinforced plastic outer layer, which is combined with membranes such as butyl rubber
or polyethylene. The exposed outer mat provides protection for the membrane
beneath which acts as the impermeable barrier. No seepage data was available for
these types of linings.
Plastic membranes are extremely impervious, provided they remain intact. An average
seepage rate for this group of 0.07 m/day, although little detail is available of the canal
on which these measurements were obtained.
Compacted Earth Linings
Compacted earth linings fall into two main groups, thick or thin, which describe the
thickness of the impervious layer. Thick earth linings usually have thickness upwards
of 300 mm of compacted material on the bed and sides of the canal, whilst thin linings
usually have a thickness of 150-300 mm. in general, thick compacted earth linings are
preferred, and FAO state that thin earth linings are limited to situations where a
suitable soil material may not be available locally. Certain constraints usually apply in
the case of thin earth linings, which include low canal velocities to prevent scour, and
operation of the canal to avoid frequent drying cycles.
Soil type and the degree of compaction play an important part in the seepage rates
possible from earth linings, and FAO give details of these based on US practice. An
average seepage rates is 0.02 m/day for compacted earth linings in general, and this
represents results from a number of such linings in America and Canada.
Buried Plastic Film Linings
Plastic membranes used for canal linings include Butyl rubber, polyethylene, polyvinyl
chloride and chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber. The main difference between the
materials is their cost, resistance to degradation and their strength and creep
characteristics, since they are all extremely impermeable. Tests to define the suitability
of plastic materials for canal linings have been developed by the US Bureau of
reclamation and these include the determination of tensile strength elongation and
bonding strength. Soil burial tests and re-testing of materials used as canal linings
have also been used to determine the effect of degradation of the materials.
Plastic linings are laid on a carefully prepared smooth subgrade, to avoid damage to
the membrane, and are usually covered as quickly as possible with earth of gravel to
minimize possible deterioration by mechanical damage or sun exposure. Adjacent
membrane sheets are bound together to produce a watertight joint, and the method
used depends on the membrane type.
Seepage rates are not generally measured from canals lined with plastic membranes,
since it is often assumed that so long as the lining remains intact seepage is negligible.
However, the seepage measurements from buried plastic membrane lining have an
average seepage rate of 0.01 m/day.
Factors Affecting the Design
Some of the major factors which need a very careful consideration in the design of
lined channels comprise but not limited to the following:
i) Cross-Section
ii) Sub-grade
iii) Sub-grade Sterilization
iv) Coefficient of Roughness
v) Embankments
vi) Sub-grade Drainage

vii) Design Water Velocities
viii) Prevention of Silt Deposits in Canals
ix) Thickness of Lining
x) Joints in Lining
Side-Slopes
In order to have the most economical lined section the geometry should be such that
it has the least perimeter for a given area. A semi-circle has, theoretically, the smallest
perimeter for a given area but its construction is not practical because the top portions
of the sides are too steep to be easily constructed and maintained. Moreover forming
and screeding of such a section is very difficult. The steepest satisfactory side-slope
for most canals from both construction and maintenance point of view is 1.5:1.
Steeper slopes could be used on small channels where the soil materials remain
stable.
For example the lining of Haveli canal with a side-slope of 1:1, apart from the other
considerations failed immediately after construction due to slippage of sides. So major
limitations to the steepness of side-slopes for hard-surface linings are slippage of the
lining and soil stability. Slippage may be caused by insufficient friction between the
lining and the sub-grade in combination with effects on external hydrostatic pressure
during sudden draw-down in the channel.
Successful performance of Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bhawal Link Canal after 27 years of
construction is mainly due to a flatter side-slope of 2:1, in addition to a better design
of lining. However, in case of flatter side-slopes and low velocities in the channel or
during partial running of the canals some siltation and vegetation growth has been
noticed in certain canals just above the water level.
Bed Width of Depth Ratio
Canals provided with a hard-surface lining are usually designed with a finished bed-
width to water-depth ratio of 1 to 2.
Small channels normally have of a ratio of 1, while this ratio for large canals may
exceed 2. Some large canals in the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent have ratio up to 10.
Coefficient of Roughness
The value of coefficient of roughness or Manning’s ‘n’ to be adopted in the Manning’s
Equation varies according to the type of lining and the finish obtained during
construction. The proper selection of ‘n’ value is a very sensitive and controversial
issue and has to be selected very carefully based on the experience of the designer.
For concrete lining, in the beginning of operation the well-finished concrete surface is
very smooth and ‘n’ comes to near 0.013 but with the passage of time, the surface
becomes rough due to sticking of clay etc. and growth of fungus and vegetation
increases the ‘n’- value to 0.018 and in some cases it goes up to 0.02.
During the design of Haveli canal in 1938 a very low value of ‘n’ (0.0146) was adopted
but actual roughness being higher the channel attained a higher water depth which
resulted in overtopping and eventual failure of lining.
For bigger conveyance channels it is always safe to adopt a conservative value of ‘n’.
However, for distribution channels if a liberal value is adopted then during initial
operation periods, water depth attained may be lower which may pose command
problems. So selection of ‘n’ value has to be very judicious, by keeping in view the
present as well as future conditions obtainable in the channels.
7.3 Design of Lined Canals
The design of lined canal is governed by following considerations:
i. Economical section, i.e. maximum cross sectional area for the minimum
wetted perimeter.
ii. Maximum velocity through the section so that the cross sectional area is
the minimum. Higher velocity can be allowed in lined section carrying
water free from sand and silt. However, velocity depends as the slope is
limited from the consideration of command.
iii. Higher silt carrying capacity so that the capacity of lined section is not
reduced by silting.
Design Discharge
The design discharge for a new lined canal is calculated in the same way as of unlined
channel, however if existing channel is lined then due to increased conveyance the
existing discharge can be easily increased for lined canal by 20 to 25 %.
Design Level
The major advantage of lined canal is that very flatter slopes can be adopted and a
very high command can be achieved by adopting higher water levels. The design
water levels are fixed as described in the chapter of unlined channels. The existing
slope is not to be changed for unlined canals are proposed for lining.
Design Methods
Chezy/ Kutter and Manning formulae are usually used in the design of lined channels
sections. In most of the cases, identical results are obtained by either of the formulae.
Generally the Manning formula is adopted which is given below:
1.486
V = R⅔ S½
𝑛
Where:
V = Mean velocity (ft/sec)
R = Hydraulic mean depth (ft)
S = Energy Slope (ft/ft)
n = Coefficient of Roughness
The full supply discharge Q as:
Q = AV
A = Cross Section Area (ft2)
The followings practical guidelines are given below for design of concrete lined canals.
Side Slopes: Side slopes for trapezoidal section a normal side slopes used are 1:1
for major and minor distributaries. For main canal/branch canal the range is 1.5:1 to
2:1 depending upon angle of repose of the soil. The shape can be semi-circle for low
discharges and sub minors.
Bed Width to Depth Ratio: Small channels will normally have B/D of 1, in case of
larger canals B/D ratio may range 2 to 3.
Freeboard: As defined by FAO in “Irrigation Water Management introduction to
Irrigation” freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level
anticipated. It is required to guard against over topping by waves or unexpected rises
in the water levels. For small canals the recommended free board is 6 inches and for
larger ones the freeboard is in the range of 1to 2 ft depending upon the discharge.
Height of the canal bank above the top of lining arranges from 1 to 2 ft for small and
larger canals respectively.
Thickness of Concrete Lining: 3 inches over 1 ½ lean cement sand plaster (1:6)
both in bed and side slopes. In case of main canals the thickness of lining is 4 inches
over 1 ½ lean cement sand plaster (1:6) both in bed and side slopes.
Range of flow Velocity: the average velocity recommended for lined section is 4 to
4.5 ft/sec but shall not exceed 8 ft / sec so as to avoid lifting of concrete panels due to
uplift and damage from cavitation.
Provision of Joints: ½ inch thick expansion joint at 100 ft interval should be provided
in addition to control or dummy joints at 10.0 ft spacing with joint sealant cement-sand-
bitumen. All joints would be on concrete pad of 6 inch x 3 inches throughout the section
such like a profile.
Joints in Lining
Joints in lining can be of the following four types:
i) Expansion Joints
ii) Contraction Joints
iii) Construction Joints
iv) Construction Grooves
Panel Length: The concrete panel length would be generally of 10.0 ft (i) Compaction
of concrete by vibrator should be ensure. (ii) Proper curing by water may also be
ensured.
Coefficient of Roughness: The roughness Coefficient for design shall be selected
from the type of the lining in the light of the table given below:
Table 7.1: Value of Coefficient of Roughness
Lining Type Value of ‘n’
Portland cement concrete lining 0.012 – 0.014
Asphaltic concrete 0.014
Brick lining covered with cement plaster 0.014-0.016
Soil cement, well finished 0.015
Soil cement, rough as a gravel surface 0.016
Exposed prefabricated asphalt material 0.015
Precast concrete-block lining 0.015-0.017
Brick lining, with exposed brick surface design value (Haveli 0.0146
Canal)
Actual measured with value of ‘n’ on the same lining after gradual 0.018
deterioration (Haveli Canal)
Shotcrete lining, smoothed 0.016
Shotcrete lining, average 0.017
Compacted earth lining, small canals 0.025
Compacted earth lining, large canals 0.020-0.0225
Normally the practice is to use ‘n’ value of 0.016 for Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
Lining and 0.018 for the Brick Lining. Only these two types of lining material are being
used for lining of canal in the department.
Figure 7.5: Details of Construction and Contraction Joints

Typical Construction and Contraction Joints
The design characteristics of some of the lined canals in Pakistan are given in the
table below and can be used as reference:
Table 7.2: Design Characteristics of Lined Canals in Pakistan

Bed Side Depth Bed Velocit Value of n
Type of Discharg Slope
Canals Width Slope y
Lining e (cs) (ft)
(ft) (H:V) (ft/ft) (ft/sec) Design Measured
Sidhani-Mailsi-
Bahawal-SMB Brick 10,100 100 2:1 18.0 1:10,500 4.1 0.0200 --
Link
SMB Link Brick 8,900 90 2:1 17.7 1:10,500 4.0 0.0200 --
SMBLink Brick 4,700 50 2:1 16.0 1:10,500 3.5 0.0200 --
SMBLink Brick 4,000 40 2:1 15.9 1:10,500 3.5 0.0200 --
Thal Main Canal
Upper (Measured Brick 7,250 -- -- 12.2 1:11,700 4.6 -- 0.017
data)
Thal Main Canal
Lower (Measured Brick 4,850 -- -- 10.0 1:10,286 4.9 -- 0.015
data)
Havelli Main Line
Brick 5,200 -- -- 11.4 1:13,193 4.2 0.0146 0.018
(Measured data)
AkramWah
Brick 2,500 -- -- 11.1 1:14,789 3.6 -- 0.014
(measured data)
Concret
CRBC Stage-II 3,600 37 -- 16.0 1:14,4000 3.7 0.0160 --
e
Balloki-
Brick 12,000 112 -- 16.4 1:8,000 5.1 0.0170 0.018
Sulemanki-1-Link
Haveli Main Line Brick 6,000 84 1:1 12.0 -- -- 0.0146 0.018
Precast
Lasbela Main Line Concret 90 -- -- -- -- -- 0.0150 0.022
e Tiles
Pehur High Level
Brick 750 11 -- 10.8 1:5,000 6.5 0.0150 --
Canal
Concret
Warkak Lift Canal 200 9 1.5:1 4.3 1:2,000 4.2 0.0150 --
e
DESIGN CURVES FOR LINED CANAL















Departmental Guidelines for Planning and Construction of Lined Canals

Backfill
i) The channel having less than 30 cusecs discharge should be considered
for lining.
ii) The compacted pad may be made then cut a full channel section.
iii) The compaction should be 95% standard proctor density and proper
compaction of the pad may be done.
iv) Phreatic line (HGL) may be checked and it may be ensured that it passes
through NSL before it crosses outer toe of the bank.
v) Common bank of existing channel and diversion channel may be used
for lining.
vi) Homogeneous material be used for fill of bank and then cut to the design
section.
vii) Executive Engineer concerned will be responsible to establish a
laboratory at site and proper tests are to be carried out.
viii) Overview would be carried out by a separate / individual agency like IRI
etc.
ix) Adopting semicircle section for less than 5 cusecs channels / reach.
Type of Lining
i) Concrete lining with = 1:2:4 ratios.
ii) Thickness of lining – 3.0 inches (min) over 3/4" lean plaster (1:6).
iii) Side slope = 1:1 (min) depending on soil characteristics and site
conditions.
iv) Design of lining with Manning’s formula
v) Value of Manning’s Roughness – 0.016 – 0.018
vi) Free Board = 1.25 ft to 1.5 ft
vii) Velocity = 1.5 ft/sec (min) to 4.0 ft/sec (max)
Joints
½ inch thick expansion joint at 100 ft interval should be provided in addition to
control or dummy joints at 10 ft spacing with joint sealant cement-sand-bitumen.
All joints would be on concrete pad of 6” x 3” throughout the section such like a
profile.
Panel Length
i) The concrete panel length would be 10 ft
ii) Compaction of concrete by vibrator should be ensured.
iii) Proper curing by water may also be ensured without curing compound.
Design Example for Lined Canal
Q = 750 cs
S = 1:5000 (given) S = Bed Slope, side slope 1:1
(given)
n = 0.015 for brick lining in cement mortar in normal condition.
Perimeter, P = D + 2 √2 D
= 3.828 D
Area, A = 2D2
A
R = P
= 2D2
3.823 D
= 0.522 D
Substituting in Velocity Equation:
1.486
V = R⅔ S½
𝑛
1.486 1 ½
= (0.522 D)⅔ (5000)
0.015
= 0.908 D⅔
Since Q = AV
750 = (2 D2) 0.908 D⅔
750 = 1.816 D8/3
750
D8/3 = 1.816
= 413.0
D = 9.6 ft
and B = 9.6 ft
1.486 1
V = x (0.522 x 9.6)⅔ x
0.015 (5000)1/2
= 4.09 ft /sec.
P = 3.828 D
= 3.828 x 9.6
= 36.75 ft
and A = 2 D2
= 2 x 9.62
= 184.32 sqft
Q = A, V
= 184.32 x4.09
= 753.87 cs
The Section is sufficient to pass 750 cs, use freeboard = 1ft
Diversion during Construction

Many canals are now tree lined and both temporary diversion and permanent lining
will almost certainly require the removal of some trees if construction is to be carried
out. Tree root penetration would damage both membranes and rigid linings.
A decision on the precise position of the diversion channel and the alignment of the
minor or distributary between the existing regulation structures would be made by the
Engineer on site to minimize land take, tree loss and construction costs. The preferred
location for the diversion channel would be within the existing land reservation or right
of way.
In closure period longer than 3-4 weeks in the Rabi can be undertaken during these
closure periods.
7.4 Maintenance of Canal Lining
The primary objective in maintenance of both lined and unlined irrigation canals in
Pakistan Irrigation Department are:
 To keep the system in top operating conditions at all times through proper
maintenance;
 To obtain the longest life and greatest use of the facilities of the system by
providing good maintenance and timely replacements;
 To achieve the foregoing objectives at the lowest possible cost through a
proper maintenance programme.
The importance of maintenance for the success of any irrigation system cannot be
underestimated. Preventive maintenance, not only pays dividends in the economical
operation of a smooth working system, but also means the uninterrupted delivery of
water to the command areas.
All structures and facilities are subjected to deterioration in varying degrees with the
passage of time constant vigilance is necessary to identify and correct the potentially
unsafe and unsatisfactory conditions as they develop. Cracks in the lining, general
erosion, and settlement of embankment of structure, encroachment of freeboard,
scour, seepage and damage at animal crossing near to the villages can result in a
major failure of the system if not corrected or repaired without delay. Breaches can be
an expensive failure, not only due to the cost of the repairs, but also for the loss or
damage to the crops of the farmers directly affected as well as those living
downstream, who could be deprived of water.
Many problems that develop may not be of such a serious nature as to cause failure.
But the problem of silt accumulation and lack of inadequate drainage of banks and
side slopes is the most serious and widespread occurrence of failure. These problems
must be given due and timely attention. Experience has shown that if they are not
tackled in time, these problems frequently result in a reduction in the life of lining and
more costly repairs over the years.
Maintenance Categories
The maintenance of all types of irrigation canals in department is usually dived in four
categories, which are:
 Regular Routine maintenance
 Seasonal repairs
 Annual repairs
 Emergency repairs
Routine Maintenance: Routine maintenance refers to the day to day work items that
must be accomplished to keep a system operating well. These are, basically,
preventive maintenance functions that are undertaken on a continuous basis to
prevent the problems to become larger and more expensive. It is the first line of
defense and proves to be extremely cost effective when carried out in a competent
and professional manner. Routine maintenance generally includes the following
functions:
 Filing rat holes, rain-cuts and rain-holes when observed.
 Promptly removing trees that have fallen into the canal.
 Repairing cracks in walls or replacing backfill material where water flows
behind a structure.
 Replacing missing stones or bricks in the lining as soon as possible to
prevent additional material from being washed away.
 Cleaning weeds and other floating trash from in front of the structures and
from the lining surface.
 Removal of weed from the concrete panels.
 Proper drainage of canal banks be ensured through catch water drains
Seasonal Repairs: The seasonal maintenance is the light maintenance work, part of
which has to be accomplished during canal closure. The work can be undertaken by
permanent employees or casual labor hired for this purpose. Seasonal work is limited
in extent because of the short time period available during closure and the availability
of staff and casual labor. This work generally includes:
 Repairing and resetting of outlets
 Repairing damage panels of lining
 Removing all obstructions from the bed and the sides.
 Completing temporary repairs.
Annual Repairs: The annual maintenance work is the heavy work that is generally
contracted out to private contractors. The annual maintenance program involves the
extraordinary or extensive program of replacing the damaged portions of lining and
embankment slopes. It also includes the occasional large desilting works and a
comprehensive rain-cut repair program when required.
In addition to above the cracks and open joints are raked and filled with cement mortar
and bitumen. Sand grouting is also done behind the cavities formed. A hole of 150 mm
diameter is cut and a mixture of course sand and water is filled into it. The mixture is
poured and is continued till the inflow of sand mixture of sand and water ceases and
the whole cavity is filled.
Emergency Repairs: Emergency repair refer to the repair of serious damages or
failure which, unless prompt action is taken, may entail even more catastrophic
problem concerning canals and farmlands. These damages are not always predictable
with respect to time of occurrence or to their sale. Large scale damages of irrigation
systems may result from any of, or combination, of the following causes:
 Floods or heavy rainfall in the area
 Careless operation of irrigation facilities, sudden closure or opening of
canal gates at head regulator
 Human actions such as stealing water by removing concrete panels, cutting
canal banks, damaging of gates etc.
 Destruction of the freeboard, or portion of lining or embankment by animals.
Role of Design in the Success of Lining

Unlike unlined canals, which have their own problems the design of lined channels is
highly sophisticated or rather complicated. If the designer ignores or fails to take
cognizance of any of the factors enumerated above the resulting channel may be
problematic if not a failure. The following major lined canals have been built in Pakistan
during the last six decades and a brief narration included below for each canal giving
the possible reasons for the success / failure of lining.
Thal Canal
Thal Main Line Upper canal taking-off from the left flank of Jinnah Barrage (Kala Bagh
Barrage) was constructed in early forties with the following Design Data:
- Discharge at Head = 7,500 cusecs
- Bed Width = 71 feet
- Side-Slopes = 1.25:1
- Full Supply Depth = 17.8 feet
- Type of lining = 4-inch thick P.C.C. (1:3:6)
The lining failed because of the following factors:
i) It worked well for the first 16 years but with gradual rise of groundwater
above the bed and in the absence of proper surface drainage and
drainage of sub-grade panels started collapsing, during annual closures.
ii) The side-slope of 1.25 horizontal to 1 vertical was steeper than the angle
of internal friction of the saturated soil.
Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur Link
This canal after emerging from the Ravi syphon had the following hydraulic features:
i) Discharge = 4,863 cusecs
ii) Bed Width = 52-56 ft.
iii) Av. Depth = 16-14 feet
iv) Value ‘n’ = 0.018
v) Water Surface slope = 1 in 8,000 to 1 in 13,400
vi) Side-slope = 1.25 h to 1 V. for some part
= 1.5 h to 1 V. for the remaining
vii) Type of Lining = Single Brick Tile under laid by
3 inch thick cement-sand plaster.
The condition of lining during operation of last 40 years is satisfactory although the
lining has buldged out at several places due to hydrostatic pressure. The canal is in
general higher than the level of the surrounding lands. The lining has remained
generally undamaged mainly due to the existing groundwater being deeper than the
bed level of the canal.
Balloki-Suleimanki Link No.1
This Link was built in the mid-fifties with the following design data:-
i) Discharge at Head = 15,000 cusecs
ii) Designed Bed Width = 112 ft.
iii) F.S. Depth = 18 ft.
iv) Side-slopes = 1 V to 2 h
v) Manning’s ‘n’ (assumed) = 0.017
vi) Longitudinal Slope = 1 in 8,000

vii) Free-board = 1 ft.
First 73 R.D’s of the Link canal is unlined while reach R.D. 73 to 266 is lined with
double-layer brick tiles with 1:3 cement-sand plaster sandwiched in between.
On operation it was found that assumed value of ‘n’ was too low and even with the
encroachment of entire one-ft free-board the canal could not pass the full discharge.
The design was revised to pass a discharge of 12,500 cs. at a depth of 18 ft and the
value of ‘n’ was revised to 0.02.
The lining of the link in the deep-cut reach from R.D. 73+000 to R.D. 106+000 has
completely failed because of the following factors:
i) B.S.II Link was constructed in sixties off-taking from R.D. 73+000 of B.S.I
Link and was aligned parallel to B.S Link I at a distance of 350 ft. This
caused the groundwater level to rise. The bed level B.S. Link II in the
deep-cut reach is 30 to 35 ft below the natural surface. The rise of
groundwater played a disastrous role in damaging the lining which is now
beyond repair.
ii) The side-slope along the bridges was steepened to 1:1 to economies on
construction cost but after rise of groundwater this steep slope caused
the damage.
Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal Link
S.M.B. Link was constructed in the Sixties as a part of Indus Basin Project. It links
Sidhnai Barrage with Mailsi syphon and on to Bahawal canal. The Link is unlined from
head to R.D. 76+ and from R.D. 376 it is lined with following design data:
i) Discharge = varies from 10,100 to 4,000 cusecs
ii) Longitudinal = varies from 1 in 10,799 to 1 in 9,300
iii) Depth = varies from 18.0 ft to 15.6 ft.
iv) Bed Width = varies from 100 ft. to 40 ft.
v) Main Velocity = varies from 4.13 to 3.60 ft/sec.
vi) Manning’s ‘n’ = 0.02
vii) Type of Lining = Double-layer brick tiles with 1:3 cement-
sand plaster with 1/8 inch thick bitumen coating
sandwiched in between.
This is the only lined canal in Pakistan where the condition of lining is very good and
intact after 27 years of operation. The main reasons are:
i) Adoption of proper value of ‘n’
ii) Adequate free-board
iii) Better design of lining
iv) Adoption of a flatter side-slope
v) The sub-grade material is sandy & can easily dissipate the seepage.
vi) The groundwater is still 20 ft. below the land surface and hence there is
no immediate danger to lining.
Recommendations for Canal Lining
1. Design of channel linings should be done after due consideration of all the
factors discussed in the foregoing paragraphs.
2. Selection of the type of lining should be done every carefully keeping in view
the availability of materials near the project area, durability and economics
of lining. Short-life lining should never be provided in permanent / perennial
channels.
3. Utmost attention should be paid to compaction of embankments & sub-
grade at-optimum moisture content to 95 percent of maximum Laboratory
density determined with Proctor method.
4. Lining should not be attempted in areas where the groundwater has a rising
trend.
5. For bigger and deeper channels proper drainage of sub-grade and canal
roads of lined channels should be designed and provided. If this is not
possible technically or economically lining should not be attempted.
6. In order to provide a perfectly water-tight lining which will not be a source of
leakage and contribution to groundwater a suggested type of lining could be
as below:
o Precast concrete slab units under laid with flexible Geo-membrane of a
suitable type depending on economics and local availability.
7. There is no need to provide sub-grade drainage for small channels,
especially after provision of a geo-membrane under the lining.
7.5 Issues for Canal Lining
Extent of Water Saving
Canals are lined to control seepage but the lining deteriorates with the time and
significant seepage losses also occur from a lined canal. Providing a perfect lining may
reduce 80% to 90% of the seepage loss in case of plain concrete cement concrete
lining and 70% to 80% in case of Brick Lined canals. The practical life of lining varies
from 50 to 20 Years for concrete and brick lining respectively. The proper maintenance
is essential to take full benefits and filling of cracks in the lining at early stage of
development. The concrete lining should have sufficient structural strength to resist
cracking.
Water Level Fluctuations due to Change in Roughness Coefficient
The proper value of coefficient of roughness or manning’s ‘n’ in the Manning Equation
varies according to the type of lining and the finish obtained during construction. The
selection of the value of n is very sensitive and has to be selected very carefully on
the experience of the designer. It is advisable to adopt a slightly conservative value. If
the selected value is too low then during initial operations the water level would be
lower, which may cause command problems and tails receive more water. If the value
of roughness is high then flatter slopes can be expected with high water levels in the
head reaches. It is, therefore, suggested that value of ‘n’ may be fixed as per initial
and future conditions. For the plain concrete lining a normal recommended value is
0.018.
Economic Viability of Lining
Considering the real value of water for economic growth of the country, the lining of
channels is prime-facie, a viable proposition. The equity of distribution achieved by
improving the hydraulic performance and conveyance capacity of the channel results
in substantial increase in production and socio-economic uplift of the people. Water is
a very valuable commodity and economic impact of water savings through seepage
reduction, and consequent increase in agricultural production of high value crops may
off - set the lining costs. Generally the lining projects are expected to have reasonable
economic internal rate of return (ElRR). A proper economic analysis is required to
establish the economic viability of a lined canal system.
It is necessary to evaluate actual benefits and to compare the same with the cost of
the construction, if the values of the annual benefits exceed the annual cost of lining,
then the investment on lining can be considered a good one. It is very essential that
the cost incurred on linings is recovered during the life time of the canal.
Operation during Construction Phase
In case of lining of existing perennial unlined canals normally diversion channel is
constructed for continuing the supplies and the preferred location for the diversion
channel would be within the existing government land or right of the way. In case of
non-perennial channels, which are mostly, empty during the Rabi Season (October to
March), the lining can be done during this period without construction of diversion. The
cost of diversion works is included in the lining cost. In case of small irrigation canals
pre-cast concrete slabs can be used during the closure period.
Diversion channel where required has the same discharge capacity as the main
channel. The diversion channel can be either placed away from main channel or cut
in one of the banks depending upon the local conditions. The diversion channel placed
close to the original prism, has the advantage of being constructed in small sections
allowing the use of existing outlets, while the lining work proceeds in reaches between
outlets, but it has the disadvantage of causing seepage into the channel prism which
hampers the lining progress and also effects the quality of lining work.
The diversion placed at a distance from the main channel, eliminates the problems of
seepage in to the original prism, but at the same time, has the disadvantage of more
cost and the necessity of provision of temporary outlets, as the diversion has to be a
continuous channel. The temporary outlets are a source of malpractice and
complaints.
The selection of one of the above alternatives basically depends on the site conditions
prevailing at the time of start of construction.
Impact on Ground Water Recharge for Drinking Water Supply
It has been observed that with the lining the lowering of the ground water table takes
place and it impacts the drinking water supply to shallow wells along the canals, and
in some cases it may reduce the recharge by 50%. The water of shallow wells along
canals is normally of best quality, it is therefore, recommended that the canals passing
in the city areas / towns may not be lined. In case of saline area where channels are
lined, the sallow pumps installed at the head of the water course serves as major
source of drinking water supply for the rural population.
Most efficient irrigation management (concrete lining of the canal) may not serve the
purpose of drinking water supply to surrounding areas, and will have negative impacts
on it. Therefore, in such areas channel may be only side-lined and the bed may be
kept unlined as being practiced.
Sustainability of Lining in High Ground Water Table Areas
It is observed that in such areas where the canal lining is done when the ground water
table is above the bed of the canal, then the canal lining would be subject to uplift
pressures during normal running of the canal. In order to release these pressures
References
extensive drainage arrangements consisting of longitudinal drains in the bed or

continuous inverted filters behind side slopes and pressure relief valves are to be
provided. The experience suggests that maintenance of the drainage arrangements in
lining projects is very costly and the efficiency of their working is also very low, so
practically it is recommended that the canals / distribution system should not be lined
if the ground water table remains high from the bed of the canal, and the lining done
under above conditions is not considered sustainable.
REFERENCES
1. Irrigation Canal Lining by D.B. Kraatz, Irrigation and Drainage Paper, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the united Nations Rome. 1977
2. Lining of Channels by S.I. Mahbub, K.B. ISE, Executive Engineer, P.W.
Department Irrigation Branch, Punjab. 1945
3. Irrigation Practice & Engineering Volume-II by B.A. Etchevery. 1915
4. Irrigation Canals by IQTIDAR H. SIDDIQUI. 1979
5. Irrigation & Water Power Engineering by Dr. P. ANDE B. B. LAL. 1992
6. Principle and practice of irrigation engineering by S. M SHARMA. 1987
7. Irrigation Engineering Dr. Iqbal Ali. 1975
8. Irrigation Water Management: Introduction to irrigation by Natural Resources
Management and Environmental Department FAO
9. Design Guidelines: Irrigation Channels: Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA)
10. Feasibility Study for Lining of Distributaries & Minors in Sukkur Barrage Region
1997 Associated Consulting Engineers – ACE (Pvt.) Ltd. In association with:
Zaheeruddin Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd.
11. Government of Sindh – Operation 7 Maintenance Manual Vol-I & II. 1993
12. Lower Indus Report, Hunting & Mott. MacDonald & Partners. 1966
13. Lower Indus Region Right Bank Master Plan, MMIL & Others, Mott. MacDonald
International Ltd. (MML). 1992
14. PC-I from Irrigation and Power Department Lining of Distributaries and Minors
in Sindh Province. 1996.
MAINTENANE OF CANALS
Chapter 8
MAINTENANCE OF CANALS
Compiled by
Syed Mehmoodul Hassan
Reviewed by
???
Table of Contents
8 MAINTENANE OF CANALS ........................................................................... 8-1
8.1 IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE .................................................................... 8-1
8.2 ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS OF MAINTENANCE ............................................ 8-1
8.3 MAINTENANCE OF THE DESIGNED SECTION OF A CHANNEL ............................. 8-1
Weathering by wind and rain ................................................................. 8-2
Berms .................................................................................................... 8-3
Banks Constructed With Bad Soil .......................................................... 8-4
Inspection ramps ................................................................................... 8-4
Spoil Banks ........................................................................................... 8-4
Borrowing Earthwork ............................................................................. 8-5
8.4 MAINTENANCE OF THE HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHANNEL.............. 8-5
Clean and Smooth Section .................................................................... 8-5
Floating Jungle ...................................................................................... 8-5
Cattle Ghats .......................................................................................... 8-5
Drift sand ............................................................................................... 8-6
Silt movement ........................................................................................ 8-6
8.5 MAINTENANCE OF EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ................................. 8-6
H. Registers........................................................................................... 8-6
Reading of Gauges ............................................................................... 8-6
Unauthorized use of water..................................................................... 8-7
8.6 MISCELLANEOUS ......................................................................................... 8-7
Jungle Clearance .................................................................................. 8-7
Distance Marks...................................................................................... 8-7
Boundary stone. .................................................................................... 8-7
8.7 RULES FOR THE W ORKING OF DEPARTMENTAL MAINTENANCE GANGS. ............ 8-7
Reaches to be allotted to gangmen. ...................................................... 8-8
Equipment ............................................................................................. 8-8
Leave to Gangmen ................................................................................ 8-8
Working Hours....................................................................................... 8-8
Program of work .................................................................................... 8-9
Duties of Head Gang Man. .................................................................... 8-9
Use of Flags and Number Plates. .......................................................... 8-9
Maintenance of Distributary. .................................................................. 8-9
8.8 ACCIDENTS TO AND ON BARRAGES AND CANALS ............................................ 8-9
Accidents on Barrages ........................................................................ 8-10
Accidents on other Canal Works: ........................................................ 8-11
Compensation for Injury to Personnel ................................................. 8-13
8 MAINTENANE OF CANALS
8.1 Importance of Maintenance
Large volumes of water are conveyed over long distance by canal systems with the
channels generally made of entirely earth banks. The material of the banks is the soil
available locally. Water levels in the channels are usually much above the countryside,
in some cases by several feet. A failure of the bank of a channel in addition to causing
considerable damage to the countryside and private property, may ruin the crops
grown on that canal system by reason of the interruption to supply. The actual damage
varies with the size and site of the canal and the material of the bank, but it is clear
enough that the efficient maintenance of canal systems is of paramount importance to
the welfare of the province
8.2 Essential Considerations of Maintenance
Evidently, it is essential that the section of a channel shall be maintained always as
close to design conditions as possible. The type cross sections to be adopted for
various classes of channels have been described in paragraphs and the data actually
adopted for each channel is given on the sanctioned longitudinal section of the
channel. It is the duty of Sub-engineers and sub-divisional officers to see that the
actual section as existing is not very much below the standard laid down in the type
cross section. Whenever they find that the banks are worn, whether in width or in
height they must submit proposals and estimates to restore the banks to design
sections. In case of emergencies it is expected that Sub-engineers and Executive
Engineers will take action to restore safe conditions invoking relevant provisions of
PPRA and PWD code. The capacity of a channel to carry its authorized discharge with
authorized supply levels depends on an efficient maintenance of its hydraulic
characteristics. This capacity is of importance in all channels, but is particularly so in
the case of distributaries and minors.
The maintenance of equitable distribution of supplies has next to be considered. This
is very important in the case of distributaries where according to the present Punjab
practice, the further distribution is automatic. With the authorized discharge entering a
particular channel at its head, all off-takes must take their due authorized discharges
and the requisite supplies must reach their heads in the entire length of the channel.
Lastly there are a few miscellaneous items of maintenance, which collectively are
important for the proper upkeep of channels. Main maintenance considerations
mentioned above and discussed below.
8.3 Maintenance of the Designed Section of A Channel
The section of a channel comprises of banks, berms, inspection road of boundary
roads and spoil banks.
Banks
The banks of a channel require attention in two different ways.
(a) From weathering on account of the normal action wind, traffic,
trespass, etc. and watching away of the earth by rain.
(b) On account of a change in the hydraulic features of the channel,
it may be necessary to raise the banks or set them back.
Weathering by wind and rain

All earth banks are, by their nature, prone to weathering but the quantity of work
required for proper maintenance varies with the soil and the climatic conditions of each
area.
(i) Normally in the Punjab, banks require to be strengthened periodically after
about five years. The work is done under separate estimates chargeable to
Maintenance and Repairs which are sanctioned by the executive or superintending
engineers according to the limits of their financial powers. Estimates must be framed
after observing cross sections of the existing bank. It is desirable that all such cross
sections should be personally checked wholly or in part by the sub-divisional officers
before the submission of the estimates to the executive engineer. In any case the sub-
divisional officer will be personally responsible to see that the estimates have been
correctly framed.
(ii) At isolated places near sites of villages, unabridged footpaths and village roads,
bridges and other masonry work, banks of channels require special attention, because
of damage by traffic, etc. Sub-engineers must continually strengthen these places to
design conditions either by gangmen or through contractor’s labor, depending on the
quantity of work involved. Semi-permanent measures to reduce weathering action at
such sites are useful and may take different forms. Traffic may be localized by raising
mud walls or pucca wall in continuation of bridge parapets so as to ensure that all
animals pass over the bridge and not through the channels. Mud walls and long ramps
may be used at unbridged crossings.
(iii) Rainfall affects earth banks in two ways. The first is the gradual washing away
of the earth. This cannot be distinguished from the action of other natural disintegrating
agents and is dealt with as already explained above. The other is the formation of what
are called gharas or rain-holes by a severe down-pour. Different soils react
differentially in gharas as and when formed. The gharas should be opened out fully,
filled with damp earth and well rammed. They should be finished with their top slightly
above the adjoining bank so as to leave room for settlements. If the gharas are not
repaired immediately, when they are formed, subsequent rains will cause severe
damage. Once a ghara is formed it develops much faster than is generally recognized.
The work of filling gharas (gharabandi) is done by gangmen but if they are not sufficient
departmental labor. For bigger quantum of work in case of main canals or branch
canals work may be let out to conractor as an emergency work depending upon the
prevalent conditions.
(iv) One the outer slopes of banks rain cuts develop in varying degrees depending
upon the nature of the soil. If the banks are turned or well covered with avenues, the
damage is appreciably less.
(v) Damage on account of rain can be reduced considerably by attending to and
maintaining means of proper and quick drainage of banks. For this purpose banks
must always have a cross slope and there should be no places on them where rain
water can collect. Catch water drains should be kept clear and always fit to flow. Any
amount of attention given to proper drainage is well worth the pains.
(vi) A keen Sub-engineer or sub divisional officer tries to reduce the weathering
action of wind and rain, etc. by a proper consolidation of his banks, by encouraging
grass to grow in the side slopes and by turning the dowels lines of avenues of trees
also help in reducing weathering.
(vii) Rat holes are sometime responsible for breaches. The difficulty about them is
that they are not easy to locate. Rat holes, however, do not extend right into the
channel and if there is a good strong berm, they seldom give trouble. If any rat hole
comes to notice, it must be opened out and properly filled up.
(viii) When a channel is opened for the first time settlement of the banks is bound to
take place. It is generally uneven, depending on the nature of the initial work done. If
the earthwork was full of clods and voids the settlement would be sever, but if the
earthwork had been well carried out and compacted, the subsequent settlement will
be light and even. When a new channel is opened the executive engineer must give
detailed instruction regarding the nature of the watch to be employed and the means
to be adopted to consolidate the banks. It is usual in high filling to have a line of men
pudding the inside bank of a channel with their feet as the water level in the channel
rises.
Berms
A good strong berm ensures the safety of a channel. To start with, there are normally
no berms on new channels. They grow gradually sometimes naturally sometimes as
a result of special efforts to this end. Berms are grown in the following different ways.
(a) By the longitudinal staking and bushing
(b) By cross spurs
(c) By hanging spurs
(d) By a combination of any two or more of the above.
Each of these methods has been described in detail in Chapter 38. The longitudinal
staking and bushing is the useful for small channels up to about 3 to 4 feet depth
beyond which it become very expensive. Cross spurs are usually employees in
channels of more than 4 depth and hanging spurs in very large channels where even
cross spurs are difficult or too expensive to construct.
As berms are formed, they have a normal tendency to grow higher at the lips. This has
to be set right by cutting, the lips and depositing the earth at the back as shown in the
sketch below:
The process has to be repeated a number of times and on completion the berm should
be higher on the bank side by about 6” than on the water side. This ensures that with
small fluctuation in supply the water in the channel does not reach the edge of the
bank. If it does rat holes may come into action and breaches result.
Even after construction with fluctuations in supply there is always a tendency for berms
to rise at the lips and to grow inside the channel. The latter tendency is more marked
in the case of small channels. This must be set right by berm trimming, berm cutting
or lip cutting as described above. In small channels (less then 300 cusecs) berm
trimming once a year is generally necessary. On large channels berm trimming must
be done once in two years and in still larger channels once in three years.
When trimming berms, care must be taken not to cut them too deep. The mean line of
the berm is generally aimed at. If the earth to be obtained from berm trimming is in the
nature of sods, these need not be thrown away but may be deposited in the hollows
in the berms where they soon obtain a firm grip. In some channels due either to the
initial section being tight or to a subsequent increase in the capacity of the channel
berms are eroded by the channel itself. It is then necessary to set back the banks to
obtain artificial berms but artificial berms are a poor substitute for natural berms. It is
only the self-formed berms which are of real service to the safety of the canal.
Banks Constructed With Bad Soil
When the banks of a channel are constructed with soil impregnated with salts,
leakages will occur at the point where the top of the berm meets the inner slope of the
bank. To prevent such leakages a silt pushta should be constructed as shown in the
sketch below.
The minimum top width of the pushta should be 2’ and its minimum height above full
supply level should be 9”. If silt is available in the bed of the channel the pushta should
be constructed with bed silt, but if no bed silt is available the pushta should be
constructed with earth cut from the berm.
Inspection ramps
Inspection ramps should be provided at suitable places by raising the boundary road
to the bank level at a slope of 1:30 and providing a horizontal bank of 50’ length. These
inspection ramps can be provided at the site of outlets and thus saves boundary road
culverts. In any case they should not more than half a mile apart. Inspection ramps
enable an inspecting officer going in a car to get an idea of the shape and hydraulic
features of the channel.
Spoil Banks
Little attention is generally paid towards maintenance of spoil banks. It is the usual
practice to have the spoil banks covered with plantation. It is important, however, to
provide proper drainage of the spoil banks and catch-water drains must be efficiently
maintained. Otherwise the spoil bank does not require much maintenance.
Borrowing Earthwork
It will be noticed from what has been said above that for proper maintenance of canal
banks, it is necessary periodically to obtain additional quantities of earthwork along all
channels. On some, definite widths of land are provided alongside the banks for the
future borrowing of earth; where such Government land does not exist, earth is
obtained from borrow pits in private land in accordance with the instructions contained
in articles 4.10 and 4.11 of the irrigation Manual of Order.
Sometimes earth is obtained by making borrow pits in the bed of a channel. This may
only be done with the permission of the executive engineer who must give detailed
instructions regarding the depth and width of the pits, having regard to the size of
channel, length of closure and to ensure that the full supply level shall not be affected.
Earth can also be obtained by lowering the berms. Whenever this is done the entire
width of the berm should be excavated in uniform layers leaving bars 10’ Wide in every
chain. The depth of digging should not be much, generally about a foot or so, to enable
the berms to reform in next working season. Special attention should be given and
measure taken to assist reformation.
Specifications for earth work are contained in Chapter 17 of CSR Volume: 1
8.4 Maintenance of the Hydraulic Characteristics of a Channel
Clean and Smooth Section
Clean and smooth section of a channel is very important for smooth flow of water. On
the sides, the berms are periodically trimmed to provide a fairly smooth surface. It is
necessary to ensure that no trees or roots project into the channel. As to the bed, it is
essential that all collections of jungle, bricks etc. or silt heaps that may be found during
a canal closure are removed immediately. This is very important in small channels.
Zamindars are in the habit of putting obstructions immediately below their outlets to
divert into their outlet, the supplies available during short supply turns. It is difficult to
stop such practices, but it is very important to remove all such obstructions in every
closure. When doing so, the material obtained should be put as far away as possible.
Sub Divisional Officers are required to make special inspection of channels during
closure to see that the beds and sides of channels are clear of all obstructions.
Floating Jungle
All floating jungle must be removed from a channel immediately it is noticed. The best
place is the head of channel where regulation beldars should usefully employ their
spare time in removing floating jungle, in small channel canal patrols should keep on
removing floating jungle as they go along the channel.
Cattle Ghats
Near village sites or on unabridged road, or even in the neighborhood bridges, there
is always some cattle trespass through the channel. Every effort must be made to
reduce this trespass to the very minimum. Where it is not possible to remove it
altogether, the only thing to do, is to recognize the place as a permanent ghat site and
to make a pucca ghat as per standard instructions and design. Failing this, it is
desirable to provide good long ramps on the sides for the cattle to come up to the
banks and to keep on removing silt from the bed at the ghat site.
Drift sand
Sometimes a channel passes through sandy tracts and drift sand finds its way into it.
Part of the sand is carried along and the rest is deposited on the bed of the channel.
It is necessary to remove this sand periodically, but more permanent measures should
be evolved. One of these is the growing of ‘sarkanda’ or bushes on one side of the
channel so as to the stop the drift sand from entering the channel. In some places high
mud walls are efficient in keeping the blown sand from entering the channel.
Silt movement
An important hydraulic feature of a channel is the water level actually attained as
compared with the designed conditions. This is very closely related to silt movements.
The river conditions at the head of a canal may be such as to induct large quantities
of silt into the canal which, to start with deposit in the upper reaches of the canal.
Subsequent river condition may change or in winter when clear water enters the canal,
this silt is picked up and gradually carried down the canal into distributaries.
Distributaries head regulators are of various designs some are silt selective, others
take a proper share of silt, other are so designed either intentionally or unintentionally
as to take large quantities of silt. As described in chapter 9 the silt drawing capacity of
different types of outlets on the distributary varies considerably. Thus a change in any
of these factors upsets the silt equilibrium of a channel, and this leads bed of the
channel and of the water levels attained in it. Since all the off takes are designed to
take their authorized shares at definite water levels in the distributary, the equitable
distribution of water is upset.
8.5 Maintenance of Equitable Distribution of Water
Apart from the remodeling or silt clearance of channels as semi-permanent remedies
for the maintenance of equitable distribution of supplies there are other methods which
will make silt clearance or remodeling less frequent. These are summarized briefly
below.
H. Registers.
The first of these is the maintenance of H. registers. These registers which are in use
throughout the irrigation Branch maintain a record of the actual depth of water above
the crest of every outlet. By keeping a regular watch on these values the outlets which
draw comparatively large excesses are singled out and adjusted before conditions get
out of control. The detailed instructions regarding maintenance of H. registers are
given in the register itself.
Reading of Gauges
For the purpose of maintaining a proper watch on the equitable distribution of water,
apart from the H. registers, there is a system of observing gauges on the distributaries
of every canal. This system requires the reading of and reporting to the sub divisional
officer, executive engineer and superintending engineer in some cases, of the actual
gauges at the heads, tails and other control points on the distributaries. On certain
channels gauges at every mile are specially read for the purpose. Where the heads
and tails of channels are modular, the gauges at these sites and at the control points
on a channel are a measure of the discharge running in the channel, and a perusal of
these gauges give a correct idea of the actual state of distribution of water on a
distributary. Whenever with full supply running in a channel, any gauge lower down
shows signs of falling short of the designed, it is up to the officer concerned to look
into the matter and take necessary action before the trouble grows acute.
Unauthorized use of water
Another important thing is to prevent all unauthorized use of irrigation water and actual
thefts of supplies. There are a number of ways in which these practices are indulged
in by the cultivators cuts in channels damage to outlets to increase their capacity,
siphoning away water by sheet iron or other pipes from a channel into the nearest
watercourse, takkis along side outlets and similar other malpractices are adopted.
They are no doubt difficult to detect but a keen and vigilant eye is very necessary
particularly during the periods of keen demand. A high water level mark in a water-
course, or loose earth near an outlet site, sometimes leads to the discovery of such
practices. Whenever any such malpractice is found, immediate and direct action is
called for. IT is important to remember that the man who steals canal water does not
get additional supplies from the river. He get it only at the expense of the cultivators
lower down.
8.6 Miscellaneous
Jungle Clearance
Jungle must be up-rooted as soon as it shows up. Good maintenance requires that all
jungle in the entire canal length should be kept down. This works is normally done by
gangmen where such are employed. In particular, it must in any case be removed
before it flowers, for if it is not cut, the seed is carried away by water and induces jungle
growth elsewhere. Care should be taken to ensure that the jungle cut is not thrown
into the channel.
Distance Marks
Distance marks are established for the location of any point or work on a channel. To
serve their purpose they must be maintained in proper order. The maintenance of
distance marks usually comprises annual painting and figuring if of metal, and of white-
washing and figuring if of stone; in the latter case it is desirable to do the white-washing
twice or thrice a year . Sometimes a distance mark is broken or badly damaged, when
it must be replaced at once.
A useful practice is that overseers maintain a record of reduced levels at the distance
marks. Where this is done, any dislocation in the distance mark should be specially
looked into and the R.L. corrected.
Boundary stone.
Boundary stones are similarly fixed to demarcate the land width belonging to Irrigation
Branch. These should be white-washed at least once a year after the rainy season but
before the end of October. It is important to prevent encroachments by private persons
on canal lands. These encroachments are generally made by the adjoining cultivators
and for this reason the instructions contained in paragraph 4.6 of the Irrigation Manual
of Orders must be carefully followed.
8.7 Rules for the Working of Departmental Maintenance Gangs.
In every sub-division which has charge of irrigation channels or drains there is usually
a large establishment employed on regular basis for maintenance work, (the term
canal patrol includes gangmen employed for maintenance). For proper control of this
establishment, it is necessary to lay down a definite procedure to ensure that full value
is obtained from every man so employed. The exact instructions may vary from place
to place depending on the nature of work to be done. The following are, however,
given as a guide. The detailed rules for adoption in each sub-division may be prepared
by the sub-divisional officer concerned in consultation with his executive engineer.
Two systems are in vogue in the Irrigation Branch. In the first, all gangmen work
together under the directions of the head gangman (Mate or Mistry). In this system,
the head gangman is in charge of the progress and quality of the work done and the
individual gangmen do not carry any responsibility in the matter. The amount of work
done thus depends on the integrity and enthusiasm displayed by the head gangman.
In the other system, definite reaches of channels are allocated to individual gangmen
who are made responsible for the standard of maintenance in their reaches. The duties
of the head gangman are in this case to guide and instruct the gangmen and see that
they do their work properly. The later system is generally to be preferred and the
detailed instructions that follow are applicable to the latter system. This system is to
be adopted unless the executive engineer concerned decides otherwise.
Reaches to be allotted to gangmen.
Every gangman should work either individually or in pairs. Each individual or pair
should be allotted a definite reach of the channel to look after. The length of the reach
will depend upon the standard of maintenance required on the channel and upon the
nature of soil of the reach, and will be determined by the sub-divisional officer in
consultation with the executive engineer. No gangmen may be ordered to work outside
their allotted reaches except in emergencies.
Equipment
The gangmen should be given serial numbers with No.1 to the gangman at the head
of a channel. These numbers should be painted on both sides of the sheet iron disc
9” diameter. Each gangman is to be supplied with his number plate fixed on M S bar
and also to be supplied with the following tools depending on the nature of his work:-
1. A kassi and a basket.
2. A bucket for watering.
3. A khurpa.
4. Ring and patti.
5. Red flag. The flag should be rectangular,2 ft. long and 1 ft. wide.
6. Sickle.
7. Small axe.
8. String hundred feet long.
9. One lantern.
10. One kundi, fixed to a 6’-12’ long bamboo pole per gang.
The gangman should be provided with green turbans by the Department. The head
gangmen and mates should wear red turban to identify themselves.
Leave to Gangmen
Gangmen may be given leave on Sundays twice a month. But all the gangmen should
never be absent from a channel at one time. Half the gangmen may be given leave on
alternate Sundays.
Working Hours.
The working hours for gangmen will be as follows:
15th April to 30th September 8.0 a.m. to 1.0 p.m.

4.0 p.m. to 7.0 p.m.
1st October to 14th April 9.0 a.m. to 1.0 p.m.
2.0 p.m. to 6.0 p.m.
Program of work
For each 10-daily period (1st to 10th, 11th to 20th and 21st to the last date of the month
the Sub engineer in charge should prepare a program of work, noting the work to be
done by every individual gang man or pair of gang men for each day of the 10-daily
period. Such programs should be prepared in triplicate, one copy should be sent to
the sub-divisional officer; one should be kept with the sub engineer and the third should
be supplied to the head gang man (mate or mistry). These programs should be sent
to all concerned three days before the commencement of the 10-daily period.
The sub- divisional officer should scrutinize these programs as soon as he gets them
and if he finds any change necessary he should immediately inform the sub engineer.
Copies of these programs should be kept on their persons by the sub-divisional
officers overseers and head gang men during inspection and they should see that the
gang men work according to the program.
Duties of Head Gang Man.
The head gang man must go over his beat at least once a day and he should be
responsible for clearing any floating jungle. In addition, he should mark attendance of
the gang men in a register to be kept by him for the purpose and note on it the progress
attained and the work done by each gang man under him. The overseer should check
the attendance register every time he goes on the channels and the sub-divisional
officers should also make it a point to inspect the register during their inspections.
Use of Flags and Number Plates.
The gangmen should fix their flags at the point they commence their day’s work. The
number plate may be moved with them but this must always be fixed at the inner side
of the inspection road.
Maintenance of Distributary.
On distributaries and minors where only one gangman is employed for 6 to 8 miles, all
that he is expected to do is to patrol the entire reach daily on foot, remove floating
jungle, read gauges at control points, see that there are no obstructions under
masonry works and below outlets, attend to leakages and petty repairs on inspection
roads and ramps, etc., and in general keep a watch on the channel. On these channels
no head gang man is necessary and the sectional mate should watch their work. He
is allowed a cycle for the purpose.
8.8 Accidents to and on Barrages and Canals
Irrigation Department has huge network of canals, barrages, drainage works, small
dams, Tubewells and workshops and has employed various kind of workers for
maintenance and operation of the system. Preventions of accidents to the irrigation
infrastructure and the personnel employed for maintenance and operation of the
infrastructure is very important. Although an accident to a canal works may not cause
loss of life or injury to the personnel, it may cause serious damage to the works or
completely disconnect irrigation supplies to an area causing failure of crops in that
area. Report of accident should be submitted to the higher authorities as per orders
contained in Paras 1.64 and 2.101 of the PWD Code.
Accidents on Barrages
Nature of Accidents: A serious accident to a canal head-works may necessitate the
closure of or the reduction of the supply in a canal at a time when the demand of
irrigation water is very keen, so every precaution must be taken to prevent accidents.
Accidents that do occur can generally be attributed to one of the following causes.
a. Failure to comply with the rules and regulations framed for the control and
maintenance of the head-works.
b. Defective gates, shutters and regulating machinery
c. Use of unserviceable boats and employment of in-efficient boatman.
d. Failure to maintain embankment in good order and to patrol them during
floods
8.8.1.1 Suggestions for the Prevention of Accidents on Barrages
Rules and regulations for the control and maintenance of Barrages: These rules
are carefully prepared, and if they are rigorously followed, accidents will be few. Any
accident which is found to be due to non-compliance with any of the rules and
regulations will be classed as due to gross negligence concerned. Copies of these
rules, both in English and Urdu should be available on the head-works at all times and
a copy should be in the possession of the Executive Engineer, Sub Divisional Officer,
Sub Engineer, Head Jamadar and all Naib Jamadars. The main points requiring
attention are recorded below.
I. Staff recruitment, training and discipline: At the time of recruitment of staff,
it should be ensured that the selectees should be healthy, able bodies and
strong swimmers. The new incumbents should be properly trained and should
know what their duties are?
II. Soundings and probing: The regular observation of soundings and probing is
most important as they show any subsidence in concrete block and loose stone
protection and enable the officer incharge to put in additional protection before
an accident occurs.
III. The Standing Wave: marks should be made on piers and abutments to indicate
a line below which the Standing Wave should not be allowed to form. If the wave
forms below this line a deep scour hole may occur into which the loose stone
protection and concrete blocks may subside. The position of the Standing Wave
can be regulated by adjusting the openings of the gates.
IV. Observations in Pressure Pipes: observations in pressure pipes indicate the
upward pressure on the floor of a structure. Such observations are important as
they enable action to be taken to strengthen the floor before it blows up.
Pressure pipes are liable to become chocked with sand or silt which must be
removed before observations are made.
V. Regulation during floods: The Executive Engineer or the Sub Divisional
Officer must be present on the head-works during the passage of floods. Other
suggestions for the prevention of accidents during the passage of floods are:
a. Reduce cross flow in the vicinity of the works to a minimum. Pay
special attention to the flow around noses of spurs and groynes.
b. Distribute the flood discharge over the width of the weir in such a way
as to reduce severe action in the vicinity of the works to a minimum.
c. Comply strictly with the rules regarding closing the canal during the
flood and re-opening after the flood has passed.
Maintenance of machinery on Barrages: To prevent accidents special attention
should be paid to the moving parts of the machinery and regular inspections by
competent mechanics should be carried out.
Boats: Local rules should be framed for the use and maintenance of boats. The rules
should inter alia, contain instructions regarding:
a. Recruitment and training of boatman.
b. Equipment of boats
c. Selection of sites for mooring boats
d. Use of only serviceable boats,
e. Use of boats for making observations in the vicinity of the gates of a barrage or
a regulator.
f. Controlling the navigation of country boats across a head works
g. Controlling the movement of country boats around a head works
h. Controlling the movement of boats used for crossing a canal in the absence of
bridge at a site of canal.
* for more details, consult Chapter 5 on Barrages
Maintenance of Flood Embankments: For controlling accidents to the embankments
it is essential to maintain them in proper condition. This requires that
a. Trespassing over the embankment should be controlled
b. A gang of beldars should regularly do petty repairs such as filling rain cuts, rat
holes and rooting out rank vegetation on the side slopes and for a distance of
5 feet from the toe of the embankment.
c. Grass growth on side slopes should be encouraged for protection against wave
wash on river side and guttering on land side.
d. Road crossings should be made 12 feet wide and with longitudinal ramp slopes
up and down the embankment of not less than 1 in 6 for cattle and 1 in 20 for
cart traffic. Where a cattle path or a road crosses at right angles, the ramp slope
should start atleast 10 feet from each of core lines, to preserve the top width of
bank from being reduced by traffic.
e. In reaches where water is available, and plantation would grow, pilchi,
sarkanda, kikar or willow should be planted for a width of about 100 feet in front
of the toe of embankment as the existence of this plantation breaks the force of
waves.
f. In reaches where water is not available and grass cannot be planted on slopes,
pilchi farash or sarkanda mattress should be provided on river side slope for
protection against wave action.
g. Leakages should be stopped from the upstream side by cutting off the
penetrating water at its source. Spare good earth should be available on the
embankment, which should be used to plug the source of leakage.
h. Leakages can also be closed by throwing saw dust, bran, powdered dung etc
just upstream of them. The stuff is carried by water into the leaks, where it
swells and stops the leaks.
Accidents on other Canal Works:
Accidents to and on other canal works can generally be attributed to one of the causes
noted below.
a. Breaches caused by defective maintenance or bad regulation.

b. Scour in the vicinity of masonry works resulting in damage to and in some
cases, the collapse of the whole works
c. Damage to the foundations of structures caused by the movement of sand or
silt under the foundation resulting from pumping during the execution of
alterations or repairs.
d. Accidents to siphons and culverts under a canal caused by cracks in the
masonry or obstructions in the barrel or outfall channel.
e. Accidents resulting in danger to or loss of life of workman due to
i. Defective scaffolding, centering or false-work
ii. Undercutting the sides of deep excavations and permitting the sides of
such excavations to be dug to too steep a slope.
iii. Failure to take suitable precaution when sinking masonry wells.
iv. Failure to erect warning notices and construct suitable diversions when
executing work within the boundaries of a public road
8.8.2.1 Suggestions for the Prevention of Accidents on Other Canal Works
Breaches: breaches are caused by defective maintenance, bad regulation and
sometimes by silt movement. Good regulation shall minimize silt movements in the
canal. Efficient maintenance shall reduce breaches in a canal.
To prevent breaches in channels whose banks consist of soil impregnated with salts;
steps should be taken to form a wide silt berm as soon as possible after the canal is
opened for the first time. When the berm has formed; a silt pushta should be
constructed on the berm to prevent leakages at the point where the top of berm joins
the bank.
Rat holes are a frequent source of leakages and breaches. The only remedy is filling
up the holes. Patrol Beldars should walk along the berm instead of on the top of the
bank, dig out the holes to a depth of about one foot, and then refill them.
Cuts: The government takes a very serious view of cutting of canal banks of the
government channels, because apart from considerable misuse of irrigation water,
such an act causes additional expenditure for repair of bank and discontinuance of
irrigation supplies to the affected farmers. Constant vigilance on the part of canal staff
and vigorous action by the Police, the civil and the canal authorities are essential, in
addition to such punitive measures as are permissible under the law, to check such
offences effectively.
Extent of such offences depends on the state of demand. Failure of rains may
accentuate their frequency. Under such conditions the police patrols should be
requisitioned to strengthen the canal patrols, especially in the dangerous reaches in
the vicinity of notorious villages, Government should be approached to imposed
punitive police posts.
A lot of success can be achieved in putting down such offences if the Civil, the Police,
and the Canal Officers co-operate thoroughly. Government has issued special
instructions from time to time, for the guidance of all concerned, and these instructions
should be studied and rigorously carried out.
Scour Endangering Structures: Deep scour holes generally only occur below a fall
or control point. These scour holes are frequently due to defective regulation, which
causes wave or eddy action. Sub Divisional Officers and Sub Engineers should from
time to time show the regulating staff how to reduce such action to a minimum.
If the scour hole develops to such an extent as to endanger the structure; temporary
measures must be taken to protect it until the canal can be closed.
Accidents due to pumping: In order to prevent silt or sand being sucked out from
below the foundations of a structure, the officer in-charge of the work should fix a level
below which water in the foundation pit should not be lowered by pumping during the
execution of alterations or repairs.
Accidents to Siphons and Culverts: Serious accidents have occurred due to the
outfall channel of siphons and culverts becoming blocked by silt or detritus or by sand
being drawn out from below the foundations by the action of springs. Siphons and
culverts should be divided into three categories, viz
a. There should be a space of at least 50 ft between huts. No individual hut should
occupy more than 200 ft.
b. Bamboos fitted with iron hooks should be kept at suitable places in the camp
so that, in case of fire a burning hut can be quickly pulled down. Heaps of dry
sand should also be available at suitable places in the camp.
c. Endeavors should be made to persuade the labour not to smoke or cook their
food inside the huts.
Compensation for Injury to Personnel
The personnel suffering from accidents may have minor or serious/ fatal injuries which
entitle him compensation according to labour laws. The key law protecting the workers
and allowing compensation for injuries by accident is the Workmen’s Compensation
Act (WCA) 1923.
Employer's liability for compensation — If personal injury is caused to a workman
by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, his employer shall be
liable to pay compensation in accordance with the provisions of WCA.
The Employees Social Security Ordinance (ESSO), 1965: This ordinance
introduces a scheme of social security for providing benefits/compensation to certain
employees or their departments in the event of sickness, maternity, employment injury
or death and related matters. This ordinance also defines critical issues such as
“disablement”:
It is also important to note that both the WCA and ESSO are in addition to each other
and not in derogation of each other as the affective person / employee may get
compensation under the law of his choice or under the both statutes simultaneously.”
Procedure to be followed in the Event of an Accident Causing Injury to
Government Employees /Workers
I. In the event of an accident, the injured person should be given first aid at site
and subsequently sent to the nearest dispensary or hospital for further
treatment if considered necessary.
II. In case the injury is of such a nature that the workman will be unable to return
to work within 48 hours, a report of accident should be made immediately by
the Sub Divisional Officer and sent to the Executive Engineer (XEN) and
Superintending Engineer (SE) in-charge. The report should be dispatched in
such a way that it is received by them within 24 hours of the occurrence of

accident.
III. In the event of death, the report should also be sent to the civil administration
and police station of the area in which the accident took place in addition to the
XEN and SE in-charge.
IV. The submission of above referred report should be regarded as initial action
and should be supplemented by a preliminary enquiry report showing how the
accident occurred and whether the effected person/persons were engaged on
their duties at the time of the occurrence.
In the case of an accident resulting in death or serious injury which is likely to result
in a claim for compensation under the WCA, an official enquiry should be held within
24 hours of the occurrence by an officer not below the rank of a Sub Divisional
Officer. The enquiry should be held at site of accident and the report should bring
out facts whether the accident was due to negligence on the part of the
injured/deceased person or due to willful disregard of any rules /safety instructions
or due to a mishap beyond the control of the injured/deceased. The report should
also record statements of witnesses and a medical report of the doctor about the
injury, disablement if any or death. In case of death of a workman, the official enquiry
report should be sent to the Chief Engineer and the Administrative Department so
as to pay compensation to the deceased’s family as per applicable laws.
Reference(s):
- MIP 1963
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Chapter 9
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Compiled by
Ghulam Hassan Qadri
Reviewed & Updated by

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Table of Contents
9 OUTLETS ........................................................................................................ 9-1
9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 9-1
9.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF AN OUTLET......................................... 9-1
9.3 ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS TO BE SATISFIED .............................................. 9-2
9.4 MAJOR TYPES OF OUTLETS .......................................................................... 9-2
9.5 CLASSIFICATION OF OUTLETS ....................................................................... 9-3
9.6 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS ............................................................................ 9-3
Flexbility ................................................................................................ 9-4
Setting: This is the ratio of the head (H) acting on the outlet to the depth
of water (D) in the distributary. Thus ................................................................ 9-4
Proportionality: ...................................................................................... 9-4
Sensitivity(s): ......................................................................................... 9-6
Efficiency: .............................................................................................. 9-7
Drowning Ratio ...................................................................................... 9-7
Minimum Modular Head (MMH) ............................................................ 9-7
Modular Limits ....................................................................................... 9-7
Modular Range ...................................................................................... 9-7
Adjustability........................................................................................ 9-7
9.7 SELECTION OF TYPES OF OUTLETS ................................................................ 9-7
9.8 POPULAR OUTLETS IN PAKISTAN................................................................... 9-8
9.9 TYPES OF SEMI-MODULAR OUTLETS ............................................................. 9-9
Pipe Outlet Discharging Free ................................................................ 9-9
Open Flume Outlet .............................................................................. 9-11
Orifice Semi Modular Outlet (A.O.S.M)................................................ 9-18
Crump’s Adjustable proportional Module ............................................. 9-19
Adjustable Orifice Semi Module (A.O.S.M) as used presently ............. 9-21
Scratchley Outlet ................................................................................. 9-22
Departmental Procedure for Selecting Types of Outlets ..................... 9-24
Selection of the Class and Type of Outlet ........................................... 9-27
Special Requirements of the Non-Perennial Channels of the Sutlef Valley
Canals (Proportioanl Outlets) ......................................................................... 9-28
List of Tables
TABLE 9.1 ............................................................................................................... 9-23
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: PIPE SEMI MODULE .................................................................................... 9-9
FIGURE 2: PIPE OUTLET (NON-MODULAR TYPE) .......................................................... 9-10
FIGURE 3: CRUMP'S OPEN FLUME OUTLET ................................................................ 9-12
FIGURE 4: PUNJAB OPEN FLUME OUTLET .................................................................. 9-14
FIGURE 5: TAIL CLUSTER ......................................................................................... 9-17
FIGURE 6: CRUMP’S ADJUSTABLE PROPORTIONAL MODULE ........................................ 9-21
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9 OUTLETS
9.1 Introduction
An outlet is a structure at the head of a watercourse, which connects it with the
distributary. In Pakistan, the Irrigation channels are under control of the Provincial
Irrigation Departments. Thus an outlet is the connecting link between the canal
operator representing the Government and the farmer or user. It follows that the design
and operation of the outlet must satisfy the needs of both the parties as far as possible.
For example, the farmer will want to be satisfied that he receives his due share of the
water at the right time and the operator will want to be satisfied that the outlet
structures ensures effective control over the distribution of supplies equitably.
Throughout the irrigated areas in the world, the engineers, farmers and others have
invented or designed various kinds of outlets for particular conditions. Some of the
ideas never came to fruition but a large number of them have proved satisfactory and
have stood the test of time. For example, the Adjustable Orifice Semi-Module,
developed in the Punjab and the Jamrao type Orifice Semi-Module, developed in Sind,
even though developed independently are interchangeable. Thus, abundant
experience has been accumulated in the sub-continent on which to base choice of the
best type of outlet to suit local condition. However, this does not preclude the possibility
of improving existing outlets or evolving new types which may be superior structurally,
hydraulically and economically. In fact a great deal of research remains to be done on
this subject.
There are much more outlets than other structures in an irrigation system and,
therefore, these have a decisive influence on the functioning and performance of a
system. For example in the U.S.A. in 1960, there were some 160,000 outlets on
irrigation systems. In Punjab there are about 58,000 outlets at present.
It is experienced that the field staff have to remodel and design the outlets themselves
frequently and as such this topic has been dealt with thoroughly so that full
understanding may be developed for design of the outlets
9.2 Considerations for the Design of an Outlet
As far back as 1906, Mr. Kennedy set forth desiderata for the efficient design of an
irrigation outlet quoted as below.
(a) To keep the discharge automatically constant as adjusted, and indicated,
notwithstanding (within working limits) the water levels may vary in the
distributary or in the watercourse, or in both at once.
(b) To allow adjustment in case of variations in the discharges, so as to avoid the
need of removing and replacing the outlet,
(c) To work with high heads as well as low - down to three inches or so
(d) To be free from derangement by silt or weeds.
(e) To be cheap and durable, with no complicated or moving mechanism.
(f) To be immune from outside interference or derangement in working.
(g) To be capable of being opened or closed off entirely by the cultivators from
outside.
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(h) To indicate from outside when the working head is insufficient to give the full
discharge and, therefore, there is necessity for clearance of the watercourse.
(i) If so desired and adjusted, to work as a module, only within certain limits of
level in the distributary, above and below these limits to give proportionately
increased or decreased discharges. (This is with special reference to farmers'
canals, where each man is entitled to a proportion of the whole available
supply).
9.3 Essential Considerations to be Satisfied
Of course, it is not possible to satisfy all the conditions enumerated by Kennedy in any
one type of outlet. However, it i s highly desirable that:
i. Every outlet should be strong and so designed that it cannot easily be
tampered with.
ii. The cost of construction should be low, using local materials whenever
available,
iii. These should be standardized as far as possible.
iv. In areas of only less slope, the outlet should work efficiently with a small
working head.
v. The outlet should draw its fair share of the silt from the distributary
vi. It should not be blocked with weeds or debris.
vii. It should be adjustable easily in case of alteration in design discharge.
viii. For inspection, it may be closed easily
ix. It should be tamper proof as far as possible
x. It should work efficiently with small working head
xi. The optimum size of an outlet should be the discharge which a cultivator can
handle efficiently and easily and the absorption losses in the watercourse are
minimum.
Working out design discharge of an outlet has been explained under the Chapter,
“Design of Unlined Canal” (Chapter 6).
9.4 Major Types of Outlets
Following is a list of major types of outlets utilized in the countries having artificial
irrigation
i. Constant-Head Orifice Farm Turnout (U. S. A.)
ii. Orifice Module (France)
iii. Double Orifice Module or Syphon Module Outlet (France)
iv. Dethridge Meter (Australia)
v. Plastic Syphon Outlet Fitted With an Intake Tube (Turkey)
vi. Open Flume Farm Outlet (India and Pakistan)
vii. Adjustable Orifice Semi- Module (India and Pakistan )
viii. Jamrao Type Orifice Semi-Module (Sind, Pakistan)
ix. Pipe Semi-Module (India and Pakistan)
x. Fayoum Standard Weir Farm Outlet (Egypt)
xi. Scratchley Outlet (India and Pakistan)
xii. Pipe Outlet (India and Pakistan)
xiii. Farm Outlet to a Temporary Feed Ditch (U. S. S. R.)
xiv. Pre-Cast Farm Turnout (Turkey)
xv. Adjustable Weir Farm Outlet (Malaysia)
xvi. PVC Pipe Turnout (Republic of Korea)
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xvii. Pipe Outlet with Standard Inlet (Philippines)

xviii. Gated Pipe Outlet (Ferrara Type, Italy)
9.5 Classification of Outlets
Outlets may be classified broadly into the following three categories:
A- Modules or modular outlets
B- Semi-modular outlets
C- Non-modular outlets
A. Modular Outlet
In a modular outlet, the discharge is (within reasonable working limits) independent of
the water level in parent channel and the watercourse. This class of outlet may be
regarded as the best type of outlet from the farmer's viewpoint. However, modules
cannot absorb fluctuations of water supplies in the parent channel and, therefore, in
that case the parent channel will either be flooded or become dry in the tail reach
obviously. The modules should, therefore, be limited to:
i. Branch canals or distributaries in which it can be ensured that the supply
varies only within predetermined limits
ii. Outlets located above control points where water levels can be maintained
iii. Canals in which additional water is delivered to certain selected outlets for
leaching or for other purposes.
Modular outlets are, however, not in vogue in the country
B. Semi-Modular Outlet
The discharge of a semi-modular outlet is independent of the water level in the
watercourse, but dependent on the water level in the parent channel, so long as a
minimum working head is available for the outlet. These outlets distribute, more or less
equitably, upstream variations in the parent channel within their range of operation
and are outlet of choice in the Country.
C. Non-modular outlet
The discharge of non-modular outlet depends on the difference of water levels in the
parent channel and the watercourse. The water level in the watercourse below the
outlet varies considerably, depending on:
i. Whether high or low areas are being irrigated at any given time
ii. Extent of silt clearance in the watercourse where silting occurs
Where silting is a dominant feature, the channel fitted with non-modular outlets are
always liable to flooding at tail of the channel when farmers in the head reach do not
clear silt to draw their full share of water during periods of slack demand. On the other
hand, water is always in short supply at the tail end during periods of keen demand,
when farmers in the upper reaches tend to do the opposite i.e., clear their
watercourses too much. Non-modular outlets should, therefore, be avoided as far as
possible. Their use is justified only when the working head available is so small that a
semi modular outlet cannot be used.
9.6 Some Important Terms
Definitions of the following terms used in connection with working of the outlets should
be thoroughly understood for designing/ remodeling and to assess performance of an
outlet for a particular site on a channel:
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a. Flexibility
b. Setting
c. Proportionality
d. Sensitivity
e. Efficiency
f. Drowning Ratio
g. Minimum Modular Head
h. Modular Limits
i. Modular Range
j. Adjustability
Flexbility
The flexibility of an outlet is defined as the ratio of change of discharge of the outlet to the
rate of change of discharge of the distributary. Thus
𝑑𝑞
( )
……………….(i)
𝑞
F= 𝑑𝑄
( )
𝑄
Where:
F = Flexibility of the outlet
q = Discharge through the outlet
dq = Change in discharge of the outlet
Q = Discharge of the distributary
dQ = Change in discharge of the distributary
By analysis, it can be shown that
𝑚 𝐷
F= . ……………………..(ii)
𝑛 𝐻
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐷
= 𝑛. ( 𝐷 )……………….(iia)
𝑄
Where:
m= Outlet discharge index
n = Distributary Index
D= Depth of water in the distributary
H= Head acting on the outlet
Obviously for modular outlet, flexibility is zero, hence it is called rigid module. For semi
modular outlet it is never zero
Setting: This is the ratio of the head (H) acting on the outlet to the depth
of water (D) in the distributary. Thus
H
Setting= D……………….(iii)
Where H= head acting i.e., depth of crest below FSL in the distributary. (For a Semi-
modular pipe outlet, it is depth of center line of pipe below FSL).
Proportionality:
An outlet is said to be proportional when its flexibility (F) is equal to unity. In other
words, for a proportional outlet, the rate of change of discharge of the outlet is equal
to the rate of change of discharge in the distributary. Thus form equation (i), for F=1,
dq dQ
=Q
q
From Eq (ii), for a flexibility of unity,

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m D
. =1
n H
H m
Or =
D n
H
As already mentioned, D is known as setting. Thus for a proportional outlet, the setting
is equal to the ratio of the outlet index (m) to the channel index (n)
Now for a wide trapezoidal channel in an alluvial soil, the discharge Q is approximately
proportional to D5/3. Thus for Open Flume Outlet:
As, q∞H3/2 (Q=C,B,H3/2)
H
From eq. (ii) =
3/2
= 0.90D
D 5/3
In other words, for proportionality, an Open Flume Outlet should be set such that the
crest is 0.9 times the depth (D) below the FSL in the distributary (i.e., the crest is at a
height of 0.1D from bed of the distributary)
For pipe outlet or orifice type outlet:
In this case, q∞ H1/2
Therefore, m= ½
H
From eq. (ii) ==
1/2
D 5/3
Or H= 0.3 D
In other words, for an orifice or pipe outlet to be proportional, it should be set such that
its center is at a depth of 0.3 D below FSL in the distributary, i.e., at a height of 0.7 D
above the bed. Thus an orifice outlet has to be set much higher than the Open Flume
Outlet for proportionality.
9.6.3.1 Hyper – Proportional Outlets:
An outlet is said to be hyper- proportional when its flexibility is greater than unity. In
other words, the rate of change of discharge through the outlet is greater than the rate
of change of discharge in the distributary.
dq dQ
Thus from Eq. (i), for F>1, >
q Q
From eq. (ii), for a hyper-proportional outlet, as

m D
F>1, or .(H)>1
n
H m
Or <
D n
Thus if the head over a proportional outlet is decreased, it becomes hyper-

proportional. In other words, as the setting is decreased, a proportional outlet becomes
hyper- proportional.
9.6.3.2 Sub-proportional Outlet:
An outlet is said to be sub- proportional when its flexibility is less than unity. In other
words, the rate of change of discharge through the outlet is smaller than the rate of
change of discharge in the distributary
dq dQ
Thus from eq. (i), for F<1 <
q Q
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From Eq. (ii), for a sub- proportional outlet,

m D
as F<1, or . <1
𝑛 H
H m
Or >
D n
Thus if the head over a proportional outlet is increased, it becomes sub- proportional.
In other words, as the setting is increased, a proportional outlet becomes sub-
proportional.
For illustration of the proportional, hyper- proportional and sub- proportional outlets,
let us consider a pipe ( or orifice) outlet in a distributary with D=1 m. For the outlet to
be proportional
m
H=0.30 m, as already proved, and =0.3
n
H m
a. When H= 0.20 m, D=0.2/1 = 0.2 < n …………it works as hyper-proportional outlet.
H m
b. When H= 0.40 m, D= 0.4/1= 0.4 > n ……..…it works as sub-proportional outlet
Sensitivity(s):
It is the ratio of rate of change of discharge of an outlet to the rate of change in Water
level in the distributary referred to the normal depth of flow (D) of the channel. Thus
dq dG
Sensitivity (S)= / ……………iv
q D
Where, dG is the change in gauge reading which is equal to the change in the water
level of the distributary.
A gauge is usually set on the distributary such that when the discharge through the
outlet is zero, the gauge reading is zero. Let G be the reading on the gauge when
discharge in the distribury is Q. Hence, the change in the depth of flow (dD) will be
equal to the change in the gauge reading (dG).
dq dD
Thus equation iv may be written as S= / ……………………………v
q D
Eq. (v) indicates that the greater the variation in the rate of change of discharge of the
outlet for a given change in the water level of the distributary, the larger is the
sensitivity.
If the rate of change of discharge in an outlet for a given change in water level of the
distributary is zero, the module is insensitive. Such a model is called Rigid Module.
Thus, sensitivity of a rigid model is zero because the discharge passing through the
outlet is constant, irrespective of the variation in the water level of the distributary.
9.6.4.1 Relationship between Sensitivity and Flexibility:
A relation between sensitivity and flexibility can be obtained as follows :
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑄
From Eq (i), F= /.
𝑞 𝑄
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐷
From Eq. (iia) 𝑄
= 𝑛. ( 𝐷 )
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐷
Therefore, F= /𝑛 ………(a)
𝑞 𝐷
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𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐷
From Eq. (vi), S= /. ……….(b)
𝑞 𝐷
From Eq a,b, S=nF…………….vi

Thus the sensitivity of an outlet is proportional to the flexibility. It is equal to the product
of the channel index and the Flexibility (F).
For alluvial canals, as n=5/3, S=5.F/3= 1.67 F
Efficiency:
The efficiency of an outlet is the ratio of the head recovered to the head put in. In the
case of a weir type of an outlet, the efficiency is equal to the drowning ratio (defined
below). The efficiency of an outlet is measure of its conservation of head. The greater
the efficiency, the smaller is the loss of head.
Thus, Efficiency= Head Recovered/ Head put in
Drowning Ratio
It is the ratio of depth of water (Hd) over crest on downstream to the depth of water
over crest (H) on upstream of the outlet, thus:
Hd
Drowning Ratio= H
Minimum Modular Head (MMH)

MMH is the minimum difference between the water level on upstream of the outlet and
that on the downstream of the oultlet required by the outlet to pass the design
discharge. Thus
MMH= Minimum value of (H-Hd)
Modular Limits
The upper and the lower limit of one or more factors beyond which a module cease to
function as a semi- module or a rigid module are called the modular limits.
Modular Range
It is the range of conditions between the modular limits within which a rigid module or
a semi- module works as designed.
Adjustability
It is the adaptability of an outlet to modifications required to take into account changed
conditions, such as silting or scouring of the distributary and increase or decrease of
the design discharge etc.
9.7 Selection of types of outlets
As indicated above, outlets have been divided into three main classes i.e., modules,
semi-modules and non-modular outlets and the general circumstances in which each
class may be used have also been explained. The selection of the particular type of
an outlet depends on factors such as:
- Cost
- Available working head
- Ease of adjustment
- Ability to withdraw silt
- Immunity from tampering.
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A module or semi-module with a constant coefficient of discharge is the best selection

if the discharge and water levels are constant in the distributary and the necessary
working head is available. But the problem of choice becomes quite complex when
both the discharge and levels are likely to change. The following may be noted:
i. For a temporary discharge variation a proportional semi-module is desirable to
distribute both the excess and deficiency in the parent channel.
ii. Seasonal variations in slope require the use of outlets of low flexibility, i.e sub
proportional. This in particular is more valid for the lower reaches of the
channels where the full supply level is appreciably affected by local
sedimentation.
iii. For channels running with full supply for a certain period and remaining closed
for certain periods i.e. rotational running, it is desirable to have hyper-
proportional or high flexibility outlets in the head reach i.e. Those outlets which
do not draw their full authorized discharge until the full supply levels have been
reached. This will help in damping out fluctuation in supply D/s.
iv. The silt drawing capacity of outlets must be110—115% assuming 10—15%
loss in the parent channel. According to Sharma silt conduction of 110—115%
is obtained in the following cases:
a. OSM with a setting of 0.9D;
b. OSM with Sharma’s approaches set at 0.8D
c. Crump’s or standard design open flume outlet set at bed level
v. In general the rigid modules are desirable in the following circumstances:
a. Direct outlets on a branch canal subject to variations in supply;
b. Above cross regulators, where heading-up is created to feed other
canals;
c. In channels which sometimes carry extra discharge for specific reasons
like leaching
For cases other than those mentioned above, semi-modules are desirable. OSM are
quite satisfactory in head middle reaches and APM or open flume outlets with flexibility
one, for lower reaches. In the choice the available working head may be an important
criterion.
9.8 Popular Outlets in Pakistan
Following types, all semi modules, are generally in use on distributaries in Pakistan:
Open Flume Outlet: These are generally used at tail clusters, and in tail reaches with
setting of the crest at 0.9 y for proportional discharge provided the width of the crest
is not less than 6 cm and the necessary working head is available. If the working head
available is not sufficient, a combined pipe cum open flume outlet may be used which
permits a higher setting of the open flume outlet beyond the pipe. This type is
eminently suitable in lower reaches of distributaries. Open flume Outlets should be
used also upstream of control points (within about 1000 feet).
Adjustable Orifice Semi Module: Because of their low flexibility, these are eminently
suitable for installation in the head reaches of a distributing system, with their settings
at or near the bed level of the supply canal (0.6 y for proportional discharge), provided
the necessary head is available. If sufficient head is not available, an open flume outlet
fitted with roof block having a similar setting may be used.
Jamrao type Orifice Semi Module - Because of their low flexibility, these are suitable
for installation in the head reaches of a distributing system, with their settings at or
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near the bed level of the channel (0.96 y for proportional discharge), provided the
necessary head is available. If sufficient head is not available, an open flume fitted
with a roof block having a similar setting may be used. These outlets are popular in
the Sind Province.
Scratchley Outlet – These are used if it is not desirable to install any other type of
semi-module.
Pipe Semi Module - When banks of the distributary are very wide, pipe is used with
the modules. The setting of the module will be as indicated in supra for the respective
conditions. In cases where crest of the outlet cannot be placed at or near the bed level,
pipe semi-module of the lowest possible flexibility may be used. A typical such open
flume outlet is shown in Fig-1
Figure 1: Pipe Semi Module

9.9 Types of Semi-Modular Outlets
Following are the popular types of Semi- Modular outlets:
1. Pipe outlet, discharging fee
2. Kennedy’s Gauge Outlet
3. Open Flume outlet
4. Adjustable Orifice Semi Module (AOSM)
5. Scratchely Outlet
The Kennedy’s Gauge outlet is not in vogue in this country due to this being easy to
tamper. The other types are explained below.
Pipe Outlet Discharging Free
The simplest type of a semi modular type outlet is a pipe outlet discharging free. In
this case, the discharge is independent of water level in the watercourse. Because the
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exit level is higher than the water level in the watercourse, the head (h) acting on the
outlet is measured from water level in the distributary to the center of the outlet pipe.
The discharge formula is:
Q=C.A.√2gHw
Where,
Q = discharge (in cms)
C = coefficient of discharge, generally taken as 0.62,
A = cross section area of the pipe (m2)
Hw = working head (in m).
Because the discharge is proportional to h1/2, the value of the outlet index (m) is 0.50.
As already shown in the preceding sections, the outlet will act as proportional outlet if:
H m
= = (1/2)/(5/3)= 0.30.
𝐷 n
In other words, it will act as proportional outlet if it is set such that the center of the
pipe exit is 0.3 times the depth (D) below water surface in the distributary. In practice,
the pipe outlet is generally set at a level lower than 0.3D and therefore it acts as sub-
proportional outlet because the head over the outlet is increased.
To obtain free flow condition, the pipe is sometimes laid with upstream end at bed level
of the distributary and its axis sloping upward through the bank such that its pipe exit
at least 15 cm above the highest water level in the watercourse. However to avoid
practical difficulties, the slope should not exceed 1 in 12.
Merits:
a. The efficiency of a pipe outlet discharging free is high
b. It has the best silt conduction properties
c. Tempering is difficult, as whole pipe has to be changed for increasing
flow, which can readily be detected by the field staff
d. Very simple to construct.
e. Economical construction
A pipe outlet with exit end of the pipe submerged in water in the water course works
as a non- modular outlet (Fig. 2). The pipes are placed horizontally and at right angles
to the center line of the distributing channel. Discharge through the pipe outlet is given
by the same formula except that h is the difference between water level in the
distributary and the watercourse.
Figure 2: Pipe outlet (Non-modular type)

Example- 1
Design a Semi Modular Pipe Outlet, given the following data:
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Discharge, Q = 85 l/s (3.00 cfs.)

FSD, D = 1.2 m (3.94 ft.)
Available Working Head, Hw= 0.70 m (2.30 ft.)
Take C= 0.62
Solution:
Q = Ca. √2g. Hw
Or 3.00 = 0.62×a×√2×32.2x2.3
or a = 0.397
or л. D2/4 = 0.397
or d = 0.71ft
Let us select a 25 cm or 9in dia pipe,
3= 0.62× л/4. (0.75)2×√2×32.2×Hw
Or Hw= 1.86 ft…< 2.3 ft…i.e., required Hw is less than available Hw…OK
The outlet will be semi- modular because there is free fall flow (pipe outlet is higher
than the water level in the watercourse.
It is to be noted that, in case sufficient working head is available for its semi modular
working, it is the best type of outlet,
Sometimes, when the pipe is very long, the friction in the pipe is also taken into
account, and the pipe flow formula is used for calculations.
Open Flume Outlet
The open flume outlet is widely used with success in the sub-Continent. The earlier
types of outlets developed (Kennedy’s Sill Outlet, Kennedy's Gauge Outlet, Harvey
Outlet, Harvey Stoddard Outlet), have been superseded either due to their not having
been immune to tampering or due to evolution of improved designs. The Open Flume
Outlet, a development of the idea underlying the Harvey outlet, was first introduced by
Crump in the Punjab, and underwent improvements and modifications from time to
time. The two types which finally emerged are; the Open Flume Outlet as used in the
Punjab, and the Jamrao type Open Flume Outlet as used in the Sind.
An open flume outlet consists of a smooth weir with a constricted throat to ensure a
hypercritical velocity (or super critical velocity). The length of the throat is kept quite
large so that the controlling section remains within the throat at all discharges. A
gradually expanding flume is provided downstream of the throat to achieve the
maximum recovery of head. A hydraulic jump forms in the expanding flume and,
therefore, the discharge through the outlet is independent of the water level in the
watercourse and it acts as semi modular. The entire structure is built in brick masonry,
but now days, to avoid tempering, the controlling section is provided with steel bed
and side plates (cheek plates).
9.9.2.1 Advantages of Open Flume Outlet
i. It requires only small working head.
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ii. It is very suitable for proportional distributors, and for outlets within 300
m(1000ft) of a control point, in tail reach clusters and even in head reaches of
a channel when the working head available is small.
iii. The structure requires no manual control.
iv. The water surface level in the supply canal above the crest of the outlet can be
read and the corresponding discharge obtained from the prescribed formula.
9.9.2.2 Disadvantages of Open Flume Outlet
i. It is not provided with any gate arrangement and it is not possible to shut it for
inspection when the channel is running.
ii. This outlet has been developed for systems in which channels are run at full
supply level with little fluctuation of discharge in the supply. These systems are
usually not equipped with check structures and, therefore, in the case of low
discharges, the outlets would not draw their design discharge.
iii. In many cases the open flume outlet has to be either deep or narrow (in which
case it is easily blocked) or shallow and wide (in which case it is hyper
proportional and also fails to draw its fair share of silt). To overcome the defect
of high flexibility, a roof block is fitted in the gullet of an open flume, at the vena
contracta, clear of the water surface in the gullet when the outlet is drawing its
full supply discharge.
iv. This outlet can be tampered by placing a thin wooden plank, fitting the throat,
half way between the crest and the water level. This increases the discharge
by 16% if the outlet is working as a free fall.
9.9.2.3 Crump’s Open Flume Outlet
This type was first constructed on the Bari Doab Canal in Punjab (Fig- 3). Later on,
this type was modified slightly and a standardized Punjab open flume outlet was
evolved and widely adopted.
It is a weir with contracted throat followed by an expanding flume on the downstream.
The length of weir crest is 2.5 G, where G is the head over weir crest in m.
Figure 3: Crump's Open Flume Outlet

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Due to fluming, hypercritical velocity is generated on the downstream of the crest and
hydraulic jump occurs. It is, therefore, independent of the water level in the
watercourse. Upstream wing wall is made smaller by the distance equal to width of
opening of the outlet at its mouth. If it is equal to W, wing wall is set back by W and its
value is given by
W = q/Q.
The set back is provided to enable the outlet to take fair share of silt.
The length of flume downstream of crest will naturally be equal to the horizontal length
of the distributary bank. The slope of downstream glacis depends on the bed level in
water course.
The discharge of outlet is given by equation
q = K.B.G3/2
Where G = Head over crest in m or (ft)
K = Coefficient of discharge having theoretical value of 3.087 ( 1.77
in MKS)
Due to enterance losses for different widths of throat, value of K differs and can be
taken as follows:
B in Ft K
0.2 ft t0 0.29 ft 2.90
0.3 ft to 0.39 ft 2.95
More than 0.4 ft 3.00
The minimum value of B should be 0.20 ft to avoid choking of throat due to debris. The
coefficient remains constant for all discharges as long as minimum modular head is
available. Modularity can be checked visually by seeing the formation of hydraulic
jump.
For MKS system
As already mentioned, the outlet will be proportional if the crest is set such that H/D=
0.90. If the outlet is set higher than this, the outlet is hyper proportional and if lower,
the outlet is sub proportional. The efficiency of the outlet is between 80 and 90%
As the minimum throat width of the outlet is usually specified as 0.20ft or 0.06m to
avoid choking by floating debris. Therefore, for small discharges, a higher setting of
crest would be required which results in poor silt conduction.
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9.9.2.4 Punjab Open Flume Outlet

Punjab Open Flume Outlet is shown in Fig- 4. Its difference from the Crump’s Module
is only that the approaches have been modified to induce more silt into the outlet and
the length of the throat is kept equal to 2G. In this case, the upstream approach is
further curved. The upstream is designed such that the outlet takes its fair share of silt
from the distributary. The length of the expanding flume downstream of the crest
depends upon water depth D and the bank width of the distributary. To prevent
tampering, steel bed and side check plates are fixed at the control section now a days.
The MMH is 0.2 H.
Figure 4: Punjab Open Flume Outlet

9.9.2.5 Open Flume Outlet with Roof Block:
When water level in a distributary rises above FSL on account of change in regime,
the open flume outlet draws more than design discharge due to its high flexibility. To
guard against this phenomenon, the open flume outlets are generally fitted with roof
blocks. Open flume Outlet with Roof Block has the same construction as Punjab type,
but the throat width is kept from 2.5 G to 3 G. The roof block is thus fitted to overcome
the defect of high flexibility of open flume type outlet.
The Roof Block is fitted over the passage of the flume at the vena contracta such that
it remains clear of the water surface when the outlet is drawing its full supply discharge.
The roof block should satisfy the following three conditions:
a. It should be fixed at a distance equal to H on the downstream of the
downstream end of throat.
b. The bottom of the roof block should be set at a height of 0.7 H above the
crest
c. The roof block should have a square edge at its bottom surface
Example- 2
Design an open flume outlet for the following data:
Discharge Q = 0.05 cms (1.77 cfs)
FSD of Distributary D = 0.80 m (2.62 ft)
Available working head Hw= 15 cm (0.49 ft)
Assume value of C = 1.73 (2.90)
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Solution
Minimum Modular Hear required, MMH = 0.2×H
Available working Head Hw = 0.15 m (0.49 ft)
Therefore, 0.2 H= 0.15, or H = 0.75 m (2.45ft)
This is thus maximum value of H (head over crest) to be adopted for semi modular
working of the outlet.
Adopt the minimum value of the throat width= 0.61 cm (0.20ft)
Now Q = C.B. H3/2
1.77 = 2.9×(0.20)×H3/2 ( 1.77=3.03*0.2*H^3/2)
H=2.04ft<2.45ft i.e. head over crest is less than that
Required by MMH….ok
Or, H =2.03ft< 2.45 ft i.e., head over crest is less than that
required MMH…..OK
Setting (S)= H/D= 2.03/2.62= 0.80 <0.90 (required for
proportionality)
The setting is slightly lower than that required for proportional outlet. The outlet will act
as a hyper proportional outlet, and it will not take its fair share of silt.
Example 3
Design an open flume outlet, with a discharge of 50 liters per second, for a distributary
with a full supply depth of 100 cm. The working head available for the outlet is 15 cm.
Q = 50 l/s (1.77 cfs)
Y1 = 100 cm (3.28 ft)
Hw =15 cm (0.49 ft)
Since MMH for an open flume outlet is 0.2 H, the maximum H for the outlet can be
2.45 ft i.e. 0.49/ 0.20. OR 75 cm (15/0.2).
With H = 2.45ft, and Q = 1.77 cfs, the width B will be 0.15 ft, (i. e. less than 0.20 ft).
Adopt the minimum value of B = 0.20ft
Then 1.77 = 2.90× 0.20 ×H^3/2
or H3/2= 1.77/2.90x0.20
or H= 2.10 ft
For which, MMH=0.42 (2.1×0.2) against 0.49 ft available….OK
Setting= 2.10/ 3.28=0.64%
The design is suitable but setting of the outlet is high (0.64 vs. 0.90 required). This is
not too high but the outlet will not take its fair share of silt. Should it be necessary to
conduct silt effectively, it is possible though costly, to build a combined pipe and open
flume outlet with pipe setting at bed level.
Example 4 - Assume the outlet in Example 3 is located just above or within a short
distance of a fall in the channel which has a depth over crest under full supply condition
of 1.65 ft. Let the available working head of the outlet be 2.30 ft cm. Design a suitable
outlet.
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Hw= 2.30 ft
Since the outlet is above or close to a control point in the channel, H of the open flume
outlet should be the same as that of the fall, viz: 1.65ft. This will ensure proportional
distribution
Thus Q= 50 l/s (1.77 cfs)
H= 50 cm (1.65 ft.)
Q= CB.H^3/2
Or 1.77= 2.95 ×B×(1.65)3/2
Then B= 0.28 ft
The minimum working head required for this size is 0.33 ft (1.65×0.2), which is much
less than the available working head. If proportionality is not necessary, a more rigid
outlet can be considered by designing an orifice semi-module.
9.9.2.6 Tail Clusters
Three standard designs for open flume outlets in tail clusters are shown in Fig- 5. The
crests of the outer flumes in a tail cluster (three-way and four- way) are sometimes
built 0.06 cm lower than the inner flume to compensate for velocity of approach. The
standard 30 cm gauge should in such cases be fixed with its zero at the crest level of
the inner flume. With this arrangement the widths of the flume above the full supply
level are made proportional to the designed width of the flume below the full supply
level in order to distribute benefits of any excess water reaching the tail of the canal
proportionately to all the outlets.
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Figure 5: Tail Cluster

Example- 5
Design a three way tail cluster open flume outlet in accordance with the following data:
Tail right outlet : Q = 50 l/s (1.77 cfs) and Hw= 12 cm (0.39 ft)
Tail center outlet : Q = 80 l/s (2.83 cfs) and Hw = 30 cm (0.98)
Tail left outlet : Q = 30 l/s (1.06 cfs) and Hw = 15 cm (0.49)
FSL of channel at tail= 100.00 ft above msl
FSD of channel at tail= 40 cm (1.31 ft)
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An examination of the available working heads of the three outlets show that if H be
0.98 ft, all the outlets will work modularly.
MMH= 0.98×0.2= .196 ft
Then for tail right outlet
Q= C.B.H3/2
Or 1.77= 2.95×B ×(1.00)3/2
Or B= 0.6 ft
Adopt Crest Level= 99.00 (100- 1.00)
Tail Center Outlet
Q=C,B.H3/2
2.83= 2.95×B.×1.003\2
Or B= 0.95 ft
Crests level= 99.00 (axis assumed parallel to flow in parent channel)
Tail Left Outlet
Q=C,B.H3/2
1.06=2.95xBx 1.003/2
B= 0.35 ft
Adopt crest level= 99.00ft
In case of three and four-way clusters, the crest of the central outlet with its axis
parallel to the flow in the supply canal will be 0.196 ft higher than the other two or three
side outlets.
Orifice Semi Modular Outlet (A.O.S.M)
An Orifice Semi Modular Outlet consists of an orifice with gradually expanding flume
on its downstream side. The flow through the orifice produces a super critical velocity
which results in the formation of a hydraulic jump. This makes the discharge through
the outlet independent of the water level in the watercourse, and the outlet acts as
semi modular. Adjustable orifice semi-module outlets are widely used in Pakistan.
There are various forms of these outlets but the earliest of those is the one introduced
by E. S. Crump in 1922 and called the "Adjustable Proportional Module" (APM).
Crump’s s design aimed at fixing the crest at a setting of 0.6 of the supply depth in the
parent channel, which ensured exact proportionality. However, according to past
experience in Punjab with APM fitted, the distributaries silted up badly. The problem
was that it could not draw its fair share of silt, an essential requirement for those
irrigation systems which draw their supplies from the rivers.
Thus the APM has now been replaced in the sub- continent the Adjustable Orifice
Semi-Module (A.O.S.M) which is neither proportional nor fully modular, but ensures
fair distribution of silt. (See Figure ).
9.9.3.1 Structural and Design Charactersitics
Structurally, the A.O.S.M may be regarded as a long throated flume with a roof block
capable of vertical adjustment in the upstream end of the parallel throat. It differs from
the open flume outlet as regards the length of throat and also in that the upstream
water level in the supply canal is more than one third above the bottom of the roof
block.
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The upstream face wall or upstream wing wall on the supply canal is curved and flared.
The curvature ends 7.5 cm upstream of start of the crest. The downstream face wall,
or downstream wing wall on the supply canal, is set forward inside the canal by a
distance, which is, generally equal to:
𝑄2
(B+y1/2)
𝑄1
where
Q2 = Discharge through outlet,
Q1 = Discharge of channel
B = Bed width of distributary
Y = Depth of Distributary upstream of the outlet
Setting forward should only be done when the bed width of the canal is reduced below
the outlet, keeping the downstream wing wall at the downstream end and the upstream
wing wall at the upstream toe slope. The length of the parallel throat is2.00 ft or 60 cm
for all cases. There is no horizontal crest portion of the throat and a glacis sloping at
1 in 15 starts right from the upstream end of the parallel sides of the throat.
Crump’s Adjustable proportional Module
Generally abbreviation APM is used for this type of outlet. It is also called Adjustable
Orifice Semi-Module (A.O.S.M.). The outlet is shown in Fig- 6. In this type a cast iron
roof block is provided by bolts in masonry at the entrance end which can be adjusted
so that the orifice opening can be changed. The roof block is fixed to two check plates
on either side by bolts which can be removed to adjust depth of the outlet after the
masonry has been dismantled. This block is given curve at the lower end on the
entrance side. It is given a tilt of 1 in 7. At the sill also a cast iron base is provided. A
check plate 0.3 m wide is also provided.
The base plates and the roof blocks are manufactured in standard sizes such as
B=6.1, 7.6, 9.9, 12.2, 15.4, 19.5, 24.4 and 30.5 cm. These standard sizes are used to
obtain the desired discharges through the outlet by adjusting the orifice opening. In
order to enable outlet to take fair share of silt, the upstream wing wall of the outlet is
set back by a distance W, given by
𝑘
W= K(𝑄). (Bu+ 0.5D)
Where:
Bu= Width of the distributary upstream of the outlet
K= Constant, the value depends upon the discharge in the distributary
as follows:
Discharge (Q) Less than 0.283 0.283- 1.415 1.415- 5.66 Greater than 5.55
cumec
K 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00
To facilitate smooth water entry, upstream wing-wall is made smaller in length. There
is a throat of uniform length for about 0.60 m. The side walls diverge out with a radius
of 7.625 m. The bed of the outlet is laid with a slope of 1 in 15 till it joins the bed of
watercourse. Whole outlet is constructed with masonry. Thus, this outlet is perfectly
rigid once the roof block is fixed. But at the same time after dismantling the masonry
slightly the opening can be adjusted by lowering or raising the roof block. Velocity of
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water in the outlet is super critical. As a result hydraulic jump occurs on the sloping
bed of the outlet downstream of the crest. This makes the outlet discharge
independent of the flow conditions in the watercourse.
The discharge through the outlet is given by formula
Q = 7.3 B.Y.√Hs
Q = 4.04 B.Y.√Hs in MKS
where
Q = outlet discharge in cfs or cumecs
B = width of outlet opening in ft or meter
Y = height of outlet opening above crest in ft or meters
Hs = working head in ft= distance between FSL in distributary
and lowest point of the roof block in m= H- Y
The ratio (Hs/D) should be exactly equal to 0.3 for the outlet to be proportional and to
draw fair share of silt. Crump ensured the proportionality of outlet and hence the outlet
is generally called “Adjustable Proportional Module” or APM.
Advantage of the Outlet:
i. The roof block can be raised or lowered at a small cost by dismantling the
masonry in which the bolts are fixed. Thus the discharge can be adjusted
easily
ii. Any tampering of the outlet can easily be detected and corrected.
Disadvantage of the outlet:
i. The waterway is either very deep and narrow or very wide and shallow. In
both cases, it is not desirable. In the first case, it causes blocking whereas
in second case it does not draw its due silt share.
ii. A channel fitted with these types of outlets get badly silted up
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Figure 6: Crump’s Adjustable Proportional Module

Adjustable Orifice Semi Module (A.O.S.M) as used presently
It is a modified form of Crump’s APM. The following modifications are significant:
i. The crest of the outlet is lowered such that setting H/D is equal to 8/10
or even lower. It improves silt drawing capacity of the outlet
ii. The length of the gullet is kept constant for a distance of 0.6 after which
the downstream walls are splayed out with a radius of 7.5 m
iii. The upstream wing wall is given a sharp curve. The downstream wing
wall is also given a curve combined with a flare.
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iv. There is no horizontal portion of the throat. The glacis is given a slope of
1: 15 until it meet the bed of watercourse.
v. The base of the roof block is shaped to a leminiscate curve with a tilt of
1 in 7.5. This ensures smooth flow conveyance.
The MMH is given by:
hm=0.82 Hs-0.5Lt
The outlet is not proportional. However, it becomes proportional when the roof is set
at 0.3D. With a rise in FSL, flexibility is reduced and the outlet becomes sub
proportional. On the other hand with a fall in FSL., the flexibility is increase and the
output becomes hyper proportional. When the outlet is set at bed level, the flexibility
becomes 0.3 and it remains constant.
Example- 6
Design an AOSM, with the following data:
Discharge of outlet Q = 0.22 cms (7.77 cfs)
Working Head, Hw = 0.70 m (2.30 ft)
FSL in Distributary = 101.40 m (332.68 ft)
Bed level of distributary = 100 m (328.084 ft)
Solution
Assume B = 0.50 ft
Depth of channel, D =332.68- 328.084= 4.6 ft
Assume setting S = 8/10
Now, H/D= 8/10
` or H/4.6= 8/10
or H= 3.60 ft
Let Hs= 2.30
As Hs= H- Y
Or Y= H- Hs= 3.60- 2.30= 1.30ft<0.5 H
Now, Q = 7.3 B.Y.√Hs
= 7.3×0.5×1.30×.√2.30= 7.20 cfs vs. is less than 7.77cfs
so increase to .54ft
Now Q = 7.3x0.54x1.3x2.3^1/2 = 7.77 cfs its OK
Now MMH = 0.82Hs-0.5B
= 0.8×(2.3)- 0.5×(0.54)= 1.57ft< 2.3 ft working head available…OK
Scratchley Outlet
This type of outlet differs from the pipe outlet only at its downstream end. In the
Scratchley Outlet, the pipe opens into a Cistern 2 ft2 (0.6 m2) or 3 ft2 (1.0 m2). At the
other end of the cistern is fixed a cast iron or stone orifice of the correct dimensions
required for the authorized discharge of the outlet. While the pipe is fixed at bed level,
the orifice can be fixed at a higher level to ensure semi-modularity (free flow). If,
however, the orifice is submerged, it functions in the same manner as the non-modular
pipe outlet.
The main objection to this type of outlet is that if the orifice is not built in stone or cast
iron, the farmers would try to tamper and enlarge it. By merely rounding the lips, they
can increase the discharge considerably. Another disadvantage is the possibility of
farmers making a hole in the cistern wall and thus taking additional unauthorized
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discharge into the watercourse. However, the outlet is easily open to inspection at all
times and these objections are not of great importance.
The size of the cross section of the pipe (or barrel) should be large enough to pass the
required discharge at a nominal head loss. The recommended size of the cross section
of the orifice and the corresponding cross section of the barrel are as given in Table
9.1.
Table 9.1
Cross section of orifice ( Ft^2) Breadth (ft) Height (ft)
Up 0.6 1.0 1.0

0.61 to 0.7 1.2 1.0
0.71 to 0.8 1.4 1.0
0.81 to 0.90 1.5 1.0
0.91 to 1.00 1.5 1.25
1.01 to 1.40 1.5 1.5
A standard pipe instead of a barrel, approximately equal in area of cross section to the
barrel as given in the above table may also be used.
The dimensions of the cistern or tank of the outlet are generally:
i. 2 ft x 2 ft for discharges below 1 cfs.
ii. 2.5ft x 2.5 ft for discharges between 1-2 cfs.
iii. ft x 3 ft for discharge over 2 cfs.
The sill of the barrel is generally placed at bed of the supply channel and the orifice at
bed level of the watercourse, unless it can work as a free fall, when the sill of the orifice
is placed higher than the water level in the watercourse.
9.9.6.1 Advantages of the Scratchley Outlet
i. Stone blocks are used on the side of the orifice to discourage tampering.
ii. The structure operates automatically.
iii. The size of the orifice can be modified if required with the channel running.
iv. The cost of alteration is small. (It is only the downstream end-wall which has to
be dismantled and rebuilt.)
v. The tolerances in capacity of the barrel are large enough to allow for a small
change in the designed discharge.
vi. The coefficient of discharge is the same for all orifices, provided the length of
the orifice along the axis of flow is from 1.5 to 3 times the least of the dimensions
of width (across the axis of flow) or height of the orifice.
vii. The outlet requires only a small working head although a little more, say 0.8-
1.2 inches (2- 3 cm), than the direct pipe outlet, as a small amount of head is
lost in the leading pipe.
viii. The working head of the outlet can be measured much more easily than in the
case of those outlets where the supply water level and the delivery water level
are somewhat apart. Here, it is the difference in water levels on either side of
the same wall.
ix. Silt entry into the outlet can be better controlled by placing the upstream end of
the inlet pipe at, above, or below bed of the channel.
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9.9.6.2 Disadvantages
i. The main disadvantage of the Scratchley Outlet is that it is not immune from
tampering. The discharge can be increased by: lowering the water level in the
watercourse; rounding the edges of the orifice and making holes in the cistern
wall.
ii. When the orifice is set for free flow conditions, a comparatively large working
head is required. Farmers could thus raise the water level in the watercourse
and render the orifice partially submerged. This would result in some increase
in the discharge. However, tampering can be fairly easily detected in this type
of outlet.
Design Formula
Q=C.A.√Hs
Where Q = discharge of the outlet in l/ s (Cusecs)
A = cross-sectional area of the orifice, in cm ( FT^2)
Hw = working head, i. e. the difference in water levels of the cistern and
the watercourse, in cm( Ft)
C = coefficient of discharge = 0.0354 (6.4 )
hl = loss of head through barrel or pipe= 926×Q2/a2 generally
Where, ‘a’ is cross sectional area of the barrel or pipe. In working out hl, it would be
better to use this formula directly.
Example- 7
Design a Scratchley oulet for the following data:
Discharge, Q = 34 l/s (1.2Cfs )
Y1= 90 cm
Working Head, Hw = 15 cm ( 0.50 Ft )
Assume water level in the distributary= 200.00 ft
Solution:
Water level in watercourse= 200.00- 0.50= 199.50 m
As an approximation, assume in the first instance a loss of head of 0.1 ft through barrel.
The working head available for the orifice will then be 0.40 ft ( 0.5- 0.1). For the
drowned conditions,
As Q =C.A.√hw
Or 1.20 = 6.4 A. √0.4
Or A = 0.296 sq ft = 42.63 sq in
Adopt size of the orifice as 7 in× 7 in(=49 sq in). According to the table, the cross
section of the barrel will be 12 in× 12 in.
Departmental Procedure for Selecting Types of Outlets
Although selection criteria has been given in above section, yet it is found advisable
to include some excerpts from previous MIP to reiterate this aspect in view of improve
of equitable distribution of water, which depends principally on right selection of an
outlet by the irrigation engineer for the given data. The following are excerpts from MIP
first edition, reprint 1963.
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9.9.7.1 Outlet Requirements for Varying Channel Behavior

The supply levels in a distributing channel vary considerably for various reasons:
There may be variations in the discharge run on account of varying demand or there
may be changes in slope due to seasonal variations or due to faulty design. Again,
frequent closing and opening of channels on account of rotational running creates
additional problems. The outlet requirements for these varying conditions may be
indicated briefly as below: -
(a). Temporary variations in discharge require proportional outlets to deal with the
excess or distribute the deficiency.The needs of reclamation require the use of outlets
of low flexibility so that outlets other than those in which additional supply is to be
passed do not take any discharge above their authorized capacity.
(b). Seasonal variation in slope requires the use of outlets of a low flexibility. This
would apply more to the tail reaches of channels where the F.S. level is appreciably
affected by local silt movements.
(c). Faulty design can be combated only in part by the use of outlets of zero or low
flexibility. This should not, however, be taken as indicating a method of avoiding the
necessity for remodeling. Considerations of faulty design should be ruled out when
deciding upon the type of outlets to be employed. The problem can only be solved by
intelligent design and to drag this consideration in, when selecting outlet types, renders
intelligent selection impossible.
(d). Rotational running indicates the use of outlets of high flexibility in the head
reach of a channel. This is opposed, however, to (b) and (c) above.
9.9.7.2 Use of Control Points
The difficulties created by the periodic or permanent changes in slopes from any
reason whatsoever can be eliminated to a large extent by the introduction of control
points in a distributing channel, if possible without losing command.
A control point is so designed that the water surface level above it bears a fixed relation
to the discharge passing. This level is independent of the varying silt charge in the
channel and of any faults that may exist in the design of the section or slope of the
channel. It varies only with the discharge and so long as the authorized discharge is
passing, the water level immediately above the control point (in practice up to about
1,000 ft. upstream) is the same as designed. Thus, those outlets which are fixed within
a short distance of the control points will pass their authorized discharges even if the
silt charge varies or the design of the channel is faulty. And if the outlet is designed as
an O.F. with its crest at the same level as the crest of the control point, proportionality
can also be secured.
A control point can only be constructed at the loss of some head in the distributing
channel. Whenever a fall is otherwise necessary, it should be so designed that it works
as a control point. Control points can be introduced in an existing channel by raising
the water levels upstream provided the command from the parent channel is not
reduced to such an extent that the distributary is unable to take its due share of the
supply.
The larger the number of control points on a channel, the more efficient is its working.
A warning is necessary, however, that control points should not be introduced by
flattening the slopes in the distributing channel as this would induce silt trouble and
consequent silting above the control point which may render them non-modular. A
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minimum drop of 9” may generally be regarded as essential for the efficient working
of a control point.
Where control points cannot be introduced, it is necessary to design outlets in such a
manner that they are least affected by temporary or permanent changes in the regime
of channels.
9.9.7.3 Silt conduction by outlets
An important condition to be satisfied by an outlet is that it must draw its fair share of
the silt carried by the parent channel. It may be remembered that water is continually
percolating through the wetted perimeter in the entire length of the distributary. The
steady reduction of the total discharge on this account is not accompanied by a
proportional removal of the silt charge with the result that on a distributary the silt load,
if it does not deposit in the head reach, actually increases as the water progresses
further down the system, unless the outlets in the head reach are so designed that
they draw a large proportion of the silt charge in the channel. In a distributary system,
the absorption generally varies from 10 to 15 per cent. The silt charge in the water so
lost must be removed by the off taking outlets, or, in other words if the silt charge in a
channel is 100 per cent to 115 per cent to enable them to draw their share of the silt
charge.
The silt draw in an outlet depends on the following factors:
a- Position of entrance relative to the silted bed.
b- Shape of entrance.
c- Velocity through the outlet near its upstream end.
d- Inclination of the pipe in the case of a pipe outlet.
No extensive observations have so far been carried out to determine the absolute or
relative merits of the various types of outlets for silt conduction. Axiomatically, the
lower the setting of the outlet the better the silt draw-off. There is a general belief,
however, that pipe outlets draw off more silt than any other type of outlet set at the
same level.
A watercourse should be given only as much silt as it can carry depending on the
slopes available in it and the low silt induction capacity on some outlets should be
compensated for by giving more than their due share of silt to other outlets, where
conditions of command permit this being done.
When it is not possible to dispose of all the silt brought into a channel through its
outlets on account of constantly poor command on most of the outlets the only solution
is to raise the full supply level I the channel or alternatively to provide a silt selective
head so that the total quantity of silt entering the channel is reduced.
9.9.7.4 Proportionality versus Rigidity
Without entering into the details of this controversy it may be stated here that
experience has shown that proportional distribution of supplies by outlets is neither
necessary nor feasible. Proportional distribution is necessary among the different
channels of a distributary system but its application to outlets creates serious
difficulties in the working of the system. The requirements of the cultivator do not make
it necessary to adopt this method of distribution except on some channels where the
conditions of supply are peculiar. On all other channels rigidity, should be aimed at.
OUTLETS
9.9.7.5 Limitations of available working head

Every semi-module requires a minimum working head, and if it is not available the
outlet cannot draw its authorized discharge. The minimum modular head required for
an outlet is generally a function of the setting of the outlet, and as it is necessary to
set the outlet with its crest at or near the bed level for silt conduction, the M.M.H is
indirectly a function of the full supply depth of the distributing channel. It follows that it
is difficult to satisfy the opposing conditions of small loss of head in the outlet and
efficient silt conduction in the case of outlets on large channels.
Before selecting the type of outlets to be used on a distributary system, it is essential
to examine the available working head for each out. This is even more important in the
case of channels whereon the proportional working of outlets is essential. The
following steps should be taken for the examination of the available working head of
an outlet compared with the M.M.H. required for a suitable device: -
i. An examination of the command statement of the outlet to consider exclusion
of high areas which have not received irrigation in the past.
ii. Shifting the site of the outlet above a fall, and thus improving the command.
iii. Raising the full supply level in the distributary wherever this is feasible, with
reference to the head available and the cost involved compared with the areas
to be benefited.
iv. Removal of outlets from a big distributary by the introduction of a ditch minor.
This will have the effect of reducing the “D” and thus the M.M.H. required for an
efficient working of an outlet. The adoption of this method will again depend on
the cost involved in relation to the areas to be benefited.
v. Some improvement in command can also be effected by making the zamindars
pay more attention to the upkeep and maintenance of their water courses.
Selection of the Class and Type of Outlet
9.9.8.1 Modules
The use of a module is limited to direct outlets on a branch canal subject to variations
in supply, or above stop dams where heading up of supplies is necessary for feeding
other channels, or for some special reasons where no fluctuation in the discharge of
an outlet is to be permitted. On a distributary system, the number of modules should
not exceed a small percentage of the total, as by their very nature modules cannot
absorb any fluctuations in the parent channel, and thus the channels would be either
flooded or would run dry in the tail reach.
9.9.8.2 Semi-Modules
Semi-modules, if properly designed, can be made to distribute more or less equitably
variations in the supply of a distributary, If, however, the discharge in a distributary
does not, alter, but there is a change in the water level due to silting, the semi-modules
in the head reach draw a bigger share of the discharge and the tails run short. The
design of semi-modules, therefore, should be such that they are least affected by
changes in the regime of the channel.
On account of the immunity from variations in discharge with varying water levels in
the watercourses the semi-modules are the best class of outlets to be used in practice.
OUTLETS
9.9.8.3 Non-modular Outlets

Non-modular outlets should be avoided as far as possible. There use is justified only
when the working head available or the discharge of the outlet is so smaller that a
semi-modular outlet cannot be designed.
The use of non-modular outlets (pipe-outlets) is indicated for all temporary outlets and
for outlets on a new canal system in the first instance.
9.9.8.4 Selection of the Type of Modules
At present Gibb’s module is the only module about which sufficient information exists
to enable a proper design to be worked out. The module is, however, liable to
tampering and special safeguards are necessary to prevent this. The other two
devices- Khanna’s and Ghafoor’s modules—are useful but further investigations of
their working is required before they can be generally adopted.
9.9.8.5 Selection of Non-modular Outlets
The best non-modular outlet is the Scratchily type which has, under working
conditions, a constant co-efficient of discharge and tampering of which is easily
detectable. The height of the orifice should be a full number of brick courses
0.5ft,0.75ft, etc. The width may be varied to suit the discharge. The cill and top of the
orifice should be of stone or precast concrete blocks. The efficient for discharge should
be 6.4 in the formula
q = 6.4 A /Hw
9.9.8.6 Selection of Semi-Modular Outlets
Any type of the open flume or the O.S.M. may be used, and in the selection of the
particular type for any situation, the following factors should be considered:
a. Maximum rigidity possible with the working head available.
b. Silt conduction.
c. Immunity from tampering.
d. Ease of adjustment.
e. Cost
The use of the open flume outlet should as far as possible be restricted to reaches
above control points. For all other situations, the O.S.M. is a better type.
Where the bank section is heavy or it is necessary for proper silt conduction to draw
off water from the distributary at a level lower than that of the crest, a pipe-cum-semi-
module is to be preferred.
Special Requirements of the Non-Perennial Channels of the Sutlef Valley
Canals (Proportioanl Outlets)
9.9.9.1 Peculiarities of the Sutlej Valley canals
The supply sometimes available in these canals is so short in the critical sowing and
maturing periods for Rabi season that it has been found necessary to run these
channels, with, what is called, normal supply for certain important periods in the
agricultural rotation. This normal supply is 55 per cent of the full supply. The design of
outlets on these channels should, therefore, be such that they take their proper share
of the discharge both at full supply and at normal supply; in other words, it is necessary
to design the outlets on these systems as proportional outlets.
OUTLETS
9.9.9.2 Characteristics of Proportional Outlets for Normal and Full Supply

The following are three types of proportional outlets which are suitable for use on these
canals.
i. An open flume outlet having its crest at 0.9D and having an available working
head of not less than 0.4D will draw proportional discharge at both full and
normal supply conditions in a channel.
ii. An O.S.M. with its Hw-0.43D and an available working head of not less than 0.4
D will draw proportional discharge at both full and normal supply conditions in
a channel provided G does not exceed 0-69 D.
iii. As O.S.M. with G-0.75D and Y = Hw will draw its due share of discharge at full
and normal supply level. In the latter case, it works as an open flume. The
working head required in this case is also 0.4D.
9.9.9.3 Limitations of available Working Head
It will be seen that a working head of 0.4D is required for the design of outlets with the
required conditions. An examination of the available working heads of outlets on the
Sutlej Valley Canals shows that whereas conditions vary considerably a substantial
number of outlets do not possess a working head of 0.4D. It will thus be recognized
that whereas it is possible to design a large number of outlets such that they would
work proportionally under both full and normal supply conditions the number of those
that cannot be so designed is considerable.
9.9.9.4 Classification of Outlets
For purposes of design, therefore, the outlets on a non-perennial distributary on the
Sutlej Valley Canals may be classed as under:
A. Outlets that can be designed to work proportionally under both full and normal
supply conditions—such outlets must have an available working head of not
less than 0.4D.
B. Outlets that cannot be designed as Class A, but have sufficient working head
to be modular at full supply conditions. Such outlets are those that have a
working head of 0.2D to 0.4D.
C. Outlets other than those included in classes A and B. Such outlets have very
poor command, i.e., 0.2D.
After the outlets of a distributary have been classified as above and before proceeding
with the design of outlets, an attempt should be made as explained in paragraph 9.7.5
to see if any of the outlets classed B cannot be converted into class A or those class
C to class B or A. For successful distribution, it is essential that the number of outlets
of Classes B and C should be reduced to a minimum.
9.9.9.5 Design of Outlets for Various Types
The type of outlet that should be adopted for each class, is as under:
i) Class A- For this class outlets which can be designed to draw correct discharge
at both normal and full supply conditions, the following type should be adopted:
a. An open flume outlet with crest set at 0.9D, provided B, does not work
out to less than 0.2
b. If in (a) above B, works out to less than 0.2’, an O.S.M. set at 0.75D may
be designed such that the value of H, ranges from 0.375 to 0.43D.
OUTLETS
c. If an O.S.M. outlet as above cannot be designed for a particular

discharge than an O.S.M. set at 0.69D may be designed satisfying the
condition H8 = 0.43D.
ii) Class B—for this class of outlet, it is not possible at present, to arrange for
proportional working at both full and normal supply conditions. The best type of
outlets for this class would be either.
a. an open flume with H equal to five times the working head available, or
b. an O.S.M. outlet set at 0.75D with H, from 0.375D to 0.43 D,
Whichever of the two would give a lower setting, so as to enable the outlet to draw
some discharge at low supplies.
© In case the width B, of the open flume outlet works out to less than
0.2’ or it is not possible to design an O.S.M. according to (b) above for
the particular discharge then the outlet should be designed as an O.S.M.
with crest at 0.69D, provided it could work modularly under full supply
conditions.
iii) Class C—for this class of outlet which has a working head of less than 0.2D, it
is not possible to design an outlet of the semi-module type. The only outlet
possible is of the pipe or orifice type and the best type is the scratchily outlet.
The working head Hw to be adopted for purpose of design of the outlet should be the
average of working heads observed during the time of keen demand (1 st to 15th
September) for a period of 10 days. A fair proportion of these working heads should
be personally checked by the Sub-Divisional Officer (by surprise visits, if possible).
9.9.9.6 Roof Blocks for Open Flumes
When water level in a distributary rises above designed full supply level on account of
changes in regime the open flume outlet draws a high percentage of excess (more
discharge than design). To guard against this, all open flume outlets whether of class
A or B should be fitted with roof blocks.
9.9.9.7 Silt Drawing Capacity of Outlets
The outlets proposed above will have a high setting and will not draw their due share
of the silt charge in the distributary. To overcome this difficulty all outlets of class A
and class B should be of pipe-cum-semi-module type.
COMPUTERIZED MONITORING SYSTEM FOR CANAL OPERATION
Chapter 10
COMPUTERIZED
MONITORING SYSTEM FOR
CANAL OPERATION
Compiled by
Ghulam Hassan Qadri
Reviewed & Updated by

Table of Contents
10 COMPUTERIZED MONITORING SYSTEM FOR CANAL OPERATION ...... 10-1
10.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 10-1
10.2 MONITORING AND IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS ................................... 10-2
10.3 DATABASE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ............................................. 10-2
10.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 10-2
10.3.2 Irrigation Management Information System (IMIS) Code ................. 10-3
10.4 COMPONENTS OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (IMIS) ... 10-4
10.4.1 Keeping in view the abovementioned objectives, PMIU started
developing Irrigation Management Information System (IMIS) for decision
making in Irrigation Department. Followings are the components / tools which
have been developed so far under IMIS: ....................................................... 10-4
10.5 INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING CHANNEL OPERATIONS ..................................... 10-5
10.5.1 Surprise Checking of Outlets (Moghas) ........................................... 10-8
10.5.2 Instructions Regarding Alteration of Outlets..................................... 10-9
10.5.3 Instructions Regarding Discharge Observation and Calibration of
Gauges ....................................................................................................... 10-11
10.6 ATTENDANCE AND PROCESSING OF COMPLAINTS ....................................... 10-12
10.7 MONITORING TOOLS FOR CANAL OPERATIONS........................................... 10-13
10.7.1 Water Entitlements and Deliveries ................................................. 10-13
10.7.2 Tools for Equitable Distribution of Canal Supply ............................ 10-13
10.7.3 Daily Analysis Report regarding Channel Operations .................... 10-14
10.7.4 Performance Analysis Report (PAR).............................................. 10-14
10.7.5 Development of Software to Calculate Un-Accounted Water......... 10-14
10.8 WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (W RMIS)............. 10-15
10.9 REAL TIME FLOW MONITORING SYSTEM .................................................... 10-15
10.10 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT ................................................................. 10-16
10.10.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 10-16
10.10.2 Discharge Measurement Methods ................................................. 10-16
10.10.3 Computation of Discharge ............................................................. 10-19
10.10.4 Site Selection ................................................................................. 10-23
10.10.5 Calibration of Current Meter........................................................... 10-25
10.10.6 Methods of Using Current Meters .................................................. 10-26
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: COMPARISON OF DATA TRANSMISSION BEFORE AND AFTER ESTABLISHMENT OF
PMIU .............................................................................................................. 10-3
FIGURE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF IMIS CODE .................................................................. 10-4
FIGURE 3: COMPLETE OVERVIEW OF THE RTFM SYSTEM ......................................... 10-16
FIGURE 4: DISCHARGE OBSERVATION BY USING FLUME METHOD ................................ 10-23
FIGURE 5: PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION OF UTILIZING THE CURRENT METER BY WADING
METHOD ......................................................................................................... 10-27
FIGURE 6: DISCHARGE OBSERVATION BY USING BOAT METHOD .................................. 10-27
10 COMPUTERIZED MONITORING SYSTEM FOR CANAL

OPERATION
10.1 Introduction
In Irrigation Department, previously, daily data regarding discharges/gauges of rivers,
main canals, branch canals, distributaries and minors was prepared by the field staff
in the analog form and were transmitted to Irrigation Secretariat through canal wire
system using telegraph network maintained by then Pakistan Telecommunication
Corporation (PTC). Most of the time, daily canal operation data was received after
lapse of 24 hours. Thus, there was no mechanism for daily transfer of data and daily
monitoring of water distribution in a canal system i.e. between the headworks and tail
off takes / outlets. There was a dire need of such mechanism/ unit to address the
above limitations. In this scenario, an independent unit, Programme Monitoring &
Implementation Unit (PMIU) was established in March 2006 as a part of organizational
set up in Irrigation Department to implement efficient and optimal canal operations
oriented towards equity and transparency.
The main function of Programme Monitoring and Implementation Unit (PMIU) is to
implement efficient and optimal canal operations oriented towards equity and
transparency. In order to meet the PMIU mandate, following activities are being
performed.
i. Development of modern tools like Irrigation Management Information System
(IMIS) including Database Management System (DBMS) and Decision
Support System (DSS) in order to ensure transparency in getting reliable data
available to all the stakeholders and also to facilitate the high level
management in decision making;
ii. Development of Real Time Flow Monitoring System (RTFMS) for transfer of
data in real time from field to the irrigation database and its integration with
the Decision Support System (DSS). The whole system will contribute
towards development of a Water Resource Management Information System
(WRMIS) for efficient irrigation water management.
iii. Monitoring of channels operation of entire irrigation network and issuance of
daily channel operation report in order to ensure equitable distribution of canal
water;
iv. Publication of daily discharge data of all the channels of Punjab on Irrigation
Web Site (http://irrigation.punjab.gov.pk) to facilitate rapid monitoring of water
distribution in the canal system especially in between Headworks and tail off-
takes/outlets and to reduce grievances of lower riparian of canal system;
v. Publication of water accounts for main canals regarding entitlements,
deliveries and balance shares on irrigation website
(http://irrigation.punjab.gov.pk) in order to ensure transparency in water
distribution and easy access to beneficiaries and also to enhance Confidence
Building Measures (CBM) among the provinces;
vi. Regular surprise checking of gauge data at head and tails of the channel
(10%) to ascertain correctness of data provided by field formations and proper
checking for feeding of tails and equitable distribution of water. Accordingly,
issuance of bi-weekly Performance Evaluation Report (PER), which helps in
improving quality, efficiency and accountability of the field operators;
vii. Preparation and issuance of discharge tables on the basis of accurate
discharge measurement and calibration of gauges to facilitate fair and
equitable distribution of water among the stakeholders and also to ensure

authorize supply at head and Inter-divisional and Inter-sub-divisional point;
viii. Monitoring of Moghas (outlets) of tertiary channels (watercourses) to ensure
transparent distribution of water supply and to control water theft and;
ix. Development of Complaint Management System (CMS) to improve quality,
efficiency and accountability with which irrigation services are delivered and
also efficient attendance of complaints related to canal operations, shortage
of water, water theft and warabandi, etc., lodged by farming community
received on Toll Free Helpline (0800-11333). Also processing of complaints
received from Chief Minister Complaint Cell and Chief Secretary Petition Cell.
10.2 Monitoring and Implementation Arrangements
Program Monitoring & Implementation Unit (PMIU) is working in full swing towards
achievements of objectives. The website has been made user-friendly and irrigators
can watch the data of their channels and also can see the previous 10 – daily trends
of the flow in the channels on the website. Enameled Iron (EI) Gauges have been
installed at head and tail of each channel. Water accounts for 24 main canals regarding
entitlements, deliveries and balance shares are now posted on irrigation website.
10.3 Database Development and Management
10.3.1 Introduction
Systematically organized or structured source of indexed information (usually as a
group of linked data files) that allows easy retrieval, updating, analysis, and output of
data. Stored usually in a computer, this data could be in the form of graphics, reports,
scripts, tables, text, etc., representing almost every kind of information. There are three
main features of a Database Management System (DBMS) that make it attractive to
use. These features are:
i Centralized Data Management;
ii Data Independence; and
iii Systems Integration.
Irrigation Department maintains huge amount of multiple types of data at irrigation
division, circle and zone level. There are two types of channels data (mentioned below)
which is being maintained by the canal divisions:
i. Static Data: This data is maintained by Head Draftsman of each canal
division. Some of the static data includes:
 Channel name;
 Designed discharge at head;
 Authorized tail gauge; and
 Authorized tail discharge.
ii. Live Data: This data is maintained by Signaler Office of division. This contains
following data.
 Channel name;
 Head discharge;
 Recording date;
 Tail discharge; and
 Tail gauge.
Each irrigation division maintains its respective channels data (designed & current) on
a register. This practice has been followed since the creation of Irrigation Department.
Only specific data of 25 Main Canals was transmitted to higher administration of
Irrigation Department for their information. The data of each channel including minors,
sub-minors were not publically available until anybody requested for it. The data
storage was only register, which was not centralized and was also risky.
Database Management System (DBMS) was essentially required for Irrigation
Department to make data storage on database server. This data has been retrieved
by the Irrigation Officials through different applications (software) for analysis.
Moreover, the discharge data of channels was stored in registers before the
deployment of DBMS and it was directly accessible to the specific field staff and
provided to the officials on request.
Now, PMIU is using DBMS for providing the comprehensive reports on daily basis
regarding channels operations at all levels including Secretary, Chief Engineers,
Superintending Engineers and Executive Engineer. Data is stored in centralized
database which is accessible to all authorized users. A pictorial view of data
transmission before and after establishment of PMIU is provided in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Comparison of data transmission before and after establishment of PMIU

10.3.2 Irrigation Management Information System (IMIS) Code
This is seventeen digit code represents multiple information about the channel. Each
digit represents some meaningful information which is given below:
This digit represents the province. In this case province code
3 Province Code
is 3 because alphabetically Punjab is at 3rd position.
1 Next two digits represent barrage number. As there are 14

Barrage barrages in the Punjab, so PMIU allocated two digits for
3 barrages.
2 These three digits represent Main Canals which directly
offtakes either from barrages or from main canals.
0
Main Canals
0
0 These three digits represents Branch Canals which directly

off takes either from Main Canals
0 Branch Canal
0
0 These three digits represents Distributaries which directly off-
takes either from Main Canals, Branch Canals or from
2 Distributaries
Distributaries.
0
0 These three digits represents Minor which directly off-takes
either from Main, Branch Canals, Branches, Distributaries or
1 Minors 789
0 from Minors
0 Sub-Minor This digit represents Sub-Minor which off-takes from Minor
0 Escape This digit represents escape channels
Figure 2: Development of IMIS Code

10.4 Components of Irrigation Management Information System (IMIS)
10.4.1 Keeping in view the abovementioned objectives, PMIU started developing

Irrigation Management Information System (IMIS) for decision making in Irrigation
Department. Followings are the components / tools which have been developed so far
under IMIS:
 Development of Database Management System
 Development of Website for Irrigation Department
 Development of Analysis Tools
 Functional Prototype Development for Irrigation Department.
10.5 Instructions Regarding Channel Operations
In view of notification issued by Administrative Department regarding instruction
Channel Operations/ Water Theft Cases & Daily Analysis Reports vide no.
PS/SECY.ID/PMIU/2014 dated 24.01.2014 wherein role and responsibilities of
officers/ officials have been identified and the same is elaborated below;
i. Chief Engineer (CE), Superintending Engineer (SE) and Executive Engineer
(XEN) should pursue the daily analysis report regarding channel operation and
use the information for improvement of system efficiency and performance
evaluation of their staff.
ii. XEN and SDO should ensure that accurate gauge discharge data as per ground
reality is furnished to PMIU on daily basis. SE to review the daily analysis report
to see if there is found any difference of gauges between PMIU and field staff,
he should take action to rectify the problem of difference of gauges.
iii. XEN should also ensure checking of those channels where wrong gauges were
conveyed by his staff and initiate action against the SBE and Gage Reader
(GR) responsible for sending the fictitious data.
iv. SE should evaluate the performance of XEN & SDO on the basis of
improvement made regarding equity and accuracy of the data fortnightly.
v. All the missing gauges pointed out by PMIU should be installed within 3 days
and in case the same is not installed within 3 days then action should be
initiated against the officers / officials as per following mechanism.
Gauge not fixed within 5 days SBE
Gauge not fixed within 7 days SDO / SBE
Gauge not fixed within 15 days XEN/SDO/SBE
vi. All the discharge tables issued by PMIU are implemented at site and same
should be available with the SBE / GR duly laminated with the plastic sheet.
vii. PMIU will convey the status of the dry and short tail upto the CE and SE
respectively on the same day of the checking through SMS for immediate
appropriate action by the field staff to improve the supply at tails.
viii. XEN should sort out the reasons for the dry, short and excessive tails on daily
basis. SE to review the dry / short tail report of the channel and ensure to feed
the channel within 10 days as per its authorized tail discharge. In case tails are
not improved within 15 days, action will be initiated against the SDO/SBE.
ix. It should be ensured that all the channels should run as per their authorized
discharge from the head. Actions will be initiated against the officers / officials
involved in excessive running of the channel from the head.
Channel found running more than 10% GR
excess than its authorized discharge
Channel found running more than 15% SBE / GR
Channel found running more than 20% SDO / SBE / GR

Channel found running more than 30% XEN / SDO/ SBE/ GR
x. CE / SE should check and ensure that canal rotations are implemented strictly
according to the notified program. Rotation should cease when the design
discharges are run in the channels. CE / SE should make efforts for maximum
diversion of supply to the main canals consistent with the safety of channels to
minimize / eliminate rotation of the channels. If any officer / official is found
involved in violation of rotational program, action will be initiated against him.
First time violation of Rotational Program in SBE / Gauge Reader
the channel during the season
Second time violation of Rotational Program SDO / SBE / GR
in the channel during the season
Third time violation of Rotational Program in XEN / SDO / SBE / GR
the channel during the season
xi. Incident of each water theft case should also be conveyed to PMIU through
SMS by SBE and SDO on the prescribed format for direct entry into the
database without human intervention for record and transparency purpose.
They should also issue canal wires according to the traditional system already
invoked. Moreover, signaler will also send SMS to the PMIU database as soon
as he receives CW regarding tampered outlets/water theft incidents from SDO
/ SBE. In this regard, PMIU will issue SMS receipt report of SDO / SBE /
Signaler on monthly basis so that the payment of SMS can be made through
O&M funds as per their service provider / vender charges to whom service they
are using.
xii. Each Canal Division should enter the data on daily basis in the software already
developed and deployed by PMIU which will keep the track record of the water
theft cases as well as the actions taken by the field staff. The entry of data in
the software is totally the responsibility of XEN and in case of noncompliance,
action will be initiated against the XEN.
xiii. Tampered outlets should be repaired within three (03) days and its repairing
should be notified by SBE and SDO through canal wire, repairing outlet SMS
should also be sent to the database by SDO/SBE & concerned Signaler. After
4 days, PMIU will generate SMS for information to SE / XEN regarding non-
repairing of the tampered outlets / water theft sites. In case, outlets / water theft
sites are not repaired then action will be initiated against the officers / officials
as per following mechanism.
Outlets not repaired upto 7 SDO / SBE
days
Outlets not repaired upto 10 XEN / SDO / SBE
days
Outlets not repaired upto 15 SE/XEN/SDO/SBE
days
PMIU field staff will verify the repairing of the outlets within 7 days as conveyed
by the field staff through SMS. In case, outlets are not found repair, action will
be initiated against the officer / official for sending the fictitious report of
repairing outlet.
xiv. XEN to ensure that material required for repairing the outlets is available with
the SBE so that the outlet is repaired departmentally without delay. If the outlet
is not repaired within 3 days then XEN has to give reasons for not repairing of
the outlet in time.
xv. In case of tampered outlets, the main beneficiaries and the irrigators in whose
turn the outlet is tampered should be nominated in the FIR and report for
registration of water theft cases should be sent to the police station within 3
days of the occurrence of incidence.
xvi. Cases of special charges of water theft be processed and finalized within the
prescribed time limit.
xvii. SBE to physically observe the outlets in each month. Hard copy of the Outlet
Performance Register be checked & signed by the field officers (CE, SE, XEN
and SDO) during the field tours. The soft copy of the same be conveyed to
PMIU on monthly basis.
xviii. All the water theft SMS conveyed by the PMIU through SMS Transmission
System (STS) and Complaint Management System (CMS) to the canal
operators should immediately be taken up by the XEN who will respond the
detail of action including date of reporting, date of repairing of water theft site
and Robkar number sent to Police to PMIU within 5 days through CMS.
xix. XEN should ensure that the field staff (SDO/SBE) should accompany the
Monitoring Team (ADM/MA) at the time of checking of the outlets. In case
SDO/SBE does not join the monitoring team without any solid reason, it will be
presumed that they avoided the joint checking intentionally. Monitoring Teams
will also record statements of SDO/SBE to know the detail of action already
taken by field staff regarding water theft found at the time of inspection.
xx. In case any disciplinary action is initiated against field staff on account of water
theft, their defense reply only on the basis of canal wire will not be accepted.
Enquiry Officers conducting the enquiries of water theft cases will obtain report
of the water theft SMS from the PMIU to ascertain the authenticity of the canal
wires issued by the SDO / SBE / Signaler. No excuse will be entertained
regarding training of the SDO / SBE / Signaler for sending SMS to the database.
xxi. SE should properly pursue canal wires regarding water theft and outlet
tampering incidents issued by the ADM on the basis of checking of PMIU field
staff (Assistant Director Monitoring/ Monitoring Assistant). He should
investigate the matter and submit detail report to PMIU within 5 days by
consulting the following record.
o Water theft SMS sent by SDO, SBE and Signaller.
o SMS sent by SDO, SBE and Signaller regarding repairing of the outlets/
water theft sites.
o Water theft SMS sent by the PMIU
o Data entry of the water theft cases into the software by the Canal
Division
o Robkar referred to Police.
o FIR Number if case registered.
o Status of the case of Special Charges and submit statement of
allegations against the delinquents by fixing responsibilities on the
officers / officials as per following mechanism.
More than 40% of the outlets are found XEN/SDO/SBE

tampered of the checked reach of the channel / Beldar/Mate
that should not be less than 50% of the entire
length of the channel
More than 20% of the outlets are found SDO / SBE /
tampered of the checked reach of the channel Beldar/Mate
More than 10% of the outlets are found SBE /
tampered of the checked reach of the channel Beldar/Mate
Less than 10% of the outlets are found Beldar / Mate
tampered of the checked reach of the channel
In case SE failed to submit probe report within 15 days; it will be presumed that
he is intentionally hiding facts of the case and accordingly action will be initiated
against him.
xxii. PMIU will examine the reports sent by SE and will submit the same alongwith
comments / observations to Secretary Irrigation for further necessary action/
final disposal.
xxiii. CE and SE / XEN should conduct regular meetings with respective RPO and
DPO for registration of water theft cases and its follow up.
xxiv. CE should monitor the performance of the circles and divisions based on the
compliance of the above instructions and should call the ADM of PMIU in
monthly meeting to discuss the equity and accuracy of data issues. He should
ensure that significant improvement is brought in the system performance and
service delivery during next 2 months.
xxv. In the area where the Area Water Board have been formed, action mentioned
above will be initiated against Farmer Organization (FO), Technical
Manager/SBE and SDO in case of category “B” formation and FO and
Technical Manager/SBE in case of category “A” formation.
xxvi. CE and SE should ensure that all the above mentioned instructions are followed
in letter and spirit. Any default or slackness in controlling the water theft will
invite the disciplinary proceedings across the board.
10.5.1 Surprise Checking of Outlets (Moghas)

In this regard, the committee was constituted in August 2008 by Secretary Irrigation
Department in each zone for surprise checking of the outlets to monitor and equitable
distribution of water in the system based on the public complaints or on the channels
where tails remained short or dry inspite of authorized supply at head. Following
protocol has been decided for surprise checking and processing of outlet report.
i. After reaching at inspection sites, Mobile Monitoring Team (MMT) contacts with
the complainant and concerned irrigation field staff for joint inspection;
ii. Discharge observation at head of channel is carried out before start the
inspection of outlet. Discharge table is also checked at site regarding its
implementation;
iii. Zero RL of head gauge is checked with the help of levelling equipment;
iv. During the checking of outlets if there found any Ghurlu, Crest and Wing wall
tempering or removal of Roof Block or total collapse of the structure and
accordingly outlet draw excessive discharge, then outlet considered to be
“Badly Tempered”;
v. During the checking of outlets, in case of oversize, undersize, difference in
sizes (one parameter is larger and other is smaller than design parameters or
vice versa), lowering of the crest and the outlet drew excessive discharge. So,
it has been considered as “Defective”; and
vi. Discharge of the outlet is calculated and highlighted in the report.
a. After the inspection of outlets, following procedure is adopted for
reporting of the same:
vii. In the preparation of inspection report, prime importance is given to the secrecy;
viii. After the inspection, Mobile Monitoring Team immediately forwarded the
inspection report to Head office of PMIU through e-mail;
ix. All the offences are reported through evidence based smart monitoring system
by using android phones
x. After receiving the data, PMIU forwarded a comprehensive report to Secretary
Irrigation Department by pin pointing the responsible officers/ officials to initiate
inquiry proceedings against them;
xi. In case of small-scale tempering / defectiveness of the outlets, only Sub-
Engineer be made responsible;
xii. In case of medium scale tempering / defectiveness of the outlets, Sub Divisional
Officer is made responsible along with the Sub-Engineer;
xiii. In case of large-scale tempering / defectiveness of the outlets, Executive
Engineer is also made responsible along with the Sub-Divisional Officer and
Sub-Engineer;
xiv. After receiving the inspection report to Secretary Irrigation Department, Section
Officer E-V issued the enquiry orders against the responsible officers/ officials
on the behalf of Secretary Irrigation Department; and
xv. Assistant Directors Monitoring of PMIU are appointed as Departmental
representatives (DRs) to defend on the behalf of Department.
10.5.2 Instructions Regarding Alteration of Outlets

As per procedure laid down vide para 10.3 (a) in the irrigation revenue manual
regarding power of Superintending Engineer (SE) to sanction the outlet, following
instruction were issued by Administrative Department vide no. PMIU/SIP/14814 dated
03.06.2010to make the process transparent.
i. Application for alteration of outlet will be addressed to the Superintending
Engineer (SE).
ii. SE will mark the application to Circle Head Draftsman (CHD) for incorporating
the historical data of the outlet including details of reason of all the previous
alterations carried out on the outlet.
iii. CHD will put up all the documents / reports to SE within 7 days for review /
order. If justified, SE will send the case to XEN for observation of hydraulic data
of the outlet to the field formation.
iv. Sub Engineer will observe 7-days hydraulics data. He should check working
head and discharge etc. of the outlet. He should ensure that during observation,
no obstruction is placed in the water course. He will submit the case to the SDO
within 21 days.
v. SDO is required to check the field data, especially during days of minimum
working head of the outlet, and record his report stating whether he
recommends the change or not. He will send the case to XEN will verify the
outlet data within 15 days.
vi. On receipt of case from SDO, XEN will verify the outlet data within 15 days and
certify that no obstruction has been made in the water course during data
observations. He will then send the case to SE in either case.
vii. SE will send the same data alongwith relevant record to PMIU for confirmation
of the hydraulic data at site.
viii. PMIU will check the working head and discharge of outlets within two days from
the Outlet Performance Register already available in the database and will send
the case to Assistant Director Monitoring for confirmation of data at site.
ix. ADM, PMIU will make the surprise field visit and verify the data. He will also
ensure that no obstruction is placed during verification of data in the water
course. ADM then send the case to SE as well as PMIU for updation of data in
the database within 7 days.
x. After that, SE will discuss the outlet alteration case in a meeting comprising of
the following;
o Superintending Engineer Convener
o Executive Engineer Member
o Assistant Director Monitoring, PMIU Member
SE will make the technical decision after hearing the lower riparian of
four outlets and the committee members. The committee members will reserve
the right to give a dissenting note; in case they disagree with the decision of the
SE. In case where dissenting note is given by any of the member, the case will
be sent to Chief Engineer (CE) for his decision. CE will reserve the right either
to confirm, reject or alter on technical grounds. Minutes of the meeting / decision
of CE will be sent to PMIU for information and updation in the database.
xi. After decision, the implementation regarding adjustment of outlet will be made
jointly by SDO and SBE. SDO will also notify the adjustment of outlet carried at
site through canal wire and will ensure the submission of the A-Forms to the
Divisional Office within 3 days.
xii. After notification by the SDO, ADM will make the surprise check of the outlet
within 15 days and submit report to PMIU for updation in the database.
10.5.3 Instructions Regarding Discharge Observation and Calibration of Gauges

In view of notification issued by Administrative Department regarding discharge
observation and calibration of gauges vide No. PMIU/CM(I&P)/DG/Misc-I/727 dated:
15-11-2006, roles and responsibilities of the officers/officials has been defined as
under;
No.PMIU/CM(I&P)/DG/Misc-1/727
Government of the Punjab
Irrigation & Power Department
Dated November 15, 2006
To
Chief Engineers
1. Lahore Zone
2. Sargodha Zone
3. Faisalabad Zone
4. Bahawalpur Zone
5. Multan Zone
6. D.G. Khan Zone
7. Head PMO
8. GM (TM ), PIDA
Subject: INSTRUCTION FOR DISCHARGE OBSERVATION AND
CALIBRATION OF GAUGES.
It is observed that the discharge observations are not being carried out
in the field by the Irrigation Staff. The correct Discharge Observation and recording of
gauges from the basis for equitable supply in the system. The importance of correct
observation and record of this data cannot be over emphasized. Therefore, following
instruction are issued in this respect:
1. Discharge Observation and Calibration of Gauges should
immediately be started in the field by the Irrigation Staff. Chapter 20
of Manual of Irrigation Practice for Gauges and Discharges is
enclosed for ready reference for the correct discharge measurement
so that an accurate record of supplies withdrawn by the different
channels be recorded and maintained in efficient & transparent
manners.
2. Each sub engineer will observe the discharge of all of the channels
under his jurisdiction once in a month.
3. Each SDO will observe the discharge of a distributary/ Main Branch/
Main Canal under his jurisdiction once in a month.
4. Each XEN will observe the discharge of Main Canals/Main Branch
under his jurisdiction once in a month.
5. S.E. will ensure the availability of the discharge measuring
instruments (Current Meters etc)in each Sub Engineer’s Section
under his control.
6. E.I. gauges should be fixed in the Gauge wells and these Gauge
Wells may be constructed according to the approved drawing of CDO
during the coming annual closure.
7. E.I. gauges installed should be projected upto the top of the Gauge
Wells.
8. Reduced level of the top of the Gauge Wells must be engraved on
the top of its masonry work.
9. Red painted line should be placed showing the FSL + 1.0 feet at each
control point ( Head Regulators, Falls, Bridges, Tail Clusters ) on the
non-petrol bank side so as to be easily visible during inspection.
10. Body of the E.I. gauges should be painted with blue colors and
gradation be made of 1/10th of a feet with white colors and at every
feet with red colors.
11. Gauges be installed on main canals and branches at every canal mile
by showing the gradation in feet and also the RL be given at every
feet.
12. Discharge books should be maintained and updated on monthly
bases in the divisions and soft copy of same may also be sent to the
PMIU on the 5th of each months.
13. Zero RL of the gauge and reference authenticated bench mark
should be written on the discharge table which should be available at
the head of the channel in the laminated cover sheet.
14. Gauge register should be properly maintained and every officer
should sign the gauge register during his field visit.
15. Gauge Huts should be properly repaired during coming annual
closure.
16. Each division will issue the programme for discharge measurement
by different tiers in advance on the 25th of each month and copy of
the same will be sent to PMIU so that the actual discharge
measurement be checked at site by the PMIU Staff.
Sd/-15/11/06
Arif Nadeem
Secretary
CC
Chief Monitoring PMIU
10.6 Attendance and Processing of Complaints
When a complaint is received from an irrigator/complainant, the information regarding
type of complaint, division name, channel name and related information along with the
contact number of the irrigator/complainant are collected and accordingly registered
in the complaint register. After lodging, the complaint number is issued. The same
information is also uploaded in the database through Complaint Management System
(CMS). Contents of complaint are published in web accounts of XENs, SEs & Chief
Engineers on Irrigation Web Site (http://irrigation.punjab.gov.pk). Field operators are
bound to respond within four days.
The replies received from the field operators are evaluated in the light of the rules and
discussions with the complainant. Before resolving the public complaint, the
complainant is called to check whether his grievances are properly addressed or not.
If not, then concerned Executive Engineer is instructed for joint inspection of the
complainant site. Search and Track system is also available that will help searching
the specific complaint by mentioning its respective village name or complaint number.
Furthermore, the history of activities taken on the complaint by field division and PMIU
is also maintained. Computer generated auto-reminders are also issued to field
division for quick replies. The complaints are received on the toll free helpline lodged
by the farmers as well as Monitoring Assistants (MA), field staff of PMIU mainly related
to dry & short tail, water theft and missing gauges etc.
10.7 Monitoring Tools for Canal Operations
The IMIS and DSM have been developed to provide support to higher management
to monitor the key indicators of the system operations including the discharge of
various canals and distributaries, etc. The system is facilitating decision-making
regarding water distribution, and scheduling more transparently with the objective of
providing canal water to all farmers as per their entitlements with emphasis on
providing authorized supply to the tail enders. The live data of all the channels of
Punjab is captured daily and static data of all canal systems has also been captured.
The live data is updated daily on the website http://irrigation.punjab.gov.pk to make
the information available to the end users. Decision Support Model (DSM) is also
facilitating the higher management in monitoring the key indicators of the system
including the discharges at various main and branch canals and distributaries. It also
helps decision-making regarding equitable and transparent water distribution and
scheduling.
Following are the major tasks/achievements accomplished so far;
10.7.1 Water Entitlements and Deliveries
Indus Water Treaty (IWT) develops distribution program of 25 main canals (12 main
canal systems of Terbela command and 13 main canal systems of Mangla command)
for each crop season. In this distribution program, the canal water is distributed in each
main canal system according to its authorized share at 10/5-daily basis. This
information was not publically published at any forum. PMIU started displaying this
information on the website in user-friendly way. This module helps users to view the
previous, current and future entitlements of canal water in all main canal systems.
10.7.2 Tools for Equitable Distribution of Canal Supply
10.7.2.1 Relative Delivery Performance Ratio
Delivery performance ratio (DPR) is the ratio of actual discharge to designed
discharge. It may also be used as deliverable or scheduled water in order to asses,
not only the performance of the overall system, but also the contribution of the
structural and management components of the system to the performance.
Delivery Performance Ratio (DPR) is the most important hydraulic performance
indicator. In fact, the delivery performance ratio is generally be considered to be the
ratio of actual discharge to designed discharge (DPR = Q a / Qd). Relative Delivery
Performance Ratio was used to measure Equity Performance Indicator. The relative
Delivery Performance Ratio can mathematically be expressed as:
Td
DPR at Tail (A) = ATd
Hd
DPR at Head (B) = Dd
Where
Td = the actual tail discharge
ATd = the authorized tail discharge
Hd = the actual head discharge
Dd = the designed discharge at head
Relative DPR = A / B
Relative DPR has an ideal value of 1, which means that every changed flow conditions
at sub-system head are proportionately distributed among the shareholders
regardless of their location along the distributaries.
10.7.3 Daily Analysis Report regarding Channel Operations
Analysis of channel operations was not done before on regular basis (daily basis) in
the history of Irrigation Department before the establishment of PMIU. It was only done
when required for some reporting purpose. PMIU started analyzing channel’s
operations and complaints status on daily basis right after the deployment of
databases (DBMS). Once PMIU collected all required data and managed it through
DBMS, it become easy and time saves to analyze the channels of entire Punjab. A
report is issued, which depicts status of complaints and analysis report regarding
channel operations at zonal level.
10.7.4 Performance Analysis Report (PAR)
To ensure equitable water distribution and foster up the purpose of implementation,
PMIU has taken the initiative to relatively compare the canal divisions on the basis of
channel operations data received from field and PMIU staff. This evaluation report is
compiled from the channel operations data for each fifteen day interval, thence two
reports for each month.
10.7.5 Development of Software to Calculate Un-Accounted Water
Irrigation system in Punjab consists of 56 canal divisions and 25 main canal systems.
These main canals pass through one or more divisions to provide water for irrigation.
Each division has its authorized share of water form main canal. The division in which
main canal starts is called upper division and it delivers water to subsequent divisions,
which are called lower division/divisions. It has been tradition in irrigation systems that
lower divisions, most of the time, blame upper divisions for not getting water according
to their authorized share.
PMIU developed Database Management System (DBMS) and started monitoring of
the water delivery from upper division to lower through the channels on the critical
gauges. These critical points are available on website for XENs where they enter
discharge data (gauge, discharge and indent) on daily basis. SEs can also view the
discharges of their respective channels on the critical points of divisions and sub-
divisions. This information gives glimpse to the distribution of canal water between
divisions and sub-divisions at circle level.
PMIU started calculating un-accounted water at division level to ensure the equitable
distribution of water and to minimize the water theft. This calculation gives idea that
how much water a division receives, utilizes and delivers to sub-sequent division. This
exercise pin point followings:
 False reporting of daily gauges data;
 Water theft;
 Tempered outlets drawing excessive discharge; and
 Discharges reported through outdated discharge tables.
Un-accounted water (water losses) is also the major input in performance evaluation
report, which is generated after every 15 days. This shows the management skills of
field operators regarding canal water distribution and responsibility for transmitting
correct information to PMIU office.
Calculation of Un-Accounted Water (Water Losses): The general formula for this
calculation is given below:
Un-accounted Water = (total water received – water utilized – total water delivered (if
any))
10.8 Water Resource Management Information System (Wrmis)
To make the present irrigation management system more efficient, there is a
requirement of development of a decision support system (DSS) incorporating the
intelligence of existing canal operators supported by scientific tools like flow
forecasting tools, simulation models for rivers and canals: facilitating the operator in
equitable management of precious irrigation flows throughout the system. In this
regard, hydrological and hydraulic models are developed to link with Decision Support
System (DSS). Further, the DSS are linked with Irrigation Management Information
System (IMIS) for handing large data sets, and provide facility for storage and retrieval
of canal and river data, required by the models. The complete application would be
Water Resources Management Information System (WRMIS) which will facilitate the
decision makers in making informed decisions regarding water availability and system
response against various management scenarios.
The overall objective of the WRMIS is to develop interactive, graphical; web based
system along with Decision Support System. The system will comprised of following
sub-components.
i) Review / upgrading of Water Resources Management Information System
(WRMIS) and integration with Decision Support System (DSS).
ii) Hydrological Modelling for Forecast of Water Availability and Determination
of Punjab’s Share.
iii) Development of a Real-Time Operations Model.
iv) Determination and Mapping of Water Table Fluctuations.
v) Development of Hydraulic Models of all Main and Branch Canals of Punjab
Irrigation System.
10.9 Real Time Flow Monitoring System

Real Time Flow Monitoring (RTFM) System is a major step forward in PMIU’s
endeavors to collect fast, accurate and reliable data on canal discharges and its further
dissemination to stakeholders. The RTFM system shall be instrumental for collecting
data automatically without human intervention on canal water levels, converting to
canal discharges and its instant communication to the Punjab Irrigation Department’s
(PID’s) central office. It will facilitate the process of making rational decisions with the
help of informed judgment on regulation, allocation and water accounting in the Punjab
Irrigation System.
Figure 3: Complete Overview of the RTFM System

10.10 Discharge Measurement
10.10.1 Introduction
Discharge is the volume of water flowing through a cross section of a waterway per
time unit. The unit used to measure discharge is usually ft 3/sec (cusecs) or m3/sec
(cumecs). Stream flow records are primarily continuous records of flow passing
through a particular section of the stream. Stream flow data are analyzed to determine
the magnitude and variability of surface waters. These records are input in planning,
design and operation of surface water projects and are also used in design of bridges
and culverts, flood forecasting systems and flood plain delineation. The sections
where discharge measurements are carried out are known as stream gauging
stations. A network of these stations is established to collect data about surface water
resources of a region. There exists a relationship between stage and discharge at a
section. This relation is termed as stage-discharge relationship or rating curve.
10.10.2 Discharge Measurement Methods
Discharge at a given time can be measured by several different methods and the
choice of method depends on the conditions encountered at a particular site. Most of
these methods are based on the measurement of velocity and area in a cross-section
by using:
a. Current Meter Method
b. Moving Boat Method
c. Float Method
d. Pitot Tube Method
e. Dilution Method
10.10.2.1 Procedure of Discharge Measurement Methods
Discharge measurement using current meters is accomplished by measuring velocity
and area. The depth of flow in the cross-section is measured at width stations with a
rod or sounding line. As the depth is measured, observations of velocity are obtained
with the current meter at one or more points in the vertical. The measured widths,
depths and velocities permit computation of discharge for each sub-area of the cross-
section. The summation of these sub-area discharges is the total discharge.
Discharge measurements by the current meter method are made using a boat along
the cable or bridge or by wading the stream. The measurement need not to be made
at the exact location of the gauge because a reach of channel in the general vicinity
of the gauge.
Discharge measurements of the highest accuracy will be obtained at the cross-
sections having the following characteristics:
a) The velocities of all points are parallel to one another and at right-angles to the
cross-section of the stream.
b) The curves of distribution of velocity in the section are regular in the vertical
and horizontal planes.
c) The bed of the channel is regular and stable.
d) The stream does not overflow the banks of the channel.
e) There is no aquatic growth.
It is usually not possible to find a site with all of these characteristics. A satisfactory
measurement can still be made at most sections by increasing the number of
observation points or by using special equipment.
10.10.2.2 Accuracy of Discharge Measurement
Accuracy of a discharge measurement depends, in particular, on the number of
vertical strips at which observations of depth and velocity area obtained. In general,
the interval between any two verticals should not be greater than 1/20-th of the total
width, and the discharge between any two verticals should not be more than 5 percent
of the total discharge. Observation at vertical points should be located so as to best
define the variation in elevation of the stream bed and the horizontal variation in
velocity. Fewer verticals are required on very small streams, since the interval
between any two verticals must be greater than the diameter of the current-meter
propeller / rotor. The number of verticals should be increased for the first few
measurements at a new site for establishing gauge discharge relationship.
Discharge accuracy depends on the reliability of the meter rating, conditions of flow,
number of depth and velocity obtained. New and factory calibrated current meters
should be used for flow measurements.
10.10.2.3 Width Measurement
Channel width and the distance between verticals should be obtained by measuring
from a fixed reference point, which should be in the same plane as the cross-section.
Normally, the distance between verticals is determined from a beaded wire or
graduated tagline temporarily stretched across the stream or from semi-permanent
marks painted on a bridge hand-rail or a suspension cable.
10.10.2.4 Depth Measurement
A graduated rod or a drum-wire-weight system is used for measurement of depth of
flow. The effect of drag on a sounding wire may be reduced by using a streamlined
weight on the end of a fine wire. If the wire is not normal to the water surface, the
angle of departure should be measured with a protractor.
Depth may be read directly on a graduated rod set on the stream bed if the
measurement is done by wading. If the drum-wire-weight system is used for
measurement, the meter and weight are lowered until the bottom of the weight just
touches the water surface, and the depth dial reading is set at zero; the weight is then
lowered until its rests on the stream bed, and the depth is read on the dial. Caution is
necessary in alluvial streams to prevent the weight from settling through soft bed
material. If the weight on the sounding line is not sufficient to keep the line within 5 o of
the perpendicular to the water surface, the angle between the line and the vertical
should be measured to the nearest degree with a protractor in order to calculate
accurate depths of flow.
The angle should not exceed 30ᵒ. Methods of correcting the observed depths for angle
of sounding line are available. However, the accuracy of the measurement is
increased if sufficient weight can be used to maintain the line in a nearly vertical
position.
10.10.2.5 Measurement of Velocity
Velocity of flow at a point is usually measured by counting revolutions of a current
meter rotor during a short time period measured with a stop-watch. The current meter
is suspended in the flow on a rod or on a wire. Two types of current meter rotors are
in general use: the cup type with a vertical shaft, and the propeller type with a
horizontal shaft. Both types use a make-and break wire contact to generate an electric
pulse for indicating the revolutions of the rotor.
A current meter measures velocity at a point. The method of making discharge
measurements at a cross-section requires determination of the mean velocity in each
of the selected verticals. The mean velocity in a vertical is obtained from velocity
observations at many points in that vertical. The mean can be approximated by
making a few velocity observations and using a known relation between those
velocities and the mean in the vertical. Various methods of measuring velocity are:
a. Two-point.
b. Six-tenths depth.
c. Two-tenth depth.
d. Three-point.
However, in irrigation canals, velocity measurement methods at b and c are the
choices to consider depending upon the situation.
10.10.2.5.1 Two Point Method
In the two-point method of measuring velocities, observations are made in each
vertical at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth below the surface. The average of these two
observations is taken as the mean velocity in the vertical. This method is based on
many studies of actual observation and mathematical analysis. Experience has shown
that this method gives more consistent and accurate results than any of the other
methods.
The two-point method is not used at depths less than 2.5 feet (75cm) because the
current meter would be too close to the water surface and to the stream bed to give
dependable results.
10.10.2.5.2 Six-tenth Depth Method
In six-tenth depth method, an observation of velocity at 0.6 of the depth below the
surface in the vertical is used as the mean velocity in the vertical. Actual observation
supported by mathematical analyses have shown that 0.6 depth method gives reliable
results and is used under the following conditions:
a. Whenever the depth is less than 2.5 feet (75cm)
b. When large amount of slush ice or debris make it impossible to observe the
velocity accurately at the 0.2 depth (This condition prevents the use of the two
point method).
c. When the meter is placed a distance above the sounding weight which makes
it impossible to place the meter at the 0.8 depth. (This also prevents the use of
the two-point method).
d. When the stage in a stream is changing rapidly and a measurement must be
made quickly.
10.10.2.5.3 Three-Points Method
This method is used when the velocities in the vertical appear to be abnormally
distributed, such as having an unusual velocity distribution. The three-point method
combines both the two-point method and the six-tenths depth method. Therefore,
current meter measurements are taken at 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 of the flow depth. The mean
velocity in the vertical is obtained by first averaging the velocities measured at 0.2 and
0.8 of the flow depth (two points method); then, averaging this result with the velocity
measured at 0.6 flow depth. Thus, the mean velocity, V in the vertical would be:
(VO.2 + VO. 8 ) / 2 +VO.6
Vavg =
2
Where
Vavg = the mean velocity in the given vertical (ft/s);
V0.2 = the velocity at 0.2 of flow depth (ft/s);
V0.6 = the velocity at 0.6 of flow depth (ft/s); and
V0.8 = the velocity at 0.8 of flow depth (ft/s).
This method is applied where the flow depth is greater than 2.5 feet.
10.10.3 Computation of Discharge
Discharge is computed either arithmetically or graphically depending upon field
procedure used to obtain the observation. There are two arithmetic methods for
computing the discharge, i.e. the mean section method and mid-section method. Of
these methods, the mid-section method has less procedural error; therefore, it is used
for computing canal discharges.
10.10.3.1 Mid-Section Method
In the Mid-Section Method of computing a current meter measurement, the
velocity is measured at mid point of each section. The section area is obtained by
multiplying width of section to its mean depth. The discharge is then computed for any
section at vertical x by use of the equation,
qx = Vx[bx – b(x-1)][dx + dx-1]/2
Where
qx = Discharge at section x;
Vx = Velocity at mid point of section x;
b(x-1) = Distance from initial point to start point of section x;
bx = Distance from initial point to end point of section x;

d(x-1) = Distance from initial point to start point of section x; and
dx = Distance from initial point to end point of section x.
Similarly, in order to calculate the discharge at Meter Flume, a series of observations

are taken to obtain the value of “n” and “C” for the preparation of discharge table .
1 1 Sr. No.
Sr. No.
2 Channel Name 2 Channel Name
Name of Division Name of Division
3 Date of observation
4 3 Date of observation
Existing Gauge
5 Observed Discharge 4 Existing Gauge
6 Reported Discharge 5 Observed Discharge
7 Zero RL of the Existing Gauge 6 Reported Discharge
8 Height of Gauge
7 Zero RL of the Existing Gauge
9 Top RL of existing Gauge (7+8)
10 8 Height of Gauge
U/S Water Level
11 D/S Water Level 9 Top RL of existing Gauge (7+8)
12 U/S Floor Level 10 Corrected Gauge w.r.t Design Bed Level (12-13)
13 Crest RL
14 11 FSL
Ho Observed
15 Hc Corrected (10-13) 12 Existing Water Level
16 B 13 Design Bed Level
17 Length of Crest (L)
18 14 Existing Bed Level (12 - 17)

Working Head (10-11)
In case of Meter Flume (CBH1.5)

19 MMH = 0.2*H 15 Remarks
In case of Non Meter Flume (KD1.67)
20 Modular / Non Modular 16 Difference (13-14)

PERFORMA OF DISCHARGE OBSERVATION
PERFORMA OF DISCHARGE OBSERVATION

21 C
17 Mean Depth
22 Hc/L
23 Type of Weir 18 n
24 Cd 19 k
25 Q theoratical (In case of MF) 20 BM Value
26 BM Value 21 Description of BM
27 Description of BM
28 22 Remarks
Remarks
10-21
10.10.3.2 Discharge Measurement by Cutthroat Flume Method

Cutthroat Flumes are commonly used to determine the discharge of Moghas (outlets)
having unlined watercourses. The standard procedure for installing flumes and
collecting data for discharge measurement of outlets are described below.
Figure 4: Discharge observation by using flume method

10.10.4 Site Selection
Any flow measuring device must be properly installed to yield adequate result. The
first consideration prior to installing a Cutthroat Flume is the location or site of the
structure. The flume should be placed in a straight section of channel. If operating
conditions required frequent changing of the discharge, the flume may be conveniently
located near a point of diversion or regulating gate. However, care should be taken to
see that the flume is not located too near a gate or control structure (e.g. outlet)
because of unstable or surging effects which might result downstream from the
constriction.
After the site has been selected, it is necessary to determine certain design criteria.
The maximum quantity of water to be measured, the depth of flow in the channel
corresponding to this discharge, and the allowable head loss through the flume must
be determined. The head loss may be taken as the difference in water surface
elevation between the flume entrance and exit, which is approximately equal to hu-hd
(hu is the head on upstream side and hd is the head on downstream side of the flume).
the downstream depth of flow will remain essentially the same after installation of the
flume as it was prior to installation, but the upstream depth will increase by the head
loss. The allowable increase in upstream depth may be limited by the height of the
canal banks upstream from the flume. Such a limiting condition dictated the minimum
flume size, and may require operation as a submerged flow structure.
A properly installed Cutthroat Flume is aligned straight with the channel and should be
level longitudinally and laterally. Flumes tend to settle in time, due to which (divergent
section) exit usually becomes lower than the entrance (conversion section).
Experience both in the laboratory and the field indicates that a transition structure
between the open channel and Cutthroat Flume is not necessary. However, the ratio
of upstream flow depth to flume length, L (hu/L) should be 0.33, or less, for free flow
conditions. For most installations in flat gradient channels, this will insure that
approach conditions will satisfy the laboratory conditions under which the ratings were
developed. Measurements should be made in the Cutthroat Flume by the use of
piezometers connected to stilling wells. The staff gauges must be carefully referenced
to the elevation of the flume floor. The stilling wells have the advantage of providing a
calm water surface compared with the fluctuation or “bounce” of the water surface that
usually exists within the Cutthroat Flume.
DISCHARGE TABLE OF PULL DISTY (L) OF BRBD
OBSERVED 1
DISCHARGE (Qo)= 4
n AUTHORIZED
1.67
20
= DISCHARGE =
K DISCHARGE
5.10
1.83
= (Q) = KDn MEAN DEPTH (D) =
BED
0.56
SILTE F
731
D= t DESIGN BED LEVEL =
DATE OF
OBSERVATION = ZERO RL OF GAUGE
731
25/05/2016 TO BE FIXED AT =
BM VALUE &
Top of Lining at Left side of
LOCATION =
Pull Disty at RD 0+105
734.98
Gauge
0.05
0.15
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.65
0.75
0.85
0.95
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
10
10
11
12
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
17
17
18
19
20
20
21
22
2
9
23
23
24
25
26
27
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
34
35
36
37
38
39
3
DISCHARGE TABLE OF JALWALA DISTY (MULTAN DIVISION)

DISCHARGE
OBSERVED (Qo)=
40.67 Cs
AUTHORIZED
C = 3.30 DISCHARGE= 48.5
Cs
B = 12.5 DISCHARGE(Q) 431.1
=CBH3/2 CREST LEVEL = 9
H= 0.99 ZERO RL OF GAUGE TO
BE FIXED AT= 431.19
BM VALUE & LOCATION =
DATE OF 431.19
OBSERVATION =2- Crest level of fall of jalwala
12-16 Disty at RD 1+500
Gauge
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
10
12
15
17
19
22
24
27
30
32
35
38
0
0
0
1
2
4
5
7
9
100
104
108
112
41
44
48
51
54
58
61
65
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
1
117
121
126
130
135
139
144
149
154
158
163
168
173
178
183
188
193
199
204
209
2
215
220
225
231
236
242
248
253
259
265
270
276
282
288
294
300
306
312
318
324
3
330
337
343
349
355
362
368
375
381
388
394
401
407
414
421
427
434
441
448
455
4
462
469
476
483
490
497
504
511
518
525
533
540
547
554
562
569
577
584
592
599
5
607
614
622
630
637
645
653
661
668
676
684
692
700
708
716
724
732
740
748
756
6
765
773
781
789
798
806
814
823
831
840
848
857
865
874
882
891
899
908
917
925
7
1005
1014
1023
1032
1041
1050
1059
1069
1078
1087
1096
1105
934
943
952
961
969
978
987
996
8
1115
1124
1133
1143
1152
1162
1171
1180
1190
1199
1209
1219
1228
1238
1247
1257
1267
1276
1286
1296
9
1306
1315
1325
1335
1345
1355
1365
1375
1385
1395
1405
1415
1425
1435
1445
1455
1465
1476
1486
1496
10
10.10.5 Calibration of Current Meter

Usually, a current meter is calibrated in a towing tank. The current meter is attached
to a carriage that travels on rails (tracks) placed on the top of the towing tank. Then, a
series of trials are conducted wherein the current meter is towed at different constant
velocities. For each trial, the constant velocity of the carriage is recorded, as well as
the revolutions per second “R” (rev/s) of the current meter. This data is plotted on
rectangular coordinate graph paper to verify that a straight-line relation exists; then,
the equation is determined by regression analysis. Equation of our current meters is:
V= αR + β
V = 2.2048 R + 0.0178
Where
V=the water flow velocity (ft/s); and
R=the number of revolutions per second (rev/s)
α, β= constants (different value for every current meter)
* For more detail on current meter refer to User Manual of Rickly Hydrological
Instruments
10.10.5.1 Equipment Care
Accuracy in velocity measurements can only be ensured when the equipment is
properly assembled, adjusted, and maintained. The current meter should be treated
as a delicate instrument that needs meticulous care and protective custody, both
during its usage and transportation. The required treatment of a current meter is also
analogous to a surveyor’s careful attention with a transit or level.
The current meter necessarily receives a certain amount of hard usage that may result
in damage, such as a broken pivot, chipped bearing, or bent shaft that will result in the
current meter giving velocity readings that are lower than actual velocities.
Observations of velocities near bridge piers and abutments, water depth readings
taken at cross-sections having irregular bed profiles with the current meter attached
to the measuring line, and the periodic occurrence of floating debris causes the
greatest hazards to the equipment.
Damage to current meter equipment during transportation is generally due to careless
packing or negligence in protection. A standard case is provided by all manufacturers
of current meter equipment, which should always be employed before and after taking
a discharge measurement. In particular, the equipment case should always be used
when transporting the current meter, even when the distance is relatively short.
Transportation of assembled equipment from one location to another is one of the
most common sources of damage. Research shows that 30 percent variation in
velocity measurements is as a result of improper care and protection.
The following instructions are useful for providing better performance and enhancing
the longevity of the current meter:
 The equipment case must always be used when transporting the current
meter;
 The stop watch should always be carried in a container;
 If several sounding weights are to be carried, a box should be used with
separate compartments;
 The revolution counter's battery has to be in good form;
 Protect the digital-type current meters from water, sunlight and heat;
 Check all of the cable connections to be sure that they are properly adjusted;
 The head set assembly should be packed carefully to avoid an accidental
short circuit, which may discharge the battery; and
 The pivot and pivot bearing of the current meter must be protected to insure
proper results when using this instrument.
10.10.6 Methods of Using Current Meters
10.10.6.1 Wading Method
 The wading method involves having the hydrographer stand in the water
holding a wading rod with the current meter attached to the rod. The wading
rod is graduated so that the water depth can be measured. The rod has a metal
foot pad which sets on the channel bed. The current meter can be placed at
any height on the wading rod and is readily adjusted to another height by the
hydrographer while standing in the water;
 A tag line is stretched 'from one bank to the other, which can be a cloth or metal
tape. This tag line is placed perpendicular to the flow direction. The zero length
on the tag line does not have to correspond with the edge of the water on one
of the banks. This tag line is used to define the location of the wading rod each
time that a current meter measurement is made;
 The channel cross-section is divided into smaller segments. Tin pendants
should be attached to the section ropes at all the points of the main soundings
which are also velocity stations; and
 The wading rod is held at the tag line. The hydrographer stands sideways to
the flow direction and facing towards one of the banks. The hydrographer
stands 5-10 cm downstream from the tag line and approximately 50 cm aside
from the wading rod in order to ensure free flow. During the measurement, the
rod needs to be held in a vertical position and the current meter must be parallel
with the flow direction. Usually, the note keeper can signal to the hydrographer
whether or not the rod is vertical in relation to the flow direction.
Figure 5: Practical demonstration of utilizing the current meter by wading method

10.10.6.2 Boat Method
For some extremely wide channels, a boat is commonly employed. Discharge
measurements are made from a boat where no cableway or suitable bridge is available
and the stream is too deep to wade. Personal safety is the limiting factors in the use
of a boat on a stream having high flow velocity. The systematic process of discharge
Measurement from a boat is described below;
Figure 6: Discharge observation by using boat method

The site for discharge measurement should be selected that contains the following
characteristics.
 A straight reach with the threads of velocities (streamlines) parallel to each
other;
 Stable stream bed free of weeds and protruding obstructions such as piers,
which would create turbulence; and
 A flat stream bed profile to eliminate vertical components of velocity.
Usually, all of these conditions cannot be satisfied. Select the best possible reach
using these criteria and then select an appropriate cross-section. After the cross-
section has been selected, determine the width of the stream. String the tag line at the
measuring section by un-reeling the line as the boat moves across the stream. Some
tag-line reels are equipped with brakes to control the line tension while unreeling. After
a tag line has been stretched without a brake across the stream, remove the sag by
means of a block and tackle attached to the reel and to an anchorage support on the
banks. Following steps need to be followed for velocity measurement;
 The total width of the channel is divided into 25 to 30 sections but the first and
last sections must be at least 2.5 feet for the case of a boat, width of 5 feet (i.e.
half of the boat width);
 The total width of the channel is divided into 25 to 30 sections but the first and
last sections must be at least 2.5 feet for the case of a boat, width of 5 feet (i.e.
half of the boat width);
 Before taking the depth, check the counter reading, which should be zero at the
point where the centerline of the current meter cups is touching the water
surface;
 Add the height between the bottom of the weight and the center of the current
meter cups in the depth;
 The weight attached to the current meter should be 0.5 to 1.0 ft lower depending
upon the depth of channel. If the distance from the weight to the current meter
is less than 0.5 feet, erratic results may occur;
 A rule of thumb is that the weight of the fish in pounds should be greater than
the maximum product of velocity and depth in the cross-section. Usually, in
medium canals, a 40-50 pound weight is used;
 A gauge at site (discharge measurement) should be firmly installed to check
the fluctuations in water level (decrease or increase) passing through the
section;
 For the structure, the upstream and downstream water depths must be noted
together with the gate position with reference to bench (white mark). It is worth
mentioning here that the structure gates should not be moved at least 3/4 hour
prior to beginning the discharge measurement. The upstream and downstream
water depths must be noted after every half an hour until the discharge
measurement is completed;
 The velocity measurement starts from the left edge of water (LEW), keeping in
mind that at each section which method will be applied (one/two point-method);
 Each measurement must be listed instantaneously in the discharge
measurement proforma; and
After completing all the measurements, calculations must be completed in the field.
Any procedural mistake can be identified at the site, and then corrected, which will
bring precision in the calculations as well as save time.

Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-I (Revised 2017)

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Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-I (Revised 2017)

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Manual of Irrigation Practice

A remarkable appreciation is due to Group of Editors, (Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry, Syed

Relentless efforts of Syed Mahmood Ul Hassan as Coordinator for compiling, editing,

Irrigation Department Government of Punjab was originally a branch of the

After independence Irrigation Department Government of West Pakistan re-

A group of editors (GOE) including an international member was selected to

Authors’ draft contributions were circulated among the Chief Engineers/senior

Chapter 2: History of Irrigation Development in Mian Asrar-ul-Haq

Chapter 3: Punjab’s Irrigation Infrastructure Muhammad Ehsan

Chapter 4: Administrative Setup of Punjab Mian Asrar-ul-Haq

Chapter 5: Barrages Syed Mansoob Ali Zaidi

Chapter 6: Design of Unlined Canals Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid

Chapter 7: Design of Lined Canals Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid

Chapter 8: Maintenance of Canals Syed Mahmood-ul-Hassan

Chapter 9: Outlets Ghulam Hussain Qadri

Chapter 10: Computerized Monitoring System for Habib Ullah Bodla

Syed Mehmoodul Hassan

Qazi Anwar Ali,

Area-Matured The area irrigated upon which crops have matured

Canal-irrigation A canal constructed primarily for conveying water from the

Capacity Statement It is a statement showing the data of area and discharge of

Cohesion In a soil, is the resistance of particles against motion

Compaction Compaction is one of the methods used in the consolidation

a reservoir capacity of more than 106 million cuft (3 mcm) is

part of the system under consideration measured at the

section. The energy head may be referred to any datum or

Feeder A channel constructed primarily to convey water from one

Flume A constricted water way

Head - The canal head regulator is a structure similar to a barrage

Invert The floor, bottom or lowest part of the internal cross-section of a

Module Device for ensuring a constant discharge of water from one

the barrage by boats or other aquatic objects (timber etc

sections, separated by a cut off wall; one is a part of the

the upstream and results in the formation of channel or a

Precipitation The total measurable quantity of water received directly

Regime Flow It is state of stream, flowing in a self-borne alluvium, where

The standard adopted by the International Society of soil

the pores of a soil sample which has been dried to constant

Spillway-Side A side channel spillway is one whose control weir is placed

Submerged orifice An orifice which in use is drowned by having the tail-water

Trash rack A grating, usually made of M.S Flats, provided at the

Weir A wall extending across a river or canal usually provided

and culturable commanded areas of channels as a whole or of

Mr. Israr ul Haq

Syed Mehmood ul Hassan

2 HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB

Year Major Events / Canal Construction

2.5 Evolution of Water Distribution at Farm Level: The Warabandi System

Table 2-4: Indus Basin Replacement Works (Indus Waters Treaty

2.8 Implications of the Treaty

77.34 37.01 114.35

Muhammad Aslam Rashid

3 PUNJAB’S IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE

3.2.2 Irrigation Systems

(a) Bahawalpur Zone

3 One canal mile=5,000 ft

(i) Small Dams Directorate

Figure 3.3.1: Diversion Structures in the Punjab Province

4 Replaced by a new barrage during 2013-2016

Table 3.3.1: Barrages across the rivers in Punjab

5 Operation and Maintenance not with PID

construction of new Khanki Barrage.

to increase its capacity to pass 875,000 is being done during 2015-2018.

to increase its capacity to pass 865,000 during 2015-2018.