AD-D-01 Land Surveying and Mapping Guide

LAND SURVEYING AND MAPPING
GUIDE FOR ROAD PROJCTS
Document Number: AD-D-01

First Edition • 2013
LAND SURVEYING AND MAPPING GUIDE
FOR ROAD PROJECTS
DOCUMENT NO: AD-D-01

FIRST EDITION
2014
Document No: AD-D-01
First Edition
2014
Department of Transport
PO Box 20
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
© Copyright 2014, by the Department of Transport. All Rights Reserved. This document, or parts
thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.
Document Development Consultant: TrafQuest

Project Management Consultant: Aurecon
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. ix
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix
List of Forms ................................................................................................................................ ix
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................ x
Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................................... xvi
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Overview........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose and scope ........................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Application of this manual ................................................................................................. 1
1.4 Content and format ........................................................................................................... 2
2 General Survey Requirements .............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Survey Datum ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Horizontal Datum ....................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Vertical Datum ........................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Units of Measurement ................................................................................................ 6
2.1.4 Geodetic Reference Points ........................................................................................ 7
2.2 Survey Requirements ....................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Feasibility Study......................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Preliminary Design /Detailed Design ........................................................................ 11
2.2.3 Construction Phase ................................................................................................. 12
2.3 Roles and Responsibilities .............................................................................................. 14
2.3.1 Client ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.2 Designer/Consultant ................................................................................................ 14
2.3.3 Contractor ................................................................................................................ 14
2.3.4 Responsibility for Survey Data Accuracy ................................................................. 14
2.4 Personnel/Staff Requirements ........................................................................................ 14
2.4.1 Designer/Consultant ................................................................................................ 14
2.4.2 Contractor ................................................................................................................ 15
2.5 Quality Control ................................................................................................................ 15
2.6 Field Communications .................................................................................................... 15
2.6.1 Property Owner Contact .......................................................................................... 15
2.6.2 Right of Entry ........................................................................................................... 15
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2.7 EHS and Road Safety ..................................................................................................... 17
2.7.1 Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) .................................................................... 17
2.7.2 Road Safety ............................................................................................................. 17
2.7.3 Underwater Marine Structure Safety ........................................................................ 18
3 Data Management ................................................................................................................ 19
3.1 Survey Data & GIS Data ................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Survey Data Transfer ...................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Data File Formats ........................................................................................................... 20
3.4 GIS Requirements .......................................................................................................... 20
3.4.1 Template GDS File .................................................................................................. 21
3.4.2 Submitted GDS File ................................................................................................. 21
3.4.3 Documentation – GDS Transmittal Form ................................................................. 22
3.4.4 Metadata Standards for Geographic Information...................................................... 22
3.4.5 GIS Data Submission Guidelines ............................................................................. 22
3.5 Feature Codes ................................................................................................................ 22
3.6 Line styles and Symbols ................................................................................................. 24
3.7 Survey Comments .......................................................................................................... 24
3.7.1 Necessary................................................................................................................ 24
3.7.2 Relevant .................................................................................................................. 24
3.8 Field Note Recording ...................................................................................................... 24
3.8.1 General.................................................................................................................... 24
3.8.2 Book Size ................................................................................................................ 25
3.8.3 Duplicating ............................................................................................................... 25
3.8.4 Electronic Recording ................................................................................................ 25
3.8.5 Indexing ................................................................................................................... 26
3.9 Survey Plot Code Library ................................................................................................ 26
3.10 Line Strings/Line Features .............................................................................................. 26
4 Control Surveys ................................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Geodetic Survey ............................................................................................................. 28
4.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................... 28
4.1.2 Classification, Standards and Specifications ............................................................ 28
4.1.3 Horizontal Control .................................................................................................... 31
4.1.4 Vertical Control ........................................................................................................ 32
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4.1.5 Equipment ............................................................................................................... 32
4.1.6 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment ............................................................... 33
4.2 GPS Survey .................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 GPS Data Collection Methods & Procedures ........................................................... 34
4.2.2 Equipment ............................................................................................................... 37
4.2.3 GPS Levelling .......................................................................................................... 37
4.2.4 GPS Techniques...................................................................................................... 38
5 Location Surveys/Preliminary and Basic Reconnaissance Survey.................................. 40
5.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 40
5.1.1 Reconnaissance Survey .......................................................................................... 40
5.1.2 Preliminary Survey ................................................................................................... 41
5.1.3 Final Location Survey .............................................................................................. 41
5.2 Alignments ...................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.1 Recovery of Alignment Monuments ......................................................................... 43
5.2.2 Re-establishing Alignments ..................................................................................... 43
5.2.3 New Alignment ........................................................................................................ 43
5.2.4 Final Alignment ........................................................................................................ 43
5.3 Topographic Surveys ...................................................................................................... 44
5.3.1 Equipment ............................................................................................................... 44
5.3.2 Horizontal Methods .................................................................................................. 44
5.3.3 Vertical Methods ...................................................................................................... 46
5.3.4 Cross-Sectioning ..................................................................................................... 48
6 Digital Terrain Modelling Surveys ...................................................................................... 49
6.1 DTM Features ................................................................................................................. 49
6.1.1 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) ..................................................................................... 49
6.1.2 DTM Feature Compilation ........................................................................................ 50
6.1.3 DTM Feature Codes ................................................................................................ 51
6.2 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 52
6.3 DTM Procedures............................................................................................................. 52
6.3.1 Field Procedures...................................................................................................... 52
6.3.2 Collecting Surface Data ........................................................................................... 53
6.4 Supplemental DTM Data for Photogrammetry ................................................................ 53
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6.4.1 Data File Integrity..................................................................................................... 54
6.4.2 SDTM Schedule....................................................................................................... 54
6.5 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment ...................................................................... 54
7 Land Surveys ....................................................................................................................... 56
7.1 Organization ................................................................................................................... 56
7.2 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 56
7.3 Public Land Surveys ....................................................................................................... 56
7.4 Private Boundary Corners ............................................................................................... 57
7.5 Record Research ............................................................................................................ 57
7.5.1 AD-SDI Survey Records .......................................................................................... 57
7.5.2 Municipalities Survey Records ................................................................................. 57
7.5.3 Private Survey Records and Local Knowledge ........................................................ 59
7.6 Field Research................................................................................................................ 60
7.7 ROW Base Map .............................................................................................................. 60
7.7.1 Specifications .......................................................................................................... 60
7.7.2 Map Preparation ...................................................................................................... 60
7.8 ROW Plats ...................................................................................................................... 61
7.8.1 Acquisition Plats ...................................................................................................... 61
7.9 Special Surveys .............................................................................................................. 62
7.9.1 Site Surveys ............................................................................................................ 62
7.9.2 Registered Land Surveys......................................................................................... 62
7.10 Miscellaneous Marking of ROW Boundaries ................................................................... 62
7.10.1 ROW Staking for Viewing or Appraising ................................................................... 62
7.10.2 ROW Staking at the Request of Adjoining Property Owners .................................... 63
7.10.3 ROW Staking for Private Land Surveyors ................................................................ 63
8 LiDAR Survey ....................................................................................................................... 64
8.1 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 64
8.2 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 64
8.2.1 Stationary Laser Scanning ....................................................................................... 64
8.2.2 Mobile Laser Scanning ............................................................................................ 66
8.3 Data Processing ............................................................................................................. 66
8.3.1 The Point Cloud File ................................................................................................ 66
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8.3.2 Point Cloud Registration .......................................................................................... 67
8.3.3 Point Cloud Processing Software ............................................................................. 67
8.3.4 Interoperability with CADD Software ........................................................................ 68
8.5 Delivery........................................................................................................................... 69
9 Bridge Surveys .................................................................................................................... 70
9.1 Bridge Location Requirements ........................................................................................ 70
9.1.1 Types of Bridge Projects .......................................................................................... 70
9.1.2 New Bridges ............................................................................................................ 70
9.1.3 Replacement Bridges............................................................................................... 70
9.2 Topography .................................................................................................................... 71
9.3 Alignment........................................................................................................................ 71
9.4 Vertical Control ............................................................................................................... 72
9.5 Roadway Profiles ............................................................................................................ 72
9.6 Roadway Cross-Sections ................................................................................................ 72
9.7 Stream / Wadi / Creek Cross-Sections for Bridges – Local Requirement ........................ 72
9.8 Stream / Wadi Cross-Sections for Culverts – Local Requirement.................................... 73
9.9 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 75
10 Bathymetric Survey .......................................................................................................... 76
10.1 Echo-Sounding ............................................................................................................... 76
10.1.1 Single-Beam Echo-Sounders ................................................................................... 78
10.1.2 Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders ..................................................................................... 79
10.2 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 80
10.3 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 80
10.3.1 Depth Measurement ................................................................................................ 80
10.3.2 Positioning System Equipment ................................................................................ 81
10.3.3 Planning and Equipment Calibration ........................................................................ 82
10.4 Data Processing ............................................................................................................. 83
10.6 Delivery........................................................................................................................... 84
10.6.1 Project Survey Reports ............................................................................................ 84
10.6.2 Digital Data .............................................................................................................. 85
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10.6.3 Metadata.................................................................................................................. 85
11 Construction Surveys ...................................................................................................... 86
11.1 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 86
11.2 Roads ............................................................................................................................. 86
11.2.1 Project Set out ......................................................................................................... 86
11.2.2 Pre-Construction ...................................................................................................... 88
11.2.3 Construction ............................................................................................................ 88
11.2.4 Post-Construction / As-Built ..................................................................................... 95
11.2.6 Note Forms .............................................................................................................. 96
11.3 Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 96
11.3.1 Project Set out ......................................................................................................... 96
11.3.2 Pre-Construction ...................................................................................................... 96
11.3.3 Construction ............................................................................................................ 97
11.3.4 Post-Construction / As-Built ..................................................................................... 99
11.3.5 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment ............................................................. 100
11.3.6 Note Forms ............................................................................................................ 100
11.4 Parking Lots.................................................................................................................. 100
11.4.1 Project Set out ....................................................................................................... 100
11.4.2 Pre-Construction .................................................................................................... 100
11.4.3 Construction .......................................................................................................... 100
11.4.4 Post-Construction / As-Built ................................................................................... 101
11.4.6 Note Forms ............................................................................................................ 102
11.5 Buildings ....................................................................................................................... 102
11.5.1 Project Set out ....................................................................................................... 102
11.5.3 Construction .......................................................................................................... 102
11.5.4 Post-Construction/As-Built ..................................................................................... 104
11.5.6 Note Forms ............................................................................................................ 105
12 Construction Surveys for Marine Structures ............................................................... 106
12.1 Width of Survey Corridor ............................................................................................... 106
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12.2 Bridges ......................................................................................................................... 106
12.2.1 Project Set Out ...................................................................................................... 106
12.2.3 Construction .......................................................................................................... 107
12.2.5 Equipment ............................................................................................................. 107
12.2.7 Note Forms ............................................................................................................ 109
12.3 Underwater Tunnels...................................................................................................... 109
12.3.1 Project Set out ....................................................................................................... 109
12.3.3 Construction .......................................................................................................... 110
12.3.5 Equipment ............................................................................................................. 111
12.3.7 Note Forms ............................................................................................................ 112
13 Aerial Surveys ................................................................................................................ 113
13.1 Aerial Photography Requirements ................................................................................ 113
13.1.1 Digital Photos ........................................................................................................ 113
13.1.2 Purpose of Aerial Photography .............................................................................. 113
13.1.3 Factors to be Assessed ......................................................................................... 113
13.2 Digital Imagery from Aerial Photography ....................................................................... 114
13.2.1 Purpose of Air Photographic Imagery .................................................................... 114
13.2.3 Imagery vs. Mosaics .............................................................................................. 115
13.2.4 Products of Air Photographic Imagery.................................................................... 115
13.3 Digital Surveying Data from Photogrammetry ............................................................... 115
13.3.1 Purpose of Photogrammetric Surveys .................................................................... 116
13.3.3 Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey .......................................................................... 116
13.3.4 Products of Photogrammetric Surveys ................................................................... 117
13.4 Existing Products .......................................................................................................... 117
13.4.1 Aerial Photography ................................................................................................ 117
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13.4.2 Satellite Imagery .................................................................................................... 117
13.4.3 Standard / Topographic Mapping ........................................................................... 118
13.4.4 Cadastral Mapping ................................................................................................. 118
13.5 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment .................................................................... 118
13.5.1 Ground Sample Distance Requirements ................................................................ 118
13.5.2 Horizontal Accuracy Requirements ........................................................................ 119
13.5.3 Vertical Accuracy Requirements ............................................................................ 120
14 Mapping .......................................................................................................................... 121
14.1 Purpose of Maps........................................................................................................... 121
14.2 Types of Maps .............................................................................................................. 121
14.2.1 Planimetric Map ..................................................................................................... 121
14.2.2 Topographic Map ................................................................................................... 122
14.2.3 Utility Map .............................................................................................................. 122
14.2.4 Alignment Map ....................................................................................................... 122
14.2.5 Drainage Map ........................................................................................................ 122
14.2.6 Property Map ......................................................................................................... 122
14.2.7 Ownership Map...................................................................................................... 122
14.2.8 Title Map ................................................................................................................ 123
14.2.9 Right of Way Map .................................................................................................. 123
14.3 Data for Map Preparation .............................................................................................. 123
14.3.1 Cultural and Natural Features ................................................................................ 124
14.3.2 Utilities ................................................................................................................... 124
14.3.3 Record Boundaries ................................................................................................ 124
14.3.4 Surface Elevations ................................................................................................. 124
14.3.5 Alignment............................................................................................................... 124
14.4 Description of Map (Type, Scale, Area, etc.) ................................................................. 124
14.5 Requirements for Maps................................................................................................. 125
14.6 Quality Control of Maps ................................................................................................ 126
14.7 Large Scale Mapping .................................................................................................... 126
Cited References....................................................................................................................... 128
Other References ...................................................................................................................... 132
Index .......................................................................................................................................... 133
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Summary of Survey Requirements................................................................................... 5
Figure 2: Typical DTM Feature Collection ..................................................................................... 50
Figure 3: Breakline Placement - Typical Section ........................................................................... 51
Figure 4: Cross-Section Location across a Stream / Wadi / Creek ................................................ 74
Figure 5: Illustration of Echo-Sounding Mechanism ...................................................................... 76
Figure 6: Relationship between Water Depth and Sound Speed ................................................... 77
Figure 7: Example of Single Frequency SBES .............................................................................. 78
Figure 8: Example of Single Frequency Portable Hydrographical SBES ....................................... 79
Figure 9: Example of Dual Frequency SBES................................................................................. 79
Figure 10: Example of Shallow Water MBES ................................................................................ 80
Figure 11: Example of Hydrographical MBES ............................................................................... 80
Figure 12: Summary of Construction Surveys for Roads, Bridges, Parking Lots and Buildings ..... 87
Figure 13: Summary of Construction Surveys for Underwater Marine Structures ........................ 108
Figure 14: Graphic Representation of Map Scale (Scale Bar) ..................................................... 125
Figure 15: Illustration of Relationship between Map Scale and Size of Ground Shown ............... 127
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Abu Dhabi Spatial Reference System ............................................................................... 4
Table 2: Vertical Control Accuracy Requirements ........................................................................... 8
Table 3: Area Coverage Details about Proposed/Existing Road/Corridor ........................................ 8
Table 4: Levelling Field Procedure Specifications ......................................................................... 31
Table 5: Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Requirements for DTM Features ................................. 55
Table 6: Recommended GSD vs. Map Scale .............................................................................. 119
Table 7: Horizontal Ground Accuracy Standard, Large-Scale Maps ............................................ 119
LIST OF FORMS
Form 1: Property Owner Contact Form ......................................................................................... 16
Form 2: GDS Submission Form ................................................................................................... 23
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GLOSSARY
Accuracy: A degree of conformity with a standard or accepted value. Accuracy relates to the
quality of a result, and is distinguished from precision which relates to the quality
of the operation by which the result is obtained.
Aerial photograph: A photograph of a part of the earth’s surface taken by an aircraft supported
camera.
Aerial photography: The photography of part of the earth's surface, but is not rectified to account for
differences in scale throughout the photograph.
Aerial survey: A survey utilizing photographic, electronic, or other data obtained from an
airborne station.
Alidade: The part of a surveying instrument which consists of a sighting device, with index,
and reading or recording accessories.
Alignment: A ground plan, showing the alignment or direction, and components of the centre
line, as distinguished from a profile, which shows the vertical element.
Altitude: The vertical angle between the plane of the horizon and the line to the object
which is observed or defined.
As-built survey: The survey performed to obtain horizontal and/or vertical dimensional data so
that constructed improvements may be located and delineated.
Azimuth: The horizontal direction reckoned clockwise from the meridian plane.
Baseline: A surveyed line usually several kilometres long established with the utmost
precision available at the time.
Base map: A map which contains the fundamental framework necessary for adequate
geographic reference and positioning of information that may be drawn or
overprinted on it.
Bathymetric survey: One of the key survey methods for mapping to determine the terrain and contour
such as lake, river or ocean’s underwater land surface.
Bathymetry: The science of measuring water depths (usually in the ocean) to determine bottom
topography.
Bearing: An angle measured clockwise from a north line of 0° to a given surveyed line.
Benchmark: A fixed physical object containing a marked point of known elevation with respect
to a datum used as a reference level for tidal observations or as a control point for
levelling.
Bridge: A structure over a traffic carrying way or water course having a span of more than
3 m or as defined in Road Structures Design Manual.
Bridge survey: A survey necessary to locate a bridge site, obtain information for design, and
furnish lines and grades for construction.
Cadastral: A Latin term from 'cadastre' referring to a registry of lands.
Cadastral map: A map depicting land parcels and associated nomenclature.
Cadastral survey: A survey made to determine the lengths and directions of boundary lines and the
area of land bounded by these lines.
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Calibration: The act or process of determining certain specific measurements in a camera or
other instrument or device for comparison with a standard or for purpose of
record.
Construction survey: A survey executed to locate or lay out engineering works and used to set grading
elevation stakes, reference points, slope stakes and other such controls.
Consultant: A professional service firm (or individual) performing engineering design or other
professional services under contract to the client.
Control survey: A survey made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of a series of
control points.
Contour: A line that depicts equal elevation on a land surface.
Contour interval: The elevation difference between adjacent contours.
Coordinates: Linear or angular quantities, or both, which designate the position of a point in
relation to a given reference frame.
Corner: A point on the surface of the earth, determined by the surveying process, which
defines an extremity on a boundary of the public lands.
Cross-section: A vertical section of the ground, roadway or structure perpendicular to the
centreline or baseline of the roadway or other work.
Datum: A standard or common defined reference for survey measurements.
Deflection angle: An angle measured left or right of a line extension.
Digital Terrain A three-dimensional model of digital surfaces of topographic features.
Model:
Easement: A recorded right of way to be used for utilities or any other purpose.
Easting: A coordinate value by longitudinal reference.
Elevation: The vertical distance of a point above mean sea level or above another datum.
Feature code: The abbreviation used to define an object collected during a radial survey.
Geodetic control: A system of monumental stations having known, precise positions established by
geodetic methods.
Geodetic survey: A precise survey of considerable extent which takes into account the shape of the
earth.
Geographic Computers and software used to explore the fundamental principles of geography;
Information System: a system intended for analysing and displaying geographically referenced
information.
geoid: The figure of the earth, which approximates a mean sea level surface extended
continuously through the continents.
Global Positioning A constellation of 24 satellites operated by the U.S. Department of Defense which
System: orbit the earth at a very high altitude. GPS satellites transmit signals that allow one
to determine, with great accuracy, the locations of GPS receivers.
Gradient: A rate of rise or fall, as “1% gradient, meaning a 1-metre vertical rise in a 100-
metre horizontal distance (also recorded as 0.01).
Grid: A network of uniformly spaced parallel lines intersecting at right angles.
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Guard stake: A stake driven near a point usually sloped with the top of the guard stake over the
point. The guard stake protects, and its markings identify the point.
High water mark: A line or mark left upon tidal flats, beach, or along shore objects indicating the
elevation or the intrusion of high water.
Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is an angle measured in a horizontal plane. It is the angle
between two vertical planes.
Horizontal control: A network of stations of known geographic or grid positions referred to a common
horizontal datum, which control the horizontal position of mapped features with
respect to parallel and meridians, or northing and easting grid lines shown on the
map.
Horizontal datum: A collection of specific points on the Earth that have been identified according to
their precise northerly or southerly location (latitude), and their easterly or
westerly location (longitude).
Horizontal position: The grid position of a horizontal control point.
Hub: A wooden stake set in the ground, with a tack or other marker to indicate the exact
position.
Land surveying: The surveying of areas for their correct determination and description and for
conveyancing, or for the establishment or re-establishment of land boundaries and
the plotting of lands and subdivisions thereof.
Latitude: The distance on the earth’s surface, north or south of the Equator, expressed in
either linear or angular measurements.
Levelling: The process of determining differences of elevation between points on the surface
of the earth; the determination of the elevation of points relative to a vertical
datum.
LiDAR: An airborne instrument that measures distance to an object by emitting timed
pulses of light and measuring the time between emission and reception of the
reflected pulses. The measured time interval is converted into distance.
Longitude: The distance on the earth’s surface, east or west of a defined meridian, usually the
meridian of Greenwich (0o Longitude), expressed in either angular measure, such
as 90o West Longitude, or in time, such as 6 hours West of Greenwich.
Map: A representation on a plane surface, at an established scale, of the physical
features (natural, artificial, or both) of a part or the whole of the earth’s surface,
by means of signs and symbols, and with the means of orientation indicated.
Mean Sea Level: A tidal datum that is the arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over
a 19-year National Tidal Datum Epoch. Shorter series are specified in the name;
e.g., monthly mean sea level and yearly mean sea level.
Measurement: An estimated value that is, by its nature, subject to error.
Monument: A permanently placed survey marker such as a stone shaft sunk into the ground.
Mosaic: A number of continuous aerial photographs overlapped and joined together by
way of 'best fit' to form a single non-rectified image.
Northing: A coordinate value by latitudal reference.
Offset: A point located at the extension of a line and marking the direction of the line.
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Offset line: A supplementary line close to and usually parallel to a main survey line to which it
is referenced by measured offsets.
Orthophoto: The aerial photograph images transformed using an 'orthophoto verification'
process to remove distortions and capable of registering perfectly with cadastral
data.
Photogrammetric An original survey in which monuments are placed at corner positions which have
survey: been pre-determined by photogrammetric techniques and equipment.
Photogrammetry: A technique used in surveying to measure the two-dimensional (2D) or three-
dimensional (3D) coordinates with the help of photography.
Planimetric map: A map that presents horizontal but not vertical data for the features represented.
Drainages, coastlines, cover and culture are usually shown.
Plat: A drawing of a parcel of land. More specifically, the drawing created by the
surveyor that shows the field work, with bearings, distances, etc. It also shows
buildings, roads and any present or future improvements.
Point of Curvature: The point at which a straight line begins to a curve.
Point of The point where two non-parallel lines intersect. More specifically, it refers to the
Intersection: point where two tangents to a curved line intersect.
Point of Tangency: The point at which a curve ends and straight survey line begins.
Position: The place occupied by a point on the surface of the earth.
Precision: The degree of refinement in the performance of an operation, or the degree of
perfection in the instruments and methods used when making measurements.
Reconnaissance A hasty preliminary survey of a region made to provide some advance information
survey: regarding the area, pending the execution of more complete surveys.
Rectification: The mathematical and calculated correction made to an aerial photograph to show
its true ground position at a consistent scale.
Reference point: Any point which can serve as a reference or base for the measurement of other
quantities.
Right of entry: One's right to take or resume possession of land or the right of a person to go onto
another's real property without committing trespass.
Right-of-Way The area of land for providing land transportation infrastructure and
(ROW): accommodating utility services including bridges and tunnels over which or
through which land transport infrastructure passes, and shall include the
appurtenant height above or depth below the land and equipment installed on
such land. In the event that the area of land is bordered by plot boundaries, it shall
include all land between such plot boundaries.
Satellite imagery: The images provided by satellites.
Scale: The ratio of the size of the image or representation of an object on a map or
photograph to its true size.
Seafloor: The bottom of the ocean when there is a generally smooth gentle gradient.
Single Beam Echo An echo-sounder that transmits and receives only one sound pulse at a time;
Sounder: contrasted to a multi-beam echo-sounder which records multiple soundings over
a swath of the seafloor for each transmission.
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Slope: Any ground whose surface creates an angle with the plane of the horizon.
Stake: An elongated wood or metal pole embedded in the bottom. Its diameter is smaller
than that of a pole.
Station: A computed or surveyed point; normally by standard measurement intervals along
a defined centreline.
Surveying: The act or operation of making measurements for determining the relative
position of points on, above, or beneath the Earth surface.
Survey control A coordinated point that forms part of a national network of survey stations.
station/point: Coordinates of each station are known to a high degree of accuracy, so surveyors
can use these stations as their framework for a range of survey work including
subdivisions, mapping, photogrammetry, tunnelling and road and railway surveys.
Target: Any object to which the instrument is pointed. A target may be a plumb bob or
cord, a nail in the top of a stake, a taping arrow, a range pole, a pencil, or any other
object that will provide a sharply defined, stationary point or line.
Terrain: The topographic and physical features of a tract of land, geographic area or
territory.
Theodolite: A precise surveying instrument, consisting of an alidade with a telescope mounted
so that it can be rotated about a vertical axis; the amount of rotation is measured
on an accurately graduated, stationary horizontal circle.
Tie: A survey connection from a point of known position to a point whose position is
desired.
Tolerance: A mathematical term indicating the allowable variation from a standard or from
specified conditions. It is an indication of the accuracy and the precision of a
measurement.
Topographic map: A map which presents the vertical position of features in measurable form, as well
as their horizontal positions.
Topographic survey: A survey conducted to determine the configuration of the ground. It is a record of
a survey containing the natural features and the culture of a portion of the land
surface and their delineation by means of conventional symbols.
Topography: Collective or individual features both natural and cultural, improvements,
significant changes in character of land and relief which are tied to a point on the
survey line or are intersected by it.
Total station: A vertical and horizontal angle-measuring theodolite with an electronic distance
measuring instrument attached to or integral with the theodolite’s telescope.
Transit: A surveying instrument composed of a horizontal circle graduated in circular
measure and an alidade with a telescope which can be reversed in its supports
without being lifted therefrom.
Traverse: A sequence of lengths and directions of lines between points on the earth,
obtained by field measurements and used to determine the positions of the points
through use of trigonometric computations.
Triangulation: A method of surveying in which the stations are points on the ground at the
vertices of a chain or network of triangles, whose angles are observed
instrumentally and whose sides are derived by computation from selected triangle
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sides called baselines, the lengths of which are obtained from direct measurement
on the ground.
Trilateration: A method of extending horizontal control where the sides of triangles are
measured rather than the angles as in triangulation.
Turning point: A station with a stable elevation that is used as a temporary benchmark. The
purpose of the turning point is to provide a point of known elevation that can be
used to re-establish the height of the instrument after it has been moved.
Vertical angle: An angle measured in a vertical plane.
Vertical control: A term used to describe points with established elevations relative to a specific
vertical datum which are used as fixed references for surveying and/or mapping
activities.
Vertical datum: Any level surface taken as a surface of reference from which to reckon elevations.
A level surface is one which, at every point, is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity, i.e., an equipotential surface.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AAM Al Ain Municipality
AD EHSMS Abu Dhabi Emirate Environment, Health and Safety Management System
ADM Municipality of Abu Dhabi City
AAM SDD Al Ain Municipality Spatial Data Department
CADD Computer Aided Drafting and Design
CORS Continuous Operating Reference Stations
DOT Department of Transport, Abu Dhabi.
DTM Digital Terrain Model
DEM Digital Elevation Map
DRA Dynamic Range Adjustment
eLMS Electronic Land Management System
EHS Environmental, Health and Safety
EDI Electronic Data Interchange
EDM Electronic Distance Measurement
GIS Geographic Information System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
GPS Global Positioning System
GDS Geospatial Data Submission
GCS Geographic Coordinate System
GCP Ground Control Points
GSD Ground Sample Distance
LiDAR Light Detention And Ranging
MBES Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders
MLS Mobile Laser Scanning
NMAS National Map Accuracy Standard
NAVSTAR Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging
PC Point of Curvature
PDTM Photogrammetric Digital Terrain Model
PI Point of Intersection
PT Point of Tangency
PPK GPS Post-Processing Kinetic GPS
ROW Right-of-Way
RTKGPS Real-Time Kinetic GPS
SBES Single Beam Echo Sounder
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SLS Stationary Laser Scanning
SRS Spatial Reference System
SDTM Survey Digital Terrain Model
TPS Total Point Solution
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
VRS Virtual Reference Stations
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
In 2010, the Abu Dhabi Department of Transport commenced with the “Unifying and Standardizing
of Road Engineering Practices” Project. The objective of the project was to enhance the
management, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of all roads and related
infrastructures in the Emirate and ensure a safe and uniform operational and structural capacity
throughout the road network.
To achieve this objective a set of standards, specifications, guidelines and manuals were developed
in consultation with all relevant authorities in the Abu Dhabi Emirate including the Department of
Municipal Affairs (DMA) and Urban Planning Council (UPC). In future, all authorities or agencies
involved in roads and road infrastructures in the Emirate shall exercise their functions and
responsibilities in accordance with these documents. The purpose, scope and applicability of each
document are clearly indicated in each document.
It is recognized that there are already published documents with similar objectives and contents
prepared by other authorities. Such related publications are mentioned in each new document and
are being superseded by the publication of the new document, except in cases where previously
published documents are recognized and referenced in the new document.
1.2 Purpose and scope

The development of Land Surveying and Mapping Guide For Road Projects is carried out for Abu
Dhabi Department of Transport (DOT), hereafter, to be referred in this document as the “Owner”, the
“Client”, or the “Department”. The purpose of this manual is to describe the required standards,
accepted procedures and performance criteria to be used by the Client and other agencies and
authorities within Abu Dhabi Emirate when conducting surveys. Thus, the manual has the Emirate-
wide scope. The information contained in this manual has been developed in conformance with the
Client directives, policies and procedures, in addition to, applicable procedures of other authorities
to provide consistency of survey accuracy and reliability of mapping products. It is intended to
establish minimum Emirate-wide surveying standards, provide uniform procedures for implementing
survey best practices, assure quality and continuity in collection of survey data and assure
compliance with performance criteria set forth by various concerned authorities within the Abu Dhabi
Emirate.
The manual introduces procedures to work with survey equipment now being used throughout the
Emirate, in addition to, the latest surveying and mapping equipment identified through the review of
best international practices. The manual will be a stand-alone and does not supplement any other
manual. Major elements covered in this manual include Data Management, General Survey
Requirements, Control Surveys, Design Surveys, Bridge Surveys, Digital Terrain Modelling Surveys,
Land Surveys, Construction Surveys, Aerial Surveys, Mapping, etc.
1.3 Application of this manual

The Land Surveying and Mapping Guide for Road Projects is applicable to all the Department of
Transport Roads within Abu Dhabi Emirate including Abu Dhabi Island, Al Ain and Western Region.
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The manual can be applied to land surveying and mapping activities to be carried out by the
Department personnel or third party consultant and sub-consultants and will serve as a guide for
carrying out these activities in consistent manner.
1.4 Content and format

The manual provides guidelines for the land surveying and mapping activities within the Abu Dhabi
Emirate. The manual contains appropriate references to Abu Dhabi Municipality, Department of
Town Planning standards and guidelines on land surveying and mapping, especially, Geospatial
Data Submission (GDS) Guidelines. It also incorporates geospatial data submission requirements
of the Client GIS Section.
The manual consists of fourteen chapters covering purpose of the manual along with standards and
procedures, general survey requirements, data management and various types of surveys.
The types of surveys covered in this manual include control surveys; location / preliminary and basic
reconnaissance surveys; digital terrain modelling surveys; land surveys; LiDAR surveys; bridge
surveys; bathymetric survey; construction surveys; construction surveys for underwater marine
structures, in addition to, Aerial Surveys. The manual also covers mapping guidelines.
The chapter-wise contents are highlighted below:
1. Chapter one provides overview of this manual and describes purpose and scope, and
application of the manual.
2. In chapter two, general survey requirements are discussed. These requirements pertain to
horizontal and vertical datum, geodetic reference points, units of measurement, survey
requirements, roles and responsibilities, personnel requirements, field communications, EHS
and Road Safety.
3. Chapter three describes data management procedure highlighting survey data transfer from
field surveying devices as well as other survey engineering software systems into AutoCAD
and Micro station. It also describes data file formats and GIS requirements along with line
styles and symbols, survey comments, field note recording and line strings, etc.
4. In chapter four, geodetic and GPS survey equipment, techniques and accuracy are
discussed.
5. Chapter five covers location/preliminary and basic reconnaissance surveys focussing on
topographic survey and cross sectioning.
6. Chapter six covers digital terrain modelling survey features, equipment, procedures and
accuracy.
7. Land surveys are covered in chapter seven describing equipment, ROW base map and
accuracy. In addition, the use of ROW plats in providing basic information to utility engineers
for identifying conflicts and relocating facilities is highlighted.
8. In chapter eight, LiDAR survey equipment, procedure, data processing and accuracy are
described.
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9. Bridge surveys are discussed in chapter nine highlighting location requirements, topography,
alignment, vertical control, roadway profiles and cross-sections, equipment and accuracy.
10. In chapter ten, bathymetric survey equipment, procedure, data processing and accuracy are
described.
11. Chapter eleven focuses on construction surveys for roads, bridges, parking lots and
buildings.
12. Construction surveys for marine structures such as bridges and tunnels are covered in
chapter twelve.
13. Chapter thirteen discusses concepts related to Aerial Surveys.
14. The final chapter fourteen covers mapping highlighting its purpose, types, requirements and
quality control.
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2 GENERAL SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
General survey requirements are meant to have a common procedure and standards, in addition to,
horizontal and vertical datum. The datum shall be directly related to the concerned Town Planning
and Survey Departments within the Abu Dhabi Emirate. It also pertains to laying down the Survey
Standards for fixing new geodetic reference points (horizontal and vertical coordinates and elevation
values), accuracy standards and unit measurement within the Abu Dhabi Emirate. Figure 1
graphically depicts summary of survey requirements, whereas complete details of these
requirements are described in Section 2.2 (Survey Requirements).
2.1 Survey Datum

A datum provides a reference for surveying and mapping positions and heights on the surface of the
Earth. In order to compute subordinate horizontal and vertical positions on the surface of the Earth,
the datum are used as a basis. These datum are realized with the help of a set of control points
(geodetic reference points) having known positions.
Nowadays, project development efforts, especially, right of way projects, require the input and
participation of multiple organizations necessitating the use of common and accurate horizontal and
vertical survey datum along with consistent and precise control-survey procedures to ensure the
accurate location of fixed works and rights of way. The universally accepted and used, common
survey datum are essential for the efficient sharing of both engineering and GIS data with the Client
for development and operation of a multimodal transportation system (1).
2.1.1 Horizontal Datum

A horizontal datum is the foundation for computations of horizontal positions on the surface of the
Earth. It is important to specify the horizontal datum when giving geographic coordinates of any
object. In other words, the horizontal datum is used in measuring a specific position on the earth's
surface in coordinate systems such as latitude and longitude.
The WGS 84 is one of the most widely used datum around the world today including the Abu Dhabi
Emirate. The wide use of WGS 84 can be attributed to the increased use of the Global Positioning
System (GPS), which is based on WGS 84. The Abu Dhabi Spatial Reference System Parameters
are presented in Table 1 (2).
Table 1: Abu Dhabi Spatial Reference System

Unit of
Measurement Framework Measurement System Properties
Measurement
Spherical:
Angular: Decimal
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
Degrees
Longitude and Latitude Ellipsoid: WGS84
Horizontal Datum: WGS84
(ITRF2000.0)
Projected:
Vertical Datum: Ras Ghumays
Universal Transverse Mercator Linear: Metres
(UTM) Zones 39N and 40N
Easting and Northing
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Figure 1: Summary of Survey Requirements
Phase Project Control Survey(s) Deliverables Approval
Establish Horizontal Topographical Survey Control Drawing Preliminary Survey

Feasibility Study Vertical Positions (Satellite Imagery / Colored Images DTM approved by
(TPS/ GPS) Aerial Survey) Points Consultant/ Client
Check Established Topographical Survey Control Drawing Detailed

Preliminary/ Points & Establish (GPS/TPS) / Land Topo Survey Plan Topographical Survey
Detailed Design Intermediate Survey / Cadastral Survey Report approved by
Secondary Points Survey Survey Drawings Consultant/ Client
All surveys to be
Check and Confirm Construction Survey /
Control Drawings checked and approved
Construction Established Control Staking Out/ As-built
As-built Drawings by Consultant. As-built
Reference Points Survey
Survey by Client
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The area of Abu Dhabi Emirate falls in UTM Zones 39N and 40N. The Western Region Municipality
has 35% area in Zone 39N and 65% area in Zone 40N. Abu Dhabi Municipality has 5% area in Zone
39N and 95% area in Zone 40N. Al Ain Municipality is completely in Zone 40N (2).
In order to carry out all project survey work within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, coordinate system based
on the UTM-WGS84 shall be used. Reference points related to Abu Dhabi Municipality (ADM) / Al
Ain Municipality (AAM) and Western Region Municipality (WRM) horizontal datum may be obtained
from the concerned authority of the area.
In case the reference points are issued in Nahrwan coordinate system for a particular project, the
concerned municipality/department shall be requested to issue these coordinates in WGS84
Coordinate System, if available. Alternatively, the transformation parameters developed by ADM and
defined in “AD-SDI Data Standard – Spatial Reference System (3)” may be used to convert from
Nahrwan 1967 (using Clarke 1880 ellipsoid) to WGS84. The 7 transformation parameters consist of
three shift components (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ), three rotation components around each axis (Rx, Ry, Rz), and
one scale factor S. Three different sets of transformation parameters are available for the three
geographic areas of Abu Dhabi Island, and the parts of the emirate located in UTM Zones 39Nand
40N.
2.1.2 Vertical Datum

A vertical datum is used to measure elevations of points on the surface of the Earth or depths under
water. In a vertical datum elevations are cited in height above or below the Ras Ghumays Height
Datum, which is used as the vertical datum within the Emirate. The data obtained from the survey
work is then depicted on maps as height with reference to Ras Ghumays. In this regard, several
reference points are fixed throughout Abu Dhabi Emirate.
All elevations should preferably be based on the Ras Ghumays Height Datum. When based on an
alternate datum such datum should be clearly defined and the correction applied to reduce the
elevations to the Ras Ghumays Height Datum should be clearly stated (2).
Vertical datum is used by surveyors, engineers, map-makers, planners, and others as a reference
against which to base height measurements in order to know that all measurements start from the
same zero and can therefore be compared. All mapping, planning, design and construction for each
new or improvement transportation project within the Abu Dhabi Emirate shall be based on Ras
Ghumays vertical datum.
2.1.3 Units of Measurement

The unit of linear measurement is metre, whereas the unit of angular measurement is decimal
degrees. The following conversion can be used for surveying and mapping activities, if the
measurement units are given in British units:
• 1 metre = 3.28084 feet

• 1 square metre = 10.76391 square feet
• 1 cubic metre = 35.31467 cubic feet
• 1 foot = 0.30480 metre
• 1 square foot = 0.09290 square metre
• 1 cubic feet = 0.02832 cubic metre
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2.1.4 Geodetic Reference Points
Geodetic control points are part of large sets of coordinated control points that include Military Survey
Department (MSD) points, aerial control points, municipal mapping control points; municipal
engineering projects control points, and other public or private projects control points. Geodetic
control points are monumented and marked points. Geodetic control points or stations have precisely
measured horizontal and/or vertical locations and are used as a basis for determining the positions
of other coordinated control points (4).
Geodetic reference points are an integral part of the Spatial Reference System (SRS) for Abu Dhabi,
which is a consistent national coordinate system that specifies latitude, longitude, height, scale,
gravity, and orientation throughout the Abu Dhabi Emirate, as well as how these values change with
time. The SRS consists of the following components (3):
• A consistent, accurate, and up-to-date national shoreline

• GPS Reference Station Network, a set of Continuously Operating GPS Reference Stations
• A network of permanently marked geodetic control points
• A set of accurate models describing dynamic geophysical processes affecting spatial
measurements.
The SRS provides a highly accurate, precise, and consistent geographic reference framework
throughout the Emirate. Each surveying authority holds details on the location and coordinates of
surveying geodetic reference points within its own jurisdiction. Examples of survey control authorities
within the Abu Dhabi Emirate include Abu Dhabi, Western Region and Al Ain Municipalities. Upon
request, these municipalities can provide details about survey reference stations within their
jurisdiction.
2.2 Survey Requirements

2.2.1 Feasibility Study
During the feasibility study/concept design stage, preliminary survey or aerial survey is carried out
to determine the possible route of road alignment, location of bridge(s), parking lot(s) and other
structures. These surveys can be helpful in finding wetlands and protected vegetation. Preliminary
surveys (carried out with the help of aerial survey for small scale maps) also help in creating maps
and Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) from the survey data. Reconnaissance survey is a form of
preliminary survey usually executed rapidly and at relatively low cost prior to mapping in detail and
with greater precision.
2.2.1.1 Project Control

The project control is established with the help of control surveys, which establish a common,
consistent network of physical points that are the basis for controlling the horizontal and vertical
positions of projects. Control surveys provide precise locations of horizontal and vertical positions of
points for use in boundary determination, mapping for aerial photographs, detailed topographical
survey, construction staking or such other needs. Corridor control surveys ensure that adjacent
projects have compatible control. GPS or TPS may be used for the survey.
Accuracy of control points in horizontal positions for first, second and third order surveys shall not
exceed 5 parts per million (ppm), 8 ppm and 10 ppm, respectively. Whereas, accuracy of control
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points in vertical positions for first, second and third order surveys are given in Table 2 and shall not
exceed these values (2).
Table 2: Vertical Control Accuracy Requirements
Allowable Difference
Misclosure of Levelling
Order Description between Forward and
Loop/Line
Backward Levelling
4√K mm (K≥1km)
0.9√N mm (K<1km) 4√K mm (K≥1km)
First Precise Levelling (Class1)
K=distance in km 0.9√N mm (K<1km)
N=number of set-up
8√K mm (K≥1km)
8√K mm (K≥1km) 1.6√N mm (K<1km)
Second Precise Levelling (Class2)
1.8√N mm (K<1km) K=distance in km
N=number of set-up
12√K mm
Third Ordinary Levelling 12√K mm
K=distance in km
2.2.1.2 Topographical survey

Topographical survey may be done by aerial photography method to get all surface features, DTM
points and location of Stream, Wadi and creak crossings required to provide culverts and bridges.
High Resolution Satellite Imagery / Aerial Survey and High Precision DTM Contour
Lines
The Consultant shall undertake the following tasks:
1. Obtain a set of satellite images of the project area for preparing new colored satellite images
of the Project area for preparing the required layout and maps of the project.
2. The satellite images shall be in a scale of 1:10,000 and shall cover an area of
proposed/existing road/corridor depending on project as per the details given in Table 3.
3. All surveys shall be geo-referenced and have contour intervals not exceeding 1 metre.
Table 3: Area Coverage Details about Proposed/Existing Road/Corridor
S/No. Project Type Area/Corridor to be Covered

1 Road corridor is not defined 5 km
2 Road corridor is defined 500 m on both sides of Centre Line (CL)
3 Improvement of road projects 1.5 km on both sides of Centre Line (CL)
4 Existing interchanges 3 km x 3 km
5 Proposed interchanges 5 km x 5 km
In addition, either satellite imagery or aerial survey may be considered as per the specifications
below:
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Satellite Imagery
Survey Ground Control

The best ground registration survey points shall be distinct features on areas of level ground at least
20m from buildings, trees and abrupt changes of terrain elevation. The points should be identifiable
to within ±25cm horizontally on the satellite photos. The elevation measured at the survey point
should be accurate to at least 10cm and represent the mean elevation of the ground within 3m of
the survey point.
Many distinct features that can be clearly recognized on the satellite photos protrude above the
ground or are in close proximity to buildings, trees or abrupt changes in slope. They may also be
fence intersections, where the tops of the fences are more than a metre above ground level. In these
cases, as well as the photo recognizable survey point, an adjacent survey point, within 500 m of the
photo recognizable point, is also required, that is on an area of level ground at least 20 m away from
buildings, trees and abrupt changes in slope. This second survey point need not be recognizable on
the satellite photos. X, Y, Z coordinates accurate to better than 10cm for both survey points shall be
provided.
Digital
Satellite Data: 50cm stereo satellite photos, 3 band pansharpened natural colour, 8 bit geo-tiff, DRA
(Dynamic Range Adjustment) OFF (maintain absolute radiometric accuracy)
Image Date(s): New collection
Cloud Cover: Data may contain up to 15% cloud

Photo Pixel Size: 50 centimetre
DEM Posting: 1 metre
Contours: 1 metre
Format: Digital Elevation Model: Floating point geo-tiff
Vector Data: ArcGIS shape files or AutoCAD DWG format or any other format compatible with
DOT/Client GIS requirements
Projection / Datum: UTM39 or UTM40 / WGS 84

Ortho-rectified Imagery products are an ideal base for creating and revising mapping and GIS
databases, or for registering existing feature layers. The Satellite Ortho Photos should be produced
using the high definition satellite elevation. The relative horizontal accuracy of such Precision Ortho
photos is generally better than 2m over distances of 10km. The horizontal adjustments of the satellite
photos to correct for terrain distortions should be made using digital elevation models produced from
the stereo satellite photos with very good support data can result in accuracy Standard meeting
1:2,400 National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) which approximately equals 0.9 m Root Mean
Square Error (~0.9m RMSE)
Digital Elevation Map (DEM) - 1m posted, accurate to 50cm 90% Linear Error (LE90)
1m posted DEM accurate to 50 cm LE90 in areas of bare ground with slopes less than 20% grade.
Buildings, isolated trees and clumps of trees less than 50 cm in width will be removed from the DEM
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so that in most urban and suburban areas the DEM elevations will be bare ground elevations. In
forested areas and other areas of continuous vegetation the DEM elevations will be the elevation of
the top of the vegetation. Areas of the DEM that are extremely foreshortened or occluded on the
satellite photos due to very steep topography will be interpolated from the surrounding elevation
data.
The accuracy of satellite imagery shall not be more than 20 cm and 25 cm in coordinates and level,
respectively.
Aerial Survey
Digital
Aerial photography: 10cm Ortho-photos 3 band pansharpened natural colour, 12-bit geo-tiff Image
Camera: Digital Camera
Cloud Cover
Data may contain up to 0% cloud and 0% haze
Photo Pixel Size: 10 centimetre
DEM Posting: 1 metre
Contours: 1 metre
Overlap: 60% forward and 30% Side
Format: Digital Elevation Model: Floating point geo-tiff
Vector Data: ArcGIS shape files or AutoCAD DWG format or any other format compatible with GIS
requirements
Projection / Datum: UTM39 or UTM40 / WGS84

Ortho-rectified photo imagery products in Geo-Tiff format, including Inertial Measurement Units
(IMU) data and GPS data in the deliverables.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) accurate to 20 cm LE90 and 15cm 90% Circular Error (CE90)
DEM data files in Shape files and ASCII files:
1. Point file containing all measured points each with an attribute identifying the type of point
(mass point, special point, bridge point)
2. Breakline file containing linear features each with an attribute identifying the type of Breakline
feature (Breakline, Bridge Breakline)
TIN - ESRI TIN format files (for each area a separate file) for DTM only
1 m Contours, Shape file:
• File containing 1 m contours with each contour line having the contour height as an attribute
in the shape file
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Survey Ground Control
All Ground Control Points (GCP’s) shall be observed and a least squares adjustment will be
performed in such a way that their final standard deviation for horizontal coordinates shall be smaller
or equal to ±2 cm and final standard deviation for vertical coordinate shall be smaller or equal to ±2
cm.
A record of all the GCP’s is to be made including their coordinates (raw and calculated) sketches,
photographs description, type of signals and general details. The records shall be collected in a
single report.
2.2.1.3 Deliverables
The deliverables for this stage include the following:
1. Project control drawing showing all points coordinates and elevation values
2. One copy of the coloured images shall be produced on foam board (with protective coating)
and one copy shall be mounted on linen
3. Digital copy of DTM points
4. All data submitted in digital form
2.2.1.4 Approval
The preliminary survey has to be approved by the Consultant and the Client.
2.2.2 Preliminary Design /Detailed Design

A detailed survey of the project may be done during this stage.

All control points established during the feasibility study stage may be checked and more
intermediate secondary control points may be established, if required, and connected to primary
control points. All intermediate control points’ elevation shall be transferred with spirit level.
Accuracy of control points in horizontal and vertical positions for first, second and third order surveys
shall be the same as described above in Section 2.2.1.1.
2.2.2.2 Topography and Land Survey

After finalizing the road corridor, staking out of road centreline to be done by the survey in-charge to
conduct a detailed survey. Field topographic survey shall be carried out to establish DTM and all
surface features using Global Positioning System (GPS)/Total Point Solution (TPS) technology.
However, contour intervals shall not be more than 0.5 m to locate all existing structures, services,
signs, lighting poles and other significant features of the Project's site.
Detailed field survey for locating all existing structures, buildings including gate levels, bridges and
culverts including invert of inlet and outlet levels, underpasses, ramps, roads, slip roads, access
roads, junctions and all other surface services, wadis, streams, creaks and other significant features
of the project site shall be carried out. All services such as manhole cover levels, street light poles,
overhead lines, service markers, etc., may be picked up and defined in separate layers. Cross
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section of wadis, streams and creaks may be done with a combination of topographical and
bathymetric survey for a length of 200 m upstream and 100 m downstream at every 25 m interval.
In carrying out detailed filed survey, the following points should be taken into consideration:
• Geodetic reference points used in the survey will be same as geodetic reference points fixed
for the control survey. All elevations and coordinates shall be related to the Abu Dhabi Datum
described above.
• Temporary geodetic reference point elevations shall be transferred with spirit level.
• Plans and longitudinal sections illustrating the selected alignment and existing ground levels
at every 25 m maximum to the width of 100 m from the centreline on each side or up to the
corridor limit for built up areas, or as described and up to 10 m outside the road corridor limit
for open areas.
• Any additional information required and relevant to the Project shall be obtained.
• Survey of the project area including all geodetic reference points shall be carried out
according to approved scope of work presented in Conceptual Design Report and
preparation of surveying drawings at appropriate scale or as agreed.
Accuracy of topographical survey shall be 20 mm in coordinates and 10 mm in elevation.
2.2.2.3 Cadastral Survey

The affected properties, plots and structures are identified in the topographical survey. A detailed
survey of the same may be done through GPS/TPS survey. Other details such as owner’s name,
copy of affection plan, if available, etc., shall be collected and submitted.
1. Project control drawings showing all point coordinates and elevation values.
2. 3 copies of the topographical survey plan.
3. 3 copies of survey report.
4. 3 copies of survey drawings and report.
5. 3 copies of digital file of all above mentioned.
2.2.2.5 Approval
The detailed topographical survey has to be approved by the Consultant and the Client.
2.2.3 Construction Phase

Construction surveys are used during the construction of all projects like roads, buildings, parking
lots, bridges, tunnels and underwater structures to establish their location and alignment.

All project control reference points must be checked and confirmed that no points are disturbed and
their values changed. This shall be checked jointly with Consultant and the Contractor’s survey team.
Accuracy of control points in horizontal and vertical positions for first, second and third order surveys
shall be the same as described above in Section 2.2.1.1.
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2.2.3.2 Construction Survey
The construction survey work starts with project set out wherein geodetic reference points and
markers are set out for staking out to facilitate the construction work with the desired level of
accuracy. This is followed by the pre-construction stage in which the project plans along with special
provisions for the project are carefully studied and checked to detect any possible errors and
familiarize surveying staff with the project before actual construction work stars. Just before the
actual construction work starts, a pre-construction meeting is held between the contractor and the
Consultant/Client’s personnel to discuss and conform to contractor’s planned sequence of
operations and method of staking to avoid unnecessary delays or inconveniences.
Construction surveys for roads and highways involve the location of alignments and computation of
volumes materials that must be added, removed, or moved.
2.2.3.3 Staking Out

Prior to start of construction, contractor survey team has to set out Centreline (CL) of road at not
more than 25 m intervals including all Intersection Points (IP) and Tangent Points (TP) of curves.
Once the stacking out is complete, the Consultant’s survey in-charge may check and approve it.
After obtaining approval from the Consultant, four reference points for each IP and TP may be done,
concreted and approved by the Consultant. Then jointly obtain cross ground level at every 25 m
intervals and at every change of grade for final quantity take off for earth work. Both parties must
sign and keep for their record the original ground levels.
2.2.3.4 As-built Survey

A post-construction survey is carried out to check whether the construction has been carried out as
per the design so that accurate as-built drawings can be produced as per the Client’s requirements.
As-built surveys help in checking whether the construction has been completed as per the design of
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and cross-sections. All of the utilities and drainage are
located horizontally and vertically after construction and put together in an as-built survey. This
survey is completed and sent to the concerned authority so that it can be compared to the approved
plans for the project.
Accuracy of as-built survey shall not exceed 10 mm in horizontal and 5 mm in vertical positions.
2.2.3.5 Approval
Each stage of the construction phase survey including the as-built survey has to be undertaken by
the contractor survey team and checked and approved by the Consultant. However, the as-built
survey has also to be approved by the Client.
1. Project control drawings showing all point coordinates and elevation values
2. 3 copies of as-built drawings
3. 3 copies of digital file of all above mentioned.
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2.3 Roles and Responsibilities
2.3.1 Client
The Client being the owner of the project has the responsibility to ensure that the survey work is
completed as per the requirements and as such should play a proper role in the appointment of the
Designer/Consultant and Contractor. The Client should ensure that the Designer/Consultant and
Contractor survey personnel/staff meets the qualification and experience requirements described in
Section 2.4.
The Client shall appoint a well-qualified Designer/Consultant to check and approve the survey work
to be carried out. Furthermore, if the Client wishes to check the survey work during the construction
phase, he can appoint a third party survey company, in addition to the Consultant.
2.3.2 Designer/Consultant
The appointed Designer/Consultant’s surveyor shall check all the survey work carried out by the
Contractor’s survey team during the construction stage in particular and throughout the project life
cycle in general. Designer/Consultant to confirm that all the setting outs are done within the specified
accuracy before and after construction.
2.3.3 Contractor
The Contractor’s survey team shall perform the desired survey work as per the requirements of the
contract. Furthermore, the survey in-charge of the contractor team has responsibility to complete the
survey work within the allowable accuracy requirements. The Contractor is responsible for any
construction errors due to the inaccuracy of the survey work.
2.3.4 Responsibility for Survey Data Accuracy

The survey company will be responsible for any error occurring in the survey work carried out for the
design of the project. However, during the construction stage, the contractor will be responsible for
the accuracy of the survey work during and after the construction.
The survey company is responsible for performing calibration of the survey equipment as per the
manufacturer’s requirements. But, the Consultant/Client shall ensure that this calibration is actually
carried out properly.
2.4 Personnel/Staff Requirements

All designer/consultant and contractor staff appointments for any survey work should be client-
specific and the staff must be appointed / allocated in accordance with the general requirements of
the Client.
2.4.1 Designer/Consultant
The Designer/Consultant’s survey staff should be properly qualified to ensure the survey work is
carried out as per contract specifications. The surveyor/survey in-charge should:
• Hold a bachelor degree in surveying with a minimum of 5 years relevant experience or

• Hold a diploma in surveying with a minimum of 10 years relevant experience
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2.4.2 Contractor
Like the Designer/Consultant’s staff, the Contractor’s survey staff should also be properly qualified
to ensure the survey work is completed as per contract specifications. The survey in-charge should
have:
• A qualification of bachelor in surveying with a minimum of 5 years relevant experience or

• A diploma in surveying with a minimum of 10 years relevant experience
Other surveyors should hold diploma in surveying with a minimum of 5 years relevant experience.
2.5 Quality Control

The entire process of surveying and mapping shall undergo the relevant DOT quality control
standards. For carrying out quality control, the DOT CADD Protocols Manual and Quality
Control/Quality Assurance Manual shall be referred to and followed. Furthermore, before
implementing any QC/QA plan, it must be submitted to DOT for their review and approval.
2.6 Field Communications

In order to establish good relationship with all the neighbours, proper communication needs to be
maintained. This includes using the property owner contact form and the right of entry.
2.6.1 Property Owner Contact

At least one week prior to commencing any survey activity on private property, contact letters from
Abu Dhabi DOT or any other client shall be mailed to all property owners where entry is needed. To
promote good relationship, a diligent effort shall be made to contact each property owner or tenant
prior to entering the property. However, personal contact is preferable in order to explain why entry
is required, the purpose of the survey and the activities involved. The Property Owner Contact Form
(see Form 1) may be used to document conversations with property owners (5).
2.6.2 Right of Entry

Right of entry must be obtained from each landowner before performing any type of surveying on
private property. The Client will provide standard right of entry forms that should be signed by each
landowner before entry is attempted. A verbal right of entry may be obtained but every attempt shall
be made to secure a written right of entry before the survey is completed. The agreement shall
include detail on the length of time that the control target will be on the ground and thee responsible
personnel. The agreement may include additional detail such as specific times for access to the
property or conditions on notification before entering the property.
While the Client may have a legal right to enter private property, it is important for the surveying staff
to use courtesy when doing so. The surveyor should attempt to notify the property owner in advance,
especially when the occupation of the land will be for a prolonged length of time or when it extends
very far onto the property. Employees entering onto private property should use good judgment and
display respect for the owner’s property, such as:
1. Avoid littering. Obtain permission before setting any survey points, aerial targets, etc. Always
remember to clean up the site after the project is complete.
2. When entering planted fields, seek permission for vehicular use and acceptable routes of
travel to minimize crop damage. Try to use the same tire tracks when leaving.
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3. When passing through a gate, if it is shut, always make sure it is shut again after you have
passed through it.
If an owner or tenant objects to entry or orders the surveying staff off the property, they should
comply and report the incident to the concerned survey authority. The Survey Coordinator shall make
negotiations to gain the permission for entry/re-entry. In the event personal efforts fail, then legal
action may be taken.
Form 1: Property Owner Contact Form
Property Details:
Name(s):
Address: P.O. Box:
City: Emirate:
Map No.: Parcel:
Deed Book: Page:
Remarks:
DOT Project No.:

Description:
Person Contacted: Owner Renter

The following exists on the property:
Wells UG Utilities
Septic Tanks Graves
UG Fuel Tanks Property Corners
Water Tanks Palm Trees
High Water Marks Building Types
Irrigation Lines Fences
Well Dug By: For: Date:
Comments:
Sketch:
Continue on back if necessary

[Source: Survey Manual, Tennessee Department of Transportation (5)]
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2.7 EHS and Road Safety
2.7.1 Environment, Health and Safety (EHS)
Consideration of Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) requirements is an integral part of all
projects within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In this regard, the Abu Dhabi Environment, Health and
Safety Management System (ADEHSMS) Regulatory Framework can be used as general guidance.
Implementation of relevant codes of practice within the framework will allow consultants and
contractors to achieve the desired objectives efficiently by managing its impacts to the environment
and minimizing occupational and public health and safety risks.
The importance of ADEHSMS Regulatory Framework can be attributed to the fact that EHS
requirements of all major stakeholders within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi have been integrated into its
development. These stakeholders include (6):
• Abu Dhabi EHS Higher Committee

• Abu Dhabi EHS Centre
• Environment Agency Abu Dhabi
• Department of Municipal Affairs including All Three Municipalities
• Abu Dhabi Department of Transport
• Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority
• Abu Dhabi Health Authority
• Other Relevant Federal and Local Competent Authorities
For Abu Dhabi DOT road projects within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, DOT EHS Management System
for Highway Projects should be taken into consideration, in addition to, AD EHSMS Regulatory
Framework. For other clients, their EHS requirements shall be considered, if available.
Even though AD EHSMS Regulatory Framework was developed on the principle that it does not
conflict with existing local or federal laws and regulations, still if there is a conflict, requirements of
the existing local and federal laws and regulations shall prevail. Furthermore, this conflict should be
brought to the attention of Abu Dhabi EHS Centre for resolution.
2.7.2 Road Safety

Road safety is an extremely important element of land surveying operations and needs to be dealt
with properly. Survey parties shall utilize the equipment and procedures available to provide the
maximum level of safety for their personnel and the travelling public. When working on the road,
appropriate signing must be used as a minimum guide for traffic safety. The major factors impacting
the protection to be used in each situation include:
• Speed
• Volume of traffic
• Highway geometrics
• Duration of operation
• Exposure to hazards
• Weather (or road conditions)
Temporary warning signs must be placed at appropriate minimum distances. Field conditions will
control the actual placement of signs and channelizers. The individual in charge of the survey party
has the responsibility to see that the necessary safety precautions are taken. Safety vests are to be
worn by all members of the survey party while working on the right of way.
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Where signs are used they must be placed prior to beginning work and at locations having adequate
approach visibility. Channelizers are to be used as needed. Personnel using stop-slow paddles are
positioned as needed to provide the best direction of traffic and safety for working personnel.
Personnel must be instructed concerning the importance of staying alert and being courteous to
motorists. Trucks with top mounted flashers may be used to provide additional protection for
personnel by blocking the lane or parking on the shoulder.
Furthermore, involvement of police may be required for safety consideration. This is particularly
important before start of the surveying work while implementing safety procedures including
installation of temporary warning signs (Survey in Progress), safety cones, etc., and after completion
of the surveying activities during dismantling of safety equipment.
Before start of any survey work, prior approval from the concerned authority has to be obtained.
2.7.3 Underwater Marine Structure Safety

Like on-land road survey work, safety shall be part of preparation and execution of all works on the
site during pre-construction, construction and post-construction stages for underwater marine
structures survey. In this regard, the following guidelines may assist in maintaining safe working
environment and minimizing damage to life and property:
• Proper training should be provided to the site personnel. No one should attempt any
underwater work unless they have been properly trained.
• Appropriate safety standards should be implemented.
• Personnel should be educated and committed to maintaining high standards of EHS
awareness by following the prevailing instructions, safety rules and regulations.
• The supervisor shall be responsible for implementing project safety plan.
• Employees need to be kept informed of conditions which may cause them harm.
• Equipment and tools are fundamental to safe operations and should be maintained to the
desired level of industry standards.
These guidelines apply to both underwater tunnels and bridges with submerged foundation. In the
event, divers are used for site investigation/checking during underwater construction, the following
guidelines need to be followed:
• Be extremely familiar with their diving equipment

• Check working condition of equipment
• Plan the dive - time, depth, work to be done and stick to the plan
• Never dive alone, .always have at least one partner that you will stay close to
• Have a rescue plan in place
• Descend slowly
• Ascend slowly with the scheduled breaks
• Monitor air supply regularly during the entire dive.
In addition, all survey personnel should be familiar with and follow the relevant safety procedures of
DOT/Other Stakeholders during pre-construction, construction and post-construction stages of the
survey work.
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3 DATA MANAGEMENT
Data Management is required for transferring survey data from survey instruments to computer to
process for compatibility to the required software to prepare the drawings.
3.1 Survey Data & GIS Data

The survey standards of the Department of Transport and the other surveying authorities within the
Abu Dhabi Emirate shall be followed for carrying out surveying activities within the Emirate. All the
survey work must comply with these standards. Survey standards provide consistency of survey
accuracy and reliability of mapping products. Each survey type has its own accuracy requirements.
However, surveying standards for control surveys are more rigid as these provide the basis for
subsequent preliminary, cadastral and construction surveys.
The data collected during a preliminary survey (control, topographic and utility survey, etc.) is made
up of measurements that define locations and elevations of natural and man-made features. Once
collected, the survey data is plotted in a common GIS format to develop topographic maps and three
dimensional (3D) terrain models. The common GIS format may include:
1. Shapefile
2. ESRI Geodatabase
3. A common CAD format such as AutoCAD Drawing File (DWG) or MicroStation Design File
(DGN)
4. Or any other format compatible with the DOT/Any Other Client Geospatial Data Submission
(GDS) Requirements
3.2 Survey Data Transfer

This pertains to the manner in which survey data must be supplied to the Client. The Geospatial
Data Submission (GDS) need to be founded on the Abu Dhabi Spatial Data Infrastructure (AD-SDI)
Data Content Standards designed to facilitate the sharing of Fundamental Geographic Data Sets
(FGDS) between AD-SDI and the stakeholders including Abu Dhabi Government Entities (ADGE).
The consultants/contractors must adopt the Abu Dhabi System and Information Centre (ADSIC) Data
Content Standards to ensure compatibility in so far as possible with the wider Abu Dhabi geospatial
community. The GDS template file for communicating the supply of geospatial data to the Client
must follow the following procedure:
1. The Client and Data Submitter jointly agree on a GDS file format, which may be any common
GIS or CAD format;
2. The Client provides the Data Submitter with a template GDS file (in the agreed format)
comprising of the geospatial data schema;
3. Data Submitter delivers the geospatial data to the Client as per the GDS template, at the end
of the data acquisition project, including a fully completed GDS Transmittal Form.
The format and the content of the GDS template file are explained in the following sections. For
example, details about data transfer format for Abu Dhabi Department of Transport (DOT) can be
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found in DOT GDS Standards & Regulations (7). For other clients, their data transfer format shall be
followed.
All digital data supplied by a consultant, contractor or developer shall become the property of the
Client. It shall not be used, copied or reproduced by anyone for any other purpose without the prior
written approval by the Client.
3.3 Data File Formats

The format of the GDS file may be any common GIS format such as Shapefile, ESRI Geodatabase
or a common CAD format such as AutoCAD Drawing File (DWG) or MicroStation Design File (DGN).
The concerned department of the Client such as GIS Section of DOT will tally the file formats for
data exchange with the Data Submitter.
The GDS file defines what coordinate system to use (including the UTM Zone number), how map
features are organized into layers, how those layers are named, and how existing features and layers
are symbolized. The GDS is intended solely to support the needs of updating the Client’s GIS
databases.
It must be noted that for those files provided by a Data Submitter that are outside the scope of the
files currently defined in the Client’s GDS, these should embrace the Client’s/DOT’s GDS standards.
This includes ensuring data integrity, quality and naming conventions.
3.4 GIS Requirements

This section establishes the specification for Geographic Information System (GIS) data submittals
to the Client. This specification is necessary to ensure efficient Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
between the Client and its consultants, contractors, developers and other stakeholders including the
government agencies.
This section provides basic submission instructions for GIS deliverables produced and submitted by
consultants and contractors because:
1. GIS data from external sources provides an important complement to the Client’s GIS data.
2. The ultimate destination for this data is the spatial data repository; a central warehouse for
spatial and attribute data designed on basis of sound GIS principles.
3. Data submitted to the Client in a GIS format is closer to its final state and therefore will require
less conversion work by the Client’s staff or consultants/contractors.
The major elements of the Client’s GIS requirements include the following:
1. Template GDS File

2. Submitted GDS File
3. Documentation –GDS Transmittal Form
4. Metadata Standards for Geographic Information
5. GIS Data Submission Guidelines
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3.4.1 Template GDS File
The Client will provide a template GDS file to the Data Submitter for the required data layers (feature
classes). As a minimum, the template GDS file shall contain:
1. The definition of the coordinate system

2. All of the required geographic features as well as their attributes predefined
3. Blank tables to be used for the entry of attribute information
4. Lookup tables with the appropriate abbreviations or terms for items to be entered
The coordinate system definition shall include the UTM Zone number, making it clear which UTM
Zone is used in the case of projects spanning the two UTM Zones 39N and 40N. The Data Submitter
may add to the layers in the template file, but may not delete any of them. Any added layers or
changes to the file structures must be fully documented and each added Feature Class or attribute
column change must be supported by a GDS Transmittal Form that fully documents the recorded
changes.
The Client may provide the contractor with additional information as part of the template GDS file.
This may include the following to serve as reference data, subject to licensing restrictions and
appropriate acknowledgement by the Data Supplier to comply with such restrictions:
1. Project area boundary

2. Geodetic points
3. Road networks
4. Administrative boundaries
5. Topography
6. Orthoimagery
7. Geographic names
Now that the AD-SDI initiative is well under way, several FGDS data sets have been established and
are available on the AD-SDI geospatial portal. Also, the Client has existing data model developed
for internal use. The most up-to-date data structure (schema) for each of the feature layers can be
obtained from the Client as a shapefile or in XML format.
3.4.2 Submitted GDS File

It is required that the GDS file be submitted by the contractor, consultant or developer to the Client
conforming to the format and content requirements, as specified in the template GDS file provided
to the Data Submitter. The submitted data should ideally be in an ESRI Personal Geodatabase or
as a minimum ESRI Shapefile format that complies with the Client’s GDS.
In the case when the GDS file is in a CAD format, there are a number of requirements that need to
be met by the Data Submitter. The Client’s GDS file may be a subset of the graphic layers from the
CAD file used to create the survey and engineering drawings. It is not a copy of the CAD file used to
print the drawings. The Client’s GDS file does not include the title block, border, or notes from the
CAD file.
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3.4.3 Documentation – GDS Transmittal Form
The Data Submitter must provide documentation accompanying the softcopy of the GDS file. This
must be provided as a printed document and as a soft copy in MS-Word format on the same media
as the GDS file. The GDS Transmittal Form is presented in Form 2 below.
3.4.4 Metadata Standards for Geographic Information

The metadata should be provided with GDS file, and that the AD-SDI Metadata Guidelines are
adopted, as these have been developed through a consultative process involving data custodians,
data users and technical experts (8). The Metadata Standard specifies a set of metadata elements
for describing geographic information resources. These resources may be datasets, dataset series,
services delivering geographic data, or any other information with a geospatial dimension. The
resources may be graphical or textual (tabular or free text), hard-copy or digital (7).
3.4.5 GIS Data Submission Guidelines

When preparing GIS data for submission, the following guidelines should be followed:
3.4.5.1 Coordinate System

Features in GDS files must be represented in real world locations as referenced by Abu Dhabi Spatial
Reference System parameters. The concerned authority/client shall be contacted for the exact
parameters to be used.
3.4.5.2 Feature Classes& Layers

In this regard, the following rules shall be followed:
1. Layer/feature class names need to follow the Client’s GDS naming format
2. Column names need to follow the naming format and data type / structure
3. The attributes can either be integrated in the GIS layers or be populated in the Excel sheet
provided with the required link between the Geography and the attributes.
Some basic conversion and validation rules for polygon features are given below:
1. All polygons must be closed

2. Any two polygons in the same layer must not overlap
3. All building footprints must be within plots and all plots must be within sectors
4. Geometries should not be empty or null
5. Geometries should not be duplicated
3.5 Feature Codes

Feature Codes are descriptors identifying some unique property associated with a topographic
feature. Each client can have a different number of Feature Data Sets. For example, the DOT
Corporate Data model comprises of 14 Feature Data Sets that represent their core business areas.
Within each of these Feature Data Sets is a number of data layers (feature classes). The data fields
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for each feature class are to be populated with as much detail as possible. A detailed data definition
and schema of each layer can be obtained from the Client GIS Section as an ESRI Shapefile or in
XML format.
Form 2: GDS Submission Form
(One form must be completed for each spatial layer submitted to the Client)
Company name:……………………………………………… Date (dd/mm/yy):
Name of the Person Submitting:………………………………. ……………………………

Contact telephone number::……………………………….
Description of file supplied (e.g., project name, etc.):
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Reason for supply:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Data Owner:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
File format for submission (Place a √ next to the formats below):
ESRI Shapefile ESRI Geodatabase file CAD DWG file with supporting Excel spreadsheet
Data Filename (must comply to DOT/Client standards):
For Client Use
Data Accepted: Yes No
Data Accepted (conditional): Yes No
Remarks:
Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Print Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date ......
[Source: DOT GDS Standards and Regulations (7)]
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The Feature Codes and Models, to which they are assigned, are the Client standard and variations
may not be accepted. While it may be desirable in some circumstances to change some codes to
suit particular designers, it should be remembered that the data has a number of other potential
users, both at the time of submission and in the future. Therefore, it is important that the submitted
data is uniform.
3.6 Line styles and Symbols

Generally, designers have their own line styles and symbols based on particular propriety software
considerations. Furthermore, they have their own mapping file to read data provided by a particular
supplier and convert it to their own standards. This reinforces the need for a Client-specific standard
for feature codes so that a designer can use the same mapping file no matter who the data supplier
is. However, there is also a need to adhere to a Client standard for the presentation of survey data
so that a feature is easily recognisable on verification and production plots of such data.
3.7 Survey Comments

In providing comments during the survey operation, it is important that the information supplied is
necessary and relevant (9).
3.7.1 Necessary
In electronic data collection, usually attributes of a point can be easily repeated in almost all software
used for data management. Any change in features for a particular point, generally, requires manual
modification of these features. This is on one hand very convenient and handy feature if used
judiciously. On the other hand, it can use up more memory in repeating the same information,
especially, comments. Hence, where comments are unnecessarily repeated it needlessly increases
the size of the data file and significantly detracts from the legibility of the data presentation. This
emphasizes the need for avoiding repetition of unnecessary comments. For example, during survey
of a right of way, the comment about the width should only be repeated at the beginning and the end
or when it changes.
3.7.2 Relevant
The main purpose of comments is to provide useful information to the users of the data who are
usually planners and designers. Any comment that is not relevant is of no use to the user and often
creating confusion among users. This necessitates inquiries by the users to obtain the relevant
information wasting useful time and storage capacity of the system. Such situations will not reflect
good on the comment supplier indicating that the supplier has not done his/her job correctly.
3.8 Field Note Recording

3.8.1 General
Field notes are the records of survey work done. In some surveys (for example, boundary and
construction) they become legal documents. Thus, erasures are not permitted in field books. If
corrections to the notes are necessary, a line will be drawn through the error (without obscuring it)
and the correct value or information will be written adjacent to it.
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The quality and character of the field notes are as important as the use of instruments. Some good
rules to follow in taking field notes include:
1. Use a sharp, fairly hard pencil (3H or 4H)

2. Do not crowd the data entered. Use additional pages
3. Keep sketches plain and uncluttered
4. Record numerical values so they always indicate the degree of precision to which a
measurement is taken. For example, rod readings taken to the nearest 0.001 metre should
be recorded as 4.500 metre, not as 4.5 metre
5. Use explanatory notes to supplement numerical data and sketches. These notes often
replace sketches and are usually placed on the right-hand page on the same line as the
numerical data they explain.
Survey field notes shall also include the title page, the project number, the project identification and
location of the project. The full names of all crew members, who participated in the survey described
in the field notes, will be recorded on the title sheet.
3.8.2 Book Size

Among the various types of field books available, the most commonly used is the 4½" x 7¼" (114
mm x 184mm) size. To maintain uniformity, all field books prepared by or for the Client should be
prepared in this size books with canvas or imitation leather binding.
3.8.3 Duplicating
Sometimes, it is necessary to use duplicating field books. Duplicating field note books are normally
available for the above specifications. Most commonly these duplicating books are used when it is
required to send a copy to another agency, authority or the client. Under such circumstances this
type of books can be used in order to retain a record of the notes after the pencilled field books have
been turned over to the other party.
3.8.4 Electronic Recording

In the case of electronic data collection, combination of the original electronically collected data and
supporting hand written field notes shall be considered original field notes. Each electronic data
collection file shall be accompanied by its own set of field notes.
During or at the completion of the electronic surveying work, the consultant shall submit hard and
soft copies to the Client. The paper document shall be a bound volume containing the record of the
collected data on A4 size paper. All paper documents submitted to the Client must contain the name
of the consultant.
When magnetic media is used to electronically collect and record survey data, the computer files
shall contain the raw and processed data. With data diskette(s) / CD(s), the following should be
included:
1. A list of file names,
Page 25
2. A description of each file on the diskette(s) / CD(s),
3. The software package used along with the version number.
3.8.5 Indexing
Each field book should have a notation on the first leaf requesting that if it is found, it should be
returned to the concerned Client Engineer whose name and contact details are given therein. The
following important points should be taken into consideration:
1. A map showing the location of the survey may be pasted on the inside of the front cover to
assist the user of the survey book
2. The second sheet of the book should bear the names and positions of the survey crew.
3. The date of the beginning of the survey along with the project location details must also be
shown therein
4. Pages should be numbered in the upper right hand corner throughout the book
5. Several blank pages should be left blank in the front and at the back of the book for additional
data that may be required later. The date and weather conditions should be provided on the
page that begins each day’s work
6. When the notes in the field book are completed, an index should be placed on the first of the
blank sheets that were left in the front of the book
7. If the book contains level notes, they shall be checked in the field and a note placed on the
very last page indicating the name of the checker and the date
8. Similar notes shall be made when the centreline elevations and grade rods are computed
and checked
9. On topography notes, the curve data shall be checked and a similar note made.
At times, one of the most difficult tasks in interpreting a field book is determining how the survey
began. This information shall be placed on one of the early pages and may require a paragraph of
explanation sketches and perhaps cross-references to data on other pages in the book. This
information shall indicate what datum has been used and whether the stationing is new, a
continuation of previous stationing or arbitrary one.
3.9 Survey Plot Code Library

The Survey Plot Code Library provides the Client standard for survey data feature points and strings
coding. Also, the standard feature codes and models to which they are assigned are set out in the
Survey Plot Code Library. The linestyles and symbols relevant to the standard codes are set out in
the Survey Plot Code Library with those codes.
3.10 Line Strings/Line Features

Line strings are used to identify the location of as-constructed / as-built sections. A GIS line feature
type is a series of geographical locations that are connected. A line feature type is also used to
represent a feature which has a length but no width. Some GIS's refer to line features as arcs, break
Page 26
lines, strings or polylines. Computer-Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) software mathematically
defines line strings as opposed to connected points in GIS. Break lines are connected strings.
Examples of line features include roads/railways, streams, routes. Line features will have various
attributes such as roadway length, width, type, etc.
For example, the Abu Dhabi DOT standards define rules for the use of polylines to represent different
features. Out of 70 feature classes defined by these standards, 14 are polylines representing
features such as:
• Airport Security Boundary Line

• Bus Routes
• Freight Routes
• Location of Fibre Optic Cables
• Cycle Network
• Pedestrian Network
• Road Network
• STMP Ferry Network
• STMP Metro Network
• STMP Rail Network
• STMP Road Network
• STMP Tram Network, etc.
Similarly, other clients may have their own definitions and requirements for line strings and features,
which should be followed while submitting the survey data for GIS database to their respective GIS
sections.
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4 CONTROL SURVEYS
Control surveys are used to establish horizontal and vertical coordinates for each monument in the
project control network. Because project control monuments provide the basis for all subsequent
surveys, accuracy is extremely critical. Control surveys are meant for having a horizontal and vertical
control of the area by fixing triangulated control station values to cover the full area or full length of
road corridor or other projects by doing Geodetic Survey and GPS Survey Control.
4.1 Geodetic Survey

The art of surveying the surface of the earth taking into consideration its shape and size is called
Geodetic Survey. This pertains to survey of a large area of land in which corrections are made to
account for the curvature and refraction. In order to find out the location of the point in respect of
latitude and longitude, a triangle is incorporated. The measurements of the sides of the triangle and
the angles in the triangle drawn with respect to the particular point are found out. With the help of
these measurements, longitude and latitude of the triangulation point is calculated.
Both horizontal and vertical controls are used for the geodetic survey. All values for horizontal control
are based on the horizontal control networks. Horizontal geodetic control data consist of distances,
directions, and angles between control stations. The geodetic coordinates (latitude and longitude)
can be converted to other coordinate systems. Vertical control networks are established to provide
a means of referencing heights of stations above a specified surface, where the height is measured
along the direction of the plumb line between the point and the reference surface.
4.1.1 Purpose
The main purpose of Geodetic Survey is the determination of precise position of different widely
distant points on the surface of the earth. Those points are referred to as geodetic reference points,
which are located through Geodetic Survey and are used as reference points in other surveys like
engineering survey, topographical, cadastral, etc. Such surveys are conducted only by the
Government Authorities or their appointed consultants. In this way, geodetic control survey points
support the production of consistent and spatial accurate data for surveying and mapping.
Permanent geodetic monuments provide a consistent coordinate system and serve as the basis for
computing lengths and distances between relative positions.
4.1.2 Classification, Standards and Specifications

In this section, classifications of accuracy, accuracy standards and specifications for geodetic survey
in terms of both the horizontal and vertical control networks are described.
4.1.2.1 Classifications of Accuracy

Accuracy classifications apply to both the horizontal and vertical control networks. Main highlights of
this classification include:
1. Three orders of accuracy are listed

2. The purpose and accuracy order dictate the tolerances allowed
3. First Order is more stringent in terms of accuracy requirements as compared to the Second
Order, which in turn is more demanding than the Third Order
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4. First Order classification demands the highest accuracy and is recommended for primary
national level networks, special surveys to study movements in the earth’s crust and
metropolitan area surveys
5. Second Order classification standards are recommended for control surveys established
between tracts bounded by the primary national level control network. This order is also used
to establish control along coasts and inland waterways, inter-emirate highway systems and
construction projects
6. Third Order classification standards establish control for local area projects such as small
engineering projects for local improvements and developments, small topographic mapping
projects
7. Third Order control extends higher order control and can be adjusted to satisfy project-
specific needs.
4.1.2.2 Accuracy Standards

Geodetic control surveys are usually performed to establish a basic control network from which
supplemental surveying and mapping work are performed. The required accuracy for a control
survey depends primarily on its purpose. Factors that affect accuracy are type and condition of
equipment used, field procedures adopted, and the experience and capabilities of personnel
employed. Accuracy standards apply to both the horizontal and vertical control networks as
discussed below.
Horizontal Control Networks

Standards based on accuracy certify that when points are established in any particular survey they
will have datum values consistent with other points of the same classification. Classifications are not
determined by observation closures within a survey, but by the ability of the new surveys to duplicate
already established values. For the horizontal control networks, accuracy standards are specified
with respect to distance and the order as described in Section 2.2.1.1 (Project Control).
Vertical Control Networks

Standards based on accuracy classification for vertical control networks certify that the orthometric
elevations of points of a survey have a specific relationship with all other points in that and other
vertical surveys. This relationship is expressed as elevation difference accuracy, which is the relative
elevation error between a pair of control points that is scaled by the square root of their horizontal
separation traced along existing level routes. Vertical accuracy standards for vertical control
networks are presented in Table 2 of Section 2.2.1.1 (Project Control) (2).
4.1.2.3 Specifications for Geodetic Survey

In order to meet the requirements for the given classes of survey with respect to both the horizontal
and vertical accuracy standards, the surveying staff must follow certain specifications or procedures
when collecting the field survey data.
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Horizontal Control Networks
Traverse is the common methods of extending and densifying the horizontal control.
Traverse
1. A traverse consists of a series of lines, whose lengths and directions are measured,
connecting points whose positions are to be determined
2. The route of the traverse line can be adjusted for obstacles such as rough or timbered terrain,
swampy land, buildings and areas of heavy traffic
3. A traverse may be either open or closed
4. An open traverse is frequently used for preliminary surveys for highways
5. A closed traverse is used for perimeter survey of a tract of land
6. Traverse procedures are used mainly to densify horizontal control for local surveys.
For undertaking traverse survey, all theodolites, Total Stations / Total Point Solution (TPS) and
electronic distance measuring instruments, must be properly maintained to provide reliable
measurements.
In order to utilize total stations independent from GPS-GNSS phase receivers, a network of
monumented control points at about 1 km density needs to be established. This ground control
network of GPS-GNSS phase receiver surveyed points within an accuracy of +/- 1 to 2 cm relative
horizontal and +/- 3 to 4 cm relative ellipsoidal height accuracy can then be used to survey the
desired object points by total stations by offset or by traversing operations to reach an overall relative
object point accuracy of +/- 3 cm horizontal and +/- 10 cm vertical ellipsoidal height (2).
Vertical Control Networks

Vertical control is established by making measurements using a levelling instrument to determine
the elevation difference between points. Levelling is done to extend vertical control.
Leveling
Levelling is the operation of determining differences of elevation by measuring vertical distances
directly on a graduated rod with the use of a levelling instrument such as a dumpy level, transit or
theodolites. This method is called direct levelling or differential levelling.
1. Indirect levelling can be done using the principle that differences in elevation are proportional
to the differences in atmospheric pressure.
2. The difference in elevation between two points can also be determined trigonometrically
using vertical angles and horizontal or inclined distances. Benchmarks are very important in
levelling.
3. The levelling network shall be tied to existing benchmarks that have an order of accuracy
equal to or better than the intended order of accuracy of the new survey in progress.
4. Performing first order levelling, only a compensator or tilting levelling instrument should be
used along with one piece levelling rods with invar faces.
5. Wood, metal or plastic levelling rods should only be used for third order work.
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Levelling instruments and levelling rods should be checked periodically to ensure they are in proper
adjustment. Field procedures should be followed as outlined in Table 4 (2).
Table 4: Levelling Field Procedure Specifications
Order
Field Procedure
1st 2nd 3rd
Maximum benchmark spacing (km) 3 3 3
Maximum average benchmark spacing (km) 1.6 1.6 3.0
Minimum benchmark connections 6 4 4
Minimum number of loops in a network / maximum
4 / 25 4 / 25 -
loop length in km
Micrometer / Micrometer / Centre Wire /

Minimal observation method
Bar-code Bar-code Bar-code
Double-run /
Section running Double Double-run Double-run
simultaneous
Difference of forward and backward sight length – per
2/4 5 / 10 10 / 10
setup / section (m)
Maximum sight length (m) 50 60 60
Minimum ground clearance of line of sight (m) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Even number of setups Yes Yes -
Maximum section misclosure (mm) 3√K* 6√K 12√K
Maximum loop misclosure (mm) 3√K 6√K 12√K
Maximum Δh1 - Δh2 per setup using bar-coded rod
0.3 0.6 1.3
(mm)
Multiple reading using electronic digital/bar-code
3 3 3
(reading)
Maximum low-high scale elevation difference per
setup using double scale rod with reversible 0.4 1.0 2.0
compensator (mm)
* K represents the distance in kilometres.
4.1.3 Horizontal Control

If a survey is controlled horizontally by measuring horizontal distances and horizontal angles, this
type of survey is often referred to as horizontal control. Horizontal geodetic control networks can be
established by a number of different methods such as triangulation, trilateration, GPS, etc These
networks provide positional information (latitude and longitude) with reference to a mathematical
surface called an ellipsoid (horizontal datum) defined to model the size and shape of (all or some
part of) the Earth.
These standards apply to geodetic control surveys for determining 3-Dimensional coordinates of
marked stations distributed throughout Abu Dhabi Emirate. The previous horizontal control for the
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Emirate was provided by classical Geodetic Triangulation Network stations. Current horizontal
control for the Emirate is provided by GPS geodetic survey method. Future horizontal control for the
Emirate shall be provided by Continuous Operating Reference Stations (CORS) system.
4.1.4 Vertical Control

Vertical control networks are a series of points on which precise heights or elevations have been
established. Vertical control stations are typically called benchmarks. As part of a vertical information
network, the benchmark's elevation is known relative to a datum, usually mean sea level. Vertical
control points are typically spaced in close proximity to one another, typically along railroads or
highways. When working with geodetic control points, high accuracy is essential, although the points
can be widely scattered.
Differential levelling is the most common method of determining elevation. In differential levelling, a
sequence of lines-of-sight is established. Two readings are taken along the line of sight, one at a
known benchmark elevation and the other at a point of unknown elevation. The difference between
the two is used to establish the elevation of the unknown point. GPS can also be used to obtain
vertical heights. Details about GPS survey are given below.
Vertical control will be provided by differential levelling to first, second, third order accuracy using
appropriate survey equipment and practices. Heights for fourth order accuracy purposes will be
provided by differential levelling or by GPS levelling methods.
4.1.5 Equipment
The main equipment used for Geodetic survey includes the following:
1. GPS
2. Total Station / TPS
3. Aerial Survey Equipment
4.1.5.1 GPS
The details about GPS survey and equipment are provided in Section 4.2 (GPS Survey) below.
4.1.5.2 Total Station

Typically, total stations can be used for measurements of lengths from, say, 5 m to 5 km, though
some instruments have ranges up to about 25 km. The modern versions of survey total stations
called robotic total stations let the user control the instrument from a distance with the help of a
remote control. This means that the job of collecting detail can be done by a single surveyor (10).
Accuracy of total stations is very high and they have been in use over a period of time long enough
to justify confidence in their accuracy and reliability. The accuracy of total stations shall be within (+/-
5 mm +/-1 ppm).
4.1.5.3 Aerial Survey Equipment

The aerial survey equipment consists of the following:
1. Aeroplane equipped with:
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a. Aerial Photo Camera
b. GPS
c. LiDAR (Laser Scanning)
d. Computer with Relevant Software
2. Aerial Photo Targets on Ground for Ground Control

3. GPS or TPS to Fix Ground Control Coordinates
4. Levelling Instrument to Fix the Elevation of Ground Control Aerial Photo Targets
4.1.6 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment

Accuracy and precision are two important concepts to keep in mind when taking any measurements.
Accuracy represents the degree of conformity with a standard, whereas precision relates to the
degree of refinement in the performance of an operation or in the statement of a result. Actual results
must be used to compute accuracy. When the results do not compare favourably with the estimated
results, it should be assumed that errors exist, which should be corrected.
A measurement in units of centimetres is more precise than a measurement with units of decimetres.
Before measurements are taken, decisions must be made regarding the appropriate level of
accuracy and precision for the job. The selection of the most appropriate equipment also depends
on the required accuracy and precision.
Survey accuracy standards prescribed in Section 4.1.2 (Classification, Standards and

Specifications) relate to the relative accuracy derived from a particular survey. This relative accuracy
(or precision) is estimated by internal closure checks of the survey run through the local project,
map, or construction site.
4.2 GPS Survey

The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a constellation of 24 NAVigation Satellite Timing
And Ranging (NAVSTAR) satellites with 4 satellites in each of 6 orbital planes orbiting the earth at
an altitude of approximately 20,200 km every 12 hours. These satellites broadcast high-frequency
radio signals, containing satellite position and precise time data, 24 hours a day. These signals
enable anyone with a GPS receiver to determine their location on earth. The basis of GPS technology
is precise information about time and position. To determine a precise horizontal location on earth,
signals from at least three satellites are required. Four satellite signals are needed for determination
of vertical position.
Due to its positioning capability, GPS is widely used for surveying. GPS observing sessions of only
a few hours can yield three-dimensional positions with accuracies of a few centimetres. GPS
antennae can be set up on tripods and connected to separate receivers, or antennae and receivers
can even be carried with a rod or in a backpack arrangement.
GPS survey guidelines continually evolve with the advancements in equipment and techniques.
Changes to these guidelines are expected as these advancements occur. The size, scope and site
conditions of a project may also require variations in guidelines. Any variations from prescribed
guidelines should be designed to meet and achieve the accuracy standard of the survey as required
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by this document. All variations shall be discussed with the concerned Client engineer/representative
and documented in the GPS Survey Report.
4.2.1 GPS Data Collection Methods & Procedures

Best practices require that adequately trained and qualified personnel should collect GPS survey
data. A combination of formal training and practical experience is strongly preferred. Various
methods are used to collect high precision differential and kinetic GPS data. The particular method
used depends on several factors, including survey objectives, desired precision, available
equipment, and field logistics. Higher precision typically requires a more rigorous field methodology
and longer occupation times. Various methods used for collecting GPS data are described in Section
4.2.4 (GPS Techniques). These include static, differential and kinetic methods. Both field and office
data collection procedures are used.
4.2.1.1 Field Procedures

Before starting the actual data collection, the background files for the field computer must be created,
the control network needs to be in place and the features to be located and their attributes to be
recorded must be established. The field procedures include the following major elements:
1. Field Crew Preparation

2. Data Collection Procedures
3. Downloading/Documenting
4. Equipment Check-In
Field Preparation
As part of preparation for field crews to begin data collection, any useful maps or source
documentation available, needs to be organized and copied.
In case of using an existing network for the project, field crews must ensure to recover the control
points in the network and these control points are suitable for GPS, in addition to, determining
whether the network covers the entire limits of the project site. If the control points within the network
are to be used as base stations for an RTK GPS survey, these points must be in a suitable location
to setup the GPS equipment.
In the event, the existing control network does not cover all limits of the project, it may be necessary
to supplement an existing network by adding control points or adding elevations to existing horizontal
control points. A report should be prepared that lists the final coordinates of the control points within
the network and it should include the location sketches, descriptions on how to reach the control
points, the adjustment results, and statements referring to the network accuracy.
As part of field preparation, the features to be located and their attributes to be collected must be
established before data collection process.
Data Collection Procedures

The RTK GPS survey method requires a base station to broadcast real-time corrections to the roving
GPS receiver. Setting up and verifying the base station settings are the first procedures that the field
crew must follow. Once the base station is setup, field-crew members must verify the settings in the
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base GPS receiver and enter the coordinates for the base control point. The control point that is
used and the coordinates that are entered into the base receiver should be documented in the daily
field log.
After the base station is up and running, each field crew sets up their rover packs and turn on the
power to verify that they are receiving corrections. In addition, it is recommended that field crew must
set a checkpoint near the base station to serve as a final check. This final check is to verify that the
base is operating and outputting correctly. By following these procedures, it is unlikely that crew will
have to return to the base station because of improper setup.
Each field crew should observe horizontal and vertical control points in each data file. These
observations serve as another check to ensure the base station has been set up properly and that
the real time corrections received by the roving unit are accurate. Typically, field crews must pick up
control points at the beginning and end of a data collection session.
Once the data dictionary is created, data collection can begin. Generally, the process of data
collection depends upon the delivery schedule and the size of the project. Usually, data is organized
in square kilometres segments. A delivery area is not designated as complete until the office quality
control and quality assurance (QC/QA) is performed. Crews may be sent to the field after the office
QC/QA has been performed to locate stray features that were not collected.
Repeat observations must be performed by field crews on features that were previously positioned
throughout the data collection effort. This provides redundancy in the data collection effort so that
office personnel have data for statistical analysis. The redundant data enables office personnel to
determine whether measurements are consistent.
Downloading/Documenting
After data collection, transferring data from the field computers to the office network / computers is
a critical step. In case of having possibility of involving more than one person in downloading data,
procedures must be in place to control the data file management. Consistency is the key to good file
management. In this regard the following steps must be taken:
1. Downloading data to the same folder location

2. Managing directory structures consistently
3. Preserving and backing up the unedited raw data files
4. Verifying file transfers before removing data from the field computers
A powerful tool in the process of maintaining smooth data collection is a daily field log. This log
should include the following:
1. The date of field activity

2. The number of crews
3. The names of the files that were logged
4. The areas that were worked
5. Base station information
6. Notes and comments
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A simple daily listing of the files can be helpful. But adding pertinent information such as the technical
details of the base GPS receiver setup can prove invaluable if questions are raised concerning the
data accuracy.
Equipment Check-In
At the end of day collection every day, it is important for the field crews to organize their equipment
and assign responsibilities to individual crew members to account for equipment, check that batteries
are being charged, and to check that faulty cables or GPS equipment are replaced promptly in a
timely manner before the start of data collection for the next day.
4.2.1.2 Office Procedures

Office procedures are necessary before the start of the data collection process. When the data is
transferred to the office, it must be protected, checked, and preserved. Steps must be put in place
to make sure that raw field data is preserved and isolated from final data that is prepared for delivery
to the GIS database development. The office procedures include the following major elements:
1. Office Preparation Procedures for Data Collection

2. Office Procedure after Data Collection
Office Preparation Procedures for Data Collection

In order to start data collection, office personnel will determine what features are to be collected and
the related attributes to obtain. A daily almanac should be obtained to determine maximum satellite
availability for optimum performance. Also, a data collection plan must be determined. Office
personnel design a delivery schedule and set delivery area designations. These delivery areas must
be formalized as all source information is to be organized according to this delivery structure. Office
personnel need to prepare field crews by collecting, organizing, and uploading source information
as well as navigation and planimetric map files. Hard copies of schedules, delivery areas, and control
points should also be provided to the field crews.
Office Procedure after Data Collection

After start of the data collection process, office personnel are responsible for the following:
1. File management
2. Data checks and assurances
3. Preservation of data integrity
It is the responsibility of field data collection crews to transfer the collected data consistently to the
office. Then, it is the responsibility of the office personnel to maintain this data consistently. At least
one copy of the downloaded raw data should be left unmodified. Eventually, the data, which has
gone through QC/QA process, should be backed up onto CDs as well. Keeping at least two sets of
edited and unedited data, guarantees that none of the original data will be lost due to blunders in
QC/QA. It must be ensured that there are not multiple versions of QC/QA data.
A primary goal of the initial office QC/QA is to ensure that the data is accurate and complete. The
field data is checked for gaps in the coverage area and then it is checked for complete attribution.
An attribution check verifies that all attribute entries for each feature have been assigned or
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populated. Finally, the data is analyzed for accuracy. Repeat positions and control checks are
compared to confirm accurate data.
Office personnel then need to determine whether there are any missing features or attribution to
obtain or to clean up. Typically, hard copies of the source files and background information are
plotted. Office personnel mark these sheets for missing or incomplete features. Then, they instruct
the field crews of their assignments for the next day of field data collection.
Once the data is checked for completeness, it can now be checked for its accuracy. The control
checks and repeat points can now be examined. Typically, spreadsheet software is utilized to
compare the data and to calculate statistical results. The comparisons should be analyzed to make
sure the data meets the desired accuracy requirements of the project. Any outliers should be flagged
and checked. If there is a pattern of bad data then a field crew needs to be sent to recollect all or a
portion of that data to determine the cause of the inaccuracies.
After the data is complete and accurate, it is exported. Then hardcopies are printed. Any edits or
modifications should be noted on hardcopy in case questions arise. Hardcopy of the spreadsheets
should be made as well and backed up with the QC/QA data. Passwords should be required to
access the spreadsheets to ensure the information is preserved. Final data should be adjusted,
formatted, and printed and immediately backed up.
4.2.2 Equipment
Types of GPS Equipment range from lightweight handheld models for personal use outdoors, to high
resolution systems designed for professional survey crews in conjunction with advanced office based
CAD / mapping software.
The basic equipment used for GPS survey includes:
1. Radio
2. Base Station Receiver
3. Rover Receivers
4. Antennas
5. Fixed-Height Tripods
6. Tribrach
7. Meteorological Equipment
8. Cables and Batteries
4.2.3 GPS Levelling

GPS also provides heights or height differences with respect to WGS-84 ellipsoid. GPS levelling
involves relative geoid heights as it involves determining the separation of two physical surfaces -
the topographic surface and the geoid. GPS levelling requires geoid heights on a reference ellipsoid
to which the GPS heights are also referred (either a local ellipsoid if GPS heighting process applied
after GPS transformation to local datum, or a global ellipsoid if GPS results are not first transformed).
GPS levelling can be considered a by-product of the GPS survey process. In this way, GPS heighting
may be a more economical levelling technique than standard levelling procedures. Relative
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(ellipsoidal) heighting by GPS survey is generally a factor of 2-3 times less precise than the horizontal
components. Residual atmospheric biases are the source of the greatest uncertainty.
4.2.4 GPS Techniques

GPS techniques used in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi include:
1. Real-Time Kinetic (RTK) GPS

2. Post-Processing Kinetic (PPK) GPS
4.2.4.1 Real-Time Kinetic (RTK) GPS

RTK GPS is similar to RTD in that a base station broadcasts positional corrections to a roving GPS
receiver. The primary differences are that the base receiver is established by the user, and the range,
or distance, of the corrections is much more limited (usually less than 10 km). In order for the user
to use the RTK technique, the user must establish a data transfer link between a satellite, a base
station receiver and a rover. At least one GPS receiver over a known point usually a control survey
station, which remains stationary, should be available during the survey. Unlike RTD, where a user
simply operates a roving receiver and receives corrections automatically, additional equipment,
personnel and training are required to ensure that the RTK technique will be successful. The rewards
for using this technique, however, are greater horizontal accuracy and accurate elevations can be
obtained. The accuracies obtained are typically in the range +/- (1-5) cm horizontal and vertical.
4.2.4.2 Post-Processing Kinetic (PPK) GPS

PPK GPS refers to surveys without communication between the base and rover receivers. There are
no navigational capabilities in PPK surveys. It is a position location process whereby signals received
from a mobile location receiving device stores position data that can be adjusted using corrections
from a reference station after the data has been collected. PPK GPS is used to improve the accuracy
of position information.
4.2.4.3 Choosing a Survey Technique

Before choosing a GPS technique, the accuracy needs of the project shall be analyzed. Usually, the
following factors are considered during this analysis:
1. Purpose of the collected data

2. Horizontal and vertical accuracy requirements of the project
3. Local and international best practice
4. Local survey requirements
Based on the answers to these questions, it is recommended to use the Kinetic GPS (RTK and PPK)
techniques. The benefits of increased accuracy from the RTK techniques can balance the increased
costs and time requirements. Even though, RTK surveys are more time consuming, logistically more
complex and require more resources and equipment. However, RTK techniques provide accurate
horizontal and vertical data that can be used for multiple applications.
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The difference between accuracy and precision is important when determining the reliability of RTK-
GPS. If high accuracy is needed for a survey using GPS and the point is only to be occupied once,
then the GPS needs to be accurate and precise. Accuracy refers to the actual measured distance
from a known point to the observed point. Horizontal accuracy is of more interest than vertical
accuracy for cadastral surveying.
The typical accuracy of RTK and PPK GPS survey ranges from 1 cm to 5 cm. The accuracy of GPS
equipment is not suitable for high precision tasks when working at short ranges. Under ideal
situations the accuracy of GPS equipment can approach 5 mm, where it is common for total station
measurements to have a built in error of only 2-3 mm; thus, the total station is a more accurate
instrument when working within the total station's maximum range (60 to 460 m). The GPS
equipment can potentially maintain an accuracy of 5 mm, even when performing measurements over
the several kilometres. GPS equipment’s level of accuracy at long ranges is especially useful on
extremely large construction projects, such as an airport project including runways, or on highway
construction projects covering hundreds of kilometres.
Accuracy of the GPS survey should be ensured as described in Section 4.2.1.1. No error adjustment
is recommended after the completion of survey. The corrections are done by the GPS itself with
base station during the survey process. Furthermore, for data collection and surveying work, the
data accuracy should not be more than +/- 10 mm.
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5 LOCATION SURVEYS/PRELIMINARY AND BASIC
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
5.1 General
Location surveys are meant for preliminary survey or Aerial Survey during the preliminary design
stage of projects to determine the possible route of road alignment, location of bridge(s), parking
lot(s) and other structures. Location surveys are general surveys of two or more feasible corridors.
These surveys shall be performed by the Client personnel or their appointed consultants, and consist
of studying large scale (1:2500) topographic maps that have contour intervals of 1.5 metre or larger.
These maps are normally prepared from Aerial Photography.
As part of the location survey, usually, a reconnaissance survey is carried out followed by the
preliminary survey, which is used for conducting final location survey. During the reconnaissance
survey, an extensive study of an entire area that might be used for a road alignment is made. Its
purpose is to eliminate those routes or sites which are impractical or unfeasible and to identify the
more promising ones.
The preliminary survey is a detailed study of a route tentatively selected on the basis of
reconnaissance survey information and recommendations. It runs a traverse along a proposed route,
establishes levels, records topography and plots results. It also determines the final location from
this plot or preliminary map. The size and scope of the project will determine the nature and depth
of the preliminary survey to be undertaken.
5.1.1 Reconnaissance Survey

A reconnaissance survey provides data that enables design engineers to study the advantages and
disadvantages of various routes and then to determine which routes are feasible. The work is begun
by finding all existing maps that show the area to be reconnoitered. In reconnaissance, studying
existing maps is as important as the actual fieldwork. Studying these maps and aerial photographs,
if any exists, will often eliminate an infeasible route from further consideration, this results in
saving much time and effort.
Contour maps give essential information about the relief of an area. Aerial photographs provide a
quick means for preparing valuable sketches and overlays for the field party. Direct aerial
observations provide an overview of an area that speeds up later ground reconnaissance if
the region has already been mapped.
The study of a map shall begin by marking the limits of the area to be reconnoitered and the specified
terminals to be connected by the highway. The map study shall include the following:
1. Noting whether or not there are any existing routes

2. Noting ridgelines, water courses, mountain gaps and similar control features
3. Looking for terrain that will permit moderate grades without too much excavation
4. Choosing alignment in such a way to have a good balance of cuts and fills
5. Using a profile arrangement that makes it possible to fill depressions with the cut taken from
nearby high places
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6. Marking the routes that seem to fit the needs and that should be reconnoitred in the field
7. Determining grades
8. Estimating the amount of clearing required
9. Locating routes that will keep excavation to a minimum by taking advantage of terrain
conditions
10. Marking stream crossings and marshy areas as possible locations for fords, bridges, or
culverts
After the map study, the reconnaissance field party should follow the route or routes marked earlier
during the study. Field reconnaissance provides an opportunity for checking the actual conditions on
the ground and for noting any discrepancies in the maps or aerial photographs. Make notes of soil
conditions, availability of construction materials, such as sand or gravel, unusual grade or
alignment problems and requirements for clearing and grubbing. Take photographs or make
sketches of reference points, control points, structure sites, terrain obstacles, landslides, washouts
or any other unusual circumstances.
Keep design considerations in mind while running a reconnaissance survey. Remember that future
operations may require further expansion of the route system presently being designed. Locate
portions of the new route, whenever possible, along roads or trails that already exist. Locate them
on stable, easily drained, high-bearing-strength soils. Avoid swamps, marshes, low-bearing-strength
soils, sharp curves and routes requiring large amounts of earth moving. Keep the need for bridges
and drainage structures to a minimum.
The report to be submitted for the reconnaissance field party must be as complete as possible; it
must provide the major data that makes the selection of the most feasible route(s) possible.
5.1.2 Preliminary Survey

A preliminary survey is a more detailed study of one or more routes tentatively selected on the
basis of a reconnaissance survey report. It consists essentially of surveying and mapping a strip of
land along the centre line of tentatively selected route. Some of the activities associated
with preliminary survey include:
1. Running a traverse (sometimes called a P-line or survey baseline)

2. Establishing benchmarks
3. Running profile, and
4. Taking cross sections
The preliminary survey may be conducted by a level party and a topographic party. Normally, the
data gathered from a preliminary survey are plotted in the office to have a representation of the
terrain. This will reduce the possibility of error and will help to resolve any doubtful situations.
5.1.3 Final Location Survey

The final location survey constitutes a continuous operation; that is, the survey operation goes
on from the start of the project through to the end of the actual construction. The
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location survey consists of establishing the approved layout in the field, such as providing the
alignment, grades and locations that will guide the construction crew.
The survey crew tasked with final-location survey normally start ahead of the construction crew in
terms of time and distance. This is usually aimed at saving construction time and avoiding delay of
scheduled activities. Some of these activities are setting stakes to mark the limits of final earth
moving operations to locate structures and establishing final grades and alignment.
Before making the final-location survey, office studies should be performed, which consist of the
preparation of a map from preliminary survey data, projection of a tentative alignment and
profile and preliminary estimates of quantities and costs. Use this information as a guide for the
final location phase.
The final location in the field is carefully established by the transit party, using the
paper location prepared from the preliminary survey. The centre line may vary from
the paper location because of objects or conditions that were not previously considered; these
changes should not be made by the surveyor alone without the approval and
consent of the concerned engineer.
5.1.3.1 Office Work

After the type and general location of a highway are decided and the necessary design data has
been obtained in the field, a number of office tasks must be performed. These tasks include the
following:
1. Plotting the plan view

2. Plotting the profile
3. Plotting the alignment
4. Designing the gradients
5. Plotting the cross sections
6. Determining end areas
7. Computing the volumes of cut and fill
These tasks are repeated one or more times as trial designs are developed and then revised or
discarded.
5.2 Alignments
The alignment of existing and new highways is the major control line for most types of records. The
perpetuation and monumentation of existing alignment insures a consistent relationship between all
previous survey data and any future surveys. Alignment work by the Client survey personnel and
appointed consultants must meet appropriate accuracy standards and follow proper documentation
procedures. The good sources of useful information about alignment include as-built drawings and
alignment and topography notes (11).
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5.2.1 Recovery of Alignment Monuments
All alignment monuments recovered during field surveys shall be described and tied for future
reference. To do so, the following steps may be taken (11):
1. Any monument recovered below the surface of a road, may be raised up to the surface of
the road to make future recovery easier
2. All non-metallic monuments may be replaced with standard DOT/DMA monuments so that
detection can be made with a metal locator
3. Alignment monuments may be tied with a minimum of three reference ties and/or may be tied
to coordinate system
4. New field notes may be prepared to show recovery information, date and what was found
and/or may be set along with the above mentioned reference ties and coordinate datum if
applicable.
5.2.2 Re-establishing Alignments

When re-establishing Point of Intersection (PI) monuments that cannot be recovered, it is the
responsibility of the survey team to restore the monuments as near as possible to their original
positions. Re-establishment should be based on a thorough analysis of the existing evidence before
replacing the missing monument(s). To do so, the following steps may be taken (11):
1. Obtain coordinate positions on any existing alignment points or centreline shots using a third
order traverse or other methods and use them to compute the coordinate positions of missing
monuments. Coordinates should also be computed from the plan alignment data. Comparing
these two positions will help to determine the best locations for the missing points.
2. When collecting field information on railways, roads, airports, etc., their stationing and
alignment should be used and shown on maps and plans.
5.2.3 New Alignment

New alignments can be located in the field using the coordinate positions of points from alignments
computed by consultants or the concerned road design section. All new alignment points require
proper reference ties and documentation (11).
5.2.4 Final Alignment

For locating the final alignment, the following steps may be taken (11):
1. Right of Way and construction alignment Point of Intersection (PI), Point of Curvature (PC)
and Point of Tangency (PT) destroyed during construction operations will be re-monumented.
A new set of notes covering the project with proper monument descriptions and reference
ties may be made
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2. On multi-lane construction with parallel centrelines, only one centreline needs to be
monumented
3. On two-lane construction where the centreline has been shifted uniformly to provide
additional width, monument the new centreline and make reference to the shift in the notes
4. Final alignment should be referenced to the Abu Dhabi coordinate system, tied to monuments
within the DOT GIS Database.
5.3 Topographic Surveys

The purpose of a topographic survey is to gather survey data about the natural and man-
made features of the land, as well as its elevations. This information can be used to prepare
topographic maps and Digital Terrain Model (DTM).
Topographic surveys are commonly identified with horizontal and/or vertical control of third and lower
order accuracies. The fieldwork in a topographic survey consists principally of the following two
aspects:
1. Establishment of a basic framework of horizontally and vertically located control points (called
instrument points or stations) and
2. Determination of the horizontal and vertical locations of details in the vicinity of each
instrument point
Once the topographic control has been established, the next major step in a topographic survey is
to locate the details horizontally and vertically in the vicinity of each control point or station. These
details consist of (i) all natural or artificial features that will appear on the map and (ii) enough ground
points and spot elevations to make the drawing of contour lines possible.
The methods and the instruments used in topographic surveys depend upon the purpose of the
survey, the degree of precision needed, the nature of the terrain to be covered, the map scale and
the contour interval. For a high degree of accuracy, azimuths should be located with a theodolite or
transit. Horizontal distances shall be measured with the chain or the Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM) device. Determine elevations with a level.
5.3.1 Equipment
The equipment used for topographic survey includes (12):
1. Tape
2. Total Station (TPS)
3. RTK GPS
4. LiDAR (Laser Scanning)
5.3.2 Horizontal Methods

Horizontal methods are also called planimetric methods. The purpose of a topographic survey is to
gather data necessary for construction of a graphical scale portrayal in the form of a plat or
planimetric map. The actual location of the planimetry or topography can be accomplished by using
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either aerial photogrammetric methods or ground (field) survey methods. Aerial Surveying is
described in Chapter 13. Aerial Photography is the most efficient method for obtaining large volumes
of planimetric data. However, it does require advance planning and more lead-time than ground
methods.
In topographic surveys, location of primary and secondary horizontal control points is very important.
Thus, locating primary and secondary horizontal control points or stations may be accomplished by:
1. Traversing
2. Triangulation or
3. Combination of both methods
In case of an important, large-area survey, there may be both primary control, in which a number of
widely separated primary control points are located with a high degree of precision; and secondary
control, in which stations are located with less precision within the framework of the primary control
points.
The routing of a primary traverse should be considered carefully. It should follow routes that will
produce conveniently located stations. Such routes might run along roads, ridges, valleys, edges of
wooded areas, public land lines, or near the perimeter of tracts of land. When all the details in the
area can be conveniently located from stations on the primary traverse, secondary traverses are not
needed. However, the size or character of the terrain or both usually makes secondary traverses
necessary.
For locating and compiling planimetric features annotation method is used.
5.3.2.1 Annotation
Annotation is a process by which survey data is identified and explained using standard symbols
and abbreviations. Annotation includes a field check to verify the map compilation on the ground. A
blue line copy of the aerial mosaic, base map, planimetric map or topographic map is used by the
survey crew for their working copy when making the field check.
5.3.2.2 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment

Electronic survey equipment can determine the horizontal positions of any feature, with third order
accuracy, if the following standards are followed:
1. When a traverse is being run, both beginning and ending traverse stations shall have
horizontal position to third order accuracies
2. When locating topography with elevations, the distances should not exceed 300 m.
When using RTK and PPK GPS survey for data acquisition for topographic / contour maps, an
expected minimum local horizontal positional accuracy of 4 cm can be obtained. Local accuracy is
best adapted to check relations between nearby control points. Local accuracy is derived from a
least squares adjustment of the survey network, which includes GPS and terrestrial data (13).
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5.3.3 Vertical Methods
Vertical measurements are usually required for proposed construction areas or locations where in-
place drainage or grade differentials are required. The object of vertical measurements of features
is to quantify their relative elevation differences, compute volumes and areas or prepare topographic
maps.
Some of the factors to be considered in selecting a field method for compiling vertical information
include:
1. Map scale and accuracy

2. Contour interval
3. Type of terrain
4. People and equipment available
5. Existing control
6. Extent of area to be mapped
7. Type of project
The measurement or establishment of the vertical differences in the field by survey crews may be
accomplished by several different methods, which include (11):
1. Profile
2. Cross-Sectioning
3. Digital Terrain Model
4. Contour
5. Relative Measurements
5.3.3.1 Profile Method

The field profile consists of the individual rod readings referenced to the line by measuring the
distance along that line from the last station mark. This distance is called the plus distance. The
plotted profile is the graphic representation of the field profile. Various profiles of different elements
may be shown on the same graphic view so as to get an overall view of the relationships of the in-
place and/or proposed elements.
The field survey crew, when running profiles, should measure elevations to all high and low points
crossed, breaks (sharp changes) in the ground, top and bottom of all vertical features (walls, cliffs,
curbs, etc.), drainage structures that are on the profile line and at all changes of element (edge of
concrete or bituminous).
Individual profile shots should not be spaced more than 20 m apart in urban areas or 25 m apart in
rural areas. Each individual shot, if taken on other than natural ground, shall be described as to type
of element and nature of structure (top pre-cast concrete manhole, edge of concrete curb, etc.). The
description shall be placed on the right hand side of the field notes, with the stationing and plus (line
reference) on the left side and the shot (rod reading) near the centre of the left hand page.
Profiles may also be taken utilizing electronic topography methods or by conventional methods using
electronic data collection.
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5.3.3.2 Cross-Sectioning Method
A cross-section is defined as a short segment of profile, of varying length, taken at right angles to a
baseline or alignment. Cross-sections are most often used to determine volumes, but may also be
used to determine contours, and show perspective views or profiles. More details about this method
are provided in Section 5.3.4 (Cross-Sectioning).
5.3.3.3 Digital Terrain Model Method

Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) means building a mathematical model of a portion of the earth’s
surface. A model consists of a set of triangles, each corner of which is an actual ground position and
elevation. Ground shots may be taken as spot elevations or as elements of break lines. Both kinds
of shots are used to build triangles, but break lines are used at abrupt terrain changes to prevent
triangles from being constructed across them.
This method can be used to compute contours, cross-sections and volumes. When using this method
for volume computation, an original model is overlaid with a final model, the volume being the
difference between the two surfaces. Care must be taken to extend the original model beyond the
area that will be excavated or filled.
The frequency of ground shots will be determined by the character of the terrain. Rough terrain will
require more shots, flatter terrain fewer. The terrain will also determine the number and position of
break lines needed.
5.3.3.4 Contour Method

The contour method is defined as a method of showing the relief of a given surface area by imaginary
lines connecting points of equal elevation. The generation of contours is best accomplished by using
digital terrain models.
The individual contour lines are usually spaced by a uniform, equal elevation difference. Contour
lines either begin or end on the edge of the mapped area or they must close upon themselves so as
to form a continuous unbroken line. Areas where contour lines are close together represent sharp
vertical differences and areas where contour lines are widely spaced represent flatter areas.
Contours are best suited to graphic representation of elevation differentials on area mapping where
three-dimensional features are to be shown since they depict shapes of relief as well as amounts of
change.
5.3.3.5 Relative Measurements

This method is used to determine any vertical differential, where it is not necessary to relate
elevations to a datum such as documenting pay heights of catch basins or grades of culverts.
The field notes for this procedure vary greatly and may consist of diagrams, cross-sections, profile
views or they may be in the note forms of previously described methods.
5.3.3.6 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment

To maintain acceptable vertical accuracies, the instruments should be adjusted accordingly. The
proper adjustment or collimation procedures should be followed on a regular schedule.
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Electronic survey equipment can determine the vertical positions of any feature with third order
accuracy, if the following standards are followed:
1. Elevation differences are usually measured in the field to the nearest 2 cm of difference on
natural ground and to the nearest 5 mm of difference on all man-made features
2. Vertical measurements require a target height to be accurate to 3 mm. The recorder should
be notified of the target height for each observation.
When using RTK and PPK GPS survey for data acquisition for topographic / contour maps, an
expected minimum local vertical positional accuracy of 2 cm can be obtained (13).
5.3.4 Cross-Sectioning
It pertains to a graphic representation of a roadway, stream, creek or wadi at right angle to the
centreline, which represents the existing surface. Plotted cross-sections can be used to determine
areas and volumes or to show graphical views of past, in-place or proposed vertical sections.
Field cross-sections are generally taken by the survey crew when earthwork volumes (for proposed
construction) are to be computed or the in-place relief is needed. The cross-section limits should
extend a minimum of 10 m beyond the proposed edge of construction or ROW width, whichever is
wider. Cross-sections should never end on a steep slope. A preliminary profile grade furnished by
the designer helps determine the cross-section width needed.
Field cross-sections are usually taken at:
1. Fixed intervals along the reference line

2. Breaks in the relief (ground) along the reference line
3. Breaks in the relief or fixed grade lines (streets, driveways, etc.) to the right or left of the
reference line, within the limits of the area to be surveyed
The usual maximum interval between cross-sections when taken along the reference line is 25 m.
There are some cases where cross-sections may be taken at larger intervals. These include:
1. Very flat terrain

2. Long swamps with thick brush vegetation and uniform peat depths
3. Overlay projects or
4. Shoulder grading projects
In such cases, variations in interval should be discussed with and agreed to by the designer. The
maximum distance between the individual shots in the cross-section segment should be 10 m.
Cross-sections must be laid out carefully at right angles to the baseline or reference line to insure
proper orientation. There are various ways to accomplish this, such as using total station alignment
software, turning the right angle with a station instrument, setting a point on the extended section
from a coordinate control station or running an offset line. In areas of greater elevation than the
Height of Instrument, the readings shown in the notes shall be the measured vertical difference from
the instrument elevation to the shot elevation. These readings are marked with a plus sign to indicate
they must be added to the elevation of the instrument.
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6 DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELLING SURVEYS
Digital Terrain Modelling Surveys are carried out to prepare terrain maps with 3D capabilities to
design the alignment of roads, location of future buildings, parking areas and other project
developments.
Digital Terrain Modelling is a process for developing a mathematical model of the existing terrain
from collected elevation data that is referenced to a coordinate system. The purpose of the Digital
Terrain Modelling is to expedite the design process. The Digital Terrain Modelling process has a
significant impact in the design function because it permits the designer to generate existing cross-
sections and/or profiles at any interval along any alignment as long as enough data has been
captured by Photogrammetry.
6.1 DTM Features

6.1.1 Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is a process of defining the ground surface with a series of points and
breaklines. All existing features shall be incorporated into the DTM and should be consistent through
the DTM database. The DTM can be done photogrammetrically or by field survey methods.
The DTM consists of vertical elevation data in the form of breaklines and spot shots (mass data
points). Breaklines (data strings) are compiled along the breaks or changes of grade in the terrain
identifying terrain discontinuities such as a drainage ditch bottoms, ridges, toe of slopes, roadway
berms and any sharp change in the existing surface.
Spot shots are added in areas were the terrain is relatively flat or uniformly sloping. Figure 2
illustrates typical DTM feature collection. The DTM data shall be of sufficient density to correctly
portray the ground. If the ground is obstructed from the aerial view by bridges, trees, high grass or
other features to the extent that it can not be accurately portrayed, a void or hole will be left in the
data. If this missing information is important to the project, it will be required to field survey the area
and supplement the photogrammetric DTM (14).
Breaklines are essential for building the Triangle Irregular Network (TIN) models, which are used in
the creation of the topographic map. Software is used to connect those points forming a network of
triangles covering the surface area creating a TIN. From the TIN file, contours or cross-sections can
be generated based on an interpolation of the TIN data. Breaklines force the triangle legs to tie into
the breakline of the discontinuity.
A ditch bottom or terrain irregularity left undefined by a breakline will triangulate across the
discontinuity and show the terrain as flat in those areas. Mass data points identify the XYZ (3D)
coordinates of a location and are collected in profile or grid mode. They are obtained at locations of
significant grade change. Mass data points may be taken at an interval spacing of 10 m, 20 m, or as
per project requirements. Random mass points may be used when necessary to identify unique
terrain situations, such as a steep irregular hill side with varied vegetation (15).
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Figure 2: Typical DTM Feature Collection
[Source: Section VII – Photogrammetric Surveys, Wyoming Department of Transportation (15)]
6.1.2 DTM Feature Compilation

The technician creates a design file in a common GIS format by copying the 3D seed file and calls
up two overlapping photo images and the mapping interface software. The mapping scale is set and
the technician will index to the centre point data and begin to compile the vertical data into the
graphics file. The DTM data is compiled into a separate file than the planimetric data. The operator
compiles 3D breaklines of the ground terrain along the following features (see Figure 3):
1. Roadway centrelines
2. Inner edge of shoulders
3. Outer edge of shoulders
4. Curb gutterlines
5. Top of curbs
6. Toe of ditch slopes
7. Top of slopes
8. Ditch bottoms (three breaklines to show rounding)
9. Any breaks or changes in the terrain
Breaklines are linestrings with an elevation attached at the various data points along the linestring.
The distance between data points on the linestring will not exceed 10 m. Spot shots, which are
individual points with an attached elevation, are inserted into areas not covered by the breaklines.
Spot shots would occur at the natural highs and lows of the terrain and relatively flat or uniform areas
or between breaklines to show radical ground undulations. Spot shots are usually set in a grid pattern
and not spaced more than 10 m apart. Any area where the ground is obscured and cannot be seen
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or accurately read to within 0.15 m, it will be surrounded by a obscure breakline to denote a void
area. Vertical data will not be compiled in the void area. Any vertical data needed in the void area
will have to be obtained.
All digitized DTM data is superimposed upon the 3D image. The operator will be able to determine
if the compiled areas are sufficiently covered. As a final check of the stereo model, contours are
generated from the DTM data and superimposed upon the 3D stereo model. Another technician will
look it over for completeness and correct representation of the ground before it is closed out.
The next overlapping image is called up, a new MicroStation design file is created and the technician
will attach the previously compiled model as a reference file to see how it hits along the edge of the
new overlapping photo (model). If the match from the previously compiled model is good, the
technician will snap to the end of the linestrings and continue on with the linestrings into the new
model. This process will continue until all the stereo models that contain mapping have been digitized
(14).
Figure 3: Breakline Placement - Typical Section

Top of Top of Top of C Top of Top of Top of
Ditch
Slope Slope Curb L Curb Slope Slope
Gutter
Edge of Edge of
Shoulder Shoulder
V Shaped Only
Inner Edge Inner Edge

of Shoulder C of Shoulder
At Break L At Break
Outer Edge Outer Edge
of Shoulder of Shoulder
At Break At Break
Outer Edge of
Pavement
[Source: Chapter 4 – Photogrammetry, Minnesota Department of Transportation (14)]
6.1.3 DTM Feature Codes

The main purpose of a DTM feature code is to define the ground surface for digital terrain models.
Most, but not all DTM codes are also used to represent planimetric features in the project mapping.
These DTM codes are defined for various structural elements with each having different features.
The major elements for which DTM feature codes are defined include (16):
1. Bridges
2. Retaining Walls
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3. Roadways
4. Railroads
5. Parking Areas
6. Buildings
7. Sidewalks
8. Curbs and Gutters
9. Concrete Items
10. Storage Tanks
11. Drainage Structures
12. Utilities
13. General Terrain
The codes, description, horizontal and vertical accuracy requirements for various features related to
these elements are presented in Section 6.5 (Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment).
6.2 Equipment
There are many ways to obtain the information shown in a digital terrain map. Often this data is
obtained using remote sensing equipment rather than direct surveying methods. Radar satellites are
often used for models of large areas of terrain. Though these satellites often only have a resolution
of about ten metres, they can obtain information on an area tens of kilometres wide in a single pass.
There are other methods, too. A pair of images acquired with different angles taken from an airplane
or satellite can be used to infer the terrain. The equipment used for DTM survey includes:
1. GPS
2. TPS
3. Aerial Photography Equipped with Aeroplane and Other Equipment
6.3 DTM Procedures

DTM provided for use on capital projects within the Abu Dhabi Emirate shall be in DOT DTM format.
A breakline method of DTM data collection (identifying elevation breaklines to trap triangulation into
shapes which best define a triangulated terrain surface) shall be used.
6.3.1 Field Procedures

All existing point and line features shall be incorporated in the DTM with enough elevation breaklines
and spot elevations so as to sufficiently define the DTM surface. Although all existing features shall
be included in the DTM, some features may be excluded from the triangulated surface. Depending
on the particular site, some features may not be representative of the surface and should either be
field coded to exclude from triangulation; or the DTM surface features should be edited to change
the DTM feature type so that the triangulated surface is representative of the existing surface only.
Existing features shall be located as random points and breaklines depending upon whether locating
a point or line feature. Line features are located as radial shots and connected as line features by
using control coding such as ST to start a line, BC for beginning a curve, EC for ending a curve, etc.
Line features shall be defined with enough surveyed points to sufficiently define the feature. Curved
features shall have a sufficient number of data points and be measured so that the midpoint of any
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chord segment between two data points does not deviate from the actual curve. Breaklines
measured around curves to portray a 3D feature shall have data points measured at closer intervals
as the radius of the curve decreases (17).
6.3.2 Collecting Surface Data

Accurate data collection is essential for producing accurate models. First, the correct spacing of
random points and the correct placement of breaklines are critical to accurately modelling physical
sites. The survey crew should collect random points at all local minima and maxima within a site. A
local minimum or maximum is a location within the modelled site that is at a low or high elevation
relative to neighbouring points. Additionally, random points should be collected throughout the site
so that the distance from one random point to another is about equal.
Breakline data should be added to force the model to accurately represent areas where there are
discontinuities in the terrain surface. Such features include the top and bottom of ditches, roadway
crowns and the edges of roadway pavement. Additionally, in certain circumstances where modelling
areas include ridge or valley lines, add breaklines that follow these features. In general, breaklines
should not cross one another. If breaklines cross, problems may be experienced triangulating the
surface. Crossing breaklines should have the same elevation since a surface cannot contain two
points at the same X, Y and have a different Z.
The basic rule guiding the density or frequency of observed shots (breakline vertices) is to collect
significant detail where it exists. Generally, shots are taken at intervals of 10 m or less in areas of
complex features or rapid vertical change. Shots are usually taken at 20 m intervals along sections
with little transition (17).
6.4 Supplemental DTM Data for Photogrammetry

Some highway and structures design projects (or specific areas within a project) may require terrain
data with greater accuracies than can be provided through photogrammetric methods. For these
projects, survey crews measure 3D data at these specific locations and send the data to the
concerned GIS Section. The survey data is combined with data measured photogrammetrically to
produce a DTM for the subject project.
In Survey Digital Terrain Model (SDTM), breakline and discrete point data are measured by survey
crews using ground survey methods and instruments. Whereas, in Photogrammetric Digital Terrain
Model (PDTM), breakline and discrete point data are directly measured using photogrammetric
methods and instruments. PDTMs contain no interpolated data.
SDTM data combined with photogrammetric data provide accurate, cost-effective DTM surfaces,
essential for project design and construction. However, DTM for very small projects or projects
located in highly urbanized areas may best be done entirely by ground survey. Utilizing totally
photogrammetric methods may be best for other projects. SDTM data are only measured in areas
determined to be critical to the project. These areas would require greater vertical accuracies than
possible using photogrammetric methods.
SDTM data may also be required in areas of obstruction and heavy shadows. The survey crew
should discuss the locations of the obscure areas indicated on the photos with the project designer.
This communication will help to decide whether the areas are critical and require measurement in
the field. This process will only be used for projects that have significant obstructions (17).
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6.4.1 Data File Integrity
Properly formatted SDTM data files are essential for timely and accurate DTM building. The
concerned survey staff shall be responsible for the edit and review of SDTM feature content and
portrayal. To help in the review, build a model with the SDTM data, utilize random cross sections
and contours and run profiles on the pavement road crown and pavement edges to check for possible
problems. SDTM data files must meet required Client file format and feature conventions (17).
6.4.2 SDTM Schedule

For early delivery of SDTM data speeds photogrammetric data measurement and DTM building, the
following steps are recommended as guidelines for SDTM data delivery (17):
1. SDTM data should be submitted to the concerned Client Section no later than two weeks
after control survey delivery
2. SDTM data submitted on time, but found to have problems, will be returned to the Survey
Supervisor for corrections. A problem report will be included with the returned package.
Resubmissions of SDTM data by the Survey Supervisor must be received before the start of
stereo compilation
3. Late SDTM data will result in rescheduling of the project considering the requested mapping
completion date and other priorities
4. SDTM data submitted after the completion of the project cannot be included in the DTM
surface by the concerned Section. The Section provides 3D design files for Emirate-wide
use. All concerned staff will be responsible for combining the two data files.
6.5 Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment

DTM accuracies are not only dependent upon point feature accuracies and line feature accuracies;
but also point and breakline spacing / frequency and DTM feature type. The horizontal and vertical
accuracy requirements for various DTM features along with codes and description are presented in
Table 5. The vertical feature accuracy requirement is higher or equal to the horizontal feature
accuracy requirement. The horizontal accuracy requirement varies from 15 to 30 mm, whereas the
vertical accuracy requirement varies from 6 to 30 mm (16).
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Table 5: Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Requirements for DTM Features
Horizontal Vertical
Feature
Element Description Accuracy Accuracy
Code
(mm) (mm)
BAS Bridge approach slab 15 6
BRDG Bridge end 15 6
Bridge (End /
Retaining, head and wing walls,
Approach Slab) / RWB 15 6
bottom front
Retaining Walls
Retaining, head and wing walls,
RWT 15 6
top back
CRS Centre of roadway, surfaced 15 6
CRUS Centre of roadway, unsurfaced 30 20
EP Edge of pavement 15 6
EPS Edge of paved shoulder 15 6
ESD Edge of surfaced driveway 15 6
ESPL Edge of surfaced parking lot 15 6
Roadway / Railroads /
ETW Edge of travelled way 15 6
Parking Areas
EUR Edge of unsurfaced road 30 20
EUSD Edge of unsurfaced driveway 30 20
EUSPL Edge of unsurfaced parking lot 30 20
SPP Selected pavement point 15 6
RRBS Railroad bed shoulder 30 20
TRL Pack Trail or two-track vehicle trail 30 20
BLD Building 15 6
CON Selected concrete point 15 6
CSP Concrete slope protection 15 6
Buildings / Sidewalks /
FLC Flow line of curb 15 6
Curb & Gutter /
SLAB Concrete slab 15 6
Concrete Items
SWC Sidewalk edge, concrete 15 6
SWE Sidewalk edge, not concrete 30 20
TBC Top, back of curb 15 6
Storage Tanks TANK Storage 30 20
CLDB Concrete lined ditch, bottom 15 6
CLDT Concrete lined ditch, top 15 6
Water/Drainages DFL Drainage flow line, natural ground 30 20
WAT Existing water edge as breakline 30 30
WATVOI Existing water edge as void 30 30
SEW Sewer manhole top 20 15
DR Drainage manhole top 20 15
WM Water manhole top 20 15
ELEM Electricity manhole top 20 15
IRRM Irrigation manhole top 20 15
Utilities FIRM Fire hydrant manhole top 20 15
FIRP Fire hydrant pipe outlet 20 15
EP Electric post 30 20
TP Telephone post 30 20
EM Electric marker 30 20
TM Telephone marker 30 20
BKLS Breakline, generic ground break 30 30
GRD Selected original ground point 30 20
Terrain ILV Island void 30 20
OBA Obscure void area 30 20
SPILE Base of stock piles 30 20
[Source: Section VIII – Survey Standards, Wyoming Department of Transportation (16)]
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7 LAND SURVEYS
Land surveying pertains to establishing or re-establishing corners, lines, boundaries and monuments
of real property (land) based upon recorded documents, historical evidence and present standards
of practice. Land Surveys are meant to provide precise locations of horizontal and vertical positions
of roads, buildings, public lands, private boundaries, ROW and ROW plats and other future
developments.
7.1 Organization
Land survey operations are handled with the help of review and guidance from the concerned
sections/departments. The functions of this organization include:
1. To finalize right of way plats.

2. To review all land survey related documents that the Client files for public record, to maintain
uniformity and standards on an Emirate-wide basis.
3. To assist in making decisions as to the proper location of highway right of way lines in
complex or controversial situations. Consultations with the Legal Services & Legislation
Division may be required in special cases.
4. To maintain a liaison with the Legal Services & Legislation Division on all land surveying
related matters and description writing.
5. To establish policies and procedures and to keep the land surveys chapter of this manual up
to date.
6. To maintain liaison with other governmental agencies (such as ADM Town Planning Section)
on land surveying related matters.
7.2 Equipment
The equipment used for land surveying includes:
1. GPS
2. TPS
3. Lasers
4. Levels
7.3 Public Land Surveys

The location, re-establishment and perpetuation and certification of land corners on or near highway
properties and right of way are of utmost importance to the Client and to the public. Legal descriptions
and highway plats and maps used in the purchase of highway property are based on these
government land corners.
The concerned road authority must get demarcation of ROW line on site done by ADM or other
concerned municipalities and demarcation certificate with corner coordinate values issued by ADM
or other concerned municipalities. The responsibility by law is assigned to the road authority having
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jurisdiction over the road. The concerned engineer/section is responsible for compliance with this
legal requirement.
7.4 Private Boundary Corners

Private boundary corners are usually corners marking subdivision plats, registered land surveys
and/or bound surveys. The location, re-establishment and perpetuation of these corners are a
necessity to highway right-of-way acquisition and monumentation.
No previously existing survey or geodetic reference points evidencing property lines or corner posts
shall be removed or destroyed by the surveyor of a new survey. Property corner monuments within
or on the Client right of way lines (permanent and temporary) and that are outside the construction
limits should be designated in the construction plan to be protected. If these designated monuments
are destroyed by the contractor, the Owner should fine the contractor and hold the contractor
responsible to restore damaged property corner to a condition equal or better than existing before
the damage was done.
7.5 Record Research

The location and restoration of public land and private boundary corners requires a thorough
research of all the survey records for the particular area. The research of the public recorded survey
data can be researched by starting with the original Land Surveys of the Abu Dhabi Spatial Data
Infrastructure (AD-SDI), followed by Municipalities and private surveys. The research of private
boundary corners will be more difficult as the survey data may not be of public record and is usually
stored in private files of present and past property owners, private land surveyors or others.
7.5.1 AD-SDI Survey Records

The Abu Dhabi Spatial Data Infrastructure (AD-SDI) is a major initiative of the government of Abu
Dhabi to facilitate the sharing of geospatial data among government entities and other organizations
that use geographic information. Many Abu Dhabi Government Entities (ADGE) have adopted GIS
technologies to store, manage, and maintain geospatial data.
The land development, engineering, and surveying communities have also embraced digital
technologies in their respective professions. Because development plans, engineering drawings and
survey data are commonly created using GIS and CAD technologies, it is the goal of Abu Dhabi
government to leverage such advanced techniques to expedite the design, review, and approval
processes within the Emirate. For such an effort to succeed, standards must be implemented to
allow GIS and CAD data to be integrated into the ADGE’s GIS while preserving the referential and
positional accuracy of the original measurements. In this regard, the Geo-Spatial Data Submission
(GDS) standard has been specified to improve the process of reviewing plans and help maintain a
digital database of geographic information for the Emirate. As a result of the GDS standards, Abu
Dhabi Government Entities anticipate a shorter time period between the initial submittal of a project
and its final approval (18).
7.5.2 Municipalities Survey Records

In May 2007, the Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA) was established as an umbrella body
overseeing the three administratively independent municipalities within the Abu Dhabi Emirate, the
Abu Dhabi Municipality, Al Ain Municipality and Western Region Municipality.
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7.5.2.1 Abu Dhabi Municipality Survey Records
Abu Dhabi Municipality in full coordination with the Department of Municipal Affairs, Abu Dhabi
System Information Centre, Al Ain Municipality and Western Region Municipality has been
performing several projects to get database created and maintained. Under this effort, main projects
include:
1. Plots (Properties) Conversion and Adjustment Project loading more than 60,000 plots into
current database assisted by appropriate attributes and serving as feedback for electronic
Land Management System (eLMS).
2. GIS Database Enhancement (DBE) Project has created a huge amount of large scale vector
information and high resolution raster data, which are maintained in the ADM Spatial
Database. Property information has been positionally adjusted for best fitting with base map
data.
3. GPS Reference Station Network Project establishing network of real-time continuously
operating 20 GPS stations for Abu Dhabi Emirate. This network supports surveying activities
providing corrections to achieve high positional accuracy of ± 2-3 cm.
4. New Base Mapping Project to enhance existing base map database for areas to be
developed.
5. Establishing Geotechnical Database for Planning and Construction Activities.
6. Mapping of Underground Storm Water and Irrigation Network to achieve common standards
of utility information.
7. Property Management Project to facilitate property transactions by newly developed eLMS.
This system is based on accurate and up-to date data about plot boundaries and includes
boundaries demarcation, survey and registration.
Realizing the importance of updated spatial data to plan city development and to monitor and
supervise implementation of master plans, ADM can provide an access to this information to the
local community requiring such data and also can exchange data with the users keeping all the data
up-to date.
7.5.2.2 Al Ain Municipality Survey Records

GIS is part of Spatial Data Department of the Town Planning and Survey Sector at Al Ain
Municipality. Al Ain Town Planning Department has embarked on an innovative project to build a
computerized mapping system and database for selected parts of the Eastern Region. In addition to
the topographic and planimetric mapping, all underground utilities have also been located.
Al Ain Municipality Spatial Data Department (AAM SDD) is responsible for creation, maintenance
and distribution of all geographic data. This department has highly skilled GIS staff that participates
in the data management process and provides support in creation of maps and use of GIS
applications within all departments of the Municipality. AAM SDD is also responsible for all surveying
activities. They work closely with Land Registration Section to build a Land Management System as
well. Major data sets maintained by AAM SDD can be classified into:
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1. Geodetic Network Data
2. Topographic Base Mapping Data
3. Cadastral and Property Mapping Data
4. Utility Mapping Data
7.5.2.3 Western Region Municipality Survey Records

Town Planning Division - GIS Section at Western Region Municipality (WRM) aims at developing a
centralized geo-database to support business needs of all WRM divisions including their satellite
offices, in addition to providing digital services to the public and private sector within the Western
Region of Abu Dhabi. WRM is a member entity in the AD-SDI community.
The Town Planning Division/GIS/Survey Sections representing WRM on the AD-SDI Working Group,
which aims to develop a common data model to share with the SDI stakeholders. GIS& Survey
Sections have been involved in some major data projects:
1. Large Scale Base Map Enhancement Project including Aerial Ortho-rectification

2. New Base Map (NBM) Project covering ADM and WRM
3. Global Reference Station and Virtual Reference Stations (VRS)
4. Densification of the Geodetic Network and Precise Levelling Net
5. Electronic Land Management System (eLMS)
6. Municipality Administrative Boundaries Elaboration and Demarcation
7. Common Satellite Imagery Updating Program
8. Cadastral Plot Boundaries and Updating of the eLMS
The goal of GIS& Survey Sections at WRM is to identify resources and organize them, determine
other divisions' plans and goals related to geospatial data and manage GIS data requests efficiently.
7.5.3 Private Survey Records and Local Knowledge

Private records and local knowledge should be researched as follows:
1. Private Surveyors and Consultants – Private surveyors and consultants can be contacted to
explain the scope of the Owner project and request and obtain all pertinent available data to
the project. The resultant updated survey data will be beneficial to the private surveyors.
2. Land Owners - Land owners should be contacted and interviewed for knowledge of PLS
corners if their land abuts section or quarter section lines. The landowners should also be
contacted as to the location of their boundary corners.
3. Utility Companies and Large Corporations - The utility alignment, utility ROW or easement
and other engineering data needed may be available with the concerned utility companies.
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7.6 Field Research
A diligent search shall be made to find all public land corners and private property boundaries that
fall within, abut or impact the area of highway construction. The inclusion of all necessary land
corners for legal land ties is of utmost importance. It is helpful to have Aerial Photography, digital
orthophotos, quadrangle maps and GPS search coordinates to assist with the field research. After
the written evidence has been researched, the information obtained should be verified on the ground.
Ground checks are made for possible gaps, overlaps and discrepancies in the survey data that would
have an effect on the Client right of way.
7.7 ROW Base Map

The right of way base map is the planimetric map used in the right of way process to the acquisition
stage. At the time the requests for Aerial Photography to be used for mapping is prepared, a meeting
should be held by the design, survey and right of way engineers to determine if a new right of way
base map will be needed on any project(s). A new right of way base map is usually needed when a
project requires additional right of way or urban development has occurred.
7.7.1 Specifications
The ROW base map shall satisfy the following specifications:
1. All new right of way base maps will be completed using Computer Aided Design and Drafting
(CADD).
2. The map shall be prepared as per the requirement of the Client and / or other concerned
authority.
3. The right of way map shall have a borderline 20 mm down from the top and 20 mm up from
the bottom of the sheet.
4. 20 mm shall be left at each end of the sheet to the borderlines.
5. An index map shall be at the right side of each sheet.
7.7.2 Map Preparation

When the planimetric map files are received in the office, the files will have the coordinate grid ticks
and the surface physical and cultural features shown on it.
The following graphics need to be added to the computer graphics files of the received planimetric
map files:
1. Identity of existing roadways by name and number.

2. Plot all property corners found.
3. Draft block and other property lines.
4. Draft all existing public road right of way and railroad right of way with dimensions so that any
proposed right of way which will tie into the existing right of way can be computed.
5. Plot the manholes, catch basins, utility pedestals and valves. The various lines connecting
these utility structures should not be shown on the right of way base map.
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6. Plot the culverts but do not indicate type and size on the right of way base map.
7. Plot any wells (used or unused) located within 10 m of the Client right of way.
8. Plot any underground fuel tanks and sewer systems including septic tanks, outlets and drain
fields.
9. Survey and plot existing fence and/or ROW boundary.
7.8 ROW Plats

The Right of Way (ROW) Plat is the first complete drawing showing proposed alignment and
proposed right-of-way and giving stationing that can be related to the cross sections. The completed
plat and plotted cross sections provide the basic information the utility company engineers need to
start identifying conflicts and determining where they may be able to put relocated or replacement
facilities.
7.8.1 Acquisition Plats

The plat delineates by courses and distances the right of way access, temporary easements and
other permanent easements, the road authority is acquiring. The plat boundary is also referenced to
the Public Land Survey by courses and distances. Property ownerships and parcels being acquired
are shown graphically, the name of the owner of the property and the area of each type of interest
being acquired from each owner is shown in tabular form. The position of one Public Land Survey
corner on the plat shall be shown with reference to the concerned Survey Authority Coordinate
System.
7.8.1.1 Computation of Boundary Corners

Plat boundary corners are computed on Survey Authority Coordinate System. Basic data on
conversion factors, ties to Public Land Survey lines and corners and other data will be found in the
plat folder or survey report for the project. The following steps outline the computation procedure:
1. The data needed to compute coordinates of boundary corners are:
a. A copy of the ROW map with the construction limits and the proposed right of way
b. The coordinate values for the proposed alignment points
c. Data regarding subdivision plats affected by plat boundary, including coordinates of
found corners.
2. The number and location of the boundary corners for each plat are determined from the ROW
map
3. All coordinate and distance computations should be carried to three decimal places.
Azimuths should be computed to tenths of a second. Final values of distance and azimuths
to be shown on the plat are as follows:
a. Show all distances to nearest 0.01 m

b. Show all azimuths to nearest 1 second
c. Perpendicular azimuths must differ by 90°00’00”
d. Parallel lines must have the same (or supplemental) azimuth to nearest second
e. Common lines of abutting plats must agree in distance and azimuth.
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4. All values must be checked before data is transferred to the graphics file. The checker should
be someone other than the person who computed the data.
7.8.1.2 Plat Development

Plats depicting the right of way must conform to a uniform standard. The plat CADD drafting process
begins as soon as the ROW Map is approved. To expedite the drafting process, the base map
graphics file containing section lines, property lines, affected specific easements and existing ROW
must be completed accurately so that this graphics file can be used in preparing the plat file.
The following information is required to be able to draft the plat:
1. The scale of plat and the basis of the coordinate system being used
2. A data file with coordinates for azimuth and distance between boundary corners
3. A data file for ROW boundary curve data
4. The map showing the ROW, access control and temporary easements to be acquired
7.9 Special Surveys

Special surveys are surveys of tracts of land required by the Client for purposes other than right of
way. These types of surveys include site surveys; registered land surveys, etc. These special
surveys should be tied into the project control system.
7.9.1 Site Surveys

Examples of site surveys include surveys for gravel pits, maintenance sites, rest areas, soil borings,
communication towers, etc. Site surveys may require additional information to that necessary for a
land survey (for example, topography, drainage information, etc.). Any special data needed for a site
survey should be included in the request of survey.
7.9.2 Registered Land Surveys

A Registered Land Survey may be required when the Owner plans to acquire registered property.
This type of survey may be required in certain areas if the tract of land to be acquired is unplatted
registered land and is not a full government subdivision. If a Registered Land Survey is necessary,
it must meet the statutory requirements of Abu Dhabi Emirate.
7.10 Miscellaneous Marking of ROW Boundaries

For purposes other than platting and large-scale monumentation, the marking and staking for ROW
boundaries includes the following:
1. ROW Staking for Viewing or Appraising

2. ROW Staking at the Request of Adjoining Property Owners
3. ROW Staking for Private Land Surveyors
7.10.1 ROW Staking for Viewing or Appraising

Staking for viewing or appraising may be done upon request from the concerned right of way
engineer. A current right of way map is furnished to the survey crew for guidance in making the
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survey. Nothing permanent is placed at these temporary corners. They should be placed to a
tolerance of ± 0.3 m.
7.10.2 ROW Staking at the Request of Adjoining Property Owners

Adjoining property owners may request right of way staking for the purpose of ensuring they do not
place improvements encroaching upon the Owner property. In this type of staking, usually ROW
posts and signs are placed. This may require relocating and re-establishing the centreline used for
the purchase of the right of way.
7.10.3 ROW Staking for Private Land Surveyors

This type of staking is done upon the request of a private land surveyor. This staking may take one
of the following forms:
1. The procedure required for locating the right of way alignment monuments requires the use
of the old notes and ties to recover the alignment. Care should be taken in interpreting the
record since the right of way alignment is not always the same as the construction or in-place
alignment. Essential points of the right of way centreline are then marked so they can be
readily found and used by the land surveyor. These points should be placed to a tolerance
of ± 0.02 m
2. In some cases the right of way boundary will be monumented for adjacent surveys such as
platting. These surveys must be done under the supervision of an experienced land surveyor
3. Provide a coordinate file of control, alignment and right of way boundary points for staking by
the private land surveyor.

Field work must be performed with sufficient accuracy to produce a mathematically closed survey
subject to maximum allowable position tolerance for the establishment of property corners as follows:
1. 10 milimetres in urban areas where structures may lawfully be erected along property lines
2. 20 milimetres in suburban residential properties
3. 50 milimetres in rural un-subdivided acreage tracts
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8 LIDAR SURVEY
LiDAR (Light Detention And Ranging) survey utilizes a very rapid beam to scan its environment. It
generates an enormous number of points in the form of a point cloud. Objects can then be modelled
or spatial data can be extracted from the point cloud. This is used for preliminary and final design of
projects.
Ground based LiDAR is an automated collection of data by laser which involves high density
scanning of an object or location to collect a point cloud of data points. The point cloud of data is
further processed into a 3D computer model image.
Typically done from a remote instrument location or multiple locations, 3D Laser scanning is
especially good for sites or objects that are difficult to access, have high traffic volumes, involve
extreme detail or have other extreme dangers or conditions associated.
8.1 Equipment
LiDAR, also often referred to as 3D Laser Scanning, is an emerging three-dimensional mapping
technology that employs a laser and a rotating mirror to rapidly scan and image volumes and
superficial areas such as buildings, bridges and other natural and man-made objects.
Ground-based or terrestrial LiDAR refers to tripod-based measurements, as opposed to airborne

LiDAR measurements made from airplanes or helicopters. In the UAE, ground-based LiDAR survey
is used. The ground based LiDAR survey can be stationary operated through tripod-mounted system
or mobile operated through mobile surface vehicle-mounted system. The equipment used for
ground-based LiDAR survey includes:
1. Laser Beam/Scanner
2. GPS
3. TPS
4. Tripod
5. Mobile Surface Vehicle
8.2 Procedure
3D laser scanners work by emitting light and detecting the reflection of the light in order to accurately
determine the distance to the reflected object. 3D laser scanners have rotating mirrors (or the entire
unit rotates) that allow millions of measurements to be made over a scene in just a few seconds or
minutes (depending on the type of scanner).
8.2.1 Stationary Laser Scanning

Stationary Laser Scanning (SLS) instruments typically use the following procedures to measure
distances (19):
1. Time-of-Flight Scanners
2. Phase-Shift Scanners or
3. Waveform Processing
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The basic concept is similar to that used in total station instruments - using the speed of light to
determine distance.
8.2.1.1 Time-of-Flight Scanners

Time-of-flight (also known as pulse based) scanners are the most common type of laser scanners
because of their longer effective maximum range (typically 125-1000 m) and data collection rates of
50,000 points per second or more.
Time-of-flight laser scanners emit a pulse of laser light that is reflected off the scanned object. A
sensor measures the time of flight for the optical pulse to travel to and from the reflected surface.
The distance the pulse travelled is then calculated using Equation 1 (20):
Equation 1: Distance Estimation for Time-of-Flight Scanners
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ𝑡𝑡 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹ℎ𝑡𝑡

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
2
Some time-of-flight scanners have the ability to measure several arrival times for an emitted pulse.
In a scan of a slope with vegetation, for example, the first arrival would indicate the distance to the
top of the vegetation and the last arrival would indicate the distance to the ground surface.
8.2.1.2 Phase-Shift Scanners

A phase-based laser scanner modulates the emitted laser light into multiple phases and compares
the phase shifts of the returned laser energy. The scanner uses phase-shift algorithms to determine
the distance based on the unique properties of each individual phase. Phase based laser scanners
have a shorter maximum effective range (typically 25-75 m) than time-of-flight scanners, but have
much higher data collection rates than time-of-flight scanners.
In phase-shift scanners, a laser beam with modulated optical power is emitted and reflected off an
object. The reflected light is then detected and compared with the emitted light to determine the
phase shift. The time of flight can then be determined from Equation 2 (20):
Equation 2: Time of Flight Estimation for Phase-Shift Scanners
𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹ℎ𝑡𝑡 =
2𝜋𝜋 × 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
The values calculated by Equation 2 are then substituted into Equation 1 to find the distance. Multiple
modulation frequencies are often used to increase the accuracy of the time-of-flight determination.
8.2.1.3 Waveform Processing

Waveform processing, or echo digitization laser scanners use pulsed time-of-flight technology and
internal real-time waveform processing capabilities to identify multiple returns or reflections of the
same signal pulse resulting in multiple object detection Waveform processing laser scanners have
a maximum effective range similar to that of time-of-flight scanners. With a pulse rate of 300,000
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pulses per second and an echo detection capability of 15 returns per pulse, actual data collection
rates can exceed 1.5 million points per second (19).
8.2.2 Mobile Laser Scanning

Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) uses laser scanner technology in combination with Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS) and other sensors to produce accurate and precise geospatial data from
a moving vehicle. MLS platforms may include sport utility vehicles, pick-up trucks, boats, etc. The
potential to acquire a great deal of data in a short time is enormous, especially in areas that are not
conducive to traditional methods of data collection. Data collection on 30 km of highway per day is
achievable by most systems.
In the most advanced commercially available MLS systems, the data measurement rate is typically
50,000 to 300,000 measurements per second per scanner, which allows the user to collect highly
accurate data of a required ground point density within a very short period of time.
The scanner(s) position is determined by post-processed kinematic GNSS procedures using data
collected by GNSS antenna(s) mounted on the vehicle and GNSS base stations occupying project
control (or continuously operating GNSS stations) throughout the project area. The GNSS solutions
are combined with the IMU data to produce precise geospatial locations and orientations of the
scanner(s) throughout the scanning process. The point cloud generated by the laser scanner(s) is
registered to these scanner positions and orientations and may be combined with digital imagery
sensor data in proprietary software. The point cloud and imagery information provides a very detailed
data set (19).
8.3 Data Processing

The point cloud is the basic output from a 3D laser scanner. Point clouds by themselves are not
useful without software to process the data and make measurements and other calculations. Also,
in order to be useful, the point cloud data needs to interface easily with Computer Aided
Design/Drafting (CADD) software. This section discusses the point cloud file format, point cloud
processing software and interfacing between point cloud software and other CADD software (20).
8.3.1 The Point Cloud File

The most generic point cloud file format is a 3D coordinate file (often referred to as an xyz file). The
format for this file is ASCII and can therefore be read by all post-processing software. The comma
or tab-separated format for a greyscale 3D coordinate file is as follows with one line for each laser
point:
Greyscale point cloud: x1 y1 z1 intensity1
x2 y2 z2 intensity2
The x, y and z values refer to a specific coordinate system. If the point cloud is not registered, then
by default the y direction is most often set to the instrument direction. After registration, the x, y and
z directions are most often set to East, North and up, respectively. However, these systems are not
universal and the scanner or software manufacturer should be contacted for information on their
specific 3D coordinate formats. The intensity for each point has a value that range from 0 (black) to
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255 (white). Similarly, the comma or tab-separated format for an rgb (red, green blue) 3D coordinate
file is as follows:
Colour point cloud: x1, y1, z1, r1, g1, b1
x2, y2, z2, r2, g2, b2
Here r, g and b each have values that range from 0 to 255 each. Because the xyz file is ASCII, these
files are slow to read and write; they also only contain the basic point cloud information. In general,
each scanner manufacturer and also each point cloud processing software manufacturer, have their
own specialized binary format.
At the present time, the ASCII 3D coordinate file is the standard format for point clouds. However,
because it is ASCII and only contains point cloud information, that is, no digital image or TIN surface
information, other formats have been discussed by both manufactures and users as better standard
file formats for ground-based LiDAR output. These formats include the LiDAR Exchange Format
(LAS) and the Virtual Reality Modelling Language (VRML).
8.3.2 Point Cloud Registration

The first step in point cloud processing is to orient the point cloud into the real world coordinate
system based on data taken in the field. Point cloud software usually includes several methods for
point cloud registration. The most common method is to register the point cloud based on three or
more targets of known position (3D similarity transformation).
For some applications, only the orientation registration is required. This means that the point cloud
is oriented correctly, but the 3D coordinates are not registered to a known coordinate system
(Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system, for example). In these instances, simpler
registration methods are possible, such as only measuring the orientation of the scanner (orient by
scanner method) without any position surveying. In this case the scanner’s position is defined by the
bearing or direction of its line of sight, its inclination in the direction of the line of sight, and its
inclination perpendicular to the line of sight. This provides enough information to correctly geo-
reference the orientation of the scan (but not the position).
8.3.3 Point Cloud Processing Software

Most of the scanner manufacturers have developed their own point cloud processing software. In
addition, several other companies have developed point cloud processing software. By exporting the
point clouds in the xyz file format, point clouds from any scanner can be analyzed with any of the
software packages.
The following editing/analysis features are found in most of the software packages:
1. General point cloud visualization, including pan, tilt and zoom

2. General point cloud editing, including adding and deleting points, noise removal and point
decimation
3. Ability to make measurements such as distances, angles, areas and volumes
4. Ability to register scans, including the automatic detection of targets
5. Ability to stitch together multiple scans
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6. Ability to create a triangulated surface (Triangulated Irregular Network, or TIN)
7. Ability to best-fit lines, planes and other shapes to point cloud clusters
8. Ability to make profiles and cross sections through a point cloud and
9. Ability to handle various import and export formats (to CADD programs, for example)
The following advanced features are found in some, but not all of the software packages:
1. Perform solid modelling (volume generation) based on user-defined lines, planes and other
surfaces as bounds
2. Perform automatic extraction of standard shapes from cloud
3. Have edge detection technology to determine boundaries of solids, planes and other shapes
4. Ability to drape a digital image over a triangulated surface
5. Automatically compute a full 3D polygonal mesh (not 2.5D) from a point cloud
6. Ability to integrate scans with floor plans, engineering drawings of objects and surveyed
information
8.3.4 Interoperability with CADD Software

CADD software principally includes Micro station and AutoCAD, though many other programs are
also available. The interoperability between point cloud and CADD software is very important and in
the past this has been an issue with using LiDAR in highway applications. However, as the point
cloud software has improved with the addition of many new features in the past few years,
interoperability is now greatly improved.
For instance, importing a point cloud with a high density of points into a CADD program is not
recommended since CADD programs are not set up to efficiently handle the large number of points
and the large file size. Many options now exist for exporting 3D information to the CADD environment
and programs such as Cyclone Cloudworx have been designed specifically for manipulating point
clouds within a CADD environment. This has resulted in the following:
1. First of all, point clouds can be cropped and the density of points can be decimated so the
file size is optimized
2. Secondly, specific 3D shapes can be extracted from the point cloud, which are much easier
to work with in CADD programs than the points themselves
3. Thirdly, two-dimensional plans and sections can be created in the point cloud software and
exported to CADD programs.

Two types of laser scanning (LS) specification groups have been described to differentiate between
laser scanning surveys having varying accuracy, control and range requirements. Type A LS surveys
are hard surface topographic surveys with the data collected at engineering level accuracy. Type B
LS surveys are earthwork and topographic surveys with the data collected at lower level accuracy
(19).
All Type A, hard surface topographic SLS surveys require control and validation point surveyed local
horizontal and vertical positional accuracies of ≤ 0.010 m & ≤ 0.060 m, respectively. Scan Type B,
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earthwork and other lower-accuracy topographic surveys require control and validation point
surveyed local horizontal and vertical positional accuracies of ≤ 0.030 m. All SLS control and
validation points shall be on the project datum.
For Type A MLS surveys, bracket the scanned area on both sides of the roadway with local
transformation points at a maximum of 500 m roadway ccentreline stationing intervals. Validation
points should be on both sides of the scanned roadway at centreline stationing intervals not
exceeding 150 m. Type A MLS surveys require local transformation points and validation points to
have surveyed local horizontal and vertical positional accuracies of ≤ 0.010 m & ≤ 0.060 m,
respectively, or better. The preferred method of establishing Type A MLS local transformation point
elevations is differential levelling to Third Order or better specifications.
For Type B MLS surveys, bracket the scanned area on both sides of the roadway with local
transformation points at a maximum of 750 m roadway centreline stationing intervals. Validation
points should be on both sides of the scanned roadway at centreline stationing intervals not
exceeding 250 m. Type B MLS surveys require local transformation and validation points to have
surveyed local horizontal and vertical positional accuracies of ≤ 0.030 m or better.
8.5 Delivery
Documentation of surveys is an essential part of surveying work. The documentation of a laser
scanning project must show a clear data lineage from the published primary control to the final
deliverables. Different projects require different types of deliverables, which can range from a
standard CADD product to a physical three-dimensional (3D) scale model of the actual subject.
Considerable office time is required to extract data from a point cloud to a CADD/DTM usable format.
The ratio of field time to office time will vary greatly with the complexity of the scanned roadway and
features. Resources for data extraction (computers, software and trained personnel) must be
available. If the mobile scan provider is delivering a finished CADD/DTM file, the office time will be
reduced to perform QC/QA of the final product (19).
Deliverables specific to LS surveys may include, but are not limited to:
1. 3D coordinate file for greyscale point cloud (XYZI) or 3D coordinate file for colour point cloud
(XYZIRGB) files in a specified format
2. Registered point clouds
3. Current Roadway Design Software files
4. Current Drafting Software files
5. Digital photo mosaic files
6. 3D printing technology physical scale models of the subject
7. Survey narrative report and QC/QA files
8. Geospatial metadata files
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9 BRIDGE SURVEYS
Bridge surveys are required to acquire all data from site to enable the design team to prepare the
detailed design of new bridges as well as replacement bridges on streams, wadis and creeks.
A bridge site survey refers to a survey undertaken for an area designated as the possible location
for the construction of a bridge as part of any road transportation infrastructure. Such a site may
involve the construction of a bridge across a stream, wadi, creek, and other body of water or natural
feature, road, railway or other man-made structures. It may also refer to the location of a survey of
an existing bridge for widening purposes.
9.1 Bridge Location Requirements

9.1.1 Types of Bridge Projects
Field survey requirements for bridges will depend on the anticipated scope of work for the bridge.
Projects involving bridge work include new, replacement and rehabilitation. Major rehabilitation such
as bridge widening, deck replacement or major reconfiguration of the bridge will have different and
more extensive survey requirements (21).
Additional survey will be required for replacement bridges utilizing stage construction to establish
required dimensions needed for stage construction control. Additional survey will also be required
for any project where channel work is being proposed.
9.1.2 New Bridges

For new or replacement bridges over waterways, cross sections require a field survey upstream and
downstream of the bridge and at the bridge fascia locations. For cross section location and spacing,
refer to Section 9.7.
For cross sections, field survey or a combination of field survey and photogrammetry can be used.
Photogrammetric deliverables consist of base mapping, DTMs, partial cross sections and
orthoimages. Cross sections can be partially produced by photogrammetry, but underwater sections
or areas in dense foliage require field survey (22).
Multi-Beam Echo-Sounding surveying can also be used to meet pre‐ and post‐construction design
and planning requirements in support of new bridge construction. This type of survey has the
potential to provide high‐resolution baseline survey data around the new bridges that should prove
useful for future inspection and monitoring operations.
9.1.3 Replacement Bridges

There are generally two types of replacement bridges:
1. Replacement at the same general location, with traffic being detoured either at or off site
2. Replacement at the same general location, with traffic being maintained at the site using
stage construction
Prior to any field survey, an attempt should be made to secure as-built plans for the existing bridge.
These as-built plans should be verified in the field by survey. To ensure that the designer will be able
to adequately relate the existing geometry to the proposed geometry, the surveyor should precisely
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tie the new baseline to the old baseline, existing centreline and the controlling features of the existing
structure. The extreme limits of existing permanent bridge features that will be adjacent to new
construction shall be located to verify possible physical conflicts during construction (21).
Major bridge rehabilitations, such as superstructure replacements, require accurate terrain data for
the location of the substructure and approach roadways. DTMs for bridge projects (e.g., bridge
replacements, bridge widenings) require accurate tie-downs to existing profiles at the approaches,
especially where no other work is anticipated for the project (22).
Substructure components (e.g. abutments, walls, piers, columns and stems) should be located and
defined at ground level with individual shots. When record plans are not available, the work required
will be substantial and the surveyor is provided with instructions unique to each situation (21).
9.2 Topography
Complete topography shall be taken to include stream meanders. Meanders of bank tops, bottom of
banks and water surfaces shall be recorded. Topographic features shall be collected left and right of
the roadway to a minimum of 180 m each direction from the bridge site and 150 m upstream and
150 downstream from the bridge. Utilities, curbs and gutters, tile lines, drainage ditches, intersecting
streams and islands, old piers, and other fixed objects must be included in the topography (11).
On large flood plains, the topography can be spotted on aerial photographs or other suitable
mapping. Such maps will be submitted as part of the bridge survey. A stream baseline shall be shown
generally following the stream meanders. This baseline shall be treated the same as a horizontal
alignment. Alignments will also be shown for stream cross-sections (5).
9.3 Alignment
Recover or re-establish the alignment points controlling the centreline of the existing or proposed
roadway. As with any alignment, these points should be related to a control network by traversing or
GPS methods. Temporary alignment points should be placed on each side of the bridge site to
perpetuate the alignment for construction staking. Make at least three ties to each alignment point.
Establish stationing at the centre and each end of the bridge and record for future reference.
In cases where bridge structures are more than 150 m long, it is advantageous to establish a
horizontal control net around the outskirt of the construction limits. This should be done at the same
time the bridge survey or the photo control is being done. An accurate control net can be established
with coordinates, such that the working points and other necessary points can be set or measured
from the individual control points.
The shape of the control net should be close to a quadrilateral whenever possible, but is largely
dependent upon the terrain. Control points for bridge construction should have high inter-visibility
between the control points and the bridge and should be located as high as possible to permit
sighting down upon the super-structure.
The least-squares method should be used for the adjustment of the control net and ties and
computations should be made to tie the bridge alignment, working points, and ROW into the
coordinate system. The control net should have a standard deviation of less than 0.015 m (11).
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9.4 Vertical Control
All elevations must be referenced to a benchmark tied to the project datum unless otherwise
specified. Set at least one benchmark near the bridge site for construction staking and more if
necessary, especially, at river crossings or areas of extreme relief. Make a third-order level run
between two benchmarks when setting elevations on the benchmarks at the bridge (11).
9.5 Roadway Profiles

Profile the roadway centreline and at predetermined distances left and right of roadway centreline to
a minimum of 180 m each direction from the proposed bridge site. Take additional profiles at 15 m
from centreline or at some other distance if required by proposed bridge widening. Take a profile on
centreline under the bridge between the abutments. In place and proposed roadway profile will
include the sag point (if applicable) and extend to at least the elevation of the extreme high water.
At a grade separation of two roadways, the profile of both the upper and lower roadway shall be
taken a minimum of 180 m in each direction from the centre of the bridge. Show the type of surfacing
on all roadways (11).
9.6 Roadway Cross-Sections

Take roadway cross-sections to a minimum of 180 m each direction from the proposed bridge site
and farther if high water conditions existed beyond the 180 m point. For bridge replacement surveys,
extend the cross-sections left and right of centreline a distance sufficient to cover flattening of side
slopes and the increased height of the roadway and new bridge approach fill.
Take several cross-sections at the abutment end of the bridge approach fill to show the design
engineer the shape of the fill and the side and end slopes. At grade separations between railroads
and roadways, profile the top of all rails 180 m each side of the bridge centreline.
Profile the grade of any adjacent railroad or roadway, showing elevation of low steel, or the lowest
structural member of existing bridges and if within 90 m of the proposed bridge, take a cross-section
of the stream bed under the centreline of the in-place structure (11).
9.7 Stream / Wadi / Creek Cross-Sections for Bridges – Local

Requirement
Eight cross-sections are typically required to correctly model the bridge hydraulics across a stream
/ wadi / creek. The location of these cross-sections is shown in Figure 4. If a DTM exists of the area,
it may serve in place of the cross sections. Details of these seven cross-sections are as under (11):
1. Cross-section 1 is typically taken four bridge lengths downstream of the existing bridge. Thus,
if the bridge is 30 m long; cross-section 1 will be approximately 120 m downstream of the
roadway toe of slope
2. Cross-section 2 is typically taken one bridge length downstream of the existing bridge. Thus,
if the bridge is 30 m long; cross-section 2 will be approximately 30 m downstream of the
roadway toe of slope
3. Cross-section 3 is typically taken just beyond the toe of slope on the downstream side of the
bridge
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4. Cross-section 4 is taken at the downstream face of the bridge
5. Cross-section 5 is taken at the upstream face of the bridge
6. Cross-section 6 is typically taken just beyond the toe of slope on the upstream side of the
bridge
7. Cross-section 7 is typically taken one bridge length upstream of the existing bridge. Thus, for
30 m long bridge; cross-section 7 will be approximately 30 m upstream of the roadway toe of
slope
8. Cross-section 8 is typically taken four bridge lengths upstream of the existing bridge.
If a DTM covers the area of the cross-sections then an underwater TIN could be merged with the
above ground TIN to allow the designer to cut the respective cross-sections.
All cross-sections should extend up to the adjacent ground level or at least one metre above the
extreme high water elevation, whichever is greater. All cross-sections should be taken perpendicular
to the channel-centreline and overbanks. It is common for cross-sections to be crooked. All cross-
sections should include the natural channel.
Show the location of each cross-section by station on the stream profile and show the location on
the Bridge Survey layout map. Every cross-section and profile should be readily identifiable as to
elevation and station. Cross-section elevations must be indicated, even if referred to an assumed
datum.
Stream cross-sections should be representative of a typical reach of the natural channel and
floodplain. Cross-sections should not be taken in roadway ditches.
9.8 Stream / Wadi Cross-Sections for Culverts – Local

Requirement
All data needed for a bridge is the same for a culvert as described in Section 9.7 above.
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Figure 4: Cross-Section Location across a Stream / Wadi / Creek
# Section Number Indicator

Section Location Indicator
For smaller bridges, length of x-section for survey on both sides shall be 4L or 150m, whichever is greater.
For larger bridges, length of x-section for survey on both sides shall be 4L or 500m, whichever is smaller.
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9.9 Equipment
The equipment used for bridge survey includes:
1. Multi-Beam Echo-Sounder
2. GPS
3. TPS
4. Levelling Instruments
5. Measuring Tape

The main source of terrain data for bridge survey during the design stage is either field survey and /
or combination of field survey and photogrammetry. The terrain data accuracy for these two types of
surveys is specified in both horizontal and vertical direction. The accuracy of terrain data is the
difference between a location on the DTM surface and the actual location of that point.
The accuracies of these two types of surveys are specified as under (22):
1. Field surveys for bridge design stage require terrain data horizontal and vertical accuracies
of ≤ 0.050 m & ≤ 0.020 m, respectively
2. Photogrammetric surveys for bridge design stage require terrain data horizontal and vertical
accuracies of ≤ 0.075 m & ≤ 0.090 m, respectively.
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10 BATHYMETRIC SURVEY
Bathymetric survey is one of the key methods for mapping to determine the terrain and contour such
as lake, river or ocean’s underwater land surface. Bathymetric survey is a type of hydrographical
survey that measures the depth of water and maps out the shape of the seabed. This kind of survey
can help draw out a detailed map of the different shapes and features of the submerged terrain.
10.1 Echo-Sounding
An echo-sounder is an instrumentation system for indirectly determining ocean floor depth. An echo-
sounding system consists of a transmitter, a receiver that picks up the reflected echo, electronic
timing and amplification equipment and an indicator or graphic recorder. Echo-sounders are attached
to the hull of a ship or a towed vehicle (refer to Figure 5). An echo-sounder sends an outgoing sound
pulse into the water. The sound energy travels through the water to the ocean bottom where it is
reflected back towards the source, received, and recorded.
Figure 5: Illustration of Echo-Sounding Mechanism
Echo-sounding is based on the principle that water is an excellent medium for the transmission of
sound waves and that a sound pulse will bounce off a reflecting layer, returning to its source as an
echo. The time interval between the initiation of a sound pulse and echo returned from the bottom
can be used to determine the depth of the bottom. The time that it takes for sound to make the round
trip to the seafloor and back is accurately measured. Water depth is determined from the travel time
and the speed of sound in water.
To use speed of sound to measure water depth, we need to know how sound travels through the
ocean. The speed of sound depends on the temperature of the water, its salinity, and the pressure
(which is equivalent to depth below the sea surface). The speed of sound ranges between 1400 and
1,570 m/sec. This is roughly 1.5 km/sec or about 4 times faster than sound travels through air. The
graph in Figure 6 below shows how sound speed varies as a function of water depth.
Water depth can be estimated simply by using an average sound speed and the relationship shown
in Equation 3.
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Equation 3: Relationship for Estimating Water Depth
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ×
2
In Equation 3, the roundtrip time is divided by 2 to account for the two-way trip to the sea floor and
back. The units for various parameters in this equation are as under:
1. Water Depth in metres

2. Sound Speed in m/s
3. Roundtrip Time in Seconds
Figure 6: Relationship between Water Depth and Sound Speed
Echo-sounders can be divided into two main categories:
1. Single-Beam Echo-Sounders
2. Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders
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10.1.1 Single-Beam Echo-Sounders
Single-Beam Echo-Sounders (SBES) are primarily used by hydrographical surveyors for measuring
the depth of water beneath a survey vessel. They are available in single, dual, triple or quad
frequency configurations to offer the surveyor the optimum frequency for the water depth being
surveyed. High frequencies are ideal for shallow water surveying while low frequencies are
necessary for deep water surveying.
SBES have the following properties:
1. Ideal for small boats and harsh conditions

2. Ethernet LAN interface
3. High resolution thermal printer
4. Internal GPS
5. Waterproof
6. Side scan option
7. Depth range 20 cm to 300 m
8. Multi-frequency (high: 100 kHz-1 MHz & low: 3.5-50 kHz)
9. Desktop or bulkhead mountable
Figure 7, 8 and 9 illustrate single-beam echo-sounder examples.
Figure 7: Example of Single Frequency SBES
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Figure 8: Example of Single Frequency Portable Hydrographical SBES
Figure 9: Example of Dual Frequency SBES
10.1.2 Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders

Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders (MBES) offer the hydrographical surveyors the ability to measure and
record seabed bathymetry over a wide swath beneath the survey vessel. MBES are generally hull
mounted or pole mounted to a vessel. The coverage area on the seafloor, often referred to as swath
width, is dependent on the depth of the water. This is typically two to four times the water depth for
deep water systems and up to 10 times the water depth for shallow water systems.
MBES have the following properties:
1. Compact, lightweight – 8.2 kg (18 lbs); stainless steel housing, urethane acoustic window;
frequency 240 kHz
2. 60 m (197 ft) water depth, 100 m (328 ft) slant range; 0.5 m (1.6 ft) minimum detectable range
3. Effective beam widths of 0.75o, 1.5o and 3.0o
4. Real Time Appliance (RTA) includes three port Ethernet switch, 9 to 30 VDC input range
Figure 10 and 11 illustrate multi-beam echo-sounder examples.
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Figure 10: Example of Shallow Water MBES
Figure 11: Example of Hydrographical MBES
10.2 Equipment
The echo-sounding equipment consists of the following:
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. Oscillator
4. Electronic Timing and Amplification Equipment
5. Indicator or Graphic Recorder
6. Ship / Boat / Towed Vehicle
10.3 Procedure
10.3.1 Depth Measurement
Depths are normally measured using either Single-Beam Echo-Sounder (SBES) or Multi-Beam
Echo-Sounder (MBES). It should be noted that SBES is still a popular tool used for measuring water
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depth. SBES gives valid results when used correctly in a well planned and executed routine average
size project survey. One of the main reasons behind their popularity is the significantly reduced
capital and operating costs (23).
The nominal accuracy of echo-sounding time measurement is usually rated by manufacturers at

±0.030 m plus 0.1 to 0.5 percent of the depth. This equates to a precision range of ±0.045 to ±0.105
m in 15 m and is independent of the acoustic reflection characteristics.
10.3.1.1 SBES
SBES must be calibrated by a bar check to correct for errors in the speed of sound in the water
column and to set the correct transducer draught. The latter is to ensure that the instrument records
the depth below the sea surface and not below the transducer.
Where no sound velocity profile data is available, a bar check should be conducted at least daily and
on any change of survey area during the day, to ensure consistent data quality. Likewise, a bar check
must be conducted when any SBES components are modified or replaced on the vessel (23).
10.3.1.2 MBES
MBES as a hydrographical survey tool has significant advantages over SBES in its ability to detect
small objects and achieve full bottom coverage. It requires key ancillary equipment such as an
appropriate motion and heading sensor, which must be properly integrated for correct operation. The
ability to measure sound velocity (SV) profiles through the water column (in some cases
continuously) is required to correct for the refraction of beams, particularly where shallow water
systems employ wide swathe widths. MBES with flat transducer arrays also require an accurate
instantaneous measurement of the sound velocity at the transducer face to enable correct beam
steering to occur.
Users should be aware of the expected performance of the system and employ robust methodology
to prove this before accepting the system as operational. Careful calibration of MBES is required at
regular intervals thereafter. Good practice calls for the use of a reference surface, an area of seafloor
where repeatable measurements can be compared. Inherent with the increased detail and coverage
achieved with MBES is the ability to clearly see errors associated with incorrect lever arm and sensor
offsets, time delays, sound velocity and excessive vessel motion. The ability to ‘average’ or ‘smooth’
out such errors in subsequent processing is potentially misleading and should be avoided unless the
magnitude of the change from the raw to the smoothed record is clearly stated. Such errors should
be included in the calculation of the overall accuracy value accompanying the data. (23).
10.3.2 Positioning System Equipment

Differential GPS is widely used to fix vessel position during bathymetric/hydrographical surveys. The
source of the differential corrections should be proven by comparison with a known survey control
point, particularly if a local base station is established. GPS receivers should be configured to output
positions in the desired datum (WGS-84).
RTK GPS offers increased precision of the horizontal position, provided that the footprint of the echo
sounder in use is of a comparable dimension. Users of the sounding data need to be aware that the
horizontal accuracy quoted for an RTK GPS survey (or any other positioning system) may be affected
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by the beam width of the echo sounder. If the beam width is large, an increase in depth will increase
the footprint on the seabed and degrade the actual positioning of the soundings.
10.3.3 Planning and Equipment Calibration

Preparation for the survey involves the planning of hydrographical/bathymetric observations and
ancillary activity necessary to support the collection of data, the most important of which is calibration
of the surveying equipment. Equipment calibration need to be conducted at regular intervals and
documented in order to support the quality estimate given to the final survey dataset. Maintaining a
data-pack for key equipment and/or including the relevant information in a final report accompanying
each survey is recommended (23).
10.3.3.1 SBES Calibration

Calibration of SBES is normally achieved by the bar check method whereby a bar is set horizontally
beneath the transducer on marked lines at pre-determined depths and the echo-sounder recorder is
adjusted so that the echo trace from the bar appears at the correct depth as determined from the
lowering line marks.
10.3.3.2 MBES Calibration

Initial calibration of MBES equipment is a complex task. It is strongly advised that assistance is
sought from the manufacturer, and, if necessary, a hydrographical surveyor with MBES experience.
Individual MBES error tolerances are much smaller than for SBES. The results will only be as good
as the accuracy of the sensors installed in the system, and the quality of each sensor with respect
to the manufacturer’s quoted accuracy. Check calibrations or rigorous confidence checks are
required at regular intervals, starting at daily intervals for newly installed systems and after significant
component upgrade/change to key sensors.
Once repetitive results for calibration values are obtained, checks should be carried out weekly and
monthly. It is recommended that each organization performing surveys with MBES set up their own
regular calibration and inspection/maintenance regime and employ a reference surface for on-going
system calibrations (23).
10.3.3.3 Miscellaneous Checks and Calibrations

Regular confidence checks of the vessel/boat positioning system should be conducted at least
weekly, preferably daily, during the course of a survey. A static check of the vessel’s/boat’s derived
position against a mark ashore (e.g. a pin on a wharf/shore) established to a higher order of accuracy
is recommended.
In both SBES and MBES systems, position system latency should also be determined and applied
in the survey acquisition program. If possible, a dynamic check against a distinctive bottom target
for which a known position has been derived should be undertaken, as this serves to reveal any
latency or vessel/boat layback errors not otherwise detectable with a static check. Bottom targets
should be located in shallow (i.e., less than 10 m) water to ensure the echo-sounder footprint and
subsequent resolution of the target is comparable with the positioning system in use.
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10.4 Data Processing
The processing of hydrographical/bathymetric survey data involves the removal of invalid data and
the selection of a “cleaned” data set for further processing or for the generation of required products
(e.g., sounding sheets) for subsequent analysis. It is also the stage where tidal data is normally
applied or where tidal level data collected in real time and applied during data acquisition (e.g., from
RTK GPS) is validated.
It is recommended that data processing be conducted using a dedicated hydrographic processing

package that preserves data integrity. Modern packages offer almost complete flexibility and the
potential to “manipulate” or overly “smooth” data. Surveyors should refer to the manufacturers’
instructions accompanying survey processing packages and develop a series of standard operating
procedures for the processing of data.
Where possible, standard nautical hydrographical symbology should be used on survey sheets; in
particular, the standard convention of displaying depths as metres and decimetres where the
decimetre is shown in subscript form should be followed (e.g., 56 instead of 5.6) (23; 24).

Numerous factors affect the accuracy of the surveyed data. Positional (both horizontal and vertical)
data accuracy during bathymetric surveys is affected by the type and quality of the depth
measurement system, the resolution of measured depths, system calibration and alignment, vertical
and horizontal reference datum accuracy, vessel draft errors, platform stability, vessel velocity and
subsurface material density.
Under static surveying conditions, RTK GPS equipment is capable of producing centimetre-level
accuracy. The survey-grade echo-sounders used in bathymetric survey should have a resolution of
better than a centimetre for depths less than 100 m with a vertical accuracy of the ‘survey errors’ at
the 95 percent confidence level of 20 cm (25).
The accuracy standards generally accepted for hydrography/bathymetry are established by the
International Hydrographical Organization (IHO) in Monaco and disseminated in Special Publication
No. 44 (S-44). To accommodate in a systematic manner different accuracy requirements for areas
to be surveyed, IHO defines four orders of survey. These include:
1. Special Order
2. Order 1
3. Order 2
4. Order 3
Special Order hydrographical surveys cover areas where ships may need to navigate with minimum
underkeel clearance and where the bottom characteristics are potentially hazardous to vessels such
as boulders or rock outcroppings. Examples are harbours, berthing areas and associated critical
channels. Special Order requires the use of closely spaced lines in conjunction with side scan sonar,
multi-transducer arrays or high resolution multi-beam echo-sounders to obtain 100% bottom search.
Order 1 hydrographic surveys are intended for harbours, harbour approach channels, inland
navigation channels and coastal areas of high commercial traffic density where underkeel clearance
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is less critical and the geophysical properties of the seafloor are less hazardous to vessels (e.g. soft
silt or sand bottom). Order 1 surveys should be limited to areas with less than 100 m water depth.
Order 2 surveys are applicable to those areas with depths less than 200 metres, which are not
covered by the criteria for Special Order or Order 1. Specifications for Order 3 surveys are applicable
in water depths greater than 200 metres.
The allowable errors for typical depths for each survey order are:
1. Special Survey - 0.25 to 0.39 m allowable in 1 to 40 m of water

2. Order 1 Survey - 0.50 to 1.39 m allowable in 1 to 100 m of water
3. Orders 2 & 3 Surveys - 2.50 to 4.71 m allowable in 100 to 200 m of water
Typically, tide errors are the largest error components because of modelling errors. The typical total
tide errors are:
1. Special Survey - 0.10 m

2. Order 1 Survey - 0.20 to 0.30 m
3. Order 2 & 3 0.50 to 1.00 m
Primary shore control points should be located by ground survey methods to a relative accuracy of
1 part in 100,000. When geodetic satellite positioning methods are used to establish such points, the
error should not exceed 10 cm at 95% confidence level.
Secondary stations for local positioning which will not be used for extending the control should be
located such that the error does not exceed 1 part in 10,000 for ground survey techniques or 50 cm
using geodetic satellite positioning.
10.6 Delivery
Survey deliverables refer to all data, reports, and products associated with a hydrographical/
bathymetric survey that will be submitted by a survey crew. When submitting a survey to the Client,
the data deliverables shall include all data and information necessary for office verification, including
the ability to manipulate data if necessary, thorough documentation of the field crew’s survey
procedures, results and recommendations for the survey. The required Client
hydrographical/bathymetric survey deliverables include:
1. Project Survey Reports

2. Digital Data
3. Metadata
10.6.1 Project Survey Reports

For each bathymetric survey, a descriptive report shall be completed for submission to the Client.
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10.6.2 Digital Data
In addition to paper plots and reports, digital data is an output from the most modern surveys. This
primarily comprises point information for each sounding but can also include sound velocity, etc.
Standard formats for the archive and distribution of this data is encouraged.
All hydrographic/bathymetric survey packages are capable of outputting sounding data in ASCII
format as latitude, longitude and depth; or eastings, northings and depth.
10.6.3 Metadata
For a large proportion of hydrographical/bathymetric surveys extensive reports and deliverables are
not usually required. Nevertheless, a minimum level of information should accompany sounding
data, not only to provide the necessary confidence that the data is fit for its intended purpose, but
also to allow for its use by end users with differing requirements. This information known as metadata
should comprise at least the following information, in addition to, following requirements of Section
3.4.4 of this Guide:
1. General information about the survey, e.g., date, area, equipment used, name of survey
platform
2. The name of surveyor/agency who conducted the work
3. The geodetic reference system used, including horizontal and vertical datum
4. An assessment of horizontal and vertical positioning accuracies (Survey Order)
Metadata that is impractical to show on sheet templates, e.g., calibration procedures and results,
should be documented and stored in a manner that allows it to be subsequently recovered if
necessary, to confirm data quality. This requirement could be achieved through the use of a separate
report (23; 24).
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11 CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
Construction surveys are used during the construction of all projects like roads, buildings, parking
lots, bridges, tunnels and underwater structures. Project setting out and pre-construction survey are
required to enable the start of the construction work. The survey shall continue through different
stages during the construction work. Post-construction survey shall be carried out after completion
of the project to prepare precise as-built drawings. Figure 12 graphically depicts summary of
construction surveys for roads, bridges, parking lots and buildings, whereas complete details of these
surveys are described in Sections 11.2 to 11.5.
11.1 Equipment
The state-of-the-art equipment used in construction survey includes:
1. TPS
2. GPS
3. Levelling Instrument
4. Tape
11.2 Roads
Road surveys involve the location of alignments and computation of volumes of materials that must
be added, removed or moved. After the alignment has been established and original ground level
recorded, the quantities of earth that must be added or removed are computed.
The goal of most projects is to minimize the hauling distances of the earth. This is done using mass
diagrams. Eventually, surveyors layout the elevation and slope of the various sub-grades, base and
top coat materials. The end result is a smooth alignment with smooth transitions from straight to
curved sections allowing for safe public transportation.
11.2.1 Project Set out

Project setting out refers to staking out reference points and markers that will guide the construction
of new roads. These markers are usually staked out according to a suitable coordinate system
selected for the project.
The layout or stakeout survey consists of locating and marking (staking) horizontal and vertical
control points to guide construction crews and giving line and grade as needed to establish
additional control points and to re-establish disturbed stakes
Traditionally, a road alignment survey involves the placement of wooden stakes to mark the
highway's location. Today, GPS equipment is being used to provide real-time positioning and
alignment of construction equipment. This form of stakeless construction has changed the
requirements of surveying personnel working in construction.
Prior to the construction activity the design information has to be transferred from the plan to the
ground. This is accomplished by staking. Slope stakes are an effective way to insure compliance
with the design standards and to keep soil disturbance to an absolute minimum.
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Figure 12: Summary of Construction Surveys for Roads, Bridges, Parking Lots and Buildings
Post-Construction /
Element Project Set Out Pre-Construction Construction Accuracy Note Form
As-Built
• Initiate Staking Work

• Make final
• Establish Survey Line
measurements for
Stake out reference • Study & check plans & • Staking Curves Contractor shall make
constructed elements File survey field notes
points & markers to special provisions. • Stakes for Bridges sure that all of the
• Collect as-built for road construction
• Stakes for Borrow Pits stakes have been
Roads guide road • Staking centerline of information survey elements with
construction road • Stakes for Grades checked by Consultant’s
• Correct original plans actual staked positions
(Horizontal & Vertical) • Recording OGL • Stakes for Entrance survey team and they
• Tie as-built locations with RE
Culvers are correct
of project items to
• Stake for Culvers
project datum
• Stake for Pavement
• Check Plans & Elevations

• Determine horizontal File survey field notes
If possible, stake entire • Locate Abutments & Piers
Locate bridge from & vertical locations of Contractor shall make for bridge construction
structure, check & • Locate Centerline
provided initial control features in completed sure that construction survey elements with
Bridges & stake additional
reference before • Stake Abutments
structures accuracy specified by
construction operations • Stake Piers actual staked positions
control if required • Record variations from Consultant is obtained with RE
start • Stake Footings
original plans
• Check & Set Elevations
• Make final
• Establish control File survey field notes
measurements
Set out horizontal & points for horizontal & Contractor shall make for parking lots
• Collect as-built
vertical control points vertical alignment & • Stake Grading sure that construction construction survey
Parking Lots surrounding the double-check • Stake Pavement
information
accuracy specified by elements with actual
• Correct original plans
parking lot elevations Consultant is obtained staked positions with
• Tie as-built locations
• Record OGL RE
to project datum
• Make final
• Study & check building measurements File survey field notes
Set out horizontal & • Stake Footings Contractor shall make
plans & special • Collect as-built for building survey
vertical control points • Stake Column Lines sure that construction
Buildings surrounding the
provisions.
• Set out Floor
information
accuracy specified by
elements with actual
• Stake plot limits • Correct building plans stakd positions with
building • Set Utilities Consultant is obtained
• Recording OGL • Tie as-built locations RE
to project datum
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Stakes, marking various road design points, are typically obliterated during the clearing and grubbing
phase. In order to relocate the stakes (centreline, slope stakes) it is helpful to establish reference
points outside the clearing limits. Reference points should be set at least 3 to 5 metres behind the
uphill clearing limits. On the average, reference points (or RP's) should be set at least every 70 to
100 metres. Typically, reference points are placed at points where the centre line alignment can be
easily re-established, such as points of curvature.
11.2.2 Pre-Construction
The assigned construction surveyor(s) should carefully study and check the plans and special
provisions. A thorough review not only detects errors, but also helps familiarize the surveyor(s) with
the project. This way they become better prepared to plan their operations when actual construction
begins. Pre-construction plan review, note preparation, miscellaneous computations and fieldwork
are essential for a smooth operating construction project.
In order to properly construct a project, it is essential that the field layout work be done accurately.
Field notes should be kept according to uniform practices and conform, as a minimum, to the
following general requirements:
a. Neatness
b. Legibility
c. Clarity
d. Completeness
e. Permanence
f. Accuracy
g. Self-checking
All utility corridors shall be staked out as per the DOT Standard Cross-Section Drawing/Design
Drawing prior to commencement of laying all utility cables/ducts.
11.2.3 Construction
Harmonious relations among all stakeholders are essential for a smooth operating project. This
condition is best accomplished through good communications between the contractor, the engineer,
the surveyor(s) and the inspectors.
11.2.3.1 Pre-construction Conference

Prior to the commencement of construction activities, a conference shall be held by the Consultant
with the Contractor and his supervisory personnel as well as the Client’s concerned engineering
personnel. This meeting is of particular importance to the construction surveyor since he must plan
and organize his duties to conform to the contractor’s planned sequence of operations so that there
will be no unnecessary delays or inconveniences (26).
11.2.3.2 Surveyor-Contractor Relationship

It is important that the surveyors establish a working relationship with the contractor. The contractor
should be made aware of the importance of maintaining traverse stations and benchmarks (26).
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11.2.3.3 Initiation of Staking Work
Initiating staking work is another essential feature of the staking exercise. The survey team should
take the initiative and confer with the Contractor to determine the portions of the work to be staked
first. It is essential that both parties should mutually agree upon:
1. The lines and grades desired

2. The clearances required for construction equipment
3. Other matters related to the layout work
The survey team should arrange their work so they will always have sufficient stakes set ahead so
the Contractor will not be delayed in starting the work.
11.2.3.4 Establishment of a Survey Line

Before stakes can be set, the survey line must be established and verified. It is advisable to tie in all
control points, such as Points of Intersection (PIs), Points of Curvature (PCs) and Point of Tangency
(PTs) to reference points outside the area of construction. Construction benchmarks should be set
and checked before stakes are set.
All levels taken while setting stakes should be closed on benchmarks before stake elevations are
used. Once stakes are set they should be guarded with lath and high visibility flagging. The lath
should clearly identify the stake and its use in order to avoid confusion (26).
11.2.3.5 Checking Work

Whatever method is used for staking, however, it is advisable to check staking work as much as
possible to avoid the possibility of errors or mistakes resulting in regrets afterwards. Grade elevation,
curve data, etc., should be checked before being used. All measurements, level notes and computed
distances should be rechecked frequently.
11.2.3.6 Staking Method

A standard method of staking should be followed but may be varied to meet topographical conditions,
type of construction, equipment used and the Contractor’s preference. This is a convenience to
contractors who work in more than one region and it also reduces the chance of confusion and
misunderstanding between engineers in the field and the Client representative (26).
11.2.3.7 Fieldbooks
All fieldbooks must contain the following (26):
1. Task description
2. Weather
3. Date when work was actually done and
4. Names of persons performing the work
The Resident Engineer should keep a complete legible record of all stakes set. It should include the
following:
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1. The description and elevations of all new benchmarks and the new ties for all points should
be recorded and completely described.
2. Grade changes and other changes from the original design should be recorded and carefully
described.
3. All records must be clear and complete so that any stake can be replaced easily, at any time,
with a minimum amount of effort.
11.2.3.8 Preparation in Advance

It is essential that fieldbooks containing the necessary grades, sketches, line ties, benchmarks and
other data be prepared in advance. Referring to the plans often for layout information will result in
delays and inconvenience.
Notes and sketches should be independently checked. The books should contain grade elevations
at the intervals required, survey line ties, benchmarks, curve data and any other data required for
frequent use (26).
11.2.3.9 Staking Curves

Checking Plans
The curve data listed in the plans should be carefully checked, including the PIs and the PTs.
Considerable difficulty can be encountered in running tin he curves if the intersection angles do not
check and new curve data must be calculated. Usually, this is done when verifying the transit line.
Setting Stakes
In setting stakes, usually the following steps are required (26):
1. Where practical, set up be done on the PI having as a foresight and backsight another PI or
PT on either side
2. Using the transit for line, the tangent distance shall be measured accurately in each direction
and hubs shall be set at the PC and PT of the curve
3. The station number of the PC is the station of the PI minus the tangent distance
4. The station of the PT is the station of the PC plus the curve length
5. Before running curves, the notebook table of stations, deflection angles and chord lengths
(including chord corrections if needed) must be set up and checked
6. After the PC and PT are established, set up be done over the PC and shall proceed to run in
the curve
7. Stakes shall be set off the proper distance each way from the centreline
8. Curve data from computer programs should be spot-checked
9. It is often necessary to run curves in the reverse direction to that of the stationing
10. On long curves where the view is obstructed, it is necessary to turn at one or more points on
the curve or curves to be set out with coordinate values
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11. Curves should close within about 0.25 m per 1000 m of length
12. The error of closure should be proportionally distributed over sufficient length so that the eye
can detect no break in the alignment
13. On flat curves having external distances of 0.6 m or less, it is faster to run in the curves by
tangent offsets
14. Coordinate values of curve also be used to set out the curve.
11.2.3.10 Recording Original Ground Levels of the Project

Once the initial staking out is over, a joint survey is to be carried out by the Consultant and the
Contractor to record original ground levels of road corridor. These levels should be recorded at 25
m interval cross-sections for roads and/or 25 m grid intervals for infrastructure projects to estimate
the quantities of the earthwork for payments.
11.2.3.11 Stakes for Bridges

This is described under bridges in Section 11.3.3.1.
11.2.3.12 Stakes for Borrow Pits

Setting stakes and running cross-sections for borrow pits should be done carefully with the required
accuracy to avoid confusion and possibility of dispute with the Contractor over the volumes involved.
If the borrow pit is furnished by the concerned authorities, it should be staked before construction
starts so that the Contractor does not encroach upon private property. If the pit is furnished by the
Contractor, he/she should obtain the necessary approval and show you the location of the
boundaries in sufficient time to take cross-sections.
When the pit is furnished by the authorities, its location should be established from the plans. For
pits adjacent to the right-of-way, it is often convenient to use the centreline as a baseline, if on a
tangent. Usually the baseline should be chosen parallel to the long dimension of the pit, which means
that it may not always be parallel to the centreline of the roadway. In all cases, the baseline must be
readily re-established or preserved until all work is finished.
If the centreline is not used, the baseline chosen should be tied accurately. Base lines should always
be straight lines regardless of the shape of the borrow pit. The baseline should be referenced to
points which will remain after borrowing is completed.
The staking operations for borrow bits include (26):
1. Stakes for the Base Line

2. Stakes for Cross-Sections
3. Original Cross-Sections
4. Final Cross-Section
5. Computations
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11.2.3.13 Stakes for Grading
Usually, three sets of stakes will be used for controlling a construction contract. These include:
1. Right-of-way, Control and Structure

2. Preliminary Grade
3. Finish Grade
Before the start of the staking operations, the staking method to be used should be agreed with the
contractor, noted in the fieldbook and given to the Contractor in writing to avoid any future
controversy. Prior to the contractor’s beginning dirtwork operations, the original ground elevations
should be spot checked for accuracy.
After the earthwork is roughed in, the Contractor will request a line of stakes, usually down the
centreline of the roadway, to establish the completed crown grade. This line of stakes should be set
with an instrument and the grade shown as requested by the Contractor.
If the roadway is built as close to grade as possible with the previous stakes, it will then be necessary
to set line stakes and paving stakes at 10 m intervals. Closer intervals are required on a tight
horizontal or vertical curve. These stakes should be of metal of sufficient length to penetrate the
grade far enough that the movement of equipment will not cause variations once the grade is
established. The sub-base and pavement can be built from these paving stakes (26).
Slope Staking
Before the Contractor begins earthwork operations, it may be necessary to place slope stakes to
define the toe of the slopes for ditches and/or fill areas. It is important to consult with the Contractor
to determine what information will be necessary. Usually the stakes indicate the following:
1. Station location
2. Cuts or fills for roadway and ditch
3. Rate of slopes and
4. Offset distance from the stake to the toe of slope
The actual layout is a trial and error procedure. It compares the actual distance of the stake to the
theoretical calculated distance. The stake distance is then adjusted until the actual and theoretical
distances coincide.
Balance Points
A prominent marker should be placed at each earthwork balance point, which represents the
intersection point of side slope and the existing ground level.
Curve Superelevation
The curve data and typical sections shown on the plans should be reviewed for:
1. Superelevation rates
2. Superelevation limits
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3. Transition lengths
In some instances, this superelevation may create drainage problems, especially in flat terrain and
with wide pavements. Superelevation within the limits of villages or cities is designed for the slower
speed required and is, therefore, generally less than that found in rural areas where higher speeds
prevail (26).
11.2.3.14 Stakes for Entrance Culverts

Location
All entrance culverts should be set to match the roadway ditch, both in line and grade.
Staking
The only stakes that are necessary to be set for an entrance culvert are two stakes on the centreline
of the culvert barrel. Mark on these stakes the cut to the ditch flow line.
Elevation of Headwalls
If headwalls are built, it is essential that the top elevation of the two headwalls be made parallel to
the grade of the shoulder, even though the gradient of the ditch is not the same as that of the
pavement (26).
11.2.3.15 Stakes for Culverts

Location
Prior to staking out a culvert, determine whether the location as shown on the plans will fit the channel
to the best advantage. If you think the culvert line or grade should be relocated or the skew angle
changed, take the matter up with the Resident Engineer. Channel locations should not be revised
without approval from the Resident Engineer.
Staking
The centreline of the culvert barrel should be staked first by placing a stake on the centreline not
closer than 1.5 m outside of each headwall. Nails should be set in the stakes giving the exact line.
The cut to flow line should be marked on the stake, measured from the top of the stake. Also, always
check the plan length for accuracy.
Elevation of Headwalls
After the forms are built, it is sometimes necessary to set the elevation to be used for the top of
headwalls. Give the elevations on the forms at which to set the chamfer to the Contractor. Remember
that the tops of the headwalls must be parallel to the grade of the centreline of the roadbed (26).
11.2.3.16 Stakes for Pavement

Alignment and Grade
The essentials of a good paving section, alignment and grade, should be kept in mind continually
when setting stakes for the work.
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Plan Review and Fieldbook Preparation
Before setting any stakes, you should prepare your fieldbooks, check all computed grades shown
on the plans as well as your calculated grades for other points. If the proposed pavement is to tie
into existing pavement, the existing pavement elevations should be checked.
In addition to normal grade stake elevations, it is desirable to include the following data in the
fieldbooks (26):
1. Elevations of each edge of pavement on superelevated curves and on superelevated

transitions at ends of curves, at 10 m intervals
2. Ties to all survey line control points, points of curve and tangent, benchmark elevations and
locations
3. Tables of curve deflection angles and chords
4. Tables of offset from survey line to form stake line when required
It is convenient and will save time, if all necessary information from the plans is carefully transferred
to the fieldbook.
Setting Grade Stakes and Stringlines for Automatic Grade Control Equipment
Automatic grade control equipment automatically transfers the accuracy of the predetermined plane
to the sub-grade, base or surface, resulting in a neat line profile.
Normal Stringline Setting

The Contractor will usually set metal stakes which are 60 cm long and are driven into the ground,
normally at 10 m intervals along one side of the roadway when using a machine equipped with
automatic slope control or along both sides of the roadway when using a machine with sensors
installed on both the right and left sides of the machine. The metal stakes are set to the hubs (grade
stakes set for the roadway) for both dual lane and single lane machines. On superelevated sections
and ramps, the metal stakes should be set at 5 m intervals to gain a greater degree of accuracy (26).
Location of the stringline may vary with each section of the roadway to be worked, due to supers,
crowns and offsets. Each section should be evaluated separately to determine the proper location
or position of the stringline.
Each stringline must be set at a constant distance from the roadway centreline or a theoretical edge
of the pavement. Each stringline must also be suspended at a constant height above the plane
passing through the lower corners of the proposed slab (26).
11.2.3.17 Tunnelling by Boring under Existing Carriageway/Parking

To monitor settlement during and post-construction of tunnelling by boring under existing
carriageways/parking asphalt level shall be taken on an agreed grid format -say at 2 m intervals on
transverse and longitudinal direction of the centre line of boring, if any, resulting from the non-
disruptive crossing with respect to a known reference point (benchmark).
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11.2.4 Post-Construction / As-Built
The main purpose of the post-construction is to check whether the construction has been completed
as per the design of horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and cross-sections. In other words,
during this phase, it is confirmed that the construction complies with the design.
All of the utilities and drainage are located horizontally and vertically after construction and put
together in an As-built Survey. This survey is completed and sent to the concerned authority so that
it can be compared to the approved plans for the project.
11.2.4.1 Final Measurements

Final measurements for constructed elements should be made concurrently with construction
operations where feasible. This procedure results in greater accuracy and reliability. Naturally, some
items can only be checked after construction is completed.
During construction of the project, as-built information shall be collected for the purpose of
documenting the final installation of the contract bid items to update the construction plans. This
includes, but is not limited to, all final locations of structures, utilities, manholes, valves, storm drains,
catch basins, curb and gutter, pavement, sign structures, light poles, traffic signals, etc., that are to
be included in the final as-built plans.
11.2.4.2 Final Plans

The original plan sheets must be corrected to show any changes and additions made during
construction. All corrections or changes shall be noted on the plan sheets. The as-built locations of
project items, including elevations shall be tied to the project datum.
The following list provides some of the information that must be checked, corrected and added to
the original plan sheets (26):
1. Horizontal and vertical control

2. Location, dimensions, and elevations of drainage structures. All of these should be field
checked.
3. Changes in typical sections
4. Horizontal alignment (including curve changes and control point ties)
5. Profile grade
6. All underground units (cable, conduits, pipe, etc.)
Upon completion of the project, a set of as-built construction plans should be delivered to the Client
for comparison with the original plans.

Accuracy is the first essential element in setting stakes for the construction. The Contractor shall
make sure that all of the stakes have been checked by Consultant’s survey team and they are
correct.
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It will be a good idea that the survey team should instruct the foremen and superintendents to notify
them at once if at any time they consider a grade stake to be in error. This will give survey team a
chance to check the elevation before much work has been completed (26).
In term of accuracy in measurement, it is project dependent and shall be specified for each particular
project. As such cannot be defined in general terms. Precision of locations shall be equal to the
precision used to stake the project item.
11.2.6 Note Forms

Construction survey field notes in the form of note forms, consisting of stakeout listings for road
construction survey elements with actual staked positions noted, shall be filed with the Resident
Engineer upon completion of the survey.
11.3 Bridges
The concerned authority shall provide initial control from which the Contractor can locate the bridge.
The Contractor determines what additional control is needed for construction purposes and is
responsible for staking it. The Contractor is required to submit this staking information to the Resident
Engineer. The Resident Engineer should check its accuracy. The Resident Engineer must verify that
the provided field control matches the control listed in the Contract. If not, the field control will have
to be reset. The Resident Engineer should contact the Construction Operations Engineer to get input
on the best method of accomplishing this.
If the control is good, the Resident Engineer may want to set additional control for checking purposes
outside the construction limits. Usually, points set at right angles and even distances are best. The
points should be clearly marked, i.e. "offset from bridge chord", "end of bridge", etc. Vertical control
should be set close to the bridge to reduce the number of turning points required.
Bridge tolerances are much tighter than roadway tolerances. The Project Engineer should allow
enough time to do checking prior to scheduled concrete operations.
Whenever possible, the entire structure should be completely staked, checked and referenced
before construction operations are started. Here, again, it is important to consult with the Contractor
so as to avoid placement of reference points where equipment and materials are to be stored.
Layout involves establishing construction control points that are used to maintain the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the work that follows. After performing the layout, the Surveyor furnishes the
Contractor with the information required to complete the layout and to conduct the work.
The first step in bridge layout is to locate previously established control points on each end of the
bridge site, the control points that were established during the preliminary survey to represent the
baseline of construction or the survey line. This line is typically designated as Line "A" on the plans.
Control points for the centreline of the structure and/or roadway are also located if they are different
from the survey line. All points are checked for alignment and referenced with offset stakes. The
station of one of the control points is determined for use in locating the abutments and piers.
Page 96
The next step is to locate each unit of the substructure at points along the survey line. Reference
stakes for these points are set to the left and right of the centreline by turning the skew angle. To
insure accuracy, the survey crew double and triple checks the skew angle. The accuracy of the skew
angle may be checked by measuring the distance between reference points on the left and right
sides. If the distances between the points are equal on both sides, the skew angle is correct.
Enough reference points are set to insure easy replacement of the centreline control. The reference
points are protected and identified by guard stakes.
Once the reference points are set, the crew double-checks the elevations of the benchmarks. Again,
temporary benchmarks are required to be established when a benchmark on an existing structure is
to be replaced. If the bridge deck is to match an existing roadway, the edges and centreline of the
roadway are required to be profiled and checked against the elevation of the new structure.
The last step in the bridge layout is staking the footings and taking cross-sections of the footing
areas. The cross-sections are used to determine how much material the Contractor is required to
remove during structure excavation.
11.3.3 Construction
Most of the steps described above in Sections 11.2.3.1 to 11.2.3.8 for Road Construction Survey are
also applicable to the Bridge Construction Survey.
11.3.3.1 Bridge Staking Overview

Prior to staking a bridge, plan dimensions and elevations should be checked. It is extremely
important to check the elevations of the bottom of the footing by working down from the profile grade
line at each pier and abutment, using plan dimensions, beam depths, etc.
The entire structure should be staked before construction operations begin. It must be remembered
that the stakes set by the survey team are going to be used over and over again from the time they
stake the footing excavation until the bridge is finally completed. As the work progresses, the survey
team will not be able to see from one stake to another as they did in the beginning and they should
give this fact consideration when staking the bridge.
It is better to have a few extra points than not to have enough. A substantial number of stakes located
out of the way of the Contractor’s equipment and material should be used. At least three stakes on
each line should be set each way from the site. All elevations should be checked and it should be
ensured that all the stakes are protected, well referenced and clearly identified.
Thorough and accurate layout work, checked by an independent party, is a must for structures,
however, the checking should not stop here. It is important to have positive control points on each
pier and abutment so that while the bridge cone embankments are being constructed, instrument
checks can easily be made to determine any movement.
Each stake set should be recorded, as well as all elevations that are given to the Contractor. It is
good practice to sketch each feature of the bridge and show the stakes with the references and
distances of their respective locations. It is also a good practice to share staking diagrams and
information with the Contractor to avoid possible future disputes (26).
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11.3.3.2 Triangulation and EDM System
On multiple or long span bridges, especially bridges with steel superstructures where the width of
the stream or other conditions prevent direct measurements, the location of abutments or piers must
be measured with an Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) system and/or by triangulation
methods or any other precise measurement system supervised by the Resident in charge of the
work. Precise methods are required in such work and are necessary for long structures.
In triangulating locations for long bridges, concrete monuments, or large stakes set deep and cut off
near ground level should be used. Long measurements should be made with an EDM device. When
possible, intersection lines should be set for each pier at an angle of 45 degrees with the baseline,
and the baseline should extend both sides from the centreline of the bridge.
Guard stakes should be placed at each hub and the layout should be marked so that no confusion
may result.
11.3.3.3 Locating Centreline

Care must be exercised in locating the centreline of a structure. The centreline of roadway and
structure are not always the same. From the road plans or original survey notes, establish at least
two PIs or PTs in each direction from the bridge and tie them in permanently. This should be done
to ascertain if the intersection angle in both directions from the bridge is correct.
If the PI or PT in each direction cannot be seen from the bridge, establish a PT on each side of the
bridge and as close to the original PI or PT as possible. Place a permanent hub on centreline on
each side of and as close to the bridge as possible without interfering with the Contractor’s operation.
The Contractor should be requested to assist the survey team by keeping equipment and materials
clear of the line between these hubs. When possible, a permanent foresight should be set on the
centreline of the bridge as high as the ground permits. It should be possible to set centreline from
either side of the stream / wadi.
Establish hubs on centreline of bearing or back of abutment and on the centreline of each pier. These
hubs should be heavy stakes and nails should be used for line. It is very important that the Resident
Engineer and Contractor clearly understand and agree on what lines are staked. Contractor may
provide the Resident Engineer with a sketch of all lines and stakes set.
Establish permanent benchmarks close to the bridge. The benchmarks on the plan or original survey
should be checked before establishing benches at the bridge site. Transfer your benchmarks to
permanent concrete or piling on the structure. Use the benchmarks established on the structure for
the remaining work. Do not set temporary benchmarks on newly constructed embankments since
they may settle. Be assured that your transit/theodolite and level maintain proper adjustment (26).
11.3.3.4 Staking Abutments

Set up and turn the skew angle at the hub that is set on centreline of bearing or the back of abutment
at the centreline of structure. On this line set a hub close to the bridge and two at distances of 60 m
and 120 m from the centreline of structure. If this cannot be done, set them as far as possible from
the bridge. Check the skew angle by repetition before proceeding (26).
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11.3.3.5 Staking Piers
From the hubs established on centreline of the structure turn the skew angle and set additional hubs
in each direction, the same as you did for the abutment. Care must be exercised in establishing this
line since the centreline of bearing and centreline of pier are not always the same. The vertical
alignment of piers should be monitored with a transit/theodolite during concrete placement.
Measure the distance from the centreline to each hub and record it. Measurements for bridge layouts
are often made on rough, uneven ground. It is necessary to have the chain horizontal and to use a
plumb bob for accurate measurements on such terrain. Check your measurements. Whenever
possible, physical measurements should be made as the work progresses (26).
11.3.3.6 Staking Footings

Keep the Resident Engineer informed all the times about the work you are doing and give him/her a
record of all stakes set. When the neat line forms of the footing are in place, the top of the footing
should be established by setting nails with an instrument at convenient points around the footing.
When footings are too deep to set elevations directly, turns may be established by measuring down
to a nail from a point of known elevation (26).
11.3.3.7 Miscellaneous Elevations

After the forms for either an abutment seat or pier cap have been built, grade points for the bridge
seat elevations should be set with an instrument. The level circuit for setting the bridge seat
elevations should be checked by using one of these set elevations as a turning point.
Elevations at tops and wings should also be set with an instrument. Seat elevations should be
checked after the concrete is placed. Bridge seat elevations should be checked by subtracting the
deck thickness, minimum fillet, beam and bearing heights from the finished deck elevations before
laying out the bridge seat elevations in the field.
On steel truss spans supported by falsework, it is essential that each panel point of support be set
at the exact camber elevation before any connections are made (26).

A finished structure seldom corresponds exactly to the original plans in every detail. The purpose of
an As-Built Survey is to record the variations. The as-built survey should begin as soon as it becomes
feasible - meaning that the actual horizontal and vertical locations of features in the completed
structure should be determined as soon as the features are erected.
At times, variations from the original plans are recorded on new tracings of the working drawings, on
which as-built data are recorded in the place of the original design data when the two happen to
differ. Sometimes, reproductions of the original drawings are used with variations recorded by
crossing out the original design data and writing in the as-built data.
In either case, the term as-built survey, together with the date of revision, is written in, or near the
title block.
Once the As-Built Survey is completed, it is sent to the Client so that it can be compared to the
approved plans for the project.
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The construction accuracy is specified by the Designer/Consultant. However, the construction survey
accuracy for bridges should not exceed 10 mm horizontally and 5 mm vertically.
11.3.6 Note Forms

Like road construction, construction survey field notes in the form of note forms, consisting of
stakeout listings for bridge construction survey elements with actual staked positions noted, shall be
filed with the Resident Engineer upon completion of the survey.
11.4 Parking Lots

Like construction of roads, bridges, buildings, etc., parking lots should also be set out properly with
the desired construction survey accuracy.

The first and foremost step for setting out a project is setting of the horizontal and vertical control
points surrounding the parking lot. After setting the horizontal and vertical reference points,
demarcation of the overall boundary of the parking lot should be set out by the Consultant/Contractor
and be approved by the concerned authority/Client.
Layout involves establishing construction control points that are used to maintain the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the work that follows. After performing the layout, the Surveyor furnishes the
Contractor with the information required to complete the layout and to conduct the work.
Once the reference points are set, the crew double-checks the elevations of the benchmarks. Again,
temporary benchmarks are required to be established.
11.4.3 Construction
also applicable to the Parking Lot Construction Survey.

Contractor to record original ground levels of parking lot corridor. These levels should be recorded
at 25 m interval cross-sections to estimate the quantities of the earthwork excavation and filling.
11.4.3.2 Stakes for Grading

Before the start of the staking operations, the staking method to be used should be agreed with the
Resident Engineer, noted in the fieldbook and given to the Contractor in writing to avoid a future
controversy. Prior to the contractor beginning dirtwork operations, the original ground elevations
should be spot checked for accuracy.
If the parking lot is built as close to grade as possible with the previous stakes, it will then be
necessary to set line stakes and paving stakes at 15 m intervals. These stakes should be of metal
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of sufficient length to penetrate the grade far enough that the movement of equipment will not cause
variations once the grade is established.
11.4.3.3 Stakes for Pavement

Plan Review and Fieldbook Preparation
Before setting any stakes, fieldbooks should be prepared and all computed grades shown on the
plans as well as calculated grades for other points should be checked. If the proposed pavement is
to tie into existing pavement, the existing pavement elevations should be checked.
In addition to normal grade stake elevations, it is desirable to include tables of offset from survey line
to form stake line when required in the fieldbooks. It is a convenience and will save time, if all
necessary information from the plans is carefully transferred to the fieldbook.
Setting Stringlines
The Contractor will usually set metal stakes which are not less than 60 cm long and are driven into
the ground, normally at 10 m intervals. Location of the stringline may vary with each section of the
parking lot to be worked. Each section should be evaluated separately to determine the proper
location or position of the stringline.
Each stringline must be set at a constant distance and each stringline must also be suspended at a
constant height above the plane passing through the lower corners of the proposed slab.

All of the elements including utilities are located horizontally and vertically after construction and put
together in an As-built Survey. This survey is completed and sent to the Client/concerned authority
so that it can be compared to the approved plans for the project.

In order to achieve greater accuracy and reliability in construction survey work, final measurements
for constructed elements should be made concurrently with construction operations where feasible.
However, it must be kept in mind that some items can only be checked after the construction is
completed.
documenting the final installation of the contract bid items to update the construction plans. This
includes, but is not limited to, all final locations of utilities, manholes, valves, curb and gutter,
pavement, sign structures, light poles, etc., that are to be included in the final as-built plans.

the original plan sheets:
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2. Location, dimensions, and elevations of utilities. All of these should be field checked.
3. Profile grade
4. All underground units (cables, conduits, pipes, etc.)
Upon completion of the project, a set of as-built construction plans should be delivered to the
concerned authority/Client.

As mentioned above, the construction accuracy is specified by the Designer/Consultant. However,
the construction survey horizontal and vertical accuracy for parking lots should not exceed 20 mm
and 10 mm, respectively.
11.4.6 Note Forms

Construction survey field notes in the form of note forms, consisting of stakeout listings for parking
lot construction elements with actual staked positions noted, shall be filed with the Resident Engineer
upon completion of the survey.
11.5 Buildings
Building construction is another area of construction surveying. In this field, the correct placement of
footings/foundations, piers and other items of building construction are essential for a sound
structure.
A typical building stake out will include all the corners of the foundation for the excavator to dig the
basement or footings along with offsets that can be saved so that the contractor can lay the building
out in the same location.

The first and foremost step for setting out a building project like any other project is setting of the
horizontal and vertical control points surrounding the building site. After setting the horizontal and
vertical reference points, demarcation of the overall boundary of the building site should be set out
by the Consultant/Contractor and be approved by the concerned authority/Client.
The surveyor(s) should carefully study and check the building plans and special provisions to help
detect errors and familiarize the survey team with the project. Pre-construction plan review, note
preparation, miscellaneous computations and fieldwork result in a smooth operating construction
project.
In addition, field notebooks should be prepared for keeping field notes according to uniform practices
taking into consideration neatness, legibility, clarity, completeness, permanence, accuracy and self-
checking.
11.5.3 Construction
also applicable to the Building Construction Survey.
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Contractor to record original ground levels of building site. These levels should be recorded at 10 m
interval cross-sections to estimate the quantities of the earthwork to excavate and fill.
11.5.3.2 Stakes for Footings

It is important to note that the precise layout of footings is essential to the assembly of the system.
The exact location of stumps /posts is critical at this stage of the construction.
Boundary Pegs
Check survey information and boundary pegs. Ensure that the building is correctly sited on the block
and that all Local authority requirements are met.
Corners
Mark corners of building with temporary pegs, roughly square by measuring diagonal distances and
adjusting line position of the pegs until the diagonal measurements are equal. Check again that all
pegs are still clear of boundary requirements.
11.5.3.3 Stakes for Column Lines

Building column line staking is an integral part of building construction. It ensures that the building
structural elements are built in the correct place according to the design. Any type of construction
staking is done by experienced land surveyors to ensure that structural elements of the building are
built in the right area based on the site plan and engineering plans.
Being able to mark an entire line that is level and straight for the construction of the columns allows
the Contractor to ensure that the construction is accurate to the desired level with adequate structural
integrity. For each floor column lines should be set out in both directions for formwork.
A qualified and experienced land surveyor can interpret the plans and then layout the site with
temporary markers to fit the goals of the Contractor/Consultant. Once the setting out is complete,
the Contractor should request the Resident Engineer to check the setting out and get the approval.
If the building column line staking is complete and correct, then everything can continue to be built
accurately. Staking is critical because it requires a boundary and topographic survey to make sure
that the site plan matches the actual property built.
11.5.3.4 Floor Setting Out

Profiles are used to support the string lines used in the setting out of the proposed buildings. They
are constructed using timber pegs, with timber horizontal rails nailed to the pegs at a determined
height which is normally the top of finished floor level. The length and width of the building are marked
onto the top edge of the horizontal rail. A nail is then fixed either side of the mark to identify the mark
and make sure the string is always in the same position.
After the profile pegs have been driven into the ground, the next thing to do is to determine the floor
height and mark it onto the corner peg. The dumpy level can now be set to the height. Transfer this
mark to the other pegs and nail the horizontal rail onto the pegs with the top edge on the mark.
Usually, profiles are kept back from building line approximately 0.900 m when setting out the profiles.
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11.5.3.5 Utility Setting
Utilities is a general term applied to pipelines, such as sewer, water, gas, and oil pipelines;
communications lines, such as telephone or telegraph lines; and electric power lines.
Aboveground Utilities
For an aboveground utility, such as a pole mounted telephone, telegraph, or power line, the survey
problem consists simply of locating the line horizontally as required and marking the stations where
poles or towers are to be erected. Often, the directions of guys and anchors maybe staked as well
and sometimes pole height for vertical clearance of obstructions is determined.
Underground Utilities
For an underground utility, you will often need to determine both line and grade. For pressure lines,
such as water lines, it is usually necessary to stake out only the line, since the only grade requirement
is that the prescribed depth of soil cover be maintained. However, staking elevations may be
necessary for any pressure lines being installed in an area that is to be graded downward or is to
have other, conflicting underground utilities.
Gravity flow lines, such as storm sewer lines, require staking for grade to be sure the pipe is installed
at the design elevation and at the gradient (slope) the design requires for gravity flow through the
pipe. Grade for an underground sewer pipe is given in terms of the elevation of the invert.
11.5.4 Post-Construction/As-Built
All of the elements of the building construction including underground and aboveground utilities are
located horizontally and vertically and also make reference from plot boundary/fence. Four corners
of chambers/manholes shall be surveyed along with cover levels after the construction and put
together in an As-built Survey. This survey is completed and sent to the concerned authority so that
it can be compared to the approved plans for the project.

In order to achieve greater accuracy and reliability in construction survey work, final measurements
for constructed building elements should be made concurrently with construction operations where
feasible. However, it must be kept in mind that some items can only be checked after the construction
is completed.
documenting the final installation of the contract bid items to update the construction plans for the
building. This includes, but is not limited to, all final locations of utilities, manholes, valves, floor slabs,
etc., that are to be included in the final as-built plans.

the original plan sheets (26):
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2. Location, dimensions, and elevations of utilities. All of these should be field checked.
3. All underground units (cables, conduits, pipes, etc.)
Upon completion of the project, a set of as-built construction plans should be delivered to the
concerned authority/Client.

The construction accuracy in terms of columns, footings, floor slabs and utilities is specified by the
Designer/Consultant. However, the construction survey horizontal and vertical accuracy for building
projects should not exceed 10 mm and 5 mm, respectively.
11.5.6 Note Forms

Construction survey field notes in the form of note forms, consisting of stakeout listings for building
site construction elements with actual staked positions noted, shall be filed with the Resident
Engineer upon completion of the survey.
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12 CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS FOR MARINE
STRUCTURES
Construction Surveys are also carried out for underwater marine structures for construction of
bridges or tunnels in a creek or in the sea. Figure 13 graphically depicts summary of construction
surveys for underwater marine structures, whereas complete details of these surveys are described
in Sections 12.2 to 12.3.
12.1 Width of Survey Corridor

The width of the survey corridor for carrying out bathymetric survey for underwater marine structures
including bridges and tunnels shall extend between 200 to 500 m on the either side of the centreline
at every 25 m grid interval or as per the design requirements. The topographic survey for approach
road to a bridge/tunnel to be carried out upto 20 m beyond the corridor limit on each side of the
centreline at 25 m interval upto the low water tide level.
12.2 Bridges
In this case, foundation is below the bed level as compared to the ordinary bridges whose all
elements are constructed in dry situations.
12.2.1 Project Set Out

The concerned authority/Client shall provide initial control from which the Contractor can locate the
bridge. The Contractor determines what additional control is needed for construction purposes and
is responsible for staking it. The Contractor is required to submit this staking information to the
Project Engineer. The Project Engineer should check its accuracy. The Project Engineer must verify
that the provided field control matches the control listed in the Contract. If not, the field control will
have to be reset. The Project Engineer should contact the Construction Operations Engineer to get
input on the best method of accomplishing this.
The project set out for underwater bridges is done from the shore on both sides. In such cases
references points are also set on both sides of the bridge.
If the control is good, the Project Engineer may want to set additional control for checking purposes
outside the construction limits. Usually, points set at right angles and even distances are best. The
points should be clearly marked, i.e. "offset from bridge chord", "end of bridge", etc. Vertical control
should be set close to the bridge to reduce the number of turning points required.
Bridge tolerances are much tighter than roadway tolerances. The Project Engineer should allow
enough time to do checking prior to the scheduled concrete operations.
The abutment and piers falling aground should be completely staked, checked and referenced before
construction operations are started. The structural elements of the bridge falling underwater should
be set out from the ground control points and temporary control points should be fixed on the
cofferdam for construction of the particular structure. These temporary control points should be re-
checked frequently and before each construction stage to confirm that the particular control has not
moved horizontally and vertically.
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For more details of pre-construction phase of bridge construction survey refer to Section 11.3.2.
12.2.3 Construction
As far as the construction phase is concerned, it is almost the same for both types of bridge
construction surveys, that is, road bridges and underwater/marine bridges. However, the difference
is that in the latter case, cofferdams are constructed to fix temporary control points for construction
of submerged structures. Staking for cofferdams is described below in Section 12.1.3.1.
Most of the steps described in Chapter 12 under Sections 11.2.3.1 to 11.2.3.8 for Road Construction
Survey are also applicable to the Underwater Bridge Construction Survey.
For details about Bridge Staking Overview, Triangulation and EDS System, Locating Centreline,
Staking Abutments, Staking Piers, Staking Footings and Miscellaneous Elevations refer to Sections
11.3.3.1 to 11.3.3.7.
Guard stakes should be placed at each hub and the layout should be marked so that no confusion
may result in. In some cases it is desirable to establish a low water and a high water baseline. A
baseline that is above low water elevation can usually be placed nearer the bridge site and will be
found very convenient.
Check carefully the elevation of the bottom of the footing as shown on the plans and compare it with
the distance below the actual sea/stream bed that you find. If there is a discrepancy the Contractor
should consult the Resident Engineer.
12.2.3.1 Staking Cofferdams

In fixing the location of cofferdams, it is usually best to give the Contractor only the centre of the pier
and the centreline of the structure. The Contractor can then determine the width and length, knowing
what allowance is needed for footing forms, drainage outside the forms, size of walers and struts,
etc (26).
Cofferdams in deep water may be located by coordinate system or triangulation. Proper alignment
may be secured by placing marks at the intersection of the centrelines with each edge of the frame
to be spotted and moving the frame until both marks are on the transit line.

For details on Post-Construction / As-Built Survey refer to Section 11.3.4.
12.2.5 Equipment
The state-of-the-art equipment used in underwater bridge construction survey includes:
1. TPS
2. GPS
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Figure 13: Summary of Construction Surveys for Underwater Marine Structures
Post-
Project Set Pre-
Elements Construction Construction / Equiptment Accuracy Note Forms
Out Construction
As-Built
• Same as
• Stake & check
construction
• Locate abutment & piers • Determine • File survey field
surveys for road
bridge from falling aground horizontal & notes for
bridges • Contractor shall
provided • Check & vertical locations underwater
• Additionally, • TPS make sure that
initial reference before of features in bridge
Cofferdams are • GPS construction
Bridges control & constructions
staked to fix
completed
• Level accuracy specified
construction
stake operation starts structures survey elements
temporary Instruments by Consultant is
additional • Set out structural • Record variations with actual
control points for obtained
control if elements falling from original staked positions
construction of
required underwater from plans with RE
submerged
ground control
structures
• Same as
construction
surveys for other
• Determine
• Locate elements • File survey field
• Set out structural horizontal &
tunnel from • Re-check • TPS notes for
elements of vertical locations
provided temporary • GPS • The stated underwater
tunnel falling of features in
initial control points • Laser Aided boring accuracy tunnel
underwater from completed
Tunnels control &
ground control
frequently
structures
Control as specified by construction
stake • Alignment & Equipment the designer in survey elements
• Fix additional • Update design
additional control of • Leveling all directions. with actual
control points on plans as per the
control if excavation tunnel Instrument staked positions
cofferdam final layout in the
required • Control of tunnel with RE
field
tube
• Control of tunnel
boring
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As mentioned before, the construction accuracy is specified by the Designer/Consultant. However,
the construction survey accuracy for underwater bridge structures should not exceed as specified
by the designer in all directions.
12.2.7 Note Forms

Like ordinary bridge construction, construction survey field notes in the form of note forms, consisting
of stakeout listings for underwater bridge construction survey elements with actual staked positions
noted, shall be filed with the Resident Engineer upon completion of the survey.
12.3 Underwater Tunnels

Underwater tunnels consist of:
1. Cast-in-situ with open cut excavation below stream or sea bed

2. Tunnelling by boring

The concerned authority/Client shall provide initial control from which the Contractor can locate the
tunnel. The Contractor determines what additional control is needed for construction purposes and
is responsible for staking it. This additional control may include establishment of new horizontal and
vertical control points on both sides of stream/creek.
Like underwater bridges, the project set out for underwater tunnels is done from the shore on both
sides. In such cases references points are also set on both sides of the tunnel. If the centreline is
not visible from beginning to end, the centreline may be extended back to the same length of tunnel
on both sides.
12.3.2.1 Cast-in-Situ Tunnel with Open Cut Excavation below Stream
or Sea Bed
The structural elements of the tunnel falling underwater should be set out from the ground control
points and temporary control points should be fixed on the cofferdam for construction of the particular
structures in progress. These temporary control points should be re-checked frequently and before
each construction stage to confirm that the particular control has not moved horizontally and
vertically.
Bathymetric survey is also performed during this stage before the start of the construction stage as
described below.
Bathymetric Surveys
Bathymetric surveys shall be performed on both sides of the underwater tunnel alignment as
described above in Section 12.1, in order to produce sea bottom map, using a multi-beam echo-
sounder. The position of the survey vessel can be controlled by using GPS survey method.
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12.3.2.2 Tunnelling by boring
The pre-construction steps for tunnelling by boring include (27):
1. Identify the geographical extent of the construction works involved and design a scheme of
survey control network to cover the area.
2. Carry out a reconnaissance survey on the site to identify the known control stations nearby
and establish the new survey stations.
3. Set up a survey control network connecting the new stations rigidly to the known stations.
4. Carry out field measurements of angle and distance among the stations followed by
computation of provided coordinates of the control stations.
12.3.3 Construction
Like buildings, parking lots and bridges, most of the steps described in Chapter 11 under Sections
11.2.3.1 to 11.2.3.8 for Road Construction Survey are also applicable to the Underwater Tunnel
Construction Survey.
The major survey tasks required for the construction of underwater tunnel are described below.
12.3.3.1 Alignment and Level Control of Tunnel Trench/Tube

Alignment and level control of the excavation tunnel can be done by an automation system such as:
1. RTK-GPS
2. TPS
3. Laser Aided Control Equipment
12.3.3.2 Control of Tunnel Tube

Control of the tunnel tube can be performed by combination of different survey equipments such as:
1. TPS
2. RTK-GPS
3. Laser Aided Control Equipment
12.3.3.3 Control of Tunnel Boring

A Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) can never be driven exactly on the intended spatial line. Gripper
Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) allow quite rapid corrections, on the other hand, shield TBMs have
lethargic reaction behaviour.
Surveying should ideally be capable of showing the position of the TBM relative to the intended line
at any time, i.e., every half metre of advance. This aim has first been made practical with computer-
controlled position fixing.
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Surveying/Monitoring Position of TBM
A modern surveying system enables permanent monitoring of the position of the TBM. This is
achieved by receiving a laser light beam at an active receiver system. The installation of this receiver
system is included in the construction of the TBM. It is fixed to the shield. It determines the
longitudinal and the rolling of the TBM at the same time.
The exact angle of yaw is determined using intelligent sensors as the deflection of the target table
longitudinal axis to the laser beam. The differences in horizontal and vertical directions of the point
where the laser beam passes through the target table to the intended position are communicated to
an industrial computer, together with the roll angle, pitch angle and yaw angle, and used to determine
the position and level.
The result is displayed graphically and numerically related to the planned tunnel route or the
correction curve on a monitor at the control position. This enables the TBM driver to continuously
take into account the reaction of the machine while steering. This guarantees that the steering
operations are always related to the position and that the course is continuously led back to the
intended route.
The distance between laser and target table is normally measured electrically-optically and updated
with a new tunnel survey for each relocation of the laser. Any commercially available type of tunnel
laser can be used. This must, however, be adjusted from time to time, especially, when driving
curves. This altered position of the laser must be entered into the system manually.
Forward Calculation of the TBM Route

After the position of the TBM has been determined, for a gripper TBM after the last driven advance
and for a shield TBM after the last installed ring, the ideal route ahead for the TBM can be calculated.
If there are only minor deviations, then the intended route remains the future drive axis.
If there are significant deviations, a number of centimetres, a modern computer system can calculate
the correction curve needing to be driven. This correction curve starts from the most recently actually
driven curve and leads within the capabilities of the TBM slowly back to the intended curve. Too-
sudden corrections mostly lead to deviating from the ideal axis on the other side.

Upon completion of tunnel construction, a post-construction survey is carried out to update the
design plans as per the final layout in the filed.
The same type of final report like the one prepared during the pre-construction inspection / survey
report is prepared once the survey has been completed.
12.3.5 Equipment
The state-of-the-art equipment used in underwater tunnel construction survey includes:
1. TPS
2. GPS
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The acceptance criteria for field measurement of tunnels should comply with the following:
1. The spread of a repeated distance measurement should not be more than 2 mm + 2 ppm (7
mm for the 2.5 km length of tunnel as an example). This means 2 mm per km length of the
tunnel and 5 mm for 2.5 km length
2. The spread of a repeated angle measurement should not be more than 3” (3 seconds).
It is important to have a few stable reference points at the beginning of the measurements, which
are not affected by the tunnel construction. The accuracy of the laser theodolite measurement should
be ±1 mm or better for ideal measuring conditions. The accuracy can go down to ±3 mm or worse in
difficult conditions, for example, dust or large temperature differences inside the tunnel.
A surveying error caused by an incorrect laser direction beam leads to an incorrect theoretical boring
axis, which no longer lies within the bounds of such theoretical error considerations.
The stated boring accuracy of 8-10 cm in all directions can be taken as an achievable dimension for
tunnels up to 5 km long. In longer tunnels, however, the basic surveying error increases.
12.3.7 Note Forms

Like underwater bridge construction, construction survey field notes in the form of note forms,
consisting of stakeout listings for underwater tunnel construction survey elements with actual staked
positions noted, shall be filed with the Resident Engineer upon completion of the survey.
Page 112
13 AERIAL SURVEYS
Aerial Survey is required to survey a very large area to prepare cadastral map and to prepare a
topographic survey for this large area. Aerial Survey is also used to prepare contour maps of difficult
/ mountainous terrain for the preliminary design of roads and other projects. Aerial Photogrammetry
involves measuring x, y and z coordinates of a terrain from an image, as required for the production
of planimetric and topographic maps. Mapping cameras are used to do the Aerial Survey. Vertical
photography is used for topographic mapping.
13.1 Aerial Photography Requirements

Aerial Photography is an ideal base tool for use in the planning, design and maintenance of transport
infrastructure. Aerial Photography provides an excellent visual record of the roads and adjacent
terrain and can be used in planning, design and maintenance phases.
If existing Aerial Photography is unsuitable for a project requirement, particularly, where large scale
photographs are required, project specific photography will need to be captured.
13.1.1 Digital Photos

Digital cameras capture a 4-band (blue, green, red and infra-red) geo-referenced, unrectified image
directly in a camera specific format. While conventional Aerial Photography is captured with 60%
overlap, digital Aerial Photography is usually captured with 80% overlap. It is still possible to
produce prints from the digital images.
The main advantages of digital Aerial Photography are the increased analysis and image
manipulation possible with the 4-band image and the direct access to geo-referenced images for
use in mapping systems (28; 29).
13.1.2 Purpose of Aerial Photography

Aerial Photography can be captured for a number of purposes including the following (28; 29):
1. Route investigation
2. Preliminary planning and location for upgrades and / or maintenance of roads
3. Record of road assets and / or conditions
4. Production of image mosaics and / or photogrammetry
13.1.3 Factors to be Assessed

The following factors should be considered when requesting Aerial Photography (28; 29):
1. The purpose of the Aerial Photography
a. Investigation
b. Location
c. Presentation
2. The extent of the coverage
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3. The photography scale most suitable to satisfy the requirement
4. Possible additional uses beyond the primary use for the photography
5. Timeframe for supply
13.2 Digital Imagery from Aerial Photography

Digital Images obtained from Aerial Photography and produced in the form of strip mosaics or frames
provide an extremely versatile format for planning and presentation purposes. Additional digital data
can easily be superimposed over the base image.
This involves scanning the photography, then performing photogrammetric tasks on a computer,
without using hardcopy photographs during the actual process. The result can be a digital terrain
model and / or ortho-rectified images (28; 29).
13.2.1 Purpose of Air Photographic Imagery

Imagery can be produced for the following purposes (28; 29):
1. Public display / presentation

2. Route investigation
3. Preliminary planning and location
4. Planning / Design layouts or similar overlays
5. Recording existing features or situations

The following factors should be considered when requesting Imagery (28; 29):
1. Purpose of the imagery
a. Public consultation
b. Background for design layouts
c. Define the parameters for photo scale, image resolution, ortho-rectification
2. Display scale of imagery
a. For plotting at 1:1,000 scale, a pixel size of 150 mm is needed, usually requiring
scanning of film or dispositive at high resolution with a professional quality scanner
b. For plotting at 1:5,000 or larger, it may be possible to scan prints using a desktop
scanner
3. Ortho-rectified imagery
a. Imagery must be ortho-rectified to be scale correct like a map

b. Requires ground control and a digital elevation model
4. Availability of imagery
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a. There may be suitable existing ortho-rectified imagery
b. Ortho-rectified imagery may be available from Government Planning Departments or
private companies
c. Existing or new Aerial Photography may be scanned and ortho-rectified
5. Hardware / software
a. Define the file format for the imagery

b. Compatible software to view and / or manipulate the imagery
c. Suitable hardware to store and transfer the imagery (a single frame scanned at 24
microns produces a 250MB .TIFF file)
13.2.3 Imagery vs. Mosaics

Imagery has some significant advantages over conventional air photography enlargements or
mosaics. The advantages and disadvantages of imagery over mosaics are given below (28; 29).
13.2.3.1 Advantages
1. If the image is ortho-rectified, the resultant product is true to scale.
2. A digital image can have layers of digital data superimposed over the image.
3. Colour matching between models is more consistent.
4. Production time is less.
5. Multiple copies are available at the push of a button.
13.2.3.2 Disadvantages
1. Time delay in establishing control for rectification
2. Processing time
3. Clients hardware/software capability
4. Processing / Data production
13.2.4 Products of Air Photographic Imagery

The products of Air Photographic Imagery include (28):
1. Diapositives of Aerial Photography and contact prints

2. Scaled/ortho-rectified image data on CD
3. Scanned single frame images on CD
13.3 Digital Surveying Data from Photogrammetry

Digital Surveying Data has become more frequently used by planners and designers to form the
terrain model necessary in road planning and design processes. One source of this data is
photogrammetric modelling derived from Aerial Photography.
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Topographic plotting and terrain modelling can be produced by field survey or by photogrammetry.
In many cases a combination of both techniques will give the best result (28; 29).
13.3.1 Purpose of Photogrammetric Surveys

Photogrammetric surveys are undertaken for the following purposes (29):
1. Route Investigation
2. Location and design
3. Catchment areas
4. Landslips
5. Production of Digital Terrain Models

The following factors should be considered when requesting photogrammetric surveys (28):
1. Is the information required for investigation, location or design?

2. Is suitable Aerial Photography coverage available?
3. Is the ground concealed by dense vegetation cover or by long grass?
4. Is a digital terrain model required?
5. Is a cadastral overlay required?
6. To what extent is cultural (man- made) detail required to be shown.
7. What plotting scale will show topographic detail to the best advantage?
8. What contour interval and spot height accuracy are required?
13.3.3 Photogrammetry vs. Field Survey

In determining the relative merits of photogrammetry over field surveys, the following advantages
and disadvantages of photogrammetry should be considered (28; 29):
13.3.3.1 Advantages
1. Large areas, especially where the strip of land to be covered is wide
2. Mountainous country
3. Areas with difficult access
4. Politically sensitive areas where plans can be produced with a minimum disturbance to
property owners
13.3.3.2 Disadvantages
1. Delays can occur if new Aerial Photography has to be obtained. Aerial Photography missions
are controlled by the seasons and the weather.
2. Long grass, trees, other vegetation, structures and water may obscure the ground.
3. Features such as the following cannot be identified without field completion:
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a. cadastral marks
b. bed levels
c. underground services, e.g., gas, sewerage, etc.
d. drainage details, e.g., pipe size
13.3.4 Products of Photogrammetric Surveys

The products resulting from photogrammetric survey procedure are (28):
1. Prints of aerial photographs

2. Diapositives
3. Ground control surveys.
4. Digital terrain and feature models
5. Verification plots
6. Contour and / or spot height overlays to plans
7. Digital terrain information
13.4 Existing Products

13.4.1 Aerial Photography
The Abu Dhabi Emirate has been covered photographically at various scales, although not
completely at any particular scale. Coverage is available in the following forms:
1. Emirate Photography
2. Specific Project Photography
3. Specific Departmental Photography (e.g., Main Roads)
In general, photography scales range from 1:2,500 to 1:100,000. Project photography can be
captured over limited areas for special requirements and varies in scale from 1:1,000 upwards. Most
of these forms of photography are suitable for investigation purposes.
13.4.2 Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery is another option that may be used for planning projects. Satellite imagery covers
all of Abu Dhabi. Different satellites can capture imagery at various resolutions. Satellite imagery
can be used to capture features existing at a particular time and can be used to show changes over
time. Satellite imagery is useful to show features over a large area.
Two of the options available for satellite imagery include:
1. Spot
2. Quickbird
Spot has a pixel size ranging from 10 m to 2.5 m. This is suitable for general planning and preliminary
route analysis for large areas.
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Quickbird has a pixel size of 2.4 m to 0.6 m. Quickbird imagery can be useful for road planning,
especially broad scale planning over a large area. The resolution available is comparable to smaller
scale Aerial Photography (1:20,000). Satellite imagery has a distinct advantage over Aerial
Photography at these scales for larger areas (more than 5 km width) due to the consistency of the
satellite image over the entire area.
13.4.3 Standard / Topographic Mapping

A topographic map provides representation of the shape of the land as well as natural and built
features on the land. It allows the user to obtain measurements (within map scale limits) of distance,
direction and quantity.
The latest type of topographic map utilizes a digital image of Aerial Photography corrected to scale
as a background and is called a Topographic Image Map.
The scaling of topographic mapping varies with the coverage required. For covering the entire Abu
Dhabi Emirate a scale of 1:100,000 may be used. On the other hand, for partial coverage scales
such as 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000, 1:5,000, 1:2,500, etc., may be used.
13.4.4 Cadastral Mapping

For cadastral mapping relatively larger scales are used as compared to Aerial Photography and
topographic mapping. For generating cadastral mapping scales of 1:5,000, 1:2,500, 1:2,000 and
1:1,000 may be used.

In order to accurately use aerial imagery for mapping purposes, it is necessary to relate spatial
resolution to map scale. Spatial resolution affects both the ability to identify objects, and the ability
to accurately measure objects. It is important to note that for good contrast images, objects can often
be identified to a smaller resolution than they can be measured. This has to do with the excellent
radiometric resolution of the sensors.
To produce a raster map that meets both geometric and image quality requirements, a sample
interval on the imagery equivalent to at least 0.1 mm is recommended. This corresponds to a 254
ppi (pixels per inch) resolution, which is between the 200 and 300 ppi that are typically used to avoid
seeing individual pixels with the naked eye. This will also ensure that quantization and aliasing errors
are negligible, and the image quality of the final map will meet user expectations.
13.5.1 Ground Sample Distance Requirements

The Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of the aerial imagery used to generate base map data shall be
of adequate resolution to meet the required map scales. The recommend GSD for common map
scales is represented in Table 6 (30).
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Table 6: Recommended GSD vs. Map Scale
Map Scale GSD(m)
1:500 0.05
1:1,000 0.10
1:2,000 0.20
1:4,000 0.40
1:5,000 0.50
1:10,000 1.00
1:20,000 2.00
1:25,000 2.50
1:50,000 5.00
1:100,000 10.00
[Source: Base Mapping Specification, Department of Municipal Affairs (30)]
13.5.2 Horizontal Accuracy Requirements

The horizontal accuracy for maps with scales 1:20,000 and larger shall meet the accuracy standards
specified in Table 7.
Table 7: Horizontal Ground Accuracy Standard, Large-Scale Maps
Map Scale RMSE (m)
1:100 0.025
1:200 0.050
1:500 0.125
1:1,000 0.250
1:2,000 0.500
1:4,000 1.000
1:5,000 1.25
1:10,000 2.50
1:20,000 5.00
[Source: Base Mapping Specification, Department of Municipal Affairs (30)]
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13.5.3 Vertical Accuracy Requirements
The vertical accuracy of the base map products shall meet the following requirements (30):
13.5.3.1 Contour Mapping

For contour mapping requirements of Equation 4 shall be met.
Equation 4: Vertical Accuracy Requirements for Contour Mapping
1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑍𝑍 = 3CI
13.5.3.2 Spot Elevations

For spot elevations requirements of Equation 5 shall be met.
Equation 5: Vertical Accuracy Requirements for Spot Elevations
1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑍𝑍 = 6CI
In Equation 4 and 5, RMSEZ represents the Root Mean Squire Error of elevation and CI represents
Contour Interval in metres.
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14 MAPPING
Mapping is mainly used to prepare area maps with 2D capabilities and is a graphic representation,
drawn to scale and usually on a flat surface of features.
14.1 Purpose of Maps

A map provides information on the existence, the location of and the distance between ground
features, such as populated places and routes of travel and communication. It also indicates
variations in terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation cover.
While most maps allow a person to measure distance between points, a topographic map allows a
person to determine the height or depth of the terrain and the steepness of slopes.
For highway engineering purpose, small-scale generalized maps are drawn to prepare feasibility
reports. Topographic maps, in addition to, aerial and satellite photography are used for project
planning. Large-scale topographic maps produced by the preliminary survey are used in the design
work. It is very important for the map compiler and / or draftsperson, to understand the map's purpose
and the standards required to provide the information needed (14).
14.2 Types of Maps

Several kinds of maps are produced to satisfy particular use in the design, construction and right of
way process. Some of the commonly produced maps include (14):
1. Planimetric Map
2. Topographic Map
3. Utility Map
4. Alignment Map
5. Drainage Map
6. Property Map
7. Ownership Map
8. Title Map
9. Right of Way Map
14.2.1 Planimetric Map

This is a map that represents only the horizontal position of natural and cultural features. It is usually
the first map made and is referred to as the base map. It is used to develop special use maps.
A planimetric map is usually developed from Aerial Photography. Additional copies of this map can
be produced for development of special use maps.
A planimetric map prepared in the office will show the same essential information as shown on the
map prepared from field survey data (14).
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14.2.2 Topographic Map
The topographic map is the planimetric base map with relief (elevation) shown by the use of contours
and spot elevations. This map may be accompanied by a digital terrain model (DTM), if requested.
A topographic map is a special type of map that uses contour lines to represent areas of equal
elevation. The distance between the contour lines represents a difference in elevation that is defined
by the map's legend and may be a specific number of feet, metres, or any number of other measuring
units.
Photo control requirements are done in the field. All topographic mapping prepared for the project
generally should be produced from Aerial Photography. Topographic maps for small jobs or sites
may be produced by ground survey methods (14).
14.2.3 Utility Map

The utility map is compiled to mapping standards at the requested scale. A coordinate grid system
should be used in all urban jobs and also on rural jobs where available.
This utility map, besides showing all utilities, may show alignments of in-place or proposed roadways
and visible planimetric features. In urban areas of high-density cultural features, no visible
planimetric features other than utilities shall be shown (14).
14.2.4 Alignment Map

The alignment map is not an essential map. It is usually made in response to a specific request and
should be produced to the relevant mapping standards at the requested scale. This map is overlaid
on the planimetric base and usually shows only cultural and natural features and alignments of
roadways and railroads.
An alignment map can be used for the production of geometric layouts or to clarify design alignment
in very cluttered, complicated, urban or interchange areas. On interchange alignment maps; showing
many mainlines, ramps and streets with large numbers of curves, identifying these curves by using
numbers or letters and consolidated tabulations of the respective curve data is effective (14).
14.2.5 Drainage Map

In preparing this type of map, the data received from field surveys and field inspection will
supplement Aerial Photography in showing drainage areas and their characteristics such as high
water data, elevations and locations of streams, ditches and structures that may have an effect on
the design of the drainage structures within a project. The type and scale of a drainage map depends
on the size of the drainage areas (14).
14.2.6 Property Map

A property map shows all property boundaries of record and their dimensions within the mapping
area. It is produced to mapping standards and can be used as a base map for ownership, right of
way, title, or location mapping (14).
14.2.7 Ownership Map

An ownership map is usually produced for use in a geometric layout to study the effects of highway
design on property ingress and egress, building encroachment, etc. It is made for graphic use only
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and does not have to meet mapping standards, therefore scaling should not be done from this map.
The alignment of the proposed roadway may also be placed on the map if requested by the user
(14).
14.2.8 Title Map

This will graphically show the section lines, quarter section lines and corresponding corners of the
Public Land Survey. The limits of this mapping will follow along a corridor of properties that will be
affected by areas of proposed construction or development by the Client.
The maps used for showing titles can be existing right of way maps, half-section maps, township plat
maps, or new maps prepared with the required data. They do not need to be developed to mapping
standards and need not show dimensions (14).
14.2.9 Right of Way Map

A right of way map is a graphic depiction, compiled from official documents of record. Right of way
maps should not be used for determining boundaries. Accurate location of the right of way lines
requires additional research and survey data.
Generally, a new right of way map is prepared for all projects on new locations and for betterment
projects that involve extensive changes. On some reconstruction jobs, a previously filed right of way
map from an earlier project can be used to show new alignments, survey data and right of way (14).
14.3 Data for Map Preparation

Data for map preparation could be of a large volume and could originate from various sources.
Usually, this data is collected from field surveys and field inspection supplemented by Aerial
Photography.
Looking at the different types of maps described above, the information provided by these mainly
includes the following:
1. Horizontal position of natural and cultural features

2. Relief (elevation) shown by the use of contours and spot elevations
3. Visible planimetric features.
4. Utilities
5. Alignments of in-place roadways and survey reference lines
6. Land ties at section line crossings and record boundaries
7. Geometric layouts
8. High water data,
9. Locations of streams, ditches and structures
10. Property boundaries of record and their dimensions within the mapping area
Keeping in view this information, the major data elements for map preparation include the following
(14):
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14.3.1 Cultural and Natural Features
This includes all items, except bush less than 5.0 cm in diameter as measured at a point 0.6 m above
ground that can be seen by the eye. This includes such items as walls, houses, streets, bridges,
fences, power poles, wells (used and unused) within 6 m of the Client right of way, catch basins and
manholes. This should exclude minor detail that is unnecessary or descriptive of larger items.
14.3.2 Utilities
This includes all structures and related items above and below the ground that are connected with
such things as power, water, sewer (storm and sanitary), natural gas, telephones, communications,
pipelines, etc.
14.3.3 Record Boundaries

All record title boundaries, ownerships and Government Land Corners come under this heading.
This includes such things as right of way, access control, easements (slope, scenic, or utility, either
above or below the ground), private property lines, government landlines, cemetreies, etc.
14.3.4 Surface Elevations

This refers to elevation expressed as contours and spot elevations.
14.3.5 Alignment
This pertains to alignment of all roadways and railroads constructed or planned.
14.4 Description of Map (Type, Scale, Area, etc.)

A map can be simply defined as a graphic representation of the real world. It is designed to record
the relationships between features. A map may be very simple (e.g., a sketch showing the location
of buildings and other features) or very complex (e.g., a topographic map of certain area).
Because of the infinite nature of our Universe, it is impossible to capture all of the complexity found
in the real world. For example, topographic maps abstract the three-dimensional real world at a
reduced scale on a two-dimensional plane of paper.
Maps are used to display both cultural and physical features of the environment. Standard
topographic maps show a variety of information including roads, land-use classification, elevation,
rivers and other water bodies, jurisdiction boundaries and the identification of houses and other types
of buildings.
Some key characteristics of maps include:
1. Maps portray, as accurately as possible, the spatial relationships between features, i.e.,
where a feature is located relative to other features.
2. Maps are drawn to a scale.
3. Maps emphasise and omit certain features, depending on their design objectives.
4. As a general rule, a map is usually a two-dimensional representation (e.g., a flat piece of
paper) of a three-dimensional object (e.g., the Earth) – occasionally it may be a three-
dimensional object (e.g., a globe).
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5. Maps generally have a reference system (e.g., latitude / longitude), which allows the location
of a feature to be described.
Maps are rarely drawn at the same scale as the real world. Most maps are made at a scale that is
much smaller than the area of the actual surface being depicted. The amount of reduction that has
taken place is normally identified somewhere on the map. This measurement is commonly referred
to as the map scale. Conceptually, we can think of map scale as the ratio of the distance between
any two points on the map compared to the actual ground distance represented. This concept can
also be expressed mathematically as depicted in Equation 6.
Equation 6: Map Scale Depiction
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸ℎ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
On most maps, the map scale is represented by a simple fraction or ratio. This type of description of
a map's scale is called a representative fraction. For example, a map where one unit (centimetre,
metre, inch, kilometre, etc.) on the illustration represents 1,000,000 of these same units on the actual
surface of the Earth would have a representative fraction of 1/1,000,000 (fraction) or 1:1,000,000
(ratio). Of these mathematical representations of scale, the ratio form is most commonly found on
maps.
Most maps also use graphic scale to describe the distance relationships between the map and the
real world. In a graphic scale, an illustration is used to depict distances on the map in common units
of measurement. The scale graphically depicted in Figure 14 indicates a map scale of 1:250,000 or
1 cm on the map equals to 2.5 km on the Earth. Graphic scales are quite useful because they can
be used to measure distances on a map quickly.
Figure 14: Graphic Representation of Map Scale (Scale Bar)
14.5 Requirements for Maps

Maps need to conform to the following requirements, if these are applicable to each type of a map:
1. Display legend containing at least title, map no., etc.

2. Display boundaries of the property
3. Display names of major streets near the district and all the named streets bordering the
property
4. Display names of places
5. Display road numbers
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6. Display a north arrow (magnetic or true)
7. Display approximate scale a map drawn to scale
8. Display contributing sites, buildings, structures, and objects
9. Display land uses and natural features covering substantial acreage or having historic
significance, such as forests, fields, orchards, quarries, rivers, lakes, and harbors
Maps drawn to a larger scale may be used to show the concentration of resources or types of
representative sites. These maps should be keyed to a larger map covering the entire area.
Archaeological site numbers are usually sufficient for keying.
14.6 Quality Control of Maps

The process of quality control of maps consists of various phases. During the first phase, quality
control in office and checking in the field is carried out. Second phase consists of quality control of
bug fixes and evaluation for the last phase, i.e., production of films and test prints. In last (third)
phase subject of quality control is testing of quality of films, test prints and final data (vector data,
raster images, etc.).
A final report on the quality and accuracy of the maps should accompany the submission of the final
product. The report should review the accuracy of the control, as described. The procedure used to
determine the map's spatial and content accuracy should be documented as well. Any claim of
accuracy or standard must be substantiated by an actual test and analysis. The testing methodology
used and the findings of its implementation should be documented in a final report for submission to
the DOT for their review and approval.
14.7 Large Scale Mapping

As the scale of a map changes from a smaller number to a larger number (e.g., from 1:100 to
1:100,000) the area of the Earth’s surface which can be shown increases, but the amount of detail
which can be shown decreases. This change in relationship has resulted in the creation of:
1. Small Scale Maps

2. Large Scale Maps
Small scale maps show less detail, cover larger areas (e.g., a country) and typically have a scale
which has a high number such as 1:1,000,000. On the other hand, large scale maps show more
detail, cover smaller areas (e.g., a city) and typically have a scale which has a low number such as
1:1,000.
A complicating factor is that here is no hard-and-fast rule as to which scales can be described as
small, medium or large. It all depends on your point of view. In simplistic terms, the scale that an
organisation most commonly uses for their maps can be regarded by them as medium scale, with
the small and large scales occurring ether side of it.
Furthermore, Figure 15 helps to explain the concept of small and large scale maps. In this figure, we
have maps representing an area of the Abu Dhabi (Shaikh Zayed Mosque) at scales of 1:20,000,
1:10,000, and 1:5,000 in the upper half of the figure. Of this group, the map drawn at 1:20,000 has
the smallest scale relative to the other two maps. The map with the largest scale is map drawn at a
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scale of 1:5,000. On the other hand, maps in the lower half of the figure are drawn at scales of 1:40,
1:20,000 and 1:10,000. Of this group, the map drawn at 1:40,000 has the smallest scale relative to
the other two maps. The map with the largest scale is map drawn at a scale of 1:10,000.
Note what happens to the amount of area represented on the maps when the scale is changed. A
doubling of the scale (1:20,000 to 1:10,000 and 1:10,000 to 1:5,000) causes the area shown on the
map to be reduced to 25% or one-quarter for the upper half of the figure. Whereas, in the lower half
of the figure, changing scale form smaller to larger for the same area to be displayed makes the
details more visible.
Figure 15: Illustration of Relationship between Map Scale and Size of Ground Shown
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Networks. Rockville, Maryland : Federal Geodetic Control Committee, 1984.
57. Bemhard Maidl, et al. Chapter Eight - Additional Equipment. Hardrock Tunnel Boring
Machines. Berlin : Emst & Sohn, 2008.
58. David Chapman, Nicole Metje, Alfred Stark. Introduction to Tunnel Construction. Austria :
Taylor & Francis, 2010.
59. US Army Corps of Engineers. Chapter 2 - Photogrammetric Accuracy Standards and

Classifications. Engineering and Design - Photogrammetric Mapping Manual. Washington
DC : Department of the Army, 2002.
60. Pidwirny, Michael. Chapter 2 - Maps, Remote Sensing and GIS. Fundamentals of Physical
Geography (2nd Edition). eBook : Physical Geography.net, 2009.
61. ICSM. Fundamentals of Mapping. eBook : Commonwealth of Australia, 2011.
Page 131
OTHER REFERENCES
California Department of TransportationChapter 6 – GPS Survey Specifications - Surveys
Manual.Sacramento, 2006.
California Department of TransportationChapter 13 – Photogrammetry Surveys - Surveys

Manual.Sacramento, 2006.
Department of the Army Topographic Surveying Field Manual. Washington D.C., 2001.
Florida Department of Transportation Aerial Surveying and Mapping Standards for Transportation
Projects. Florida, 2010.
Florida Department of Transportation Right of Way Mapping Manual. Florida, 2008.
Florida Department of Transportation Surveying Manual. Florida, 2004.
Government of Queensland Glossary of Surveying and Mapping Terms. Queensland., 2010.
North Dakota Department of Transportation Chapter 20 – Procedure for Creating Right of Way
Plats - Surveys and Photogrammetry Manual. North Dakota, 2010.
US Department of the Interior Glossary of BLM Surveying and Mapping Terms. Washington D.C.,
2003.
US Office of Coast Survey Field Procedures Manual. Washington D.C., 2011.
Wisconsin Department of Transportation Surveying and Mapping Guidelines for Land

Acquisition. Madison, 2010.
Wisconsin Society of Land Surveyors Glossary of Surveying & Mapping Terms. Larsen, 1999.
Page 132
INDEX
Abu Dhabi Department of Transport, 19 bridge surveys, 2

Abu Dhabi Emirate, 1, 4, 6, 19, 52, 57, 58, Bridge surveys, 3, 70
62, 117, 118 Bridge Surveys, 1
Accuracy, 28, 29, 32, 33, 39, 45, 47, 52, bridges, 3, 12, 41, 49, 64, 70, 72, 86, 98,
54, 55, 63, 68, 75, 83, 88, 95, 100, 102, 100, 107, 109, 124
105, 109, 112, 118
Bridges, 51, 70, 72, 91, 96, 106
Accuracy, Precision and Error Adjustment,
33, 39, 45, 47, 52, 54, 63, 68, 75, 83, 95, buildings, xiii, 3, 12, 22, 30, 49, 64, 86,
100, 102, 105, 109, 112, 118 100, 103, 110, 124, 126
Acquisition Plats, 61 Buildings, 52, 55, 102
AD-SDI Survey Records, 57 Cadastral Mapping, 118
Aerial Photography, 40, 45, 52, 60, 113, Computation of Boundary Corners, 61
114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123 construction, 6, 7, 13, 24, 29, 33, 39, 41,
Aerial Survey, 1, 2, 3, 32, 40, 45, 113 42, 43, 48, 53, 57, 63, 70, 71, 86, 88, 89,
91, 95, 96, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106,
Alignment, x, 42, 43, 71, 93, 110, 121, 109, 110, 111, 121
123, 124
Construction, 88, 89, 97, 100, 102, 107,
Alignments, 42, 43, 71, 123 110
Annotation, 45 construction limits, 61, 71, 106
AutoCAD, 2, 20, 68 construction operations, 43, 95, 97, 101,
azimuth, 44 104, 106
Azimuth, 61 construction project, 88, 102
Balance Points, 92 construction staking, 71, 72, 103
bathymetric survey, 2, 3, 83, 84, 85 Construction Survey, 1, 86
Bathymetric survey, 76, 109 Control of Tunnel Tube, 110
bathymetric surveys, 83, 85 control station, 28, 48, 110
Bathymetric Surveys, 109 control survey, 2, 19, 29, 38, 54, 117
bathymetry, 79, 83 Control survey, 7, 28
bench marks, 2, 30, 41, 72, 88, 89, 90, 97, Control Survey, 1
98, 100 coordinate system, 20, 21, 28, 43, 44, 49,
Book Size, 25 62, 66, 67, 71, 86, 107
Bridge Construction Survey, 97, 107 Coordinate System, 22, 61
Bridge Location Requirements, 70 Cross-Sectioning, 46, 47, 48
bridge survey, 71 Cross-Sectioning Method, 47
Bridge Survey, 73 curbs and gutters, 71
Page 133
Curbs and Gutters, 52 DOT, 1, 2, 6, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27,
Curve Superelevation, 92 34, 44, 52, 54, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 69,
84, 88, 101, 124
data collection procedures, 34
Drainage Map, 121, 122
Data Collection Procedures, 34
drainage structures, 41, 46, 95, 122
data file formats, 2
Drainage Structures, 52
Data File Formats, 20
DTM, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 70, 72, 75
Data File Integrity, 54
DTM codes, 51
Data Management, 1, 19
DTM data, 49, 51, 52
data processing, 2, 3, 83
DTM Feature Compilation, 50
Data Processing, 66, 83
DTM features, 54
Data Submitter, 19, 20, 21, 22
DTM Features, 49
datum, 4, 26, 29, 32, 43, 47, 72, 73, 81,
DTM Procedures, 52
83, 95, 101, 104
Duplicating, 25
deliverables, 20, 69, 70, 84, 85
Electronic Recording, 25
Deliverables, 69
Department of Transport, i, 1, 20, 24, 25, electronic topography, 46
123 Electronic Topography, 45
Department of Transport (DOT), 1 equipment, 1, 2, 3, 29, 33, 34, 38, 39, 44,
Department of Transport, 46, 48, 64, 76, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 92, 96,
DoT, xvi 97, 98, 101
depth measurement, 83 Equipment, 32, 34, 36, 37, 44, 52, 56, 64,
75, 80, 81, 82, 86, 94, 107, 110, 111
Depth Measurement, 80
Existing Products, 117
digital data, 20, 85, 114, 115
feature classes, 21, 22, 27
Digital Data, 84, 85
Feature Classes, 22
digital images, 113
feature codes, 24, 26, 51
Digital Images, 114
Feature Codes, 22, 24, 51
Digital Photos, 113
Field Communications, 15
digital terrain model, 47, 51, 114, 116, 122
Field Crew Preparation, 34
Digital Terrain Model, xi, 44, 46, 49, 116
field note recording, 2
Digital Terrain Model (DTM), 44, 49
Field Note Recording, 24
digital terrain modelling survey, 2
field procedures, 29, 34
Digital Terrain Modelling Survey, 1
Field procedures, 31
Digital Terrain Modelling Surveys, 1
Field Procedures, 34, 52
digital terrain models, 47, 51
field research, 60
Digital Terrain Models, 116
Field Research, 60
Page 134
fieldbook, 89, 90, 92, 94, 100, 101 Indexing, 26
Fieldbook, 89, 94, 101 Land Survey, 62
Final Alignment, 43 Land Surveys, 1, 56, 57, 62
final location survey, 40 Laser Beam, 64
Final Location Survey, 41 Leveling, xii, 30, 31, 86
final measurements, 101, 104 LiDAR, xii, xvi, 2, 33, 44, 64, 67
Final measurements, 95 LiDAR survey, 64
Final Measurements, 95, 101, 104 Line Features, 26
Final Plans, 95, 101, 104 Line Strings, 26
Floor Setting Out, 103 Linestyles, 24
GDS file, 19, 20, 21, 22 Main Roads, 1, 117
GDS File, 20, 21 Map Preparation, 60, 123
general survey requirements, 2 Mapping, 1, 58, 59, 113, 121, 126
General survey requirements, 4 MBES Calibration, 82
General Survey Requirements, 1 Mean Sea Level, xii
General Terrain, 52 Metadata, 20, 22, 84, 85
geodetic survey, 28 Microstation, 2, 68
Geodetic survey, 32 Mobile Laser Scanning, 66
Geodetic Survey, 28, 29 Mobile Surface Vehicle, 64
Geo-Spatial Data Submission, 57 Multi-Beam Echo-Sounders
MBES, xvi, 79
GIS, 2, 4, 19, 20, 26, 27, 36, 44, 57, 58, 59
Municipalities Survey Records, 57
GIS Database, 58
New Alignment, 43
GIS requirements, 2
Note Forms, 96, 100, 102, 105, 109, 112
GIS Section, 2, 20, 23, 53, 59
Office Procedures, 36
GPS, xi, 2, 4, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 38, 39, 44, 45, 48, 52, 56, 58, 60, 64, Ownership Map, 121, 122
71, 75, 78, 81, 83, 86, 107, 109, 110, parking areas, 49
111
Parking Areas, 52, 55
GPS Techniques, 34, 38
Parking Lots, 100
horizontal control, xv, 28, 29, 30, 34, 45,
71 Phase-Shift Scanners, 64, 65
Horizontal Control, 31 Planimetric Map, 121
Horizontal Control Networks, 29, 30 Plat Development, 62
horizontal datum, xii, 31 Point Cloud Processing Software, 67
Horizontal Datum, 4 Point Cloud Registration, 67
Horizontal Methods, 44
Page 135
Pre-Construction, 88, 96, 100, 102, 106, Site Surveys, 62
109 Slope Staking, 92
Pre-construction Conference, 88 Special Surveys, 62
Preliminary Survey, 41 Stakes for Borrow Pits, 91
Preparation in Advance, 90 Stakes for Column Lines, 103
Private Boundary Corners, 57 Stakes for Entrance Culverts, 93
Products of Air Photographic Imagery, 115 Stakes for Footings, 103
Profile Method, 46 Stakes for Grading, 92, 100
Project Set out, 86, 96, 100, 102, 106, 109 Stakes for Pavement, 93, 101
Project Survey Reports, 84 Staking Abutments, 98, 107
Property Map, 121, 122 Staking Cofferdams, 107
Property Owner, 15 Staking Footings, 99, 107
Property Owner Contact, 15 Staking Piers, 99, 107
QC/QA, 35, 36, 37, 69 Stationary Laser Scanning, 64
Railroads, 52, 55 Storage Tanks, 52, 55
Reconnaissance Survey, 40 Survey Comments, 24
Record Boundaries, 124 Survey Plot Code Library, 26
Record Research, 57 Survey Standards, 4, 19, 55
Relative Measurements, 46, 47 Surveying, xiv, 1, 110, 111
Retaining Walls, 51, 55 Template GDS File, 20
Right of Entry, 15 The Point Cloud File, 66
Right of Way Map, 121, 123 Time-of-Flight Scanners, 64, 65
Road Construction Survey, 97, 100, 102, Title Map, 121, 123
107, 110
topographic map, 45, 49, 118, 121, 122,
Roads, 86 124
Roadway Profiles, 72 Topographic Map, 121, 122
Roadways, 52 topographic mapping, 29, 113, 118, 122
ROW, xiii, 2, 48, 56, 60, 61, 62, 71 Topographic Mapping, 118
Satellite Imagery, 59, 117 Topographic Surveys, 44
SBES Calibration, 82 Topography, xiv, 21, 71
SDTM Schedule, 54 Total Station, 30, 32, 44
Setting Stakes, 90 TPS, 30, 32, 33, 44, 52, 56, 64, 75, 86,
Setting Stringlines, 101 107, 110, 111
Sidewalks, 52, 55 Traverse, xiv, 30
Single-Beam Echo-Sounder, 80 Tripod, 37, 64
SBES, 78
Page 136
Tunnelling by boring, 109, 110 UTM Zones, 21
Types of Maps, 121 Vertical Control, 32, 72
Underwater Tunnels, 109 Vertical Control Networks, 29, 30
Units of Measurement, 6 Vertical Datum, 6
Utilities, 16, 52, 55, 71, 104, 123, 124 Vertical Methods, 46
Utility Map, 121, 122 Waveform Processing, 64, 65
Utility Setting, 104
Page 137

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LAND SURVEYING AND MAPPING

GUIDE FOR ROAD PROJCTS

Document Number: AD-D-01

DOCUMENT NO: AD-D-01

Document Development Consultant: TrafQuest

1.2 Purpose and scope

1.3 Application of this manual

1.4 Content and format

The chapter-wise contents are highlighted below:

2.1 Survey Datum

2.1.1 Horizontal Datum

Table 1: Abu Dhabi Spatial Reference System

Phase Project Control Survey(s) Deliverables Approval

Establish Horizontal Topographical Survey Control Drawing Preliminary Survey

Check Established Topographical Survey Control Drawing Detailed

2.1.2 Vertical Datum

2.1.3 Units of Measurement

• 1 metre = 3.28084 feet

• A consistent, accurate, and up-to-date national shoreline

2.2 Survey Requirements

2.2.1.1 Project Control

Table 2: Vertical Control Accuracy Requirements

2.2.1.2 Topographical survey

Table 3: Area Coverage Details about Proposed/Existing Road/Corridor

S/No. Project Type Area/Corridor to be Covered

Survey Ground Control

Image Date(s): New collection

Cloud Cover: Data may contain up to 15% cloud

DEM Posting: 1 metre

Format: Digital Elevation Model: Floating point geo-tiff

Projection / Datum: UTM39 or UTM40 / WGS 84

Camera: Digital Camera

Photo Pixel Size: 10 centimetre

DEM Posting: 1 metre

Overlap: 60% forward and 30% Side

Format: Digital Elevation Model: Floating point geo-tiff

Projection / Datum: UTM39 or UTM40 / WGS84

2.2.2 Preliminary Design /Detailed Design

2.2.2.1 Project Control

2.2.2.2 Topography and Land Survey

2.2.2.3 Cadastral Survey

2.2.3 Construction Phase

2.2.3.1 Project Control

2.2.3.3 Staking Out

2.2.3.4 As-built Survey

2.3.4 Responsibility for Survey Data Accuracy

2.4 Personnel/Staff Requirements

• Hold a bachelor degree in surveying with a minimum of 5 years relevant experience or

• A qualification of bachelor in surveying with a minimum of 5 years relevant experience or

2.5 Quality Control

2.6 Field Communications

2.6.1 Property Owner Contact

2.6.2 Right of Entry

Form 1: Property Owner Contact Form

DOT Project No.:

Person Contacted: Owner Renter

Continue on back if necessary

• Abu Dhabi EHS Higher Committee

2.7.2 Road Safety

2.7.3 Underwater Marine Structure Safety

• Be extremely familiar with their diving equipment

3.1 Survey Data & GIS Data

3.2 Survey Data Transfer

3.3 Data File Formats