Billy Budd and Capital Punishment: A Tale of Three Centuries

Author(s): H. Bruce Franklin

Source: American Literature, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 337-359
Published by: Duke University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928274
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H. Bruce BuddandCapital
Billy ATaleof
Punishment:
Franklin ThreeCenturies

moreantithetical
H as anyworkofAmerican
and mutually
literature
generated
hostileinterpretationthanHerman
Melville'sBillyBudd,Sailor?Andall thebattlesaboutthemoraland
politicalvisionat theheartofthetaleswirlaroundonequestion:Are
we supposedto admireor condemnCaptainVereforhis decisionto
sentenceBillyBuddtodeathbypublichanging? 1 Somehow, astonish-
inglyenough,nobodyseemstohavenoticedthatcentraltothestory
is thesubjectofcapitalpunishment anditshistory.
This is trueevenin thetenessays constituting thefirstnumber
of Cardozo Studiesin Law and which
Literature, was devotedtoBilly
Buddbecause-in thewordsoflawprofessor RichardH. Weisberg-it
is "thetextthathas cometo'mean'Law andLiterature. "2 The closest
encounter withtheissueofcapitalpunishment intheseessaysorelse-
wherecomesfromWeisberg'santagonist, JudgeRichardA. Posner
oftheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheSeventhCircuit(anda
self-styled"newcritic"),whocondemns thosewho"condemn Vere's
conduct"as mere"liberals"whoare "uncomfortable withauthority,
including military authority,andhatecapitalpunishment" ("mostlit-
erarycriticsare liberals,"addsPosner).According to the judge,"we
mustnotreadmoderncompunctions aboutcapitalpunishment intoa
storywritten a century ago."3
YetduringtheveryyearsthatMelvillewas composing thestory-
1886to 1891-nationalandinternational was focusedonthe
attention
climaxofa century-long battleovercapitalpunishment unfoldingin
theveryplacewhereMelvillewas living-NewYorkState.Whyhave
we overlookedsomething so obvious?Is it because we ignorethe

AmericanLiterature, C) 1997by Duke

Volume69, Number2, June1997.Copyright
Press.
University
338 American
Literature

historyof capitalpunishment in the nineteenth century,including

itsprofound influence on Americanculture?4 Or havewe,whohave
been scrutinizing thisstorywithinthepost-World WarII cultureof
thesecondhalfofthetwentieth century, becomedesensitized tothe
implications oftheissuethatwereso manifest to nineteenth-century
Americans? In anycase, ifwe do contextualize BillyBuddwithinthe
Americanhistoryofcapitalpunishment and its bizarreoutcomein
NewYorkStateduringtheyears1886to 1891,thestorytransforms
beforeoureyes.
IfBillyBuddhadbeenpublished in1891,whenMelvillewrote"End
ofBook"on thelastleafofthemanuscript, fewreadersat thetime
couldhave failedto understand thatthe debatethenragingabout
capitalpunishment was centralto thestory, andtothesereadersthe
story'spositioninthatdebatewouldhaveappearedunequivocal and
unambiguous. BillyBuddderivesin partfromtheAmericanmove-
mentagainstcapitalpunishment. It dramatizeseach ofthe crucial
arguments and conceptsofthatmovement. Andit bringsintovivid
focusthekeyissuesofthecontemporaneous debate:Whichoffenses,
ifany,shouldcarrythedeathpenalty? Does capitalpunishment serve
as a deterrent to killingor as an exemplary modelforkilling? What
are theeffects ofpublicexecutions? Is hanginga methodofexecu-
tionappropriate to a civilizedsociety?Is an impulsiveact ofkilling
by an individual more-or less-reprehensiblethanthe apparently
calmlyreasonedact ofjudicialkilling?Is capitalpunishment essen-
tiallya manifestation A
ofthepowerofthestate? ritualsacrifice? An
instrument ofclass oppression? A keycomponent ofthe cultureof
militarism?Participants onall sidesofthedebateseemedtoagreeon
onlyonething:thatthemostappalling moment inthehistory ofcapi-
talpunishment withinmoderncivilization wasthereignofGeorgeIII
inEngland.
Whentheofficers whomCaptainVerehashandpicked forhisdrum-
head courtappearreluctant to convictBillyand sentencehimto
death,Vereforcefully reminds thesesubordinates thattheyowetheir
"'allegiance"'notto "'Nature,"'their"'hearts,"'or their"'private
conscience,"'butentirely to "'the King"' and his "'imperial[con-
science]formulated in thecode underwhichalonewe officially pro-
ceed."'" The time is 1797, the king is George III, and the code
to whichVere referswas knownin the nineteenth
centuryas the
"BloodyCode."
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment339

Duringthe reignsof the Tudorsand Stuarts,fifty crimeshad

carriedthe deathpenalty, and morewere slowlyadded.The most
spectacular increasecamelater,duringthereignofGeorgeIII, when
sixtyoffenses wereappendedto the death-penalty statutes.6By the
last thirdofthe nineteenth century, GeorgeIII's BloodyCode had
been universally repudiatedand condemned, bothin Englandand
America.7 As thebattleagainstcapitalpunishment ragedwhileMel-
villewas composing BillyBudd,partisanson bothsides agreedthat
eliminating mostofthecode'scapitaloffenses constituted one ofthe
century's notableachievements inhumanprogress.Notsurprisingly,
opponents ofthedeathpenaltycitedtheGeorgiancode as barbaric
and anachronistic, evenforthe eighteenth century. Forexample,a
widelyreprinted 1889articlereferred to"Georgian justice"as "a scan-
daltotherestofthecivilizedworld, " andagreedwithMirabeau'sver-
dictatthetimethat"'The Englishnationis themostmercilessofany
thatI haveheardorreadof. "18Evenadvocatesofcapitalpunishment
celebrated theprogress awayfrom theBloodyCode,pointing outthat
bytheearly1880scapitaloffenses in Englandhad been reducedto
"threeclasses"ofdeliberate murder, noneofwhichincluded"crimes
committed undercircumstances ofgreatexcitement, suddenpassion,
orprovocation. "9Articlesfavoring capitalpunishment publisheddur-
ingthelate1880sarguedthatthedeathpenaltyshouldcertainly "be
restrictedto murdercommitted with maliceprepense, by a sane per-
son,in resistingarrest,or in the commission ofanotherfelony." 10
BillyBudd,remember, is chargednotwithmurder butwithstriking
"'his superioringrade'"; "'Apartfrom theblowitselfis,'" as
itseffect
Captain Vere "'a
states, capital crime"' underthe ArticlesofWarof
theGeorgiancode (272).Nobodyontheshipbelievesthesailoracted
withpremeditation ormalicious-muchless murderous-intent, but
Vere instructs the courtthattheymustdisregardall questionsof
intent(274).
In themidstoftheAmericanRevolution againstGeorgeIII's im-
perialregimethereweresomeattempts toabolishcapitalpunishment
forallcrimesexceptmurder andtreason.Forexample, ThomasJeffer-
son and fourotherVirginialegislatorsdraftedsuch a law in early
1777,butitwas notconsidered until1785,whenitwas defeatedbya
one-vote marginintheHouseofDelegates.1"
The mostinfluential legalactcamein 1794,threeyearsbeforethe
actionofBillyBudd,whenthestateofPennsylvania becamethefirst
 Literature
340 American

tocodify intolawtheinnovative conceptof"degrees"ofmurder. Capi-

talpunishment was restrictedtomurder in the"firstdegree," defined
as "wilful,deliberateand premeditated "12 Two yearslater,
killing.
NewYorkStatereducedthenumber ofcapitalcrimesfrom thirteen to
two-murderandtreason-whilealso abolishing whipping as a pun-
ishmentforanycrime.13 In theensuingdecades,stateafterstatein
theNorthandWestfollowed theleadofPennsylvania andNewYorkin
reducing capitaloffenses,andthemovement forcompleteabolition of
thedeathpenaltysteadily gainedmomentum intothe1850s.Mainein
1837andNewHampshire in 1849passedmoratoria onall executions;
Massachusettslimitedthe deathpenaltyto firstdegreemurderin
1852;andonehouseofthestatelegislature votedtoabolishthedeath
penaltyin Ohio (1850),Iowa (1851),and Connecticut (1853).Capi-
talpunishment was abolishedaltogether in Michigan(1846),Rhode
Island(1852),andWisconsin(1853).14
Amongthechampions ofthesurgingcampaignforabolition were
manyofthe republic'sculturalleaders,such as HenryWadsworth
Longfellow, JohnGreenleafWhittier, JohnQuincyAdams,Lydia
Maria Child,TheodoreParker,MargaretFuller,and HenryWard
Beecher.The twogreatnewspapersofNewYorkCitywereforde-
cades editedbyprominent opponents ofcapitalpunishment, William
CullenBryantoftheNewYorkEvening Post(1829-1878)andHorace
GreeleyoftheNewYorkTribune (1841-1872).15
In theslaveSouth,however, GeorgeIII's BloodyCode had itsdis-
tinctivelyAmericancounterpart inthemyriadofoffenses definedas
capitalifcommitted byslaves.Capitalpunishment as an instrument
ofclass oppression has neverbeen demonstrated moreblatantly, an
argument madefrequently intheanti-death-penalty literature.Forex-
ample,in 1844Universalist ministerCharlesSpearofMassachusetts
citedthelawsoftheSouthas examplesoftheclasscontent ofcapital
punishment andreasonsforitstotalabolition. Georgiahad a manda-
torydeathsentenceforthefollowing crimes:"Rapeon a freewhite
female,ifa slave.Assaulting freewhitefemalewithintent to murder,
ifa slave. Burglaryor arsonof anydescription containedin penal
code ofstate,ifa slave.Murderofa slaveor freepersonofcolor,if
On theotherhand,a whitemanin Georgiaconvictedof
a slave."916
rapinga slavewomanorfreewomanofcolorfaceda fineand/orim-
prisonment, at thediscretion ofthecourt.17InAlabama,Spearnoted,
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment341

it was nota capitalcrimeto killa black,buttherewas a mandatory

deathpenalty fortheseoffenses: "Murder, orattempt tokillanywhite
person.Rape,orattempt to commit, ifa slave,freenegroormulatto.
Insurrection or rebellion againstthewhiteinhabitants. Burglary. Ar-
son.Accessary[sic] to anyoftheabovecrimes."Missouriprovided
thatany"negro,mulatto, or freecoloredperson"committing rape
wouldbe executedbymeansofcastration. Virginiahad seventy-one
crimesthatwerecapitaloffenses forslavesbutnotforwhites.These
includedburglary, forgery,stealinga horseorharboring a horsethief,
"wilfullysetting firetoanystackorcockofwheat," theft ofmoneyor
goods"ofthevalueoffourdollars, " andofcourserapingorattempting
torapea whitewoman.18 In 1848,Virginia passeda newstatuterequir-
ingthedeathpenaltyforblacksforanyoffense thatwas punishable
by threeormore years imprisonment ifcommitted bywhites.19
The politicalcontent ofcapitalpunishment was alsomanifest inthe
legal codes thatsupported the institution ofslavery.Pre-CivilWar
NorthCarolinahad a mandatory sentenceof deathforanyperson
guiltyofconcealinga slavewithintentto freehim20 orfor"circulat-
ingseditiouspublications amongslaves,secondoffence."21 Georgia
imposeda mandatory deathpenaltyfor"Circulating insurrectionary
papers,eitherbya white,a negro,mustizzo, orfreeperson."22 Mis-
sourilaw requiredmandatory executionfor"Excitinginsurrection
amongslaves,freeblacks,ormulattoes." Louisianahad a mandatory
deathpenalty foranyoneguiltyof"writings ofa seditiousnature."23
Fromthemid-1850s through theCivilWar,themovement to abol-
ish the deathpenaltywas overwhelmed by the movement against
Whenrevivedinthelate1860s,theanti-capital-punishment
slavery.24
movement oftenseemedto its adherentsto be partof inexorable
globalprogress.By 1889theycouldcite the abolitionofthe death
penalty,by law or in practice,in Holland,Finland,Belgium,Prus-
sia,Portugal,Tuscany, andRumania.25 To maximizeshockvalue,they
oftenfocusedonwhatmanyregardedas themostbarbaricaspectsof
capitalpunishment as practiced: publicexecution andhanging.
Publicexecutionandhanging, whichareintegral to CaptainVere's
arguments for the necessity killingBillyBudd,playeda complex
of
roleinthedebatesofthelastthirdofthenineteenth century.As abo-
emphasizedthegrotesqueand sordidspectaclesofpublic
litionists
hangings, theyoftenplayedintothehandsofretentionists, whosaw
342 American
Literature

thattheirbeststrategy forpreservingthedeathpenalty layincleans-

ing it of the featuresalmostuniversally condemnedas loathsome
remnants ofa savagepast.26
Between1833and1849,fifteen statesabolishedpublicexecutions,27
andthemovement tobanishthepracticealtogether was unstoppable
in thepostwardecades.Fromthelate 1860sthrough theend ofthe
century, hangingbecamethefocalpointofabolitionist andreformist
arguments, and New YorkStatebecame the pivotalbattleground.
In his 1869Putnam'sarticle"The Gallowsin America,"Edmund
ClarenceStedman(whowas to becomeMelville'smostenthusiastic
patronduringtheperiodofBillyBudd'scomposition) dwellson the
horrorsofhangingto convincereaders,especiallyin New York,to
abolishthedeathpenaltyentirely. "LettheEmpireState"joinMichi-
in
gan endingcapitalpunishment, Stedmandeclares,"andwithin ten
yearsthereafter the gallowswillbe banishedfromeveryStatein
the Union."28 Althoughhe acknowledges thatthrough"newscien-
tificknowledge" some"painlessmodeofkilling maybe discovered, -
as by an electricshock,"the movement againstthe deathpenalty
is growing"so rapidlythatthereis smalllikelihoodofits modifica-
tionbynewforms."29 Stedmandidnotforeseehowone ofthemost
bizarrechaptersin nineteenth-century Americantechnological and
culturalhistory-the"BattleoftheCurrents"-would helppreserve
capitalpunishment inNewYorkandmuchofthenationdeepintothe
twentieth century.
In theearly1880sThomasAlvaEdisonandhisEdisonCorporation
dominated theemerging electrification
ofurbanAmerica,especially
in the New YorkCityarea. Edison,however, was obsessivelycom-
mitted todirectcurrent (DC), whichcouldnotbe economically trans-
mitted morethana mileortwo.In 1886GeorgeWestinghouse's newly
incorporated Westinghouse Electricaland Manufacturing Company
placedintooperationthe firstalternating current(AC) generating
stationand demonstrated thatAC couldbe transmitted overgreat
distances.Meanwhile, CivilWarheroGeneralNewtonCurtis,elected
to theNewYorkAssemblyin 1884,had launcheda majorcampaign
to abolishthe deathpenaltyin NewYorkState.30 In 1885Governor
DavidHill,anxioustopreservecapitalpunishment whilerecognizing
the prevalent revulsionagainsthangingas a "remnant ofthe dark
ages," askedthelegislature to createa commission to exploreways
ofcarrying outthedeathpenalty"ina less barbarous manner.'31
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment343

In early1887Westinghouse movedintodirectcompetition with

Edisonin New YorkCity,touchingoffthe Battleofthe Currents.32
Edison'sstrategy was to convincethepublicthatAC was toodanger-
ous fordomesticuse. So in 1887he begana gruesomepublicity cam-
paign,invitingreporters,particularly fromtheNewYorknewspapers,
towitnesstheatrically stagedelectrocutions ofcats,dogs,calves,and
horses.Edisonevenmanagedto get themembersoftheNewYork
StateCommission to Investigate and Reportthe MostHumaneand
PracticalMethodofCarrying intoEffectthe SentenceofDeath to
attendhis AC electrocution ofneighborhood dogs.33Edison'smain
operative was oneHaroldP. Brown, whopretended tobe actinginde-
pendently evenaftertheNewYorkSun printeda seriesofforty-five
lettersbetweenBrownand Edison,as well as betweenBrownand
thecompaniescovertly actingforEdison.34 In 1888Brownstagedat
ColumbiaCollege'sSchoolofMinesan especiallycruelexecutionof
whattheNew YorkHeraldcalled"a largemongrelNewfoundland";
theshowproducedsensational accountsintheNewYorkdailiesand
evena ballad.35Meanwhile, Brownwas secretly conspiringwithNew
YorkStateprisonauthorities to purchasethreeWestinghouse AC
generators and set themup in prisonsto be wiredto a proposed
The objectwas to arrangeforhumanexecutions
"electricchair."36
tobe conducted byelectrocution withAC,thusterrorizing thepopu-
lationaboutthelethalmenaceposedbyWestinghouse's technology.
Fromnowon,according to Edisonandhiscohort,condemned felons
wouldnotbe hangedbut"Westinghoused."37 Brownconcludeda self-
serving1889articleintheNorth American Reviewwiththesewords:
"strenuous havebeenmadeto befogthepublicmindin order
efforts
toprevent theuse ofthealternating current forthedeath-penalty,
lest
thepublicshouldlearnitsdeadlynatureanddemandthattheLegis-
laturebanishitfromstreetsandbuildings, thusendingtheterrible,
needlessslaughter ofunoffending men."^38
New YorkCity'snewspaperschargedintothe Battleofthe Cur-
rents.The New YorkEveningPost,no longereditedby ardentfoe
ofcapitalpunishment WilliamCullenBryant, favoredelectrocution.
The NewYorkTribune andNewYorkTimeswerebothzealousallies
ofEdisonand defenders ofcapitalpunishment.39 The Timesin 1887
in favorof replacinghanging-whichit characterized
editorialized
as sheer"barbarity"-with whichit envisioned
electrocution, as so
quickanddeadlyas to be a formof"euthanasia"; iturged"theState
344 American
Literature

ofNewYorkto be thefirstcommunity to substitute a civilizedfora

barbarousmethodofinflicting capitalpunishment, andto set an ex-
amplewhichis sureofbeingfollowed throughout theworld. "40 When
theNewYorkStateCommission inJanuary 1888reported, tonoone's
surprise,in favorofelectrocution, the Tribune and Timespresented
therecommendation as majorandwelcomenews.Besidestheirnews
coverage,bothpapershad daysoflengthy editorialsextolling elec-
trocution. The Tribune declaredthatelectrocution wouldbe "a step
towardhumanity and decency."'41In anothereditorialthesame day,
the Tribuneevokedthe almostuniversalrepugnance againsthang-
ing:"TheAmerican peoplearepractically unanimous indesiring that
thepresentcruelandclumsymethodofexecutionshallbe relegated
amongtheotherbarbarisms ofpunishment. "42 Bothnewspapers also
approvedoftherecommendation thatall executionsbe heldwithin
thewallsofa prison, withthenumber ofwitnesses-alltobe selected
byprisonauthorities-limited totwelve.The onlycaveats,expressed
bybothpapers,had to do withtheCommission's recommendations
thattheexecutedperson'sbodyshould"in no case be deliveredto
anyrelativeor otherpersonwhatsoever" and thatanynewspaper
publishing an accountofan executionotherthan"thestatement of
thefactthatsuchconvictwas on thedayin questiondulyexecuted
according tolawat theprison"wouldbe "guilty ofa misdemeanor. "43
The Timescommended theintentoftheseprohibitions, whichwas
tokeeptheexecutedcriminal frombecoming"a hero"ofthemasses
andprevent "sucha displayofsympathy withcrimeas wasfurnished
bythefuneral oftheAnarchists inChicago." The editorialist argued,
however, thatto "makea mystery" ofan executionsuchas thatof
"theChicagoAnarchists" wouldbe "proceeding toomuchintheline
ofa despoticGovernment tobe acceptablehere."44
Duringthe nexttwoand a halfyearsNew Yorkwas embroiled
in legal suitsand politicalmaneuvering thatbroughtnationaland
worldwide attentionto itsstruggles withtheissue ofcapitalpunish-
ment.LawyersforWilliamKemmler, theintended victimofthefirst
electrocution,went to court to prevent this "cruel and unusualpun-
ishment."Edisonmergedhis companyintoGeneralElectric,partly
to fightthelegal suitsfiledbyWestinghouse to keep its equipment
frombeingused to electrocute Kemmler. GeneralCurtissubmitted
his secondAssemblybillto outlawcapitalpunishment. The Tribune
and the Timesnowbeganto impugnGeneralCurtis'smotives,im-
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment345

plyingthathe was actingmerelyas a bribedagentofWestinghouse

(chargesrefuted byhiseffortsyearslateras a memberofCongressto
abolishthedeathpenaltyforthewholenation).The personalattacks
on Curtisgotfiercer whenhisbillto abolishcapitalpunishment was
passed by the New YorkAssemblyon May 1 1890 by a vote of 74
to29.45
The billwasnot,however, approved bytheStateSenate.Alltherec-
ommendations oftheStateCommission-including criminal penalties
forpublishing descriptionsof executions-now became the unchal-
lengedlawofNewYorkState.So on6 August1890,WilliamKemmler
becamethefirst victimofthemodern, civilizedformofexecution by
electricity.
The spectaclewas hardlythe"euthanasia" earlierpromised bythe
Times.Indeed,thefront page oftheTimesthefollowing dayviolated
theverylawthathad mandated Kemmler'selectrocution bypublish-
inga description of"themostrevolting circumstances" that"placed
tothediscredit oftheStateofNewYorkan execution thatwas a dis-
graceto civilization." in
The witnesses,"meneminent scienceand
in medicine," wereso physically "nauseated"bythegoryspectacle
that"theyalmostunanimously say thatthissingleexperiment war-
rantstheprompt repealofthelaw."The articleendedbynotingthat
thewitnessesall acted"as thoughtheyfeltthattheyhad takenpart
in a scene thatwouldbe toldto the worldas a publicshame,as a
legalcrime. "46
Oneoftheattending physiciansselectedto conducttheautopsyon
Kemmlerpublishedin October1890an impassioned appealto abol-
ish thedeathpenalty, openingwithan evocationofthe"world-wide
interest" intheexecution: "Whentheharrowing detailsofthedeath
chamberweretingledalongthetelegraph wiresofthecountry, and
theirimpulseswerethrobbed through thecable,theentirecivilized
worldviewedthe scene withastonishedhorror."47 In an influential
volumelinking capitalpunishment to warpublishedinJanuary 1891,
AndrewPalmnotedthattheKemmlerexecutionwas "denounced as
horrible, brutal,atrocious,a disgraceto humanity, etc. Englishedi-
torswerejustas muchshockedas theirbrethren on thisside ofthe
Atlantic,oneLondondailydeclaring thatKemmler's execution senta
thrillofhorror aroundtheglobe. "148
Itwas inthiscontextthatMelvillecomposedBillyBudd,whichhe
beganin1886andconcludedinApril1891,eightmonths afterKemm-
 Literature
346 American

ler'sexecution. Although Melville'scontemporaries, whoalmostuni-

versallyabhorred hanging, mighthave shudderedat CaptainVere's
instantaneous decisionthatBilly"'musthang"' (232),the storyis
carefully craftedtokeepthemeansofexecution frombeinga signifi-
cantissue.
Whenhe is hanged,Billyevincesnoneofthehideousagoniesfamil-
iar to the crowdsat publichangingsand describedwithsickening
detailincountlessnineteenth-century essaysandbooks.Thereis not
eventhealmostinvariable muscular spasmorinvoluntary ejaculation.
Chapter26,obtrusively insertedbetweenBilly'stranscendent death
and the sailors'reaction,is devotedto a discussionofthisperfect
lack of motion.The pursersuggeststhatthis"'singularity"' must
be attributed to Billy's"'will In
power."' thesurgeon'sresponsewe
can heara parodyofthedebatetranspiring in Melville'sNewYork
aboutthe mosthumaneand scientific wayto killa person:"'In a
hangingscientifically conducted-andunderspecialordersI myself
directedhow Budd'swas to be effected-anymovement following
thecomplete suspension andoriginating inthebodysuspended, such
movement indicatesmechanical spasminthemuscular system. Then
theabsenceofthatis no moreattributable to willpower,as youcall
it,than to horsepower"' (321-22). Admitting to thepurserthatthis
"'muscularspasm"' is almost"'invariable,"'the surgeonacknowl-
edges,"'I do not,withmypresentknowledge, pretendto account"'
foritsabsence:"'Even shouldwe assumethehypothesis thatat the
firsttouchofthehalyardstheactionofBudd'sheart,intensified by
extraordinary emotionat its climax,abruptly stopped-muchlikea
watchwhenin carelesslywinding itup youstrainat thefinish, thus
snapping thechain-evenunderthathypothesis howaccountforthe
phenomenon thatfollowed?"' (323).
"
The purserthenasks, 'wastheman'sdeatheffected bythehalter,
or was it a speciesofeuthanasia?"'"'Euthanasia,"'repliesthesur-
geon,has dubious" 'authenticity as a scientific
term"'(324).Though
it may outwardly resemblethe "euthanasia"the New YorkTimes
haderroneously predicted forelectrocution,Billy'sdeathbyhanging
clearlytranscends notonlythesurgeon'sscientific understanding but
also thedebateaboutthemodalitiesofcapitalpunishment swirling
aroundthecomposition ofthestory.
Moreprofoundly relevant toBillyBuddarethetermsofthedebate
aboutthefundamental issueofcapitalpunishment itself.Indeed,the
essenceoftheissuestructures thestory.
 BillyBuddandCapital
Punishment
347

Wewitnesstwokillings aboardH.M.S.Bellipotent.Onecomesfrom
theimpulsive, fatalblowBillyBuddstrikesto thefore-
involuntary
head ofClaggart.The blowis partlyin responseto CaptainVere's
exhortation to thestammering Billy,"'Defendyourself!"' Vererec-
ognizesthatClaggarthas been "'Struckdead byan angelofGod!"'
andhe andhisdrumhead courtall acknowledge thatBillyactedwith-
outmalice,forethought,oranymurderous The otherkillingis
intent.
carriedoutundercoveroflaw,afterreasonedargumentation, andby
thestateactingthrough theagencyofCaptainVereandhisofficers.
Whichofthesetwoactsconstitutes murder? Buddis notevenac-
cused ofmurder. the
One questionthatunderlies twentieth-century
discussionofVere'sactmightbe framed thisway:Does itconform to
the1794Pennsylvania definition
ofmurder inthe"firstdegree,"that
is,"wilful,
deliberateandpremeditated killing"?
Thisis preciselythewaytheargument againstcapitalpunishment
wasframed duringtheyearsMelvillewaswriting. The factthathang-
ings were conductedby the stateundercoverof law did not,to
opponents ofthedeathpenalty,absolvethemfrom beingmurders. In-
deed,thetermswidelyusedforthesekillingswere"legalmurders,"
"legalkilling,"and"murder bylaw."49 The followingcommentaries,
publishedin 1890,could applydirectlyto the twokillingson the
Bellipotent:
[W]hena criminalis judged,all the extenuating circumstances
Werethisruleobserved,
shallbe takenintoconsideration. thevic-
timofthelaw wouldseldomappearin so bad a lightas thegov-
ernment thethought:
thatpassedthesentence.Let me illustrate a
mancommits thegovernment
a murder: inturnsentencestheman
to death.Herewe havetwopartieswhohavepresumedto takea
human life.... [T]he question now arises, upon the shouldersof
whichpartyreststhegreatest guilt?A mostsolemnthought.There
aremanyextenuating circumstances inthefirst butwhat
instance,
canbe saidinjustification
ofthegovernment?50

[C]apitalpunishment inanyform
administered a relic
is essentially
ofa barbarousage.... [T]he Statealwaysactswithcoolnessand
whileninety
deliberation, percent.ofherchildren slaytheirfellow-
meninthefrenzy ofpassion.51
AlthoughCaptainVerehasalreadydecidedthatBilly"'musthang"'
beforehe conveneshis drumheadcourt,thethreeofficershe hand-
 Literature
348 American

picksarequitereluctant toconvictandsentencetheHandsomeSailor.
In thetrial,duringwhichVereactsas sole witness,prosecutor, and,
ultimately, commander ofthejury,he findsitnecessarytooverwhelm
his threesubordinates witha delugeofarguments. One is precisely
thattheymust"'let notwarmheartsbetrayheads thatshouldbe
cool"' (270).52
Vere makeshis firstargument whilestillin his role of witness
(thoughlaterhe tellstheofficers, "'HithertoI havebeenbutthewit-
ness,littlemore"'[265]):"'Quiteasidefromanyconceivable motive
actuating themaster-at-arms, and irrespective oftheprovocation to
theblow,a martialcourtmustneedsin thepresentcase confineits
attention to theblow'sconsequence,whichconsequencejustlyis to
be deemednototherwise thanas thestriker's deed"' (256).Byargu-
ing,especially in such legalisticphraseology, that his courtis notto
considerextenuating circumstances or motive,Vereis underlining
forreadersin 1891thefundamental injusticeoftheproceedings. The
threeofficers, in fact,are disturbed bythismanifestation of"a pre-
judgment onthespeaker'spart"(258).LaterVerereiterates, " 'Budd's
intent ornon-intent is nothing tothepurpose"'(274).
As discussedearlier,Vere'sextendedargument thatthe officers
owe theirallegiancenot to "'Nature,"' their"'hearts,"' or their
"'privateconscience,"'but entirelyto King George III and his
"'code underwhichalonewe officially proceed"'wouldto anylate-
nineteenth-century audiencebe an emphatic reminder ofthebarbaric
BloodyCode forwhichVereis actingas agent.Vereinsists,in fact,
thathe andhisofficers mustactmerely as agentsandinstruments of
" the
thatlaw: 'Forthelawand rigor it, of we are notresponsible. Our
vowedresponsibility is in this:Thathoweverpitilessly thatlawmay
operateinanyinstances, we nevertheless adheretoitandadminister
it"' (270).To latenineteenth-century readers,thiswouldserveas a
conspicuous reminder ofthehorrors ofGeorgianjusticefromwhich
nine decades of reform had liberatedboththe UnitedStatesand
Britain.Each ofVere'sarguments, infact,defendsoneormoreofthe
mostegregiousfeatures oftheGeorgiancode,features thathadbeen
repudiated bylawinthosenineensuingdecades.
Immediately afterinsistingthathis officers may not consider
"'Budd's intentor non-intent,"' Vere claimsthattheyare taking
too muchtime(a blatantly speciousargument, especiallyin lightof
thetimelaterspentin theexecutionandburialrituals):"'strangely
 BuddandCapital
Billy 349
Punishment

we prolongproceedings thatshouldbe summary-theenemymay

be sightedand an engagement result.We mustdo; and one oftwo
thingsmustwe do-condemnor let go"' (275). In response,the
sailingmaster,the one trialofficer who has not previouslyspo-
ken,asks "falteringly," "'Can we notconvictand yetmitigatethe
penalty?"'(275).
Insistingthatthiswouldnot be "'lawful,"'Vere highlights for
readersone ofthemostuniversally condemned aspectsofthecode
underwhichhe operates:mandatory deathpenalties.Opponentsof
capitalpunishment ofcoursefocusedon theinflexible brutalityand
crueltythuscodifiedintolaw and passingforjustice.Joining them,
however,were some of the mostardentdefendersof capitalpun-
ishment,includingmanyjudges and districtattorneys, who were
continually encountering juriesthat-likethesailingmaster-would
ratheracquitthanconsigna criminalto death.In the periodfrom
1860to 1895,eighteenstatesshifted frommandatory todiscretionary
capitalpunishment, withlegislators usuallyciting reluctanceof
the
juriestoparticipate incapitalpunishment.53
Atthispointin thetrial,Vereabruptly shiftsfromall hisprevious
arguments-which werebasedonthepremisethathe andhisdrum-
headcourtmust, underlaw,sentenceBillytodeath-totheargument
thatfinally convinceshis officers: theyshouldhangBillyin a public
execution. "Hisclosingappeal," thenarrator informs us,is nottotheir
reasonbut"to theirinstinct as sea officers" (280,italicsmine),and
thisis whatmakesitso convincing-at leasttothem.
Thisappealis basedsolelyonthedoctrine ofdeterrence, themain
argument preserving capitalpunishment throughout thenineteenth
(as wellas thetwentieth) century. By thelate 1880s,however, vast
amounts of and
statistical otherevidence had demonstrated thatthere
is littleifanyreasonablebasisforthebeliefthatcapitalpunishment
detersanyofthe crimesforwhichit is imposed.Nevertheless, the
defenders ofcapitalpunishment, likeVere,tendedmoreandmoreto
abandontheargument thatitwasjust,fair,appropriate, ordainedby
God,et cetera,andmoreandmoreto relyon beliefin itsvalueas a
deterrent to crime.Theyappealednotso muchto evidenceas to the
fearofviolentcrimewidespreadamongtheprivileged and affluent
classes,a fearwhichtheyofcourseencouraged.54
Likethetypical nineteenth-century defender ofcapitalpunishment,
Vereappealstothefearofthefellowmembersofhisprivileged class
 Literature
350 American

on theBellipotent, in otherwords,to "theirinstinctas sea officers."

There is, however,one fundamental differencebetweenthe deter-
renceargument familiarto nineteenth-century readersand Vere's
decisiveargument. The customary argument was (andis) thatcapi-
tal punishment detersthe particular crimeby makingan example
ofthecriminal. Vere'sargument-far morecynical-isthathanging
BillyBudd beforethe crewwillintimidate themand reinforce the
"'arbitrary discipline"'exertedoverthembytheofficers, whilenot
hanginghimwouldencouragemutiny. Mutinyis thecrimeofwhich
ClaggarthadfalselyaccusedBillyandofwhichVereandhisofficers
knowBillyis innocent. But,arguesVere," 'thepeople,"' becausethey
"'have notthatkindofintelligent responsiveness thatmightqualify
themto comprehend and discriminate,"'willbelievethatBillyhas
committed " 'a flagrantactofmutiny"' andwilltherefore emulatehim
ifhe is notappropriately punishedforit.Forreadersin 1891,Vere's
argument, so persuasiveto his subordinate wouldseem so
officers,
obviously speciousandillogicalas to appearvirtually a parodyofthe
usualdefenseofcapitalpunishment forthesakeofdeterrence:

"Gentlemen, were thatclearlylawfulforus underthe circum-

stances,considertheconsequencesofsuchclemency. The people"
(meaningthe ship'scompany)"havenativesense; mostofthem
arefamiliar withournavalusageandtradition; andhowwouldthey
takeit?Evencouldyouexplaintothem-whichourofficial position
forbids-they, long molded by arbitrary have
discipline, not that
kindofintelligent responsivenessthatmightqualifythemto com-
prehendanddiscriminate. No,tothepeopletheforetopman's deed,
howeveritbe wordedintheannouncement, willbe plainhomicide
committed ina flagrant
actofmutiny. Whatpenaltyforthatshould
theyknow.Butit does notfollow.Why?
follow, theywillruminate.
Youknowwhatsailorsare.Willtheyrevertto therecentoutbreak
at theNore?Ay.Theyknowthewell-founded alarm-thepanicit
struckthroughout England.Yourclementsentencetheywouldac-
countpusillanimous. Theywouldthinkthatwe flinch, thatwe are
afraidofthem-afraidofpracticing a lawfulrigorsingularly de-
mandedat thisjuncture, lestitshouldprovokenewtroubles. What
shameto us such a conjectureon theirpart,and how deadlyto
(276-78)
discipline.
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment351

In otherwords,because"we" are afraidof"thepeople,""we" have

to hangBuddbecauseotherwise "they"wouldthink"we" are afraid
of"them"!
One influentialarticlepublishedin January1890,entitled"The
CrimeofCapitalPunishment," directly attacksVere'sfinalandmost
effectiveargument-"legal killing... is donemerelyas a warning to
evil-doersandforthesafetyofsociety"-as "an afterthought, an ex-
planationwhichthegrowing humanesentiment ofthepeopleis forcing
fromthebarbarians whodefendandpractisemurder bylaw."55
The same articlegoes on to focuson theroleoftheclergyin the
actualadministration ofcapitalpunishment: "Ateveryscaffold there
is a strangeand significantunionofChurchand State.The Stateis
thereinthepersonofthehangman. The Churchis thereintheper-
son ofthepriestor minister. It is theoldfamiliar sceneoftheState
doing deeds ofviolenceand blood in the name oflaw andorder,and
withthesanction andconcurrence ofreligion. seemstobe
"56 Melville

extrapolating fromthispassage,ormanysimilaronesoftheperiod,in
hiscommentary onthechaplain's inability toavertthe
tolift"a finger
doomofsucha martyr to martialdiscipline" and on his overallrole,
whichlinkstheexecution totheessentialpurposeoftheBellipotent:
Bluntly put,a chaplainis theministerofthePrinceofPeace serving
in thehostofthe God ofWar- Mars.As such,he is as incongru-
ous as a musketwouldbe on thealtarat Christmas. Why,then,is
he there?Becausehe indirectly subservesthepurposeattestedby
thecannon;becausetoohe lendsthesanctionofthereligion ofthe
meekto thatwhichpractically of
is theabrogation everything but
bruteForce.(312)
The responseofthecrewto Billy'sexecutionis a directrefutation
ofVere'sdeterrenceargument, in whichhe suggestedto his offi-
cersthatthethreatofimminent mutiny was smoldering on theship.
Although thestoryis labeledan "InsideNarrative," itrevealsnotthe
hintofanysuchpossibility
faintest priorto Billy'sdeath.Discipline
is breachedonlyafterBilly'shangingand in responseto it,in the
midstofthe ritualsofthe publicexecutionand subsequentburial
(326,330,331).
The truesignificanceofthekillingofBillyBuddcomesoutinthese
scenes.Likemanyofthearguments raisedagainstthedeathpenalty
 Literature
352 American

betweenthe1790sandthe1890s,BillyBuddstripsawaytheillusions
ofjusticeanddeterrence torevealtheessenceofcapitalpunishment:
humansacrifice, a ritualofpowerin whichthestateand theruling
class demonstrate, sanctify,and celebratetheirultimate power-the
poweroflifeanddeath-overtheclassestheyrule.
By thelastthirdofthenineteenth century, publicexecutionhad
been thoroughly discredited and legallyabandoned,in Englandas
wellas inmostoftheUnitedStates.Nevertheless, crowdscontinued
tofindwaystoviewhangings thatwereofficiallyclosedtothepublic.
When,forexample,a "private" execution tookplaceat theTombsin
NewYorkCity,"theneighboring buildings[were]blackwithpeople,
seekingto look downoverthe prisonwallsand witnessthe death
agoniesofthepoorwretch. "57Suchsceneswerea maintargetofthe
stipulation in the NewYorkStateelectrocution law thatexecutions
musttakeplace insidethe walls of a prison.A principalargument
againstpublicexecutionshad been theireffects on the"mobs"that
came to watch.This reasoningis ironically echoedin the strange
"murmur" thatrunsthrough thesailorsforcedto witnesstheirship-
mate'sexecution: "itseemedtoindicatesomecapricious revulsionof
thought or feelingsuchas mobsashoreare liableto,in thepresent
instancepossiblyimplying a sullenrevocation on themen'spartof
theirinvoluntary echoingofBilly'sbenediction" (326).
Anotherargument againstpublicexecutionwas that,contrary to
its allegeddeterrent it tendedto transform
effect, thecriminal into
botha victimand a "hero."58 The sailors,pointedly refutingVere's
prediction aboutthem,"instinctively feltthatBillywas a sortofman
as incapableofmutiny as ofwilfulmurder."To themhe becomes
morethana hero.The verysparfromwhichhe was hangedis meta-
morphosed intotheobjectoftheirveneration: "To thema chipofit
was as a pieceoftheCross"(345-46).59
BillyBuddis not,however, a meretreatiseagainstcapitalpunish-
ment.Melvilleis usingcontemporaneous awarenessabouttheissue
to explorethe largerethical,philosophic, and politicalquestionsit
so dramatically focuses.Undoubtedly New YorkAssemblyman Hitt
was overstating thecase whenhe claimedin early1890,"atpresent
thereare onlytwoclasses ofthe community whoyetfavorcapital
punishment and theseare clergymen and prosecuting attorneys."60
Nevertheless, Melvillecouldsafelyassumethatalmostall potential
readersin 1891wouldregardpublicexecutionandhangingas relics
 Punishment
BillyBuddandCapital 353

ofa barbarous past,wouldbe sensitized tothelargerissuessurround-

ingcapitalpunishment, and wouldalreadyeitheropposethe death
penalty outright orconsideritwarranted onlyforfirst-degree murder
and treason. Even the most ardentproponents ofthe death penalty
in late-nineteenth-century Americawouldbe embarrassed by posi-
tionssuchas these:"Verejustifiably condemns Billyto death"(Peter
Shaw);BillyBuddis a "murderer anda cause ofhis owndeath"and
Melville"is to be identified" withCaptainVere(MiltonStern);"the
virtuousman,CaptainVere,"must"punishtheviolenceofabsolute
innocence"-thatis, mustkillBillyBudd-since "absolute,natural
innocence" is "atwarwiththepeace oftheworldandthetruewelfare
ofmankind"(HannahArendt).61 Readersin 1891wouldbe farmore
likelyto wonder,likethesurgeon(235) andthenarrator (236-237),
whether Vereis insane.
Thereremainsa questionthatbynowmusthaveoccurredtomost
readersofthisessay:Do notmilitary circumstances, especiallydur-
ingwar,demandthekindofmartiallaw underwhichVereproceeds
(orclaimstoproceed)?62 A bookpublished in1850presents inchapter
afterchaptera detailedrefutation ofthisposition.Ascribing British
navallawofthisperiodtoa "barbarous feudalaristocracy" thathadre-
gainedpowerintheRestoration anditssequel,theauthorarguesthat
intheInterregnum, "a perioddeemedso glorioustotheBritishNavy,
theseArticlesofWarwereunknown." Therefore, he reasons,"such
tyrannicalordinances arenotindispensable-even during war-to the
highestpossibleefficiency ofa military marine."He pointsoutthat
Nelson(lionizedinBillyBudd) opposedcorporal punishment androu-
tinelyreassigned"whollyungovernable" seamento an admiralwho
"heldin abhorrence all corporalpunishment," thereby winning the
loyaltyofthesemen."The mutinouseffects ofgovernment abuses
in theNavy,"according to thiswriter,"developedthemselves at the
greatmutinyofthe Nore."The authorsumsup his viewin these
words:"Certainly thenecessitiesofnavieswarrant a codeforitsgov-
ernment morestringent thanthelawthatgovernstheland;butthat
code shouldconform to the spiritofthepoliticalinstitutions ofthe
country thatordainsit.It shouldnotconvertintoslaves some ofthe
citizensofa nationoffreemen." He thendenouncestheAmerican
ArticlesofWaras "an importation fromabroad,evenfromBritain,
whoselawswe Americanshurledoffas tyrannical, and yetretained
themosttyrannical ofall." That author,ofcourse,is HermanMel-
354 American
Literature

ville.The book is White-Jacket,63

a volumehe consultedfrequently
whilecomposing BillyBuddon a writing box to whichhe had glued
thismotto:"Keeptruetothedreamsofthyyouth."64
Onanother level,therelations
betweenmartial lawandcivilsociety
had moredisturbing implications
forMelvillein 1891thanin 1850.
As he was writing BillyBudd,the risingtide of imperialism,with
itscorollaryofmilitarism,was threateningthebasic republican and
democratic valuesexpressedso passionately in White-Jacket.
In 1850
he couldplead forextensionofthe highestlaws ofthe land to its
shipsat sea. But by 1891,as the nationwas aboutto buildits first
large-scale
standing navytoprepareforitsimperial manifest
destiny,
Melvilleenvisioned thegovernanceofthewarshipbecomingdomi-
nantoverthelawsoftheland.65 Likemanyofhiscontemporaries, he
saw thattheessenceofcapitalpunishment is thestate'spowerover
lifeanddeath,a powerboundlessly expandedinwar.He dramatized
thedeadlymeaningofcapitalpunishment forthe eighteenth,nine-
teenth,andtwentieth inthekidnapping
centuries ofBillyBuddfrom
theRightsofMan andhisexecution ontheaptlynamedBellipotent.
Rutgers Newark
University,

Notes
1 Myownviewofthegreatdebatecan be foundin "FromEmpireto Em-
pire:BillyBudd,Sailor," inHermanMelville:Reassessments,ed.A. Robert
Lee (NewYork:BarnesandNoble,1984):199-216.Foran astuteanalysis
ofthecontesting interpretations
as expressionsofpoliticalchangesdur-
ingseveraldecadesofrecentU.S. history, see Geraldin2 Murphy, "The
PoliticsofReadingBillyBudd,"American Literary History1 (summer
1989):361-82.
2 RichardH. Weisberg, "Editor'sPreface,"CardozoStudiesin Law and
Literature1 (spring1989).Weisberg himselfhas donethemostthorough
analysisofthespecificlegalissuesin thestoryin "HowJudgesSpeak:
SomeLessonsonAdjudication inBillyBudd,Sailorwithan Application
toJusticeRehnquist," NewYorkUniversity Law Review57 (April1982):
1-69,andinTheFailureoftheWord: TheProtagonistas LawyerinModern
Fiction(NewHaven:Yale Univ.Press,1984),131-59.See also theper-
ceptiveexploration inSusanWeiner, Law inArt:Melville's
MajorFiction
and Nineteenth-Century American Law (New York:PeterLang,1992),
139-66.
3 RichardA. Posner,"Comment on RichardWeisberg'sInterpretation of
BillyBudd," Cardozo StudiesinLawandLiterature 1 (spring1989):73-74.
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment355

4 In his groundbreaking article"The Movement to AbolishCapitalPun-

ishment inAmerica,1787-1861," (American HistoricalReview63 [Octo-
ber1957],23-46),DavidBrionDaviswas shockedto discoverthatthis
prominent movement is "seldommentioned in thestandardsocialand
intellectualhistoriesofthe period"(23). This articledid mostof the
spadeworkformorerecentstudiesand stilloffersthe mostcompre-
hensiveexploration ofthephilosophic background forthenineteenth-
century Americanarguments opposingand defending capitalpunish-
ment.
5 HermanMelville, BillyBudd,Sailor(AnInsideNarrative), ed. Harrison
Hayford andMertonSealtsJr.(Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1962),
leaves267-72.Subsequent references tothistextwillbe byparenthetical
leafnumber.
6 DavidD. Cooper,TheLessonoftheScaffold: ThePublicExecution Contro-
versy England(Athens:OhioUniv.Press,1974),27.Cooper
in Victorian
devotesa chapterto "The BloodyCode" ofGeorgeIII. See also Hugo
AdamBedau,TheDeathPenalty inAmerica, 3rded. (NewYork:Oxford
Univ.Press,1982),6.
7 See Cooper'svolumeforthehistory ofthemovement inEnglandagainst
capitalpunishment, publicexecution, andhanging.
8 B. PaulNeuman, "TheCaseAgainstCapitalPunishment, Maga-
" Eclectic
zine,October 1889, 518; thisis an American reprint from the British
FortnightlyReview,September 1889,322-33.
9 SamuelHand,"The DeathPenalty," in SelectedArticleson CapitalPun-
ishment, comp.LamarT. Beman(New York:H. W. WilsonCompany,
1925),178;reprinted from North American Review, December1881,541-
50.A defender ofcapitalpunishment, Handcelebrates theprogress from
thebeginning ofthecentury.
10 J.M. Buckley,"CapitalPunishment, " inBeman,Selected ArticlesonCapi-
tal Punishment, 94; reprinted fromForum,June1887,381-91.See also
W.C. Maude,"ShallWeAbolishtheDeathPenaltyforMurder?" Month,
February 1889,168-79.
11 Voices AgainstDeath:American Opposition toCapitalPunishment, 1787-
1975,ed. PhilipEnglishMackey(NewYork:BurtFranklin & Co.,1976),
xiv.
12 Bedau,4; SarahT Dike,CapitalPunishment States(Hack-
in theUnited
ensack,NJ.:NationalCouncilon Crimeand Delinquency, 1982),7-8;
Mackey,Voices,xvi.
13 PhilipEnglishMackey,Hangingin theBalance:TheAnti-CapitalPun-
ishmentMovement in NewYorkState,1776-1861(NewYork:Garland,
xvi-xvii.
1982),69;Mackey,Voices,
14 Mackey,Voices,xxvi-xxvii.
15 In 1850 MelvillepurchasedGreeley'sHintstowardReforms, in Lec-
Addresses,
tures, and OtherWritings(New York,1850),whichincluded
 Literature
356 American

attackonthedeathpenalty,
Greeley'sinfluential "DeathbyHumanLaw"
(301-10);see MertonM. SealtsJr.,Melville's Reading:A Check-Listof
BooksOwnedand Borrowed, offprinted fromHarvardLibraryBulletin
(Cambridge: HarvardUniv.Press,1950),130.
16 CharlesSpear,Essayson thePunishment ofDeath,10thed. (London,
1845),224.Originallypublished in 1844,thisvolumeexerteda majorin-
fluenceonthemovement againstcapitalpunishment inEnglandas well
as America.
17 WilliamJ.Bowers,withGlennL. PierceandJohnF. McDevitt,Legal
Homicide: Deathas Punishment inAmerica,1864-1982(Boston:North-
easternUniv.Press,1984),140.
18 Spear,224-31.
19 Bowers,140.
20 Bedau,8.
21 Spear,223.
22 Spear,224.
23 Spear,225-26.
24 LouisP. Masur,RitesofExecution: CapitalPunishment andtheTransfor-
mationofAmerican Culture,1776-1865(NewYork:Oxford Univ.Press,
1989),160;Mackey,Voices, xxvii;Davis,45-46.
25 Neuman, 524.
26 In pre-1850England,eventhosewhowereinfavorofpublicexecutions
admitted thattheywere"depraving," "ugly,""disgusting,""evil,"and
(Cooper,50).
"brutalizing"
27 Mackey,Voices, xx.
28 EdmundClarenceStedman, "The GallowsinAmerica," Putnam's Maga-
zine,February 1889,234.StedmanmetMelvillein 1888.On 20 October
1888Melvillereturned bookslentto himby Stedmanwitha letterin
whichhe wrote,"Andyourownbookin manyofitsviewshas proved
eithercorroborativeor suggestive to me." In 1890Stedmanarranged a
dinnerforMelvilleat theAuthor'sClub,one ofthefewrecognitions of
theauthorinhislateryears.Stedman's sonArthur becamea goodfriend
ofMelvillein thelasttwoyearsofthewriter'slifeandafterMelville's
deathworkedwithElizabethMelvilleinreissuing fourofhisbooks;see
Jay Leyda,The Melville
Log (New York: Harcourt, Brace,1951),1:xxxiii;
2:804-06.
29 Stedman, 230.
30 DictionaryofAmerican Biography (NewYork:Scribner, 1943),s.v.Curtis,
NewtonMartin.
31 LawrenceMeirFriedman, Crimeand Punishment in American History
(NewYork:BasicBooks,1993),171.
32 Fora goodoverallaccountoftheBattleoftheCurrents, see Matthew
Josephson, Edison:A Biography (NewYork:McGrawHill,1959),344-
50; somewhatdifferent perspectives are offered in RobertSilverberg,
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment357

LightfortheWorld:EdisonandthePowerIndustry (Princeton,N.J.:D. Van

Nostrand,1967),238-43;RonaldW.Clark,Edison:TheMan WhoMade
theFuture(NewYork:G. P. Putnam's Sons,1977),157-60;andMargaret
Cheney,Tesla:Man OutofTime(EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall,
1981),41-49.A moredetailedandwell-documented accountis ThomasP.
Hughes,"HaroldP. Brownand theExecutioner's Current:An Incident
in theAC-DCControversy," BusinessHistory Review32 (spring1958):
143-65.ForsomeoftheBattle'scultural ramifications,including itsrole
in Twain'sA Connecticut Yankeein KingArthur's Court,see H. Bruce
Franklin,WarStars:The Superweapon and theAmericanImagination
(NewYork:Oxford Univ.Press,1989):54-77.
33 "LightningforMurder," NewYorkTribune, 17January 1888.The dogs
andcatswerepetsgatheredfromtheWestOrange,NewJersey, neigh-
borhoodofEdison'slaboratory byschoolboys whowerepaidtwenty-five
centsforeach animal;as a result,thelocalanimalpopulation was deci-
mated(Josephson, 347).
34 NewYorkSun,25August1889.
35 Hughes,148-49.
36 Fora detailedaccountofBrown's machinations andthecovertoperations
ofEdison'sfront see Hughes,156-58.
organizations,
37 Josephson, 348;Cheney, 45.
38 HaroldP. Brown,"The NewInstrument ofExecution," North American
Review, November 1889,586-93.Inthesameissue,theeditorsran"Dan-
gersofElectricLighting," an anti-AC articlebyEdisonhimself; in Sep-
tembertheNorth American Reviewhadpublishedanotherarticlefavor-
ingelectrocution,"CapitalPunishment by Electricity,"by ElbridgeT.
Gerry, the chairmanof the New YorkCommission, whowas secretly
working withBrown.
39 Afterthe deathofeditorHoraceGreeley,theNew YorkTribune soon
ceased to be one oftheforemost voicesin favorofabolishing capital
punishment.
40 "CapitalPunishment," NewYorkTimes,17December1887.
41 ortheRope,"NewYorkTribune,
"Electricity 22January 1888.
42 "ANewAgentofDeath,"NewYorkTribune, 22January 1888.
43 "DeathbyElectricity" and"TheAbolition ofHanging," NewYorkTimes,
17 January 1888;"Lightning forMurder,"New YorkTribune, 17 Janu-
ary1888.
44 "The Abolition of Hanging";the reference is to the workers'leaders
hangedin 1887forthe1886Haymarket bombing. Fora discussion ofre-
lationsbetweentheHaymarket hangings andBillyBudd,see RobertK.
Wallace,BillyBuddandtheHaymarket Hangings," American Literature
47 (March1975):108-13.
45 "Gen.Curtisof St. Lawrence.. . ," New YorkTimes,29 March1890;
"Forty-eighthoursafterthenews. . .," New YorkTimes,2 May 1890;
 Literature
358 American

"Is It the DynamoAgain?Rushingthroughthe Bill to AbolishCapi-

talPunishment," NewYorkTribune, 2 May 1890;"The DeathPenalty,"
NewYorkTribune, 3 May1890;"CapitalPunishment," NewYorkTribune,
6 May1890.
46 "Far WorseThan Hanging;Kemmler'sDeath Provesan AwfulSpec-
tacle,"NewYorkTimes,7 August1890.
47 Dr. GeorgeF. Shrady, "The DeathPenalty," TheArena,October1890,
513.
48 AndrewJ.Palm,TheDeathPenalty: A Consideration oftheObjectionsto
CapitalPunishment, witha Chapter on War(NewYork:G. P. Putnam's
Sons,1891),100.
49 Davis,33. For an examplepublishedwhileMelvillewas writing Billy
Budd,see Hugh0. Pentecost, "The CrimeofCapitalPunishment," The
Arena,January 1890,175-83.
50 [Benjamin 0. Flower],"ShallWe Continue to KillOurFellowmen?" The
Arena,January 1890,243-44.
51 [Benjamin0. Flower],"Thoughtson the Death Penalty,"TheArena,
October1890,636.
52 Notetheechoofthenarrator's comment aboutthosepossessedby"de-
pravity accordingto nature":"Towardthe accomplishment ofan aim
whichinwantonness wouldseemtopartakeoftheinsane,he
ofatrocity
willdirecta cooljudgment sagaciousandsound"(133-34).
53 Mackey,Voices, xxx.
54 An 1889articlepublishedin bothEnglandand theUnitedStatesgave
statisticsshowingthatthehomicideratehad droppedin each stateas
wellas each Europeancountry thathad abolishedcapitalpunishment;
see Neuman, 524.
55 Pentecost, 175-76,italicsmine.
56 Pentecost, 178.
57 JamesD. McCabeJr.,Lightsand ShadowsofNew YorkLife(1872),as
quotedinFriedman, 170.
58 "TheAbolition ofHanging," NewYorkTimes,17January 1888.
59 CompareStedman, 227:"Greatandgoodmenhavebeenhanged,andit
was saidofone,thathe 'madethegallowsglorious, liketheCross"' (the
internal quotation is fromEmerson'seulogyofJohnBrown).
60 "Is It the DynamoAgain?Rushingthrough theBill to AbolishCapital
Punishment," NewYorkTribune, 2 May1890.
61 PeterShaw,RecoveringAmerican Literature(Chicago:IvanR. Dee, 1994),
76;MiltonStern,TheFineHammered SteelofHermanMelville(Urbana:
Univ.ofIllinoisPress,1957),26-27;HannahArendt, OnRevolution (New
York:Viking, 1965),79.
62 Vereis actuallynotfollowing butviolating the code underwhichhe
claimstobe operating. Thisviolationwas firstpointedoutbyC. B. Ives,
"BillyBuddand theArticlesofWar,"American Literature34 (March
 BillyBuddandCapitalPunishment359

1962):31-39;ithasbeenexplored byothercritics,
further Stan-
including
tonGarner, "Fraudas FactinHermanMelville'sBillyBudd," SanJoseRe-
view4 (May1978):82-105,and,mostthoroughly, Weisberg, TheFailure
oftheWord, 144-59.Vere'smoderndefenders taketheposition thatMel-
villewas simply unfamiliarwithBritishnavallaw,an argument rendered
dubiousbythedetailedexploration ofthislaw,based on thorough re-
see HowardP.Vincent,
search,in White-Jacket; TheTailoringofMelville's
White-Jacket (Evanston,Ill.:NorthwesternUniv.Press,1970),103-06.
63 The quotations arefromWhite-Jacket orTheWorld in a Man-of-War,ed.
HarrisonHayford, HershelParker,and G. ThomasTanselle(Evanston
andChicago:Northwestern Univ.PressandtheNewberry Library,
1970),
chapters 35,36,71.
64 MerlinBowen,TheLongEncounter (Chicago:Univ.of ChicagoPress,
1960),217.
65 For an analysisofBillyBuddin the contextofthe end-of-the-century
movement towardimperialism, see my"FromEmpireto Empire:Billy
Budd,Sailor."