Comment to BOEM Against Offshore Drilling   

 
My comment is against offshore drilling in the OCS. Scientific studies with data links are 
organized under the following headings: 1.) The uniqueness of the Carolina Coast; 2.) the 
inevitability of oil spills; 3. physical health; 4.) mental health; 5.) ecological impacts; 6.) 
tarballs and marine tar residues; 7.) seismic blasting; 8.) damage to local economies 
(including the industrialization of our coasts); 9.) the long-term sequelae of oil spills; 10.) 
hurricane risk and oil spills: the perfect storm. 

1. The uniqueness of the Carolina Coast 

 
Ecologic, cultural and historic considerations. I live in Wilmington, NC. Our beaches are 
integral to our way of life. Our beaches and coastline harbor bird sanctuaries, turtle 
nesting, and wild horses (Cape Hattaras National Seashore), reflecting their uniqueness. 
This is further complemented by the human cultural element: including the Gullah 
Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor.  
 
“Designated by Congress in 2006, the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor extends 
from Wilmington, North Carolina in the north to Jacksonville, Florida in the south. It is home 
to one of America's most unique cultures, a tradition first shaped by captive Africans 
brought to the southern United States from West Africa and continued in later generations 
by their descendents.” 
 
https://www.nps.gov/guge/index.htm 
 
Our coastal historic sites include Fort Fisher National Historic Landmark. Ecologically, the 
Mason Inlet Waterbird Management Area is situated directly on Wrightsville Beach. This 
300-acre sanctuary is protected year-round for colonial waterbirds and shorebirds to use 
as nesting habitat during the breeding season, and resting and foraging habitat during 
winter and migration.  
 
 
2. The inevitability of oil spills 

For each of the headings that follow, data are organized by study title, with the 
corresponding data link (nih.gov, ncbi, and NOAA) provided. A summary is given of each 
scientific finding. Study authors are liberally quoted and should be credited accordingly. 

 
Title: Largest oil spills affecting U.S. waters since 1969 
 

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Source: NOAA 
https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/largest-oil-spills-affe
cting-us-waters-1969.html 
 
Offshore drilling brings the inevitable sequelae of oil spills.   
 
NOAA reports that “since the iconic 1969 oil well blowout in Santa Barbara, California, 
there have been at least 44 oil spills, each over 10,000 barrels (420,000 gallons), affecting 
U.S. waters. The largest...was the 2010 Deepwater Horizon well blowout in the Gulf of 
Mexico.”   
 
These spills extend geographically far beyond the original well breach. The Santa Barbara 
oil spill opened up a series of undersea vaults as a result of the blowout, releasing as 
much as 4.2 millions gallons of crude oil that travelled as far north as Pismo Beach and as 
far south as Mexico.   
 
NOAA’s map of United States oil spills delineates the scope: 
 
https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/2015_largest-oil-spills-us-waters_n
oaa.jpg 
 
 
3. Physical health 
 
 
Title: Effects of exposure to oil spill on human health: Updated review 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27221976 
 
Oil spills pose a clearly defined human health risk: both for people involved in cleanup and 
for “coastal inhabitants, given the toxicological properties of the oil components.” This 
2016 review organizes new data into “three groups according to type of health outcome 
addressed: (i) effects on mental health, (ii) physical/physiological effects, and (iii) genotoxic, 
immunotoxic, and endocrine toxicity.” 
 
The authors conclude: “New studies published on oil-spill-exposed populations—coastal 
residents in the vicinity of the spills or participants in cleanup operations—provide 
additional support to previous evidence on adverse health effects related to exposure...in 
all three categories considered. Some of the observed effects even indicated that several 
symptoms may persist for some years after exposure.” 
 
 

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Title: Health risks associated with crude oil spill exposure 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24859637 
 
“Human exposure to crude oil spills is associated with multiple adverse health effects 
including hematopoietic, hepatic, renal, and pulmonary abnormalities. The results of this 
study support our earlier study findings in which we found that people who participated in 
oil spill cleanup activities are at risk of developing alterations in hematological profile and 
liver function.” 
 
 
Title: “Health consequences among subjects involved in Gulf oil spill clean-up 
activities” 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24050487 
 
 
Oil spill residues are toxic not only by themselves. Human toxicity extends to dispersants: 
“Clean-up workers exposed to the oil spill and dispersant experienced significantly altered 
blood profiles, liver enzymes, and somatic symptoms.” 
 
 

4. Mental Health 
 
Title: Oil Spill Science: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill’s impact on people’s health 
 
Source: http://masgc.org/oilscience/oil-spill-science-mental-health.pdf 
 
 
The largest oil spill in U.S. history was the Deepwater Horizon. “The Deepwater Horizon oil 
rig exploded on April 20, 2010, killing 11 workers and injuring others. Oil flowed from the 
wellhead for 87 days before emergency responders could cap it. During this time, 
approximately 172 million gallons of crude oil flowed into Gulf of Mexico waters. 
 
The impact on residents was severe: “Some people who relied on the Gulf for work lost 
income and business opportunities... Other coastal residents and cleanup workers were 
directly exposed to oil and witnessed the impact it caused to the shoreline and Gulf waters. 
 
“Negative mental health impacts were most common in people whose work, family, or 
leisure life was impacted by the spill. Residents reported feeling depressed, anxious, and 
suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder.”   

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Moreover, the effects were lasting and widespread both temporally and geographically:   
“Levels of depression, mental illness, and stress that some residents experienced were 
above the national average even two years after the spill….Scientists saw that even some 
residents in oil-free Gulf communities were anxious or depressed. These residents worried 
about the oil spill’s impact on the environment, human health, and seafood safety.” 
 
“The oil spill impacted the fishing and seafood, tourism, and oil and gas industries. 
Government agencies closed oiled waters to recreational and commercial fishing; visitors 
canceled their vacations; and the government stopped offshore drilling projects...  
 
“Residents that relied on these industries for their source of income or had lost income 
because of the oil spill were more likely to feel anxious or depressed, drink more, or have 
more thoughts of suicide than other residents. Residents living below the poverty line were 
more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and stress than those with higher incomes. 
 
“Mental health impacts...were not limited to adults. Parents that had income loss due to the 
spill were 1.5 times more likely to report new physical or mental health problems in their 
children. When digging deeper, scientists found that these health problems were not only 
due to the oil spill. These families also faced economic pressures independent from the oil 
spill and lacked access to programs to help overcome adversity.  
 
“The oil spill hits the fishing industry hard. People with ties to fishing were more likely 
to have higher levels of stress than others who also relied on the Gulf for a source of 
income. State and federal agencies closed fishing grounds while they monitored the 
spread of the oil slick and tested seafood samples to ensure safety. Many people who 
worked in the fishing and seafood industries were out of work during this time… 
 
“Some heavily oiled areas in Barataria Bay in Louisiana state waters were not re-opened to 
fishing because of oil contamination until June 2015”: five years after the spill. 
 
“The fishing industry also had other concerns in addition to the closure of fishing grounds. 
Members wondered about the long-term effects on fish populations and whether 
consumers would believe that seafood was safe to eat. 
 
“Community attachment can help and harm. Scientists saw that residents more 
attached to their community and part of the fishing and seafood industries had a harder 
time recovering after the spill. They felt angry, worried, anxious, depressed, sad, nervous, 
and afraid even a year after the spill.” 
 
“The attachment to their community also may have made them less likely to want to leave 
their home, even when the oil spill was threatening their way of life. “ 
 

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Title: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: mental health effects on residents in heavily 
affected areas 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22146666 
 
“Mental health issues are a significant concern after disasters such as the Deepwater 
Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. This study was designed to assess the mental 
health effects on residents of areas of southeastern Louisiana affected by the oil spill. 
 
“The results show that the greatest effect on mental health related to the extent of 
disruption to participants' lives, work, family, and social engagement, with increased 
symptoms of anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress.” 
 
 
 

5. Ecological impacts  
 
Title: Ecological impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: implications for 
immunotoxicity 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22105647 
 
 
“The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill was the largest environmental disaster and 
response effort in U.S. history, with nearly 800 million liters of crude oil spilled. Vast areas 
of the Gulf of Mexico were contaminated with oil, including deep-ocean communities and 
over 1,600 kilometers of shoreline. Multiple species of pelagic, tidal, and estuarine 
organisms; sea turtles; marine mammals; and birds were affected, and over 20 million 
hectares of the Gulf of Mexico were closed to fishing….immunotoxic effects seem likely 
from the DHW spill based on the reported effects of a variety of oils on both aquatic and 
wildlife species.” 
 
 
Title: Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacts on sea turtles could span the Atlantic 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26701754 
 
Studies confirm that the ecological impacts of a spill are not confined to the area of spill 
occurrence. 
 

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“We investigated the extent that the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill potentially affected 
oceanic-stage sea turtles from populations across the Atlantic. Within an 
ocean-circulation model, particles were backtracked from the Gulf of Mexico spill site to 
determine the probability of young turtles arriving in this area from major nesting beaches. 
The abundance of turtles in the vicinity of the oil spill was derived…green, loggerhead, and 
Kemp’s ridley turtles were likely within the spill site. 
 
“Simulations predicted 75.2% of turtles came from Mexico, 14.8% from Costa Rica, 5.9% 
from countries in northern South America, 3.4% from the United States and 1.6% from 
West African countries. Thus, the spill's impacts may extend far beyond the current focus 
on the northern Gulf of Mexico.” 
 
 
Title: The effect of oil spills on the bacterial diversity and catabolic function in 
coastal sediments: a case study on the Prestige oil spill  
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25869434 
 
“Marine oil spills are recurrent incidents of varying magnitudes, in general caused by 
accidents in the production and transport of petroleum and its by-products around the 
world...Incidents of these magnitudes have important consequences on the autochthonous 
microbial communities, which suffer drastic changes in structure and function. Although 
the specific changes observed are characteristic of each contamination event, general 
patterns are observed.” 
 
 
Title: Toxic effects of oil and dispersant on marine microalgae 
 
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25283369 
 
As with human health, oil from a spill is not the only toxin. In microalgae, “the addition of 
dispersant inhibited cell division and motility within 24 h...These results highlight 
microalgae sensitivity to the use of dispersants in bioremediation processes, which may be 
a concern for long-term impacts on fisheries recruitment.” 
 
 
 
6. Tarballs and Marine Tar Residues 
 
Title: Marine Tar Residues: a Review 

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4339695/ 

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Tarball and tar mat residues accompany marine drilling. They foul beaches and harm 
wildlife, including sea turtles, which nest on the Carolina Coast. Tourism, recreation, and 
the seafood industry are stigmatized, sustaining irreparable harm. Tar residues serve as 
reservoirs for human pathogens. The study authors find: 

“Tar balls, tar mats, and tar patties are common examples of marine tar residues and can 
range in size from millimeters in diameter (tar balls) to several meters in length and width 
(tar mats). These residues can remain in the ocean environment indefinitely, decomposing 
or becoming buried in the sea floor. However, in many cases, they are transported ashore 
via currents and waves where they pose a concern to coastal recreation activities, the 
seafood industry and may have negative effects on wildlife.” 

“Wildlife concerns from tar residues focus mainly on pelagic tar and sea turtles. Pelagic tar 
pieces can be similar in shape to the Sargassum floats that sea turtles feed on, leading to 
their accidental ingestion. 

“At least one study has found a decrease in molluscan diversity and abundance in regions 
that were impacted by tar pollution (Nagelkerken and Debrot 1995). This study compared 
unpolluted beaches to beaches with a large percentage of tar cover, ranging from 17 to 
56 % over the entire shore, with portions of the beach ‘largely cemented into a solid 
mass’ by the tar.  

“Human Effects: Recently, researchers have raised new concerns regarding human risks 
of tar ball contact...Vibrio vulnificus (a bacterium that can cause severe illness in humans) 
numbers were ten times higher in tar balls than in sand and up to 100 times higher than 
seawater, indicating that tar balls can act as reservoirs for bacteria including human 
pathogens. 

“Beached tar pollution is a recognized deterrent for beachgoers and as a result, can 
negatively impact the tourism industry. People do not like visiting beaches covered in tar, 
which can stick to feet and belongings and at a minimum serves as an unpleasant visual 
reminder of environmental pollution...In decades past, when oil pollution was more 
widespread and tar balls more ubiquitous, commercial products were sold to beachgoers 
in order to remove tar after a day at the beach (“Tar Away”; Farrington 1985). However, as 
public perception and standards for pollution have changed, regularly encountering tar 
balls on the beach is no longer an expected and accepted occurrence. Thus, a substantial 
motivation in reducing the amount of tar on beaches is to improve the quality of the 
amenity beaches and to decrease the negative impacts on tourism.  

“Similarly, an additional economic loss is associated with public perception of seafood 

from impacted regions being tainted. Even when the known ecologically damaging liquid 
oils have been removed from the ocean after a spill, the reoccurrence of tar balls on the 
beaches may perpetuate the stigma of those regions in seafood consumers’ 
minds...Highly visible, beached tar residues are a recognized nuisance for the tourism 
industry and likely negatively impact the seafood industry as well.” 

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Title: Tarballs, what are they, and how to they form? 
 
Source: NOAA 
https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/resources/tarballs.ht
ml 
 
“Tarballs, the little, dark-colored pieces of oil that can sometimes stick to your feet when 
you go to the beach, are often remnants of oil spills...During the first few hours of a spill, 
the oil spreads into a thin slick. Winds and waves tear the slick into smaller patches that are 
scattered over a much wider area. Various physical, chemical, and biological processes 
change the appearance of the oil. These processes are generally called "weathering." 
“Tarballs are very persistent in the marine environment and can travel hundreds of 
miles.” 

“Are tar balls hazardous to your health? In general, we recommend that contact with oil be 
avoided. 

“There is no magic trick to making tarballs disappear. Once tarballs hit the beaches, 
they may be picked up by hand or by beach-cleaning machinery. If the impact is severe, the 
top layer of sand containing the tarballs may be removed and replaced with clean sand.” 

 
 
7. Seismic surveys and blasting: Impact on marine life 
 
Title: “A review of the impacts of seismic airgun surveys on marine life” 
 
Source: 
https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/mcbem-2014-01/other/mcbem-2014-01-submissio
n-seismic-airgun-en.pdf 
 
 
“Noise from a single seismic airgun survey, used to discover oil and gas deposits hundreds 
of kilometers under the sea floor, can blanket an area of over 300,000 km, raising 
background noise levels 100-fold (20 dB), continuously for weeks or months. Seismic 
airgun surveys are loud enough to penetrate hundreds of kilometers into the ocean 
floor, even after going through thousands of meters of ocean.  
 
“Nieukirk et al. (2012) analyzed 10 years of recordings from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, finding 
that seismic airguns were heard at distances of 4,000 km from survey vessels...When 
several surveys were recorded simultaneously, whale sounds were masked (drowned 
out), and the airgun noise became the dominant part of background noise levels. 
 

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“To compare the total energy output per year (in joules) of the various human-made 
underwater noise sources, the highest is 2.1 x 10(15) J, representing the contribution from 
nuclear explosions...Immediately following in contribution are seismic airgun arrays... 
 
“Marine mammals.  
 
“Gordon et al. (2004) found that marine mammals can be impacted by the intense, 
broadband pulses produced by seismic airguns through hearing impairment (temporary 
or permanent...physiological changes such as stress responses, indirectly by impacting 
their prey, behavioral alterations such as avoidance responses, displacement, or a change 
in vocalizations, or through masking (obliterating sounds of interest).  
 
“Around 250 male fin whales appeared to stop singing for several weeks to months during 
a seismic survey, resuming singing within hours or days after the survey ended. 
 
“Marine mammals also avoid seismic noise by vacating the area. 
 
“Seismic noise has been thought to at least contribute to some species’ declines or lack of 
recovery (Weller et al. 2006a, 2006b; IWC 2007). Critically endangered western gray whales 
off Sakhalin Island, Russia, were displaced by seismic surveys from their primary feeding 
area, returning only days after seismic activity stopped. This change in distribution closely 
followed the timing of the seismic surveys. 
 
“Seismic air guns are a probable cause of whale strandings and deaths as well...A 
pantropical spotted dolphin suffered rigidity and postural instability progressing to a 
catatonic-like state and probable drowning within 600 m of a 3D seismic survey firing at 
full power (Gray and Van Waerebeek 2011).   
 
“Stress effects or physiological changes, if chronic, can inhibit the immune system or 
otherwise compromise the health of animals.  
 
“Mitigation measures to safeguard whales against high noise exposures are very 
inadequate….Moreover, determining an exposure level that is "safe" for marine mammals 
is fraught with difficulty.  
 
“Marine Turtles.   
 
“Marine turtles show a strong initial avoidance response to air-gun arrays...McCauley et al. 
(2000) estimated that a typical airgun array operating in 100–120 m water depth could 
impact behavior at a distance of about 2 km and cause avoidance at around 1 km for 
marine turtles. DeRuiter and Doukara (2010) found that 51% of turtles dived at or before 
their closest point of approach to an airgun array. 
 
“Fish. A wide range of acoustic impacts on fish has been observed. Seismic air guns 
extensively damaged fish ears at distances of 500 m to several kilometres from seismic 
surveys. No recovery was apparent 58 days after exposure (McCauley et al. 2003). 
Behavioral reactions of fish to anthropogenic noise include dropping to deeper depths, 
milling in compact schools, ‘freezing’’, or becoming more active… 
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“Reduced catch rates of 40%–80% and decreased abundance have been reported near 
seismic surveys in species such as Atlantic cod, haddock, rockfish, herring, sand eel, and 
blue whiting (Dalen and Knutsen 1987; Løkkeborg 1991; Skalski et al. 1992; Engås et al. 
1996; Hassel et al. 2004; Slotte et al. 2004). These effects can last up to 5 days after 
exposure and at distances of more than 30 km from a seismic survey. The impacts of 
seismic airgun noise on eggs and larvae of marine fish included decreased egg viability, 
increased embryonic mortality, or decreased larval growth when exposed to sound levels 
of 120 dB re 1 μPa (Kostyuchenko 1973; Booman et al. 1996). Turbot larvae showed 
damage to brain cells and neuromasts (Booman et al. 1996).  
 
“Invertebrates. Nine giant squid mass stranded, some of them live, together with 
geophysical surveys using air guns in 2001 and 2003 in Spain (Guerra et al. 2004). The squid 
all had massive internal injuries, some severe, with internal organs and ears badly 
damaged.  
 
“Conclusions. “It is clear that (the impact) is an ecosystem-wide impact. That seismic 
airguns are the second highest contributor of human-caused underwater noise in total 
energy output per year, following only nuclear and other explosions, should underline 
this point. At least 37 marine species have been shown to be affected by seismic airgun 
noise.  
 
“These impacts range from behavioral changes such as decreased foraging, avoidance of 
the noise, and changes in vocalizations through displacement from important habitat, 
stress, decreased egg viability and growth, and decreased catch rates, to hearing 
impairment, massive injuries, and even death by drowning or strandings. Seismic airgun 
noise must be considered a serious marine environmental pollutant.” 
 
 
 
8. Damage to local economies 
 
Title: The Economic Effects of Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Exploration and 
Development in the South Atlantic Region: Issues and Assessment 
 
Source: Middlebury Institute Of International Studies at Monterey 
https://www.southernenvironment.org/uploads/audio/Center_for_the_Blue_Economy_Atlan
tic_Offshore_Drilling.pdf 
 
In the findings below, the “Quest Report” cited was commissioned by the American 
Petroleum Institute in 2013 to support offshore drilling in the Atlantic. The present report 
finds it creates “an incomplete and misleading economic picture,” specifically, as follows: 
 

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“The existing ocean economy in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia...is 
thus larger than the Quest estimates for oil and gas employment in 2035, which as noted 
appear to be exaggerated.  
 
“The region’s existing ocean-related economy is quite substantial. In 2012, there were 
249,000 ocean-related jobs in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. This 
total is larger than the number of oil and gas jobs estimated by Quest for 2035. The 
region’s ocean economy paid $7.515 billion in wages and contributed $14.5 billion to the 
economies of the South Atlantic region. The largest sector in employment in 2012, with 
171,159 jobs, was tourism and recreation. This sector is also the largest contributor to the 
gross domestic product (GDP) with $6.050 billion. Ship and boat building is the second 
largest sector, and the living resources sector, which includes commercial fishing, accounts 
for $978.505 million in GDP.  
 
“While drilling may bring new economic activity to the region, it may impact the other 
significant elements in the region’s ocean-based economy. Any predicted employment and 
economic gains must be weighed against possible losses to existing economies as a result 
of onshore industrialization, routine contamination, construction activities, and the 
threat of major oil spills. 
 
“Local economic impacts. Offshore oil and gas exploration and production require highly 
specialized technologies, facilities, and equipment, as well as a highly trained workforce. In 
a frontier region such as the South Atlantic, most of the specialized equipment and 
workforce is not present and must be provided from outside the region, particularly in 
the exploration phase.  
 
“The skilled workforce of the Gulf will certainly be tapped in the early years. Oil and gas 
workers commonly work for long periods in regions distant from their homes….with the 
large concentration of such firms in the neighboring Gulf of Mexico region, it is likely that 
the (Quest) report significantly overestimates the impacts to the region in terms of 
employment, new industry, and economic activity. 
 
“Will states receive revenue sharing from the federal government? “The Quest report 
discusses a situation where the Atlantic coast states will receive significant revenues from 
OCS leasing and production. Under current law...Atlantic coast states would not receive any 
such revenues. The sharing of federal revenues with the states has been a controversial 
issue for decades, and to establish revenue sharing for the Atlantic region, Congress would 
have to pass legislation. 
 
“Congress has historically been extremely reluctant to share revenues with the states….OCS 
oil and gas bonus and royalty payments are, in some years, second only to income tax as a 
source of revenue for the federal government.  
 

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“What is left out of economic impact analyses? “ Such analyses...provide an incomplete 
picture of regional impacts by not accounting for the impact of offshore oil and gas 
development on the welfare of people who use ocean and coastal resources.  
 
“The issue is the difference between a day at the beach for the consumer and for the 
business. A visitor to Myrtle Beach or Virginia Beach spends money on hotels and 
restaurants and other services, and we count that in the ocean economy. But the visitor’s 
purpose is to go to the beach, not to spend money in a hotel; the value to the visitor is the 
beach experience, not what it costs while they are there.  
 
“These are the values that are most at risk from hazards such as oil spills. Hotels and 
restaurants can make money serving oil-spill cleanup workers as easily as tourists in the 
short term. But if the fundamental nature of the beach is changed, hotels and restaurants 
lose in the long term, as do the visitors who no longer choose to travel to favored places. 
The visitor who must travel longer distances or to less-favored areas, or who must forgo 
the beach visit all together, is the real loser. 
 
“As oil and gas activity develops over time, support facilities onshore in coastal 
communities will also expand. This may result in a shift in some communities to a greater 
emphasis on industrial activities in shoreline use, which can create competition with other 
traditional waterfront users. Competition for scarce working waterfront space and a shift in 
land use may confront communities with unacceptable changes” including the 
industrialization of our sacred coast. 
 
 
9. Long term sequelae of oil spills 
 
 
Title: Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill 
 
Link: https://www.afsc.noaa.gov/publications/misc_pdf/peterson.pdf 
 
“Previously, it was assumed that impacts to populations derive almost exclusively from 
acute mortality. However...unexpected persistence of toxic subsurface oil and chronic 
exposures, even at sublethal levels, have continued to affect wildlife.  
 
“Acute-phase mortality: “Acute mortality followed a pattern largely predictable from 
other oil spills…death from hypothermia, smothering, drowning, and ingestion of toxic 
hydrocarbons. Accordingly, mass mortalities of 1000 to 2800 sea otters and unprecedented 
numbers of seabird deaths estimated at 250,000 were documented during the days after 
the spill. An estimated 302 harbor seals, a short-haired marine mammal, were killed not by 

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oiled pelage but likely from inhalation of toxic fumes leading to brain lesions, stress, and 
disorientation. 
 
“Persistence of oil: Ecosystem Sequestration. Unexpectedly, rates of dispersion and 
degradation diminished through time, as most oil remaining after October 1992 was 
sequestered in environments where degradation was suppressed by physical 
barriers...Some of this oil was similarly trapped under mussel beds providing an enduring 
route of entry into many food chains.   
 
“Long-term population impacts. Chronic exposures for years after the spill to oil 
persisting in sedimentary refuges were evident from biomarkers in fish, sea otters, and 
seaducks intimately associated with sediments for egg laying or foraging. These chronic 
exposures enhanced mortality for years...After the spill, fish embryos and larvae were 
chronically exposed to partially weathered oil in dispersed forms. 
 
“Foraging sea otters suffered chronic exposure to residual petroleum hydrocarbons from 
both sediment contact and ingestion of bivalve prey...marine birds that forage in shallow 
sediments showed evidence of persistent exposure to residual oil after the spill.   
 
“Sublethal exposures leading to death from compromised health, growth, or reproduction. 
Several studies documented cascades of events indirectly affecting survival or reproduction 
after sublethal exposures. Oil exposure resulted in lower growth rates of salmon fry… 
 
The long term sequelae of oil spills extends to human ecology.:  
 
Human physical health: long-term. “Some of the observed effects even indicated that 
several symptoms may persist for some years after exposure.” 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27221976 
 
Human mental health: long-term. :“Levels of depression, mental illness, and stress that 
some residents experienced were above the national average even two years after the 
spill.” http://masgc.org/oilscience/oil-spill-science-mental-health.pdf 
 
Following the Deep Water Horizon spill, “some heavily oiled areas in Barataria Bay in 
Louisiana state waters were not re-opened to fishing because of oil contamination until 
June 2015” -- five years after the spill.” 
http://masgc.org/oilscience/oil-spill-science-mental-health.pdf 
 
 
 
 
 

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 10. Hurricane risk: The Perfect Storm 
 
Title: NOAA Office of Response and Restoration: Oil Spills and Hurricanes take the 
Nation by storm. 
 
Link: 
https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/about/media/summer-blockbuster-oil-spills-and-hur
ricanes-can-take-nation-storm.html 
 
 
The Carolina Coast is rife for hurricanes. North Carolina has had 51 direct hits from 
hurricanes, the fourth highest in the nation. Wilmington is among the top 10 U.S. cities for 
hurricane risk, as is Charletson in South Carolina. 
https://www.cbsnews.com/media/top-10-cities-at-risk-from-hurricane-damage/ 
 
NOAA’s Office of Response and Restoration (supra) asks the obvious: “Back in the world of 
reality, what could be worse than a hurricane? How about a hurricane combined with a 
massive oil spill? It's not just a pitch for a new movie. Oil spills actually are a pretty 
common outcome of powerful storms like hurricanes. There are a couple primary 
scenarios involving oil spills and hurricanes. The first is a hurricane causing one or more oil 
spills, which is what happened during Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and after Hurricane Sandy 
in 2012. These kinds of oil spills typically result from a storm’s damage to coastal oil 
facilities, including refineries, as well as vessels being damaged or sunken and leaking their 
fuel. The second, far less common scenario is a hurricane blowing in during an existing oil 
spill, which is what happened during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. 
 
“Hurricane first, then oil spills. Stranded and wrecked vessels are one of the iconic 
images showing the aftermath of a hurricane. In most cases those vessels have oil on 
board. And don't forget about all the cars that get flooded. Each of these sources may 
contain relatively small amounts of fuel, but hurricanes can cause big oil spills too. 
Additional damage is often caused by the storm surge, as big oil and chemical storage 
tanks can get lifted off their foundations (or sheared off in the case of the picture below). 
 
“Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 passed through the center of the Gulf of Mexico oil 
industry and caused dozens of major oil spills and thousands of small spills. 
 
“Hurricanes can also create navigation hazards that result in later spills. Hurricane Rita, 
hitting the Gulf in September 2005, sank several offshore oil platforms. While some were 
recovered, others were actually left missing. Several months later, the tank barge DBL 152 
"found one of these missing rigs(link is external), spilling nearly 2 million gallons of thick 
slurry oil after striking the sunken and displaced platform hiding below the ocean surface.” 
 

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