Velocity - Porosity - Mineralogy Gassmann coefficient mixing relationships
for water saturated sedimentary rocks
Phil Holbrook*, Igor Goldberg ! & Boris Gurevich !
Abstract
Clay mineral diagenesis and PVT-x Sodium Chloride
brine relationships play pivotal roles in the full
implementation of Gassmann equation forward and
inverse modeling. The velocity of Sodium Chloride
brine varies from 1420 M/sec to 1960 M/sec over the
temperature - pressure - salinity range that exists in the
porous sedimentary crust. The bulk modulus and
density coefficients of Sodium Chloride brines were
extracted from voluminous measured velocity data by
Archer (1992). Archer's equation of state
thermodynamic molecular interaction coefficients were
re-cast as third order functions of NaCl brine density,
pressure, temperature and molality. Sodium Chloride
brine bulk modulus, density and velocity are linked
through Archer's equation of state. The third order
PVT - xNaCl regression of NaCl brine equation of
state provides very accurate physically consistent fluid
coefficients for Gassmann equation forward and
inverse modeling.
Clay minerals have been the mineralogic stumbling
block for general Gassmann equation forward and
inverse modeling. The Vp of clay minerals varies from
2600 M/sec for hydrated sedimentary claystones to
9400 M/sec for dry low-grade metamorphic
claystones. However, it has been found that the
variability of claystone Vp, Vs and elastic coefficients
is highly systematic. The elastic coefficients extracted
from velocity measurements through Hashin-
Shtrikman inversion are closely comparable over the
entire observed velocity – porosity - grain surface
wetness range. Clay mineral particles are mechanically
well behaved when the elastic coefficients of the
surrounding solid and fluid media are properly
accounted for through weighted average Hashin-
Shtrikman inversion.
Low magnesium sedimentary clay minerals have a
mean Poisson's ratio of 0.29 ± 0.3. The independently
derived system measurement error is 10%. The dry
rock bulk and shear modulus ratio for sedimentary clay
minerals can be taken as a constant Poisson's ratio for
inversion purposes.
___________________________________________
* Force⇔Balanced Petrophysics, Houston, Texas
!
The Geophysical Institute of Israel, Holon
Hashin-Shtrikman inversion indicates that sedimentary
clay mineral particles are apparently hydrated with an
electrostatically bound water layer over 90+% of their
total porosity range. The elastic properties of clay
mineral particles are uniformly low when the bound
water layer is present. The velocities and elastic
properties of claystones increase rapidly to that of dry
clays with the loss of the last few units of water filled
porosity. Self weight consolidation to zero porosity and
total clay mineral dryness occurs before the low grade
metamorphic clay mineral transition.
Gassmann equation forward and inverse modeling is
tractable when variability of fluid and clay mineral
elastic coefficients are taken into account. The elastic
coefficient mixing laws for the Gassmann and Woods
equations are linear. Optimum average (α & β) pore
compliance coefficient dependencies were determined
through Gassmann equation porosity inversion.
A true statistical test of coefficient extraction and
forward modeling application was performed on
separate, but nearby datasets. Using the average (α & β)
pore compliance porosity dependence, the measured vs.
predicted accuracy of Gassmann equation forward and
inverse Vp, Vs and porosity modeling is about 5%.
Introduction
The propagation of compressional and shear waves
through un-faulted sedimentary rocks closely follows
elastic theory. The elastic correspondence breaks down
when the fracture length approaches the acoustic
wavelength. The Gassmann (1951) equations, Woods
(1941) equation and Hashin-Schtrikman (1963)
equations are all force conserved adaptations of Hooke's
law. The newer equations apply to two or more phase
mixtures of elastic materials. The three newer equations
apply in different domains depending upon solid or
fluid phase type and phase volumetric distribution.
The mineral solids of a sedimentary rock can be divided
into two types dependent primarily on mineral surface
electrostatic charge distribution. Clay mineral particles
have broad negatively charged anionic surfaces above
and below perpendicular to their c-axis. The common
sedimentary non-clay minerals have charge neutral
surfaces.
There is no net repulsive force between non-clay
particle. Non-clay particles come into direct solid-solid
contact as soon as they reach a resting state. This
resting state occurs at about 40% porosity depending
on particle shape and size distribution.
Clay minerals come to rest on the seafloor at about
95% porosity due to electrostatic repulsion between
their broad negatively charged oxygen anionic
surfaces. Dipolar water molecules are strongly
attracted to the negatively charged clay mineral
surfaces. Clay particles are separated from each other
by water layers from their initial settling 95% porosity
almost to the point of zero porosity.
Water is the slow phase in most sedimentary rocks.
The Woods equation applies when the fluid phase
completely separates the faster solid phases. The
Woods equation also applies to any number of mixed
fluid phases. The Hashin-Schtrikman lower limit
applies when the faster solid phase first comes into
direct solid-solid contact. The Hashin-Schtrikman
upper limit applies where isolated spherical pores of
fluid are contained in a continuous faster solid phase.
The Gassmann equations apply within these limits.
Fundamental mineralogic controls over Gassmann
Equation pore compliance coefficients
Figure 1a shows a representative transition for
spherical grains from the Woods equation domain to
the Hashin-Schtrikman upper limit. The microscopic
examination of quartz grainstones looks very much
like figure 1 as porosity is reduced from 40% to 0
percent. Quartz grainstone velocities are usually close
to the Hashin-Schtrikman upper limit after some
intergranular cement is precipitated between the
grains.
Figure 1b shows a microscopic representation of a low
porosity clay dominated soil. The clay minerals
(kaolinite, illite, and smectite) have similar particle
size/shape aspect ratios. Clays are usually sedimented
with varying percentages of neutrally charged silt
grains as shown. The net velocity of an elastic wave
through such a natural particle mixture would be
somewhere between the Hashin-Schtrikman upper and
lower limits.
Figure 1c is a molecular scale representation of the
space between two adjacent clay mineral particles. The
water dipoles are held tightly to the clay mineral
oxygen anionic surface. Water dipoles occilate
randomly as the negative charge clay mineral surface
falls to zero. The velocity of the mineral - water
mixture will remain near the Hashin-Schtrikman lower
limit so long as water is a continuous phase
surrounding the negatively charged clay particles.
2
The clay minerals shown on figures 1b, and 1c have
important internal structural and compositional
differences. However, these different minerals have
very similar micro-mechanical properties as indicated in
figure 2. Their Specific surface area is highly
correlated to their Cation Exchange Capacity as shown.
This correlation suggests that the surface charge density
portrayed in figure 1c is essentially constant for clay
mineral with exposed oxygen anionic surfaces. The
dominant underlying control over clay mineral physical
properties is most likely average clay mineral particle
size.
Both clay and non-clay mineral particle size at initial
sedimentation is determined by particle settling
velocity. The smallest depositional layer will have
similar particle size pre-sorted by similar settling
velocities. The clay mineral CEC-particle size
continuum shown on figure 2 is part of the general
mineralogic settling velocity continuum.
Sodium Chloride Brine physical and elastic
properties from Archer's (1992) Equation of State
The elastic and density properties of fluids depend upon
ionic and molecular particle interactions. An Equation
of State is a complete thermodynamic representation
these particle interactions. Sodium Chloride is the
overwhelmingly dominant solute in subsurface brines.
Brine concentrations vary from about 600 PPM to seven
molal for hot saturated subsurface brines. Archer (1992)
developed a thermodynamic Equation of State for
Sodium Chloride brines. The particle interactions
calculated in Archer's Equation of State determine the
density, velocity, and bulk modulus of any NaCl brine,
under all geologically possible pressure temperature
conditions.
For acoustic P and S wave modeling purposes a third
order regression of Temperature, Pressure, and Sodium
Chloride Molality was fit to Archer's (1992) Equation
of State output data. Figures 3a,b, &c show a
representative fit EOS vs. P, T, Molality-NaCl
comparison at 50 MPa pressure. The RMS error for
density was 0.17% with a maximum error of 0.8% over
the entire subsurface P, T, Molality-NaCl data range.
The RMS error for compressibility over the entire range
was 0.7% with a maximum error less than 3%.
The bulk modulus and density output of P, T, Molality-
NaCl regression is then input for the Woods, Gassmann,
and Hashin-Schtrikman elastic wave equations.
Electrostatically neutral mineral Elastic Coefficients
From the first appearance of full waveform sonic logs in
the early 80's, researchers noticed mineral specific
velocity - porosity trends. The introduction in Goldberg
& Gurevich (1998) describes these early empirical
findings based primarily on direct non-physical linear
regressions.
Figure 4 shows the Gassmann equations and the
simplifications applied by Krief et al. The two upper
right Vp and Vs equations are for any elastic solid.
These are derived directly from Hooke's law.
Gassmann extended these equations to porous granular
solids using bulk and shear modulus pore compliance
coefficients. These two equations are shown on the
upper left. A decrease in Gassmann's pore compliance
coefficients (α&β) corresponds with the systematic
pore shape changes portrayed in figure 1a.
Krief et al (1990) applied Gassmann's equations for
lithology, porosity, and fluid type interpretation of full
waveform sonic logs. They found that two
simplifications of Gassmann's equations could be made
for electrostatically neutral grainstones without loss of
accuracy. The first assumption is that compressional
and shear wave compliance coefficients (α&β) are
equal. This simplification is consistent with grain
contact theory and has been observed in laboratory
measurements (Goldberg&Gurevich, 1998).
Krief et al’s second simplifying assumption appears as
the bottom equation in figure 4. The single pore
compliance coefficient for electrostatically neutral
grainstones was found to be 3.0. This particular
exponent fits Vp and Vs data over the entire (0 to
100%) porosity range governed by both the Gassmann
and Wood's equations.
Figure 5 shows Krief's derived velocity-porosity
transforms on the Vp2 - Vs2 plane. The equivalent
Gassmann elastic moduli accompany the figure Vp 2 -
Vs 2 scales. Crossplots on the Vp2 - Vs2 plane provide
for direct comparison of full waveform sonic data to
elastic theory. Many other Vp2 - Vs2 crossplots in Krief
et al (1990) bear out the accuracy Gassmann's elastic
theory and Kreif's simplifying assumptions for
electrostatically neutral grainstones.
Water wet claystone elastic coefficients
Goldberg & Gurevich (1998) performed a series of
Hashin-Schtrikman inversions on mixed mineralogy
full waveform log datasets. Their average water wet
end member claystone elastic coefficients (velocities)
falls into a very narrow range shown on figure 5. This
is the same Vp2 - Vs2 region where elactrostatically
neutral grainstones pass from a slurry suspension into
an amalgamated granular solid.
The log datasets from which the claystone elastic
coefficients were extracted had porosities ranging from
3
38% to 2%. All these lithologies were reasonably hard
rocks not slurries. The general slurry-like mechanical
behavior of claystones is explained physically by
examining figures 1b, and 1c.
An elastic wave propagating through water-wet clay in
any direction must pass through the much slower water
phase in the interlammelar pore space. Even in very
hard claystones as portrayed in figure 1b, the individual
clay lamellae are generally not in direct solid-solid
contact. The water dipoles are held strongly by
electrostatic forces between the clay lamellae. Water
wet claystone elastic behavior is overall slurry-like as
each clay lamella is encased in its own electrostatically
bound water layer (fig1b). The effective elastic moduli
of water wet claystones by nature includes
electrostatically bound water and is consequently very
low. Water wet claystones are close to the theoretical
Hashin-Schtrikman lower limit in all the log datasets
examined thusfar.
General Gassmann equation porosity vs. water-wet
clay content dependence
Water wet clay is found in various mixtures with
electrostatically neutral grains. The average clay content
is closely related to average particle size of a
sedimentary layer. Both compressional and shear wave
velocities are affected similarly by clay content.
Figure 6 shows both Vp and Vs velocities vs. porosity in
a North Sea calcareous log interval. The measured log
data are plotted in blue, and the Gassmann equation
predicted velocities are shown in red. Overlain on each
dataset is predicted clay content from zero to 1.0 at
increments of 0.1. Zero clay is the uppermost scale line
and clay = 1.0 is the lowermost limit.
A single pair of bulk and shear elastic moduli for
claystones were extracted through Hashin-Schtrikman
inversion from a different nearby dataset and applied to
this dataset. The red (+ & X) values are predicted from
only porosity and clay content using the extracted
coefficients in the Gassmann equations. A single
porosity dependant pore compliance coefficient (α=β)
was used for both predicted Vp and Vs. Other different
combinations of (α≠β) were tried; as well as porosity
and shale volume dependence. Thusfar, additional
modeling complexity has resulted in no statistical
improvement to the simple model shown.
Figure 7 shows the measured vs. Gassmann equation
predicted Vp and Vs velocities for the same dataset
using the same simplifying assumptions. The scatter of
points about the red 1:1 correspondence line appears to
be even for both Vp and Vs. There is a hint of curvature
in both the Vp and Vs the data. More complex
coefficient tweaking could straighten this apparent
curvature. The expense of this tweaking is at a cost of
adding two degrees of freedom to the simplest
Gassmann model. Though possibly valid, the statistical
support for coefficient tweaking is not there.
The water-wet to dry clay mineral transition
There is a sloping low porosity edge to the Vp and Vs
data shown on figure 6. The shale free carbonates have
porosities as low as 2% while the carbonate free
claystones have porosities slightly above 10%. This
lower porosity edge is believed to be a natural
compactional phenomenon related to the clay
electrostatically bound water. Electrostatically neutral
calcite is a soft mineral and has only its crystalline
lattice with which to resist compaction. Compaction
equilibrium is reached when Calcite's internal lattice
bonds can bear the effective stress load. Clay minerals
are about equal in hardness. But the clays bind water to
their negatively charges surfaces giving them greater
compaction resistance. The same encasing bound
water dramatically alters the effective elastic moduli
and velocities of water wet clays as previously shown.
The deepest claystones shown in figure 6 are at about
5000 psi effective stress and still have significant
bound water porosity.
With deeper burial, higher pressures and higher
temperatures, clay minerals are eventually reduced to
total dryness and zero porosity. The elastic properties
of dry clay minerals shed some light on the elastic
properties of water-wet clay minerals.
Figure 8 show an elastic coefficients plot (Vp2 vs. Vs2)
for sedimentary clay minerals. The source references
are shown on the plot. The data points denoted by an
(X) are dry clay mineral points. Wang et al’s (1998)
data points were determined through Hashin-
Schtrikman inversion of dry clay minerals mixed in
epoxy. Goldberg & Gurevich's (1998) water-wet
claystone data was also derived through Hashin-
Schtrikman inversion. The water offset was removed
through this inversion. The full log set data range is
posted as a box around the average data point (+).
That data range is very narrow. All the (+ and X) clay
data points fall along the dashed line through the origin
of this (Vp2 vs. Vs2) elastic coefficients plot.
The dashed line shown on figure 8 has a constant
Poisson's ratio of 0.29. Sedimentary clay minerals are
mechanically similar for several different reasons. All
the sedimentary clay minerals shown are high alumina,
low iron, and low magnesium, weathering resistant
clays. Their oxygen anionic surfaces are all like that
portrayed in figure 1c. One could further conclude
4
from the constant Poisson's ratio of 0.29 that the relative
elastic mechanical behavior of sedimentary clays is
constant. The difference along the 0.29 Poisson's ratio
line is the presence or absence of electrostatically bound
water on the clay.
Tosaya (1982) and Castagna (1985) also extrapolated
wet clay elastic moduli shown as (o). Their methods
were from linear velocity averaging that are inconsistent
with elastic theory. Nonetheless, their data falls
reasonably close to the 0.29 line and toward the low
elastic modulus range. It is reasonable to expect that the
wet to dry clay mineral transition would be an increase
in elastic moduli proportional to a constant Poisson's
ratio of 0.29.
The wet to dry transition during natural burial
diagenesis occurs after all montmorillonite has been
transformed to illite. The lower two Wang values on
figure 8 dried in a laboratory. Dry zero porosity
montmorillonite or mixed layer montmorillonite
probably does not occur through natural burial
diagenesis. The transition from water-wet to dry clay
minerals occurs above 5000 psi in the North Sea which
is also a fairly hot basin by geologic standards.
Clay mineral elastic properties in the wet ⇒ dry clay
mineral transition zone
The dramatic increase in clay mineral elastic properties
shown on figure 8 occurs in nature. From figure 6 we
can conclude that the wet⇒dry clay mineral transition
occurs between 10 and zero bulk rock porosity units. A
rock with zero porosity is also by definition totally dry.
Figure 9 shows four mineralogic end points on the
elastic coefficients (Vp2 vs. Vs2) plane. The three
minerals, quartz, calcite, and sedimentary clay compose
over 90% of all sedimentary rocks. There are two
domains subdivided about (Vs2 = 9 km/sec2) shown on
this plot. Sedimentary rocks with lower velocities
would have water filled porosities in excess of 10%.
End member claystones in this water-wet domain would
have the dry rock bulk and shear moduli shown on the
lower left.
For ternary quartz, calcite, clay mixtures the transitional
to dry clay mineral domain occurs between (9 km/sec2
<Vs2 < 12.4 km/sec2) as shown on figure 9. At (Vs2 =
12.4 km/sec2) calcite and quartz would be totally dry.
Also for (Vs2 ≥ 12.4 km/sec2) clay minerals would be in
their dry domain with elastic coefficients in the range
reported by Wang et al (1998) and Katahara (1996). For
lack of better information at this time; clay mineral
elastic moduli in the wet⇒dry clay transitional domain
should increase on the order of 10% / porosity unit
change between (9 km/sec2 <Vs2 < 12.4 km/sec2).
Considering that different physical phenomenon are
involved in the wet⇒dry clay transition a physically
descriptive transitional equation is unlikely at present.
Elastic coefficient mixing rules, in the water-wet
clay domain
The elastic coefficient mixing rules under both the
Wood's equation for fluids and suspensions; and the
Gassmann equations solid frame + fluid; are linear.
The non-linearities in these elastic systems are in the
(α & β) pore compliance coefficients. The procedure
is to first determine Kmatrix, µmatrix, ρmatrix, K fluid, ρfluid
through linear weighted averaging as shown in figure
4. Bulk density (ρbulk) is the solid + fluid weighted
density average that goes into the elastic Vp and on
figure 4. Fluid bulk modulus (K fluid) is an end point on
the elastic coefficients (Vp2 vs. Vs2) crossplot as is zero
porosity (Kmatrix & µmatrix) as shown on figure 5.
There is a continuum of clay mineral elastic
coefficients from water-wet to dry plotted on figure 9.
The light gray shaded water wet clay domain applies
for all values of porosity greater than 10% or (Vs2 < 9
km/sec2). The water-wet clay coefficients (Kclay =10.0
GPa, & µclay =4.9 GPa, ρclay = 2.64g/cc, Poisson's ratio =
0.29) should be used in the solid matrix volume
weighted average equations;
(Volume•Κ quartz) + (Volume•Κ calcite) +
(Volume•Κ clay) = Κ matrix
(Volume•µ quartz) + (Volume•µ calcite) +
(Volume•µ clay) = µ matrix
(Volume• 2.65) + (Volume• 2.71) +
(Volume• 2.64) = ρmatrix
For each of the above equations the solid volume sums
to 1.0. A zero porosity mixed mineral elastic end point
will plot somewhere within the shaded area on figure
9.
Clay Mineral Transitional to Dry Elastic Coefficient
Mixing Rules
The transitional to dry domain occurs as porosity
decreases from 10PU to 0PU. The shear wave velocities
for zero porosity calcite, quartz and dry sedimentary clay
are all about (Vs=3.4 Km/sec). Due to increasing
temperature-pressure diagenesis average sedimentary clay
mineral grain density increases to about 2.68 g/cc at that
velocity. The Gassmann equation coefficients for dry clay
with shear wave velocity =3.4 Km/sec should be; bulk
modulus = 63.5 GPa, Shear modulus = 31 GPa, grain
density = 2.68g/cc, Poisson's ratio = 0.29.
5
For forward physical rock properties ⇒ elastic rock
properties modeling, the water-wet to dry transition zone
elastic coefficients for average sedimentary clay minerals
can be calculated from the following linear equations;
Κ clay (GPa) = 63.5 - (porosity ∗ 5.35 )
µ clay (GPa) = 31. - (porosity ∗ 2.61)
ρ clay (g/cc) = 2.68 - (porosity ∗ 0.04)
Poisson's ratio = 0.29
These transitional water-wet ⇒ dry clay elastic
coefficients should be substituted into the same volume
weighted average equations shown above. As before, a
zero porosity mixed mineral elastic end point will plot
somewhere within the shaded area on figure 9.
General elastic porosity from velocity relationship
for mixed mineralogy sedimentary rocks
Through linear weighted averaging, the elastic
coefficients, (Kmatrix , µmatrix , ρmatrix , Kfluid , ρfluid ,and
ρbulk) have been determined. These define 100% and 0%
water-filled porosity end points on the elastic coefficients
(Vp2 vs. Vs2) plane (figures 5&9). The relationship of
velocity to porosity between these elastic end points
depends upon the non-linear pore compliance
coefficients (α&β) shown on figure 4.
The single most accurate combined (α = β) porosity (φ)
dependent pore compliance function is:
1.0 - β = (1.0 - φ)[ 2..2 / ( 1.0 - φ ) ]
This is a complex equation that fits into the pore
compliance (upper left) relationships of figure 4. The
output coefficients (Krock , µrock , & ρrock ) enter the
(upper right) general elastic solid equations of figure 4.
For forward modeling of porosity and mineralogy to ⇒
(Vp2 & Vs2); porosity is entered into the pore
compliance equation above. The average mineral and
fluid elastic and density coefficients complete the
Gassmann elastic forward model. For
inverse (Vp2 and/or Vs2) ⇒ porosity modeling; the same
average mineral and fluid elastic and density
coefficients are inserted into the Gassmann equations.
Porosity is increased iteratively until the calculated (Vp2
and/or Vs2) matches the observed.
Conclusions
A mineralogically general, fully elastic Gassmann
equation formulation relating porosity ⇔ to velocity
has been developed. This was accomplished through the
addition of Sodium Chloride brine coefficients derived
from Archer’s (1992) Equation of State formulation;
and Goldberg & Gurevich’s (1998) Gassmann equation
inversion of water wet clay elastic coefficients. Water
wet clays were found to have essentially the same
Poisson’s ratio as dry low magnesium sedimentary
clays.
The water wet to dry clay transition under natural
subsurface conditions between 10% and 0% porosity.
Clay mineral elastic moduli increase with constant
Poisson’s ratio proportionality in the wet to dry clay
transition. A close correspondence of zero porosity
calcite, quartz, and dry clay (Vs2)’s allows for inverse
modeling in this broad mineralogic domain.
The accuracy of this fully elastic Gassmann equation
forward and inverse (Vp2 & Vs2) modeling approach is
about 5%. The elastic correspondences and
coefficients revealed through this research have many
applications to other areas involving earth material
elastic properties.
References cited
Archer, D.G., 1992, “Thermodynamic properties of
NaCl + H2O System II. Thermodynamic properties of
NaCl (aq), NaCl.H2O(cr), and phase equilibria,” by J.
Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 793-829.
Castagna, J.P., Batzle, M.L. and Eastwood, R.L., 1985,
"Relationships between compressional-wave and shear-
wave velocities in clastic silicate rocks", Geophysics,
vol. 50. pp. 571-581.
Gassmann, F., 1951, Ueber die Elistizitat poroser
Medien: Viertelajahrschrift der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Zurich, v.96, p.1
Goldberg, I. and Gurevich, B., 1998, A semi-empirical
velocity-porosity-clay model for petrophysical
interpretation of P- and S-velocities. Geophysical
Prospecting, V. 46, No. 3, pp. 271-285.
Goldberg, I. & B. Gurevich, 1998, "Porosity
Estimation from P and S sonic log data using a semi-
empirical velocity-porosity-clay model", SPWLA 39th
Annual Logging Symposium, paper QQ.
Hashin, Z., & S. Shtrikman, 1963, "A variational
approach to the theory of the elastic behavior of
multiphase materials", J. Mech. Phys. Solids, vol. 11,
pp. 127-140.
Hueckel, T. A., 1992, "Water-mineral interaction in
hygromechanics of clays exposed to environmental
loads: a mixture-theory approach", Canadian
Geotechnical Journal V. 29, pp.1071-1086.
Katahara, K., 1996, "Clay mineral elastic properties",
presented at the 66th SEG Annual Meeting &
International Exhibition, Denver CO.
6
Krief, M., Garat, J., Stellingwerf, J., and Ventre, J.,
1990, "A petrophysical interpretation using the
velocities of P and S waves (full waveform sonic), The
Log Analyst, vol. 31, pp. 355-369.
Revil, A. P.A. Pezard & M. Darot, 1997, "Electrical
conductivity, spontaneous potential and ionic diffusion
in porous media", in Lovell, M.A. & Harvey, P.K.,
1997, Developments in Petrophysics, Geological
Society special publication, pp. 253, 275.
Thomsen, L., 1985, "Biot consistent elastic moduli of
porous rocks - low-frequency limit", Geophysics, vol.
50, no. 12, pp. 2797 - 2807.
Tosaya, C., 1982, "Acoustic properties of clay bearing
rocks", Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University
Wang, Zhijing et al, 1998, "Elastic properties of solid
clays", Society of Exploration Geophysycists Extended
Abstracts RP3.2, pp. 1045-1048.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Phil Holbrook received his PhD in Geology from the
Pennsylvania State University in 1973. He spent 2 years
as an exploration geologist/geophysicist in the Gulf Oil
Houston District. Thereafter he spent 5 years in Gulf's
R&D where he developed well log fluid pressure
mapping methods to aid in oil exploration. In 1978 he
joined Exxon Production Research. He worked
extensively in reservoir mapping and reserves estimates
and served as an Exxon internal well log interpretation
consultant. In 1984 he joined Sperry-Sun, developed
and published the first force balanced effective stress
law pore pressure prediction method in 1986. Presently,
he runs Force⇔Balanced Petrophysics consulting
primarily on elastic and plastic stress/strain
relationships of sedimentary rocks and velocities.
Igor Goldberg is a log analyst and research scientist
with The Geophysical Institute of Israel. His main
expertise is formation evaluation in complex geological
environments, seismic processing, and integration of
well log data with seismic. He received his M.Sc.
degree(1981) in exploration geophysics from the
Grozny Oil Institute, Grozny, USSR and worked with
the Institutefor Geophysical Exploration in Grozny as a
research scientist and project leader on integrated
interpretationof well log data and petrophysical
validation of reservoir parameters for the Tengiz oil
field, Kazakhstan.
Boris Gurevich is currently a senior research
geophysicist with The Geophysical Institute of Israel.
His main research interests include petrophysics and
theory of acoustic/seismic wave propagation in rocks
and other porous materials. He received his Ph.D.
degree (1988) in geophysics from the Moscow
Institute of Geosystems, USSR and M.Sc. degree in
exploration geophysics from the Moscow State
University, USSR. From 1981 to 1991 he worked as a
7
research scientist and group leader with the Moscow
Institute of Geosystems. He was a visiting scientist at
the Geophysical Institute of Karlsruhe University in
1992-1993 and at Birkbeck College, University of
London in 1993 - 1994. He is a member of SEG, AGU,
and ASA.
 lower (Hashin-Schtrickman spherical limits)
Figure 1a Microscopic scale diagram of the
Non-linear decreasing Gassmann equation
transition of spherical grains immersed in
α & β)
Wood•s equation no solid contact
pore compliance coefficients (
fluid to spherical pores encased in solid.
These are the lower and upper H- S limits.

The microscopic examination of quartz

grainstones looks very much like figure 1a
as porosity is reduced from 40% to 0 percent.

The velocities of neutrally charged

grainstones are usually close to the Hashin
-Schtrikman upper limit after some
cement is precipitated between the grains.

Linear elasticity applies throughout the

acoustic wave equation domains shown.
Mineral Grain volume dissolved
Grains
Pressure Solution transport

Porosity Locally re-precipitated

Mineral Cement

K S Figure 1b. Sedimentary

particles and forms
of water in a low
E
E porosity clay soil.
lm
F F, free or bulk water;
F E, external or intercluster water;
E I Im, Interlammelar or inter-cluster
water; S, silt; K, kaolinite; I, illite;
E Sm, smectite.( taken from Hueckel, 1992)
F
S
lm
Sm

Oxygen Anionic
Clay Mineral Surface
Adsorbed water
"Highly"
structured Figure 1c. Two opposing negatively
water charged clay mineral oxygen anionic
surfaces shown at the atomic scale.
"Moderately" Negative charge density deminishes
structured with distance from the oxygen anionic
water mineral surface. Negative charge
density both orients the nearby water
"Moderately" dipole molecules and repels other
structured negatively charged clay mineral
water surfaces

"Highly"
structured
water
Adsorbed water
Clay Mineral Surface
Oxygen Anionic
 103
Montmorillonite (1)
Illite (1)

Specific surface area (m2 g-1)

Illite (3)
Kaolinite (1)
Kaolinite (3)
Vermiculite (2)
Kaolinite (4)
102
Chlorite (3)

101

0.01 0.1 1
CEC (meq g-1)
Figure 2. Specific surface area vs. Cation Exchange Capacity for various clay minerals.
This strong correlation suggests that the surface charge density of a clay mineral portrayed in
figure 1c is essentially areal constant. Given this, the dominant underlying control over clay
mineral physical properties is most likely average clay mineral particle size.
(Taken from Revil, A. P.A. Pezard & M. Darot, 1997.)
2000 1.3
Density of Sodium Chloride Brines at 50 MPa.

B
P-wave Velocity of Sodium Chloride Brines at 50 MPa.

A
1900 1.2
Density 103 kg/m3
Velocity, m/s

1800
1.1

1700
1.0

Archer Equation Of State

Molality-NaCl, P, T fit
1600
0.9
Archer Equation Of State 250 300 350 400 450 500
Molality-NaCl, P, T fit Temperature, oK
1500
250 300 350 400 450 500
Temperature, oK
Figure 3a,b,c. Sodium Chloride Brine Elastic
0.5
Compressibility of Sodium Chloride Brines
Properties under Subsurface PVT conditions.
at 50 MPa. Archer Equation Of State The Archer (1992) Equation of State for
Compressibility, 1/(103 MPa)

Molality-NaCl, P, T fit Sodium Chloride Brine was fit with a third

order function of Sodium Chloride Molality,
0.4
Pressure, and Temperature. The RMS error
for density was 0.17% with a maximum error
of 0.8%. The RMS error for compressibility
0.3
was 0.7% with a maximum error less than 3%.

C This is the overall most accurate scientific

approach to calculate brine elastic properties
for subsurface P & S acoustic velocity modeling.
0.2
250 300 350 400 450 500
Temperature, oK
 The Gassmann (1951) Equations

Pore Compliance General elastic wave

β 2
K+4µ µ
K = Kmatrix (1-β) + K Vp = 3 Vs =
φ fluid and
ρ
ρ
µ = µmatrix (1−α)
K and µ - Bulk and shear moduli of the saturated rock
K matrix and µmatrix - Bulk and shear moduli of the grain
Kfluid - Bulk modulus of the pore fluid
φ - Porosity ; ρ - Bulk density = [ρmatrix (1−φ)]+(ρfluid φ)
Vp and V s - Compressional and shear velocity
α, β - shear and compressional compliance coefficients.
The Krief et al (1990) Equation Simplifying Assumptions

α=β - S and P wave pore compliance coefficients are equal.

1−β = (1− φ) [(3.0 / (1− φ)] - single pore compliance applicable to grainstones.

Figure 4. The Gassmann (1951) porous granular solid elastic equations;

togeather with Krief et al s (1990) simplifying assumptions.

Elastic coefficients (Vp2 - Vs2 ) crossplot of single mineral grainstones &

(Bulk modulus + 4/3 shear modulus )/ density

50 claystones with NaCl brine

Dolomite
0

Zero porosity
Vp2 non-clay minerals 5
40
(km/s)2 Granular Limestone 10
5

15
30 10
Quartz Grainstone
15 20 0
5
20
20 25 10
25
15

30 20
Porosity units;
variable
35 25
compliance
V s2
10
30
NaCl
brine
Average water wet claystone (km/s)2
from H-S modulus decomposition
0
0 5 10 15

Shear modulus / density

Figure 5. Elastic coefficients-mineralogy-porosity-Vp2 - Vs2 relationships.

Modified from Kreif (1990). The average zero porosity claystone coefficients were
derived from Vp -Vs sonic data through Hashin -Schtrictman modulus decomposition
by Goldberg & Gurevich(1998). The claystone velocities and elastic coefficients fall
in the same initial slurry to granular solid amalgamation zone as the non-clay minerals.
 6000

Vp, measured
Vp, predicted
5000 Vs, measured
Vs, predicted

Vp(Gassman model) shale volume

4000 0 to 1, increments 0.1
Vs(Gassman model) shale volume
Vp, Vs m/sec

0 to 1, increments 0.1
3000

2000

1000

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Porosity
Figure 6. Vp and Vs velocities vs. porosity in a North Sea calcareous log
interval. The measured log data values, both Vp and Vs, are plotted in blue.
The Gassmann equation predicted velocity values are shown in red.
Overlain on each dataset is the Gassmann clay content predicted porosity.
Identical (α=β ) pore compliance coefficients and mineralogically constant
elastic properties are used in both Vp ans Vs predictions.
Vp, Vs predicted m/sec

Vp, Vs measured m/sec

Figure 7. Vp and Vs observed vs.Gassmann clay and porosity

content predicted velocities in the same North Sea calcareous log
interval. The measured log data values are on the horizontal axis.
The predicted model predicted values are on the vertical axis.
The red line indicates 1:1 correspondence
 50

(Bulk modulus + 4/3 shear modulus)/ density

Vp2 Poisson s Ratio =
(km/s) 2

40 H-S inversion x
Katahara Kaol (1996)
(x )
x Wang Illite IMT-2
Zero porosities of
x x Wang Kao KGa-1Bl, KGa-2
30 (+,o, )
Apparent Zero
porosities of water x Wang Mixed L ISMT-2
wet clay minerals
20 x Wang Mont SWy-1

G&G(1998) o Castagna et al (1985)

data range o Tosaya (1982)
10 box V s2
+ (km/s) 2

Average Hashin-Schtrikman zero porosity of

water wet claystones. Goldberg&Gurevich(1998)
0
0 5 10 15
Shear modulus / denisty
Figure 8. Clay mineral Vp2 - Vs2 relationships. Dry rock from Katahara (1996)
and Wang Z (1998) The apparent water wet claystone points come from Tosaya
(1982), Castagna(1985), and Goldberg & Gurevich (1998).
The Goldberg & Gurevich (1998) average point (+) and range ( ) were derived
through Hashin-Schtrikman inversion of some large in situ log datasets of both
quartz grainstone-claystone and limestone-claystone stratigraphic sequences.

50
Vp2 Claystone & increase Dolomite +
(Bulk modulus + 4/3 shear modulus)/ density

proportionally when rock

Vp2 Vs2

(km/s) 2

porosity
40
5 + Calcite
Zero porosity
10
non-clay minerals
30 Water wet clay + Quartz
domain
Transitional
20 to dry clay
domain

10
NaCl + Average water wet claystone V s2
brine
x-PVT
for porosities greater than 10% (km/s) 2

range 0
0 5 10 15
Shear modulus / denisty
Figure 9. The water-wet and transitional to dry clay mineral elastic coefficient domains.
The water-wet domain has an essentially constant bulk and shear modulus. The transitional
to dry clay mineral domain correspond very closely to the 10 to zero shear wave porosity
range for calcite and quartz. Within the (9 < (km/s)2 <12.4) shear wave velocity transition
zone; clay mineral elastic coefficients increase from average water-wet to dry along the
Poisson’s ratio = 0.29 line.