The construction of capacitive voltage transformers

The figure above shows the principle of a capacitive voltage divider on which the capacitive voltage transformer is based. The trimming
windings are used for fine tuning the output signal to correspond with the required accuracy class requirements. The compensa
compensating reactor
compensates the phase angle shift caused by the capacitive voltage divider.

Figure 1 – Capacitive voltage transformer’s principal construction

All capacitive voltage transformers require some sort of ferroresonance damping circuit.

The capacitance in the voltage divider, in series with the inductance of the compensating reactor and the wound transformer (inside the
electromagnetic unit EMU), constitutes a tuned resonance circuit. Unlike with the inductive type of voltage transformers
transformers, the CVTs usually
have the ferroresonance damping circuit inbuilt in the CVT itself, as shown in the previous figure.

Capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) nameplate (photo credit: technosources.blogspot.rs)

At higher system voltages, the resonance phenomenon usually takes place on fundamental or on sub-harmonic
harmonic frequencies, resulting in voltage
transformer heating (finally damages) and non-selective
selective operations of protective relaying possible protective relaying non
non-selective operations.

The modern CVTs are utilizing the so-called “adaptive” damping circuits.

The circuit consists of a saturable series reactor and a loading resistor.. This circuit is connected in parallel to one of the secondary cores.
During ferroresonance conditions,
ns, high voltages appear, saturating the reactor and turning the damping resistor on to effectively mitigate the
parasitic voltage. During normal system conditions, the reactor presents high reactance, effectively “switching off” the damp
damping resistor.

Possible triggering factors for the ferroresonance phenomena could be //

Planned primary switchings in the system

Circuit breaker trippings caused by primary fault

High-speed auto-reclosing


Capacitor stack The capacitor stack is a voltage divider which provides a reduced voltage at the intermediate voltage bushing for a given the
voltage applied to the primary terminal. The capacitor stack is a multi-capacitor unit assembly. Each unit is housed in an individual insulator. A
cast aluminum cover is on top of the upper capacitor assembly and is fitted with an aluminum terminal. An adapter for mounting a line trap on
top of the CVT can be provided with an optional (and removable) HV terminal. The capacitor units are mechanically coupled together by means
of stainless steel hardware passing through the corrosion resistant cast aluminum housing. The mechanical connection also establishes the
electrical connection between capacitor units. This facilitates field assembly of the CVT.

Each capacitor unit is hermetically sealed; a stainless steel diaphragm (expansion bellow) preserves oil integrity by maintaining the hermetic seal
while allowing for thermal expansion and contraction of the oil. The capacitor units operate in a practically pressure-free mode over a very wide
ambient temperature range. The capacitor stack consists of a series of capacitor elements. The dielectric spacers are a combination of kraft paper
and polypropylene film. The ratio of paper/film is carefully determined to provide constant capacitance for a wide range of operating
temperature. The aluminum electrodes are precision wound by microprocessor controlled machinery. The capacitor elements are connected with
low inductance tinned copper tabs. The stack assemblies are hydraulically compressed and bound with epoxy fiberglass tape to obtain the
optimum space factor for capacitance requirement and oil circulation. After assembly in the insulator, 1capacitor units are individually oven
dried under vacuum and then impregnated with the processed synthetic oil.
Electromagnetic unit (EMU):- The EMU steps down the intermediate voltage provided by the voltage divider to values suitable for relay and
metering applications. A series reactance cancels the phase shift induced during voltage transformation in the capacitor voltage divider. A set of
internal taps is used for factory accuracy and phase angle adjustments to provide optimum performance. Over-voltage
voltage protection is provided by a
protective gap connected in parallel to the series reactances. The inherent capacitance and iron-cored
cored EMU of a CVT require the suppression of
Ferro-resonance. The Ferro-resonance
resonance suppression device (FSD) contains a saturable The reactor, which acts like a switch, presenting a very
high impedance
nce under normal conditions and switching on a damping resistor across the secondary at a prescribed voltage, and switching ooff the
damping load when the voltage has normalized. The voltage sensitive switching strategy effectively suppresses FerroFerro-resonance without
imposing a heavy permanently connected stabilizing burden on the The unit, significantly improving the accuracy and the trans transient response the
performance of the CVT. No field adjustment of the unit is necessary. The EMU is housed in a cast aluminum num base tank with a cast aluminum
cover. The base tank is filled with treated mineral oil and hermetically sealed from the environment and from the synthetic ooil in the capacitor
units. A sight glass at the rear of the tank provides for easy oil level monitoring.
itoring. No oil maintenance is necessary throughout the service life of
the unit. An oil drain plug is provided on the base tank.

• 1. High Voltage terminal 2. Compensation reactor 3. Intermediate voltage transformer 4. Ground terminal 5. Ferro
Ferro-resonance suppression
device 6. Damping resistor 7. Carrier (HF) terminal (optional) 8. Overvoltage protective device 9. Secondary terminals 10. Link, to be opened
for test purposes
Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC)

For large Power System Power Line Carrier Communication is used for data transmission as well as protection of Transmission
Lines. Carrier current used for Power Line carrier Communication has a frequency range of 80 to 500 kHz. PLCC in modern
electrical Power System is mainly for telemetry and telecontrol.

Power Line Carrier Communication is used for the Carrier Tripping and Direct Tripping in case of Distance Protection. For detail of
how does Distance protection relay sends and receives carrier signal, read Distance Protection Philosophy.

Distance protection relay in relay panel at one end of the transmission line gets the input from CT and CVT in line. The output of
relay goes to modem of PLCC whicj in turn is received by the PLCC system at remote end substation.
For communication between the two substations, each end of transmission line is provided with identical PLCC equipment
consisting of equipment:

• Transmitters and Receivers

• Hybrids and Filters

• Line Matching Unit

• Wave Traps

• Power Amplifier

• Coupling Capacitors orCapacitive Voltage Transformer

PLCC Scheme:

The output of PLCC goes to Coupling Capacitor famously known as Capacitive Voltage Transformer and then to transmission line
and travels to another end where it is received through Capacitive Voltage Transformer and inputted to relay and control panel at
that end.

As the frequency of carrier signal is high, the impedance offered by the CVT = 1/wC will be low and the carrier signal travelling on
Transmission Line will be bypassed by the CVT, therefore the carrier signal is received or sent through the CVT (HF point is given
on the CVT where PLCC is connected through the Fiber Optic FO Cable.)

Wave Trap is provided in the line after the CVT (If we see from Transmission line side then CVT will come first and then CVT will
come.). Wave Trap is nothing but a Choke Coil which chokes out high frequency carrier signal, as the impedance offered by
inductor = wL will be high which will not allow the high frequency carrier signal to enter into the substation.

Main Components of PLCC:

Coupling Capacitor:

Coupling capacitor or Capacitive Voltage Transformer connects the carrier equipment to the transmission line. The coupling
capacitor’s capacitance is of such a value that it offers low impedance to carrier frequency (1/ωC) but high impedance to power
frequency (50 Hz).

Thus coupling capacitor allows carrier frequency signal to enter the carrier equipment. To decrease the impedance further and
make the circuit purely resistive so that there is no reactive power in the circuit, low impedance is connected in series with coupling
capacitor to form resonance at carrier frequency.

Wave Trap:

Wave Trap is provided in the line after the CVT (If we see from Transmission line side then CVT will come first and then CVT will
come.). Wave Trap is nothing but a Choke Coil which chokes out high frequency carrier signal, as the impedance offered by
inductor = wL will be high which will not allow the high frequency carrier signal to enter into the substation.

Transmitters and Receivers:

The carrier Transmitters and Receivers are usually mounted in a rack or cabinet in the control room, and the line tuner is out in the
switchyard. Thus there is a large distance between the equipment and the tuner, and the connection between the two is made
using a coaxial cable Fiber Optical (FO) Cable.

The coaxial cable provides shielding so that noise cannot get into the cable and cause interference. The coaxial cable is connected
to the line tuner which must be mounted at the base of the coupling capacitor. If there is more than one transmitter involved per
terminal the signal must go through isolation circuits, typically hybrids, before connection to the line tuner.

Hybrids and Filters:

The purpose of the hybrid circuits is to enable the connection of two or more transmitters together on one coaxial cable without
causing intermodulation distortion due to the signal from one transmitter affecting the output stages of the other transmitter. Hybrids
may also be required between transmitters and receivers, depending on the application.

Line Matching Unit LMU:

LMU is a composite unit consisting of Drain Coil, Isolation transformer with Lightning Arrester on its both the sides, a Tuning Device
and an earth switch. Tuning Device is the combination of R-L-C circuits which act as filter circuit. LMU is also known as Coupling
Device. Together with coupling capacitor, LMU serves the purpose of connecting Audio/Radio frequency signals to PLCC terminal
and protection of the PLCC unit from the over voltages caused due to transients on power system.

Application of PLCC:

PLCC in modern electrical power system substation is mainly used for following purpose:

1. Carrier protection relaying of transmission line so that Inter trip command can be issued by relay due to tripping of circuit breaker
at any one end. To trip the line circuit breaker nearest to the fault, this is done by:

a) Distance protection relay (V/I characteristics)

b) Differential comparison method

c) Phase comparison method

2. Station to station communication between operating personnel

3. Carrier telemetring, electrical quantities that are telemetered are kW, kVA, kVAR, Voltage and Power factor etc.

Abstract

This paper describes the modelling of capacitor voltage transformer and simulation of its behaviour during transients using PSCAD/EMTDC. To damp out
ferroresonance in CVT few ferroresonance methods have been proposed and used. In this paper, some of the suppressing circuits, series resonance type,
parallel resonance type, and electronic type are reviewed. Specifications of these circuits and effects of various parameters on their performances are
discussed. During line faults, when the primary voltage collapses, the CVT generates transients due to its energy storage elements. The effect of
ferroresonance suppression circuits on the transient response of CVT is also studied and the proposed electronic type ferroresonance circuit is best suited
to suppress low voltage transients and high voltage ferroresonance oscillations.

Modeling and simulation of capacitor voltage transformer transients using PSCAD/EMTDC (PDF Download Available). Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241191215_Modeling_and_simulation_of_capacitor_voltage_transformer_transients_using_PSCADEMTDC
[accessed Feb 19 2018].
The damping burden is connected across the CVT secondary by switching on a power electronic device in case of fault (either ferro resonance or transient
condition). Under normal operating conditions there is very low and inherent burden connected, hence accuracy of the CVT also good. This technique leads
to size reduction of the electromagnetic unit of CVT as it does not involve bulky inductor and capacitor. It also damps the dangerous high voltage
oscillations due to ferroresonance within less time compared to other techniques [10], [11]. As it does not involve any energy storage elements, it won’t
affect the transient response of the CVT. Moreover, by switching on the electronic device in case of transient condition, it can further damp the low voltage
oscillations by bringing the damping resistance across CVT secondary. To design the FSC, the following points are considered. • The magnitudes of high
voltage oscillations without any FSC are approximately 2.5 p.u. and the CVT should withstand (a voltage of 1.5 p.u). for about 30s according to IEC 60044-5
[12]. Hence the FSC can be turned on if the voltage exceeds 1.5 p.u so that it will not affect the normal CVT operation. • The switch can be made ON for a
specified duration until fault is cleared. • In case of fault, the damping burden should be connected in both positive and negative half cycles hence switch
should be selected accordingly • The switch can also be turned on if the RMS value of the CVT voltage falls below certain low value to suppress the low
transient oscillations. The schematic of the FSC with two back-to-back thyristor is shown in Fig. 9 . IV. F ERRORESONANCE S IMULATION R ESULTS
Simulations using PSCAD/EMTDC have been carried out to test the effectiveness of introduced FSCs on suppression of ferroresonance of CVT. To establish
the ferroresonance condition, the breaker S2 of Fig.1 is closed, whose ON resistance is 40m Ω , for 0.1s and then opened. Ferroresonance is said to be
suppressed if the RMS voltage value deviation is less than 10% according to 60044-5 [12] Simulation results of CVT with series RLC filter with the specified
parameters in section 3.1 are given in Fig. 10. The ferroresonace oscillation got damped with in 0.5s. The disadvantage of this circuit is under normal
operating conditions, there exists a current (0.32 A) flowing through the filter and hence a burden of 7.5 W at a power factor of 0.12 lag, which can affect
the accuracy and transient performance of CVT. The size of the CVT is also high due to the bulky inductor and capacitor, and the VA rating of the VT has to
be increased to meet the specified accuracy requirements. Simulation results with the addition of MOV are shown in Fig. 11. In this case the damping time
is reduced to 0.3s as the MOV conducts immediately when the fault voltage exceeds above 1.6 p.u. The enlarged view of currents through RLC series filter
and MOV is shown in Fig. 12. With power frequency blocking filter (PBF) values given in section III, along with the MOV, the ferroesonance is suppressed
within 0.15s as shown in Fig. 13. Here, ferroresonance over voltages are eliminated in fewer cycles and damping time of this FSC is lower than that of series
RLC filter. But PBF affects the transient response as it involved energy storage elements [3],[4]. The size of this filter is high as it involves a bulk inductor and
capacitor. The electronic switch FSC is connected at 200 V with a damping resistance R. Once the fault is detected, the switch is ON for a fixed duration (say
80ms). After this time, if the fault still exists then the switch is continued to be ON until the fault is completely cleared .The MOV is also included in the
circuit to damp the oscillations more effectively. The simulation results with a damping resistance of R = 80 Ω is given in Fig. 14.The zoomed view of
currents through thyristor switch and MOV are given in Fig 15 and from which one can see that the MOV is ON if the voltage goes beyond 1.6 p.u and thus it
will limit the fault level. The thyristor switch is ON for duration of 80 ms once it detects the fault voltage above the set value (1.6 p.u) thereby it suppresses
the oscillations completely. The performance of this FSC for different damping resistance values is shown in Fig. 16. With lower resistance, ferroresonance is
more effectively damped out. However, there is an optimum resistance, which depends on circuit configuration, by which the best suppression is obtained.
With R=80 Ω , ferroresonance is suppressed within 0.1s V. TRANSIENT RESPONSE Characteristics of the transient response of the CVT is the ratio of
secondary voltage at a specified time after application of a primary short circuit to the peak value of the secondary voltage before application of short
circuit [12]. The CVT response to a temporary, close in, line to ground fault is simulated by short circuiting the high voltage source of CVT with close-open
operation of breaker S1 of Fig. 1, while S2 is kept open. During the test the burden shall be 100 %, 25% and 0% of rated burden and it can be controlled by
using breakers S3 and S4. The dependency of CVT transient response on different parameters such as point on the primary, transmission line voltage wave
where the fault occurs, magnitude of stack capacitance, VT turns ratio, magnitude and power factor of burden and its composition and connection, exciting
current of VT, and type of ferroresonance circuit have been studied in [3]. Among the above mentioned transient response deciding parameters, VT turns
ratio, exciting current of VT, and Ferroresoannce suppression circuit are controllable. Remaining all parameters are either customer dependent or system
fault dependent. The transient response is also critical if the fault occurs at zero crossing of the primary voltage. In this work the effect of Ferroresoannce
suppression device, and VT magnetising current on transient response is studied. An attempt is made to improve the transient response with the help of
thyristor based electronic FSC. The transient response of the CVT without any suppression device but with 50 VA burden at 0.8 pf with fault applied at
primary voltage zero crossing is shown in Fig. 17. Here the secondary voltage of CVT oscillates at sub harmonic frequency and takes more time (more 0.3s)
to get suppressed. The corresponding CVT primary and secondary voltage when the fault applied at primary crest voltage point is shown in Fig. 18. As seen
from this Fig., at crest fault initiation, the discharge is a ringing high frequency oscillations caused by the parasitic capacitance of the compensating reactor
and intermediate voltage transformer and due to lower VT burden. But after 25 ms of fault initiation, these oscillations were suppressed. The effect of
different FSC's on transient response is studied in this section. The effectiveness thyristor FSC to suppress transient oscillations is also explained. A 300 W
permanent burden along with series RLC FSC can be used to suppress Ferroresoannce oscillations as series RLC filter alone cannot suppress Ferroresoannce.
The effect of this FSC on transient response with fault applied at primary zero crossing is shown in Fig. 19. Only CVT secondary voltage is shown here for
better visibility of the results. The peak voltage is 20 V and it is taking more than 200 ms to suppress the oscillations and hence it can meet only 3PT1 of IEC
60044-5 [12]. The PBF parameters explained in section III have been used in the simulation and the results are shown in Fig. 20. With this FSC the peak
magnitude is high and steady state settling time is bit low compared to series RLC filter FSC. The results shows that CVT is only meeting 3PT1 transient
response class of IEC 60044-5. The thyristor based Electronic switch FSC do not affect the transient response of CVT because it is a pure passive FSC without
any energy storage elements. With proper sensing of transient response condition, the higher damping burden can be connected across CVT secondary by
triggering the thyristor to suppress the transient oscillations. The transient response with a thyristor FSC connected at 200V with a damping resistance of 50
is shown in Fig. 21a. The transient response with the same FSC configuration but with damping burden of 25 is shown in Fig. 21b. The response is good with
thyristor FSC and better with 25 burden compared to 50 . In this way by properly choosing the damping burden transient oscillations can be suppressed
with thyristor FSC.