1

Nerve Conduction and Determination of Ocular and Auditory Dominance

E. J. C. Cano1, A. C. B. Cayanong1, J. K. F. Codiniera1, & C. S. Conciso1

1
Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Santo Tomas, España Street, Manila

Keywords: Summary
Compound action The nerve is a specialized cell that receives and transmits electric
potential, refractory period,
conduction velocity,
signals throughout the body. Voltage gated channels allow the passage
an electric signal called an action potential. In this experiment, the
Date Submitted: threshold voltage, compound action potential, and conduction velocity
24 February, 2016 of the nerve were determined. Moreover, a member of the group was
analyzed to determine their ocular and auditory dominance.

The basic unit of the nervous system
is termed as a neuron. It is a specialized cell
that receives and transmits messages in the
form of electrochemical impulses (Morgan
& Bloom, 2006). Neurons differ from other
cells by having specialized parts for
receiving and transmitting signals called
dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring
electrical signals to the cell body while
axons take them away. Neurons can be
classified by either the number of extensions
that extends from the cell body or by the
direction it sends its information. Neurons
with a short extension that divides into two
branches where one functions as a dendrite
and the other as an axon are termed as
pseudounipolar neurons. These types of
neurons are commonly classified as sensory
neurons as they receive sensory signals from
sensory organs and send them via axons to
the central nervous system. If a certain
neuron possesses numerous dendrites
emanating from the body with a long,
singular axon, it is called a multipolar
neuron. This type of neurons are also known
as motor neurons which conducts commands
from the cortex to the spinal cord and then
to the muscles. The last type of neurons are
bipolar neurons which can be observed with
two extensions of similar lengths. This can
also be termed as interneurons for they
interconnect various neurons within the
central nervous system.
Tracey, Paxinos, & Stone (2012)
state that nerve impulses work in a chain
reaction. Each neuron receives an impulse
and passes it on to the next neuron and must
make sure it continues on the correct path.
Before a neuron is stimulated, a
neuron is said to be polarized meaning the
electrical charge on the outside of the
membrane is positive while the charge
outside is negative with the inside
containing potassium ions (K+) and outside
with an excess of sodium ions (Na+).
Whenever a stimulus reaches a polarized
neuron, the Na ions rush into the cell and the
neuron depolarizes. The K ions then move

out of the cell and repolarizes the neuron.
After the stimulus, the Na and K are
returned to their original sides with Na on
the outside and K on the inside (Levitan &
Kaczmarek, 2015). This sequence portrays
the stimulation of an action potential.
An action potential is essential for
communication between neurons. Action
potentials are the fundamental electrical
signal used by the nervous system to relay
information (Palmer & Stuart, 2006). The
action potential is generated by the opening
and subsequent inactivation of voltage-gated
sodium channels and, with a slight delay, the
opening of voltage-gated potassium
channels (Caldwell 2009). Action potentials
transfer information as they move along
axons. In addition, each nerve contains
hundreds of axons parallel to one another.
When a large stimulus is applied to a nerve,
more axons respond and the recorded
potential is called the compound action
potential (CAP). The CAP is the summation
of all the axons firing. However, the CAP
has a limit since there is only a limited
amount of axons per neuron.
The action potential is generated by
the opening and subsequent inactivation of
voltage-gated sodium channels and, with a
slight delay, the opening of voltage-gated K
channels (Caldwell 2009). However, these
Na voltage-gated channels inactivate 1-2
milliseconds later, thus preventing the entry
of Na ions. These channels will continue to
be deactivated for a specific period of time.
Thus, during that brief time of inactivation,
action potentials cannot pass through. This
period is called the absolute refractory
period. In turn, K channels help return the
voltage to the resting potential after the
action potential has passed. Some time after
the absolute refractory period, since some of
the Na channels have already recovered
from the previous activation, a stronger
stimulus must be applied for a neuron to
generate another potential. This situation
2
will persist until all the Na channels have
recovered and are ready to be activated
again. The period in which a stronger
stimulus must be applied in order to produce
an action potential is called the relative
refectory period.
Action potentials travel down
through numerous axons before reaching its
destination. Thus, action potentials have to
travel through axons quickly for a quick
response. Axons are covered in myelin
sheaths, which greatly increase the speed of
the conduction of an axon. The diameter of
axon is also necessary in determining the
conduction velocity of an axon.
Nerves and neurons deliver electric
signals from the senses and send them to the
brain for processing. The main purpose of
the senses is for sensory perception. Sensory
perception allows an individual to be aware
of their surroundings and begins when an
individual’s senses are being stimulated.
According to Richter et. al (2007), sensory
perception occurs in organisms capable of
performing neurophysiological processing
of the stimuli in their environment, and
covers the processes commonly called ‘the
senses’. Some forms of stimuli are sound,
light, temperature, and pressure. The senses
give us the ability to understand our
environment.
In this study, three specific senses
are analyzed, somatosensation, hearing, and
sight. First, somatosensation refers to the
process that conveys information regarding
the body surface and its interaction with the
environment (Fitzakerley, 2014).
Furthermore, somatosentation can be
subdivided into three: mechanoreception,
thermoreception, and nociception.
Mechanoreception responds to mechanical
pressure while thermoreception responds to
temperature. On the other hand, nociception
is the ability of the body to sense and
determine dangerous stimuli.

Second, hearing allows humans to
receive sound and interpret speech. The ears
sense sound waves in the air. In turn, these
sound waves are converted into electric
signals that are brought to the brain. The
receptors for these sound waves are hair
cells that are found inside the cochlea.
Before it reaches the cochlea it must pass
through the outer ear, middle ear and the
inner ear. The outer ear is comprised by the
pinna, auditory canal and eardrum. The
pinna and auditory canal act as a funnel.
When the sound reaches the eardrum, it
starts to vibrate. The vibrations are then sent
to the middle ear, which is composed of the
malleus, incus and stapes. The stapes is
attached to the inner ear, which includes the
cochlea and semi-circular canal. The cochlea
has a liquid membrane inside it that goes
around the cochlea when vibrations are felt.
The vibrations cause the hair cell to fire an
action potential to the brain.
Lastly, the sense of sight enables
humans to perceive the motion of objects as
to how far or how near the objects are. The
stimulus for our sense of sight is light.
Photoreceptors are the specialized cells of
the eye and they are located at the back of
the eye. There two kinds of photoreceptors,
namely, the rods and cones. Rods allow
humans to adjust to the intensity of light.
They are the reason why people are able to
see in a dimly lit room. Cones, on the other
hand, only work in bright light and are more
sensitive to colors green, red and blue. The
cones are concentrated toward the center of
the retina while the rods are at the periphery.
This study aims to determine the
threshold voltage, CAP, and conduction
velocity of a nerve. Furthermore, this study
aims to assess the differences between the
acuity of the left and right eyes and ears.
3
Materials and Methodology
The procedures for this experiment were
based from the Laboratory Manual in
General Animal Physiology (Zoo 401L) by
Bahrami-Hessari, Castillo, and Papa of the
Department of Biological Sciences, UST.
A. Measurement of Compound Action
Potential
Setup and calibration of equipment
In setting up and calibrating the
equipment, red and black alligator clips
were connected (0.5 apart) to the two metal
rungs on opposites of the MLTO12/B Nerve
bath. The red positive and black negative
BNC connector on Power Lab was then
connected to the positive and negative
analog output connector,
respectively. Afterwards, red and black lead
from the first recording electrode were
connected to two of the metal rungs of the
MLLT012/B Nerve Bath while the 8-pin
pod connector to the pod port on Input 1 of
the Power Lab. Same procedure was done
for the second recording electrode, except
the alligator clips were placed further away
from the stimulus electrode.
Moistened filter paper strip with
Ringer’s solution was put over the wires in
the nerve bath to test its connectivity. Power
Lab was turned on and Lab Chart® (or
Scope 3.0) was launched followed by
Experiments Gallery to open CAP Set Chart.
From the Lab Chart application window,
Macro menu was selected and the Test
Connection button chart. This automatically
recorded the data for 1 second. A series of
stimulus pulses were seen from the monitor
(this indicates that connections are working
and ready to be use).
After doing all of this, a sciatic nerve
was carefully isolated, without grasping it
with forceps, was laid across the wire
electrodes, making it sure that it is
connected with the active connections.

A.1. Threshold voltage and maximal CAP
amplitude
In this section nerve were given a
series of electrical stimuli, each with
increasing amplitude. Afterwards, threshold
voltage and voltage required for maximum
CAP amplitude for the nerve were
calculated.
From the Chart window, Macro: Threshold
voltage was clicked. This automatically
stimulated the nerve and record it for 1.1 s.
Waveform cursor was used to measure the
CAP amplitude at each stimulus voltage.
The stimulus level were the first CAP was
seen and the maximum CAP amplitude was
also noted.
A.2. Refractory Period
In this part of experiment, Power
Lab stimulates the nerve with series of
pulses with a decreasing interval. In order
to do this, minimum stimulus voltage
required to draw a maximal CAP from the
nerve (mV) were determined. Next, from the
LabChart window, Macro: Refractory _mV
was selected, with the voltage nearest to the
minimum stimulus voltage. With a 15 data
blocks and 10 milliseconds duration, results
were recorded and analyzed based from the
following: Two CAP’s recorded in CAP1 in
each block of data recorded in Part 2 were
selected. Zoom window was opened and
data was examined using Waveform Cursor.
Amplitude for second CAP in table ## and
stimulus intervals was recorded. The relative
and absolute refractory period were
elucidated, by determining the stimulus
interval where the amplitude of the second
CAP first shows a decreased and stimulus
interval where the second CAP completely
disappears, respectively. Since no results
were obtain, this portion was performed
with PhysioEx 9.0.
4
A.3. Nerve Conduction Velocity
A ruler was used to determine the
distance between the black negative leads of
each the two recording electrodes. From the
Chart window, Macro: Conduction Velocity
was selected; this records a block of data in
two channels for 10 milliseconds. The data
were then recorded and analyzed by
calculating the conduction velocity.
A selection was made which
includes the first CAP. From the Zoom
window, Marker and Waveform Cursor was
used to determine the time interval for the
CAP to trave; between the two recording
electrodes. After that, Channel 1 and
channel 2 was selected and a marker was
placed on the first CAP peak and the
waveform cursor over the second CAP peak,
respectively. Time differential (△t) was read
and recorded. To get the conduction
velocity, measurements for the distance
between the two recording electrodes and
the formula found appendix 1 was used.
Since no results were obtained, this portion
was performed with PhysioEx 9.0.
B. Specific Sensory Systems
B.1. Somatic Senses
B.1.a. Tactile Localization
A pencil was used to touch the
subject’s skin with eyes closed and let them
touch the same spot using the same object
and was repeated. Localization difference
(mm) was measured. This was performed
twice on other parts of the body using the
same procedure.
B.1.b. Touch Receptors Adaptation
A small coin was placed inside the
forearm of the subject while his/her eyes
were closed. How long the initial perception
lasts were then measured. Another coin was
placed in the forearm until sensation is no
longer felt. Time was recorded how long the
sensation of the other extras coins lasted.

B.1.c. Temperature Receptors
A subject’s left and right hand was
put in a 1000 ml beaker with ice water and
1000ml beaker of water at 45 °C for 2
minutes, respectively. Sensations felts by
each hand were recorded.
B.2. Hearing
B.2.a. Watch Tick Test for Auditory Acuity
The subject’s ear was plugged with
cotton with eyes closed. A watch was hold
against his unplugged auditory canal and
was moved until he/she can’t hear it. The
watch was moved again closer until the
subject can hear it again. Distances of both
were recorded and same procedure was done
with the other ear.
B.2.b. Auditory Adaptation
A stethoscope was placed on the
subject’s ear then a tuning fork was used to
vibrate it at the bell of the stethoscope. After
2 minutes, procedure was repeated but the
rubber tube leading to one ear was pressed
firmly. Afterwards the fork was moved
away until sound is barely heard on the free
ear. Tube was released and sensation felt
was recorded.
B.3. Vision
B.3.a. Binocular Vision and Space
Perception
Subject focused on a coin held in
front of his/her nose with one eye
closed. Same thing was done with the other
eye. Difference in the position of the coin
was noted.
B.3.b. Visual Acuity
Subject stand 20 feet from the
Snellen Eye Chart with one eye covered and
tried to read line 8 to 9. Same procedure was
done with the other eye.
5
Results & Discussion
A.1. Determination of threshold voltage
and maximum Compound Action
Potential
The first part of the experiment aims
to determine the threshold voltage and
maximum CAP amplitude. As seen in
Figure 1, the CAP amplitude failed to rise
above 0mV when the stimulus amplitude is
less than 50mV. It was only when 50mV
was applied that the CAP amplitude started
to rise. The CAP amplitude continued to rise
as the stimulus amplitude was increased.
The maximum CAP amplitude was acquired
at 3.350mV when 170mV of stimulus was
applied. When the maximum CAP
amplitude was acquired, increasing the
stimulus amplitude no longer went over the
maximum CAP amplitude value.
4
CAP Amplitude (mV)
3
2
1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
-1
Stimulus Amplitude (mV)
Figure 1. CAP amplitude versus stimulus
intensity
Nerves are governed by the all-or-
nothing law wherein there is no median
action potential. A stimulus will either
activate the nerve or it will not. As seen in
figure 1, the nerve only began conducting
action potentials above 50mV. More and
more axons were activated as the strength of
the stimulus increased. However, at 170
mV, all of the axons within the nerve were
already activated. Thus CAP did not rise
above 3.350mV even if the stimulus
amplitude was increased. Thus, the
 6

threshold voltage of the nerve is 50mV threshold voltage is needed to produce a

while the maximum CAP is 3.350mV. second action potential. A higher stimulus is
needed since most of the Na channels are
A.2. Determination of refractory period still recovering from the previous
depolarization. The absolute refractory
Table 1: Results from PhysioEx 9.0. period was determined by applied the
Interval maximum amount of stimulus voltage at a
Stimulus Second
Between 3.75msec interval. The absolute refractory
Voltage Action
Stimuli period of the examined nerve is 3.75msec.
(mV) Potential?
(msec) The nerve needs more than 3.75msec for the
250 20 Yes Na channels to return to a resting potential.
125 20 Yes The relative refractory period immediately
60 20 No follows the absolute refractory period. In the
60 25 No relative refractory period, a second action
60 30 Yes potential can be produced at a higher
30 30 No stimulus.
30 35 No
30 40 No A.3. Determination of nerve conduction
30 45 Yes velocity
15 60 Yes Table 2: Nerve conduction velocity
Axon Myeli- Distance Time Conduction
7.5 60 Yes Type nation from R1 between Velocity
3.75 60 No to R2 APs (m/sec)
(m) (sec)
The threshold voltage of the nerve A
Heavy 0.1 0.002 50
fiber
used in PhysioEx 9.0 was set at 20mV. With
B
an interval of 250msec and 125msec, a fiber
Light 0.1 0.01 10
second action potential was produced. C
None 0.1 0.1 1
However, when the interval was lowered to fiber
60msec, a second action potential was not
observed. It was only when the stimulus The nerve conduction velocity of
voltage was raised to 30mV that a second three different nerve types were determined
action potential was observed. When the using PhysioEx 9.0. A fiber was heavily
interval was further decreased to 30msec, it myelinated and had a large diameter. B fiber
needed 45mV stimulus to generate a second had a medium diameter and was lightly
potential. To determine the maximum myelinated. Lastly, C fiber was thin and
refractory period of the nerve, the maximum unmyelinated. A fiber needed the least time
amount of stimulus, 60mV, was applied. A to travel 0.1 meters with a velocity of
60mV stimulus generated a second potential 50m/sec while C fiber took the longest in
when the intervals were lowered to 15msec conduction and has the slowest conduction
and 7.5msec. However, a 60mV stimulus velocity of 1m/sec.
failed to produce a second potential at a Clearly, from these results, the
3.75msec interval. conduction velocity is heavily dependent on
The inactivation of the Na voltage- the amount of myelination and diameter of
gated channels is observable when double the axon. Since myelin sheaths lack voltage
pulses are applied to a nerve. As the interval gated channels, they function by salutatory
is decreased, a stimulus higher than the conduction, allowing the action potentials to

occur at only unmyelinated nodes of
Ranvier. Action potentials ‘jump’ when
passing through myelin sheaths and generate
a potential only on the nodes of Ranvier in
between sheaths. This process further
accelerates the movement of electric signals.
B.1 Somatic Senses
B.1.a. Tactile Localization
Table 3: Tactile localization test
Part of Body Localization
Difference
Arm 20 mm, 15 mm
Palm 8 mm, 4 mm
Over the palm 21 mm, 5 mm
Neck 15 mm, 4 mm
Leg 16 mm, 4 mm
Cheek 10 mm, 3 mm
Forehead 5 mm, 5 mm
Nose 10 mm, 3 mm
Tactile localization is the stimulus
perception at a specific part of the body
(Crosskey, Elithorn & Piercy, 1953). In this
part of the experiment, the result shows that
all first trial has higher localization
difference than the second one. This is
possibly because precision of locating the
origin of the stimulus is connected to the
stimulus intensity and also the receptor
density where the stimulus is located. Also,
the receptors in the dermis are known to be
not distributed evenly, hence, the different
parts of the body such as the arm and neck,
can have different ability to ascertain a
particular stimulus (Cliffors, Harris &
Karloy, 2006).
B.1.b. Touch Receptors Adaptation
Table 4: Touch receptors adaptation
results
No. of Coins Time of Perception
1 42.29 s
2 5.49 s
3 14.12 s
7
As seen in table 4, the number of
coins that have the highest time of
perception is 1 with 42.29 seconds and 3
coins being the lowest time of perception,
5.49 seconds. The results show phenomenon
called sensory adaptation. Since most sense
receptors strongly respond to sensitive
changes in its surroundings, it stops reacting
when a particular stimuli become steady or
constant (Lumpkin, Nelson, & Marshall,
2010). For instance, when a person enters a
room he/she quickly adapts to the odor of
the room or touch receptors stops in giving
information of our clothing until change in
stimuli.
B.1.c. Temperature Receptors
Table 5: Temperature receptor test
Water Temperature Sensation
Ice Water Sense of
numbness which
eventually develops
into a stinging
sensation
45°C At first, there was a
stinging sensation
which eventually
stops
Since the left hand was placed in
iced water and the right hand in water at
45°C, the strength of stimulus slowly
decreases until both temperature receptors
have adjusted to their new environment.
Change in baseline of the receptors can be
observed if both hands were place in
average temperature water. This shows that
temperature is thus not absolute but relative
to the baseline created by the previous
sensory adaptation (Paxinos, 2012).
Moreover, a process when an area of the
body receives painful stimulus but the other
area is the one that perceived it is called
referred pain (Evans-Martin & Cooley,
2004). In the results, hands soak in the ice
water felt a sense of numbness which
 8

eventually becomes a stinging sensation The test in auditory adaptation is

while for the hands in the 45°C water it done to observe the process in which
stings at first but stop. The feeling of pain changes in the sensitivity of sensory
was send to the other area. receptors occur in relation to the stimulus.
The subject in the experiment was observed
B.2 Hearing to hear a louder sound after the release of
B.2.a. Watch tick test for auditory acuity the pressure in one of the tubes of the
Table 6: Watch tick test stethoscope. The ears adapt to loud sounds
Distance Distance Difference as it hits the bones located in the inner ear.
from ear where This makes the inner bones contract and
to point subject causes the reduction of transmission of
where can hear sound vibrations to the inner ear. (Nevid
subject again 2014) In the case in the experiment, the
cannot subject heard a louder sound on the ear
hear where the tube was pressed than the other
Right 140 120 70 ear where the sound went without any
Left 185 110 75 obstruction. It can be deduced that the ear
The watch tick test was done to connected to the tube without any
analyze whether an individual has the obstruction had adapted to the loud sound.
inability to hear high pitched sounds. The This results to the bones in the inner ear to
subject was observed to stop hearing the contract reducing the sound transmission.
ticking watch from the right ear at the The other ear however, did not have the
140cm mark and was able to hear it again at bones in the inner ear contract due to the
the 120cm mark. From the left ear, the prevention of sound to reach the ear. The
subject stopped detecting the sound at release of the pressure then gave the
185cm and was able to hear it again at 110. impression that one ear is hearing louder
The differences of the results from the right than the other because of different
and left ear were 70 and 75 respectively. contractions on each ear.
The closeness of the differences can indicate
that the subject does not have loss of hearing B.3 Vision
high frequency sounds. Considered as a B.3.a. Binocular Vision and Space
bedside hearing test, the watch tick test does Perception
not provide accurate information on what
type of hearing damage a certain patient has The coin was initially seen at the middle of
developed. This method however is a useful the view during the beginning of the
test of acuity that could allow an individual experiment. When the left eye was closed,
to assess himself if he has problems in the coin could only be seen at the right
hearing (Dillon 2006). portion and at the corner of the view. When
the right eye was closed the coin could be
B.2.b. Auditory adaptation viewed at the left portion of the whole view.
Table 7: Auditory adaptation test
Sensation
Normal Same sound for both The test in binocular vision and
ears; Scramble sound space perception was to observe the concept
Rubber Tubing Louder sound of having two eyes producing two different
Pressed images but only processing one image in the

brain. The observer in the experiment sees
the coin in two different places depending
on which eye is closed and sees it as one
object in one place when both eyes are open.
Sensory correspondence explains that
binocular vision is the unification of visual
excitations from corresponding retinal
images into a single visual image. An object
localized in one and the same visual
direction by stimulation of the two retinas
will appear as one. Meaning the stimulus to
sensory fusion is the excitation of
corresponding elements. (Von Noorden
1996).
B.3.b. Visual Acuity
As the size of the letter decreases in the
chart, the edge of each letter also gets blurry.
Specific letter look similar to each other like
letter E and F.
The visual acuity test is used to
determine the smallest letters one can read
on the Snellen’s chart. It is commonly used
as a routine part of an eye examination.
Visual acuity is expressed as a fraction. The
numerator corresponds to the distance
between the chart and the observer (usually
20 feet). The denominator indicates the
distance at which a person with normal
eyesight could read the same line you
correctly read. The subjects in the
experiment stated that as the size of the
letter gets smaller, the edges of each letter
also gets blurry. Mistakes in a line on one or
two letters can still indicate that the subject
still has vision equal to that line. (Tasman &
Jaeger 2012).
9
Conclusion
There are numerous factors to
consider when studying nerve conduction.
First, the nerve must be stimulated about the
threshold stimulus to elicit an action
potential. Second, the nerve needs time to
repolarize after stimulation. Third,
myelination and diameter of the axon greatly
influence the conduction velocity.
Moreover, there exists differences between
the left and right eyes and ears respectively.
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Threshold
cord. New york, NY: Springer stimulus 170 mV
science & business media. voltage:
Maximum
3.350 ±
Appendix CAP
0.013 mV
amplitude:
Conduction velocity (m/sec) =
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