CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
People in Kathmandu valley have been using groundwater since ages through dug
wells and stone spouts. Even now ground water is a major natural resource
contributing the water supply system.

Rainwater is the only source of aquifer recharge in the valley as most of the surface
water is already tapped for water supply. Due to unplanned urbanization the recharge
area or open spaces in the valley is getting reduced considerably and most of the rain
that falls drain out unused. Thus rainwater harvesting could be one of options to ease
water supply scarcity in the valley. Also at household level the structures to harvest
rain require little space.

Rainwater harvesting is an old technology practiced in the valley but limited to

collection of rainwater for the household purpose only. Artificial groundwater
recharge is relatively a new concept of utilizing rainwater in Kathmandu valley.

1.2 Historical water management

Kathmandu city along with other urban centers inside the valley and its culture date
back at least 2000 years to the pre-historic kirat period (Shrestha et.al 1986). The
Kirat regime constructed rain-fed ponds and springs. Later, the Lichhavi kings linked
the ponds to stone spouts and dug wells to provide water to the cities. These structures
were expanded during the Malla regime, when elaborated networks of canals, ponds,
and water conduits were constructed. This water supply and management system
supplied adequate good quality water to the urban population throughout the year.
Guthis (local community groups) were formed to maintain the overall supply system.
Once a year, on the Sithi Nakha festival, the guthis worked together to clean up the
ponds, wells, and water canals.

This historical system was neglected after the introduction of a piped water system to
the Kathmandu Valley about a century ago. The stone spouts have been further
affected by the recent uncontrolled exploitation of groundwater and the destruction of
the former rainwater collection ponds and recharge areas. A recent study found that

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about 400 stone spouts and several hundred traditional dug wells in the Kathmandu
Valley are now dry (NGOFUWS 2006).

The history of groundwater extraction in Kathmandu using pumps is not so old as the
use of pumps to tap shallow groundwater began only in 1940s. Similarly government
installed deep tube wells in the mid 1960’s, but widespread use of pumps for
groundwater pumping began only in 1970’s with a World Bank funded water supply
improvement project (Dixit 2002). Ground water extraction has accelerated since then
for irrigation and drinking water purposes. At present, there are more than 600 deep
borings in the valley that extract water continuously which if continued, would
certainly invite several environmental consequences including land subsidence in the
valley (KVWSB 2011). An immediate consequence of the depletion of shallow
groundwater level is that dug wells, hand pumps, and traditional stone spouts can no
longer provide water. The groundwater quality is also a concern; chemical pollutants
such as arsenic, ammonia, and nitrate have been detected in deep aquifers in many
areas of the Valley.

1.3 Water demand and exploitation of groundwater in Kathmandu

Kathmandu Valley has been facing massive problems in meeting the water demand of
its ever-growing population. The traditional water supply mechanisms have also been
affected by the concretization and are no longer in state to meet the increasing water
demands. The water delivery mechanism of Kathmandu Upatyeka Khanepani Limited
(KUKL) cannot cope with the demand of city dwellers.

The Valley’s current water demand is 350 million liters per day (MLD), but the
Kathmandu Upatyeka Khanepani Limited (KUKL)'s minimum production is 84 MLD
and maximum production is 144 MLD, considering 20% real loss it can only supply
about 67MLD during the dry season and 115 MLD during the wet season (KUKL
2013). Out of 78 deep tube wells of KUKL, only 59 of them are in operation (KUKL
2013). To meet the supply-demand gap, groundwater from both shallow and deep
aquifers (more than 100 meters) is being heavily extracted by small- to large-scale
users, including KUKL itself. This unregulated extraction is depleting the water level
in aquifers; especially the deep aquifers, which are not easily rechargeable due to the
Valley’s impermeable black clay (JICA 1990).

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Since the supply of water does not reach a significant number of households, valley
residents get up early in the morning in search of water from other sources. Needless
to say, such efforts are impractical, expensive, stressful, sleep disrupting, and time
consuming. Residents extract large amount of groundwater to supplement their needs
by digging deep tube wells, thereby lowering the water table even further. The total
annual groundwater abstraction in the valley is presently estimated as 23.4 million
cubic meters, which is much higher than the maximum, recharge estimate of 14.5
million cubic meters (WECS 2002). The consequences are either irreversible in nature
or require extended period to abate. Therefore, effective conservation measures of this
precious resource needs to be considered while taking full advantages for the
development purposes.

1.4 Rainwater harvesting and its status in Nepal

Rainwater harvesting is the capture, diversion and storage of rainwater for a number
of different purposes including landscapes irrigation, drinking and domestic use,
aquifer recharge and storm water abatement. In a residential or small-scale
application, rainwater harvesting can be as simple as channeling rain running off an
un-guttered roof to a planted landscape area via contoured landscape. More complex
systems include gutters, pipes, storage tanks or cisterns, filter and water treatment for
potable use. Regional RWH applications involve sand dam water harvesting and
groundwater recharge. Sand dams are small dams in a V- or U-shaped river bed. Sand
and water accumulate upstream from the dam, and water can be extracted from the
sand by digging shallow wells or by laying half-open pipes on the river bed under the
sand. Groundwater recharge is a technique where rainwater is conveyed to open wells,
allowing the rainwater to replenish the groundwater.

Basic Components

Regardless of the complexity of the system, the domestic rainwater harvesting system
comprises five basic components:

- Catchment surface: the collection surface from which rainfall runs off
- Gutters and downspouts: channel water from the roof to the tank

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- Leaf screens: first –flush diverters, and roof washers: components which
remove debris and dust from the captured rainwater before it goes to the tank
- One or more storage tanks, also called cisterns
- Delivery system: gravity-fed or pumped to the end use

1. The Catchment Surface

The roof of a building or house is the obvious first choice for catchment. For
additional capacity, an open-sided barn or pole barn-can be built. Water tanks and
other rainwater system equipment, such as pumps and filters, as well as vehicles,
bicycles, and gardening tools, can be stored under the barn. Water quality from
different roof catchments is a function of the type of roof materials, climatic
conditions and the surrounding environment. For non drinking purposes any roofing
material can be used whereas special selection of roofing should be done for drinking
purposes avoiding lead and asbestos.

2. Gutters and Downspouts

Gutters are installed to capture rainwater running off the roofs of a building. Some
gutter installers can provide continuous or seamless gutter. For potable water systems,
lead cannot be used as gutter, as is sometimes the case in older metal gutters. The
slightly acidic quality of rain could dissolved lead and thus contaminate the water
supply. The most common materials for gutters and downspouts are half round PVC,
vinyl, pipe, seamless aluminum, and galvanized steel.

3. Leaf Screen and Roof Washer

This consists of a simple standpipe (typically a PVC pipe of 150 mm diameter) of
sufficient length (or a container) to accommodate 30-50 liters of water, fitted with a
coarse screen on a funnel at the top to trap leaves etc. It has a valve at the bottom to
drain away the washings collected into it (alternatively, the drain valve can be
replaced with a weep hole for slow draining). The roof washer may be located
adjacent to the storage tank, to allow for short piping connection to it.

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4. Cisterns or Storage Tanks
Typically a plastic water tank of 1000-1500 liters capacity is used. The tank
should be located at a height of approximately one meter above the ground for
easy discharge of water.
5. Delivery system
A simple water tap or a pump is used.

6. Catchment
7.
Gutter
8.

9. Pipe
10.

11. Filter
12.

13.First flush
14. system
15.
Water
16.
storage tank
17.

Recharge pit
18.
19.

Fig: 1.1 Components of rainwater harvesting system (CIUD 2013)

Rainwater harvesting system has lots of advantages but it has few disadvantages too,
which are discussed here under:
Advantages of rainwater harvesting system
 Low Maintenance

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 One reason people of both developing and developed countries seek out
rainwater harvesting systems is the relatively small amount of maintenance
required to obtain free water for drinking and household use. Annual gutter,
down-pipe and tank cleaning is needed. This is usually limited to removing
leaves, dirt and other debris before the major rainfall season. Filters need to be
inspected every three months or so and the tanks should be monitored for
cracks. These low-cost tasks are simple to do for the average person with
minimal skills.
 Eco-Friendly
It is a renewable resource; no damage is ever done to the environment from its
harvesting. Sustainability is one reason rainwater harvesting has become more
popular in recent years. It is an environmentally responsible way to landscape
plants, garden and lawns. The presence of rainwater harvesting projects helps
limit soil erosion, storm water runoff and surface water contamination. It is a
step in local self-sufficiency, reducing the need to import water from
unsustainable outside sources.
 Saves Energy
Pumping water long distances consumes power, using fossil fuels and
contributing to environmental problems. People, who wish to cut water bills,
can utilize rainwater for their gardens and washing cars.
 Reduces Water Shortages
Home-collected rainwater reduces the risk of water shortages. Using rainwater
for non-essential activities such as watering the lawn means less strain on the
supply of safe drinking water. Rainwater is useful for drinking and washing in
emergency situations.
 Replenishes Groundwater
As populations grow, they use more water, to the point that groundwater may
be utilized faster than it is replenished. Extended rainwater harvesting schemes
(with the water diverted into storage tanks or reservoirs) are necessary to
ensure a sustainable groundwater level. If road water is collected and stored in
the pond, this may increase ground water level.

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  Prevents Flooding
If rain falls on an impermeable surface, such as concrete, or falls faster than
the ground can absorb it, flooding will result. Effective catching and storing of
rainwater reduces the risk of flooding. In areas where long dry periods are
interspersed with very heavy rainfall, such as the monsoons in Asia, rainwater
harvesting significantly reduces both the impact of short-term floods, and
water shortages experienced during the rest of the year.
 Reduces Soil Erosion
Heavy rainfall causes erosion because some of the soil is carried along with
the movement of water. Soil erosion depletes agricultural land of topsoil and
nutrients, contributes to sediment build up in rivers and, in extreme cases, can
render land unsuitable for agriculture. Soil erosion has a serious impact on
agricultural communities worldwide. Harvesting rain stops a great deal of soil
erosion before it can start.

Disadvantage of rainwater harvesting system

 Unpredictable Rainfall
Rainfall is often hard to predict and usually comes and goes. This is the main
downfall of rainwater harvesting. Unless many large storage tanks are used, it
can be hard to store enough water to get through dry spells. If an area has
limited rainfall, depending on rainwater harvesting for all water needs is not
recommended
 Cost
Cost is one factor slowing down the proliferation of rainwater harvesting
projects. The cost of installation of rainwater harvesting system especially
tank for storage, is highest at the time of construction, depending on the
system's size and technology level. Rainwater harvesting setups do eventually
pay for themselves, but can take 10 to 20 years, depending on the system and
rainfall.
 Environmental Impact and Water Quality
The disadvantage is that the quality of water obtained from the systems
depends on the quality of rain water. The quality of rain water varies
depending on atmospheric pollution, animal droppings, insects and pests, dirt

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 and ground waste. This necessitates the proper treatment of water before
consumption.

1.4.1 Factors affecting Rainwater Harvesting Potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called
the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively
harvested is called the water harvesting potential. Among the several hydro-ecological
factors that influence the rainwater harvesting potential of a site, climatic conditions
specially rainfall and the catchment characteristics are considered to be the most
important.
Rainfall
 Quantity: Rainfall is the most unpredictable variable in the calculation and
hence, to determine the potential rainwater supply for a given catchment,
reliable rainfall data are required, preferably for a period of at least 10 years.
Also, it would be far better to use rainfall data from the nearest station with
comparable conditions.
 Pattern: The number of annual rainy days also influences the need and design
for rainwater harvesting. The fewer the annual rainy days or longer the dry
period, the more the need for rainwater collection in a region. However, if the
dry period was too long, big storage tanks would be needed to store rainwater.
Hence in such regions, it is more feasible to use rainwater to recharge ground
water aquifers rather than for storage.
Catchment Area Characteristics
The characteristics of the catchment area determine the storage conditions. All
calculations relating to the performance of rainwater catchment systems involve the
use of runoff coefficient (Table: 1.1) to account for losses due to spillage, leakage,
infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will all, contribute to
reducing the amount of runoff. (Runoff coefficient for any catchment is the ratio of
the volume of water that runs off a surface to the volume of rainfall that falls on the
surface).

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Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient
Or
Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency (Sthapit, M 2009)
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an
area cannot be effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors like
runoff coefficient and the first-flush wastage are taken into account when estimating
the collection efficiency.

Table 1.1: Runoff Coefficients for Various Catchment Surfaces

Type of Catchment Coefficient
Roof Catchments
Tiles 0.8 - 0.9
Corrugated metal sheets 0.7 - 0.9
Ground Surface Coverings 0.6 - 0.8
 Concrete
 Brick pavement 0.5 - 0.6

Untreated Ground Catchments

 Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 0.0 - 0.3
 Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5
 Green area 0.05 - 0.10
Source: Pacey et.al (1989)

1.4.2 Organization involved in promoting RWH in the Kathmandu Valley

Several non-governmental organizations in Nepal have been successfully promoting

rainwater harvesting as a solution for water scarcity as well as a measure to cope with
climate change, especially in areas where other sources of water are (technically
and/or economically) unfeasible. These activities also contributed to the signing of the
working policy on rainwater harvesting in 2009 by the government of Nepal in which
rainwater was recognized as a source of water for drinking as well as productive use.

The Water for Asian Cities Programme of UN-HABITAT in partnership with the
NGO Forum for Urban Water Sanitation (NGOFUWS), Ministry of physical Planning
and Works and Water Aid, Nepal initiated a Rainwater Harvesting Promotion
Programme (RWHPP) in Kathmandu Valley in five municipalities and a nearby town,
Banepa, with a view to ensure uprooting of water scarcity, mitigate the present water

9
crisis of the valley and with a vision for long-term impact that sustains free rainwater
for bulk of its water supply (WAC news 2006).

With technical support from ENPHO, NWSC Kamaladi office had installed a model
of RWH System. With a roof of 79 sq. m. it collects approximately 102,000 liters of
water annually. Since the harvesting potential is much more than the storage capacity,
the over flow of the storage tank is used for groundwater recharge. A recharge pit of
size 1 m wide and 2 m depth is used for artificial recharge of the groundwater. For the
recharge, roof area of 45 sq. m. had been allocated which can harvest 58,000 liters of
rainwater. The Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
(DUDBC), also plan to construct a model of rainwater harvesting plant in its own
building.

In the late 1980s, Peace Corps /Nepal Volunteers constructed some RWH systems in
parts of Nepal as part of their in-service training. The Finnish-aided Rural Water
Supply and Sanitation Project built two 400 cubic meter rainwater tanks to meet
household needs in villages of Gulmi and Palpa districts. The Mission Hospital in
Tansen, Palpa has been supplementing its fresh water requirements by a RWHS since
the last 25 years (Masina et. al 2000).

Other organization, which had been implementing RWH projects in rural parts of
Nepal, are SAPROS (Support Activities for the Poor Producers of Nepal), the District
Water Supply Office (DWSO), GARDP, NEWAH, IDE, ICIMOD and WECS. The
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Support Program (RWSSSP) had been
implementing large RWH schemes in Palpa and Gulmi district. The type of RWH
technology employed by RWSSSPP is the collection of rainwater from CGI
(Corrugated Galvanized Iron) roof into an above ground 2 cum ferrocement jar. This
jar was made of cement mortar reinforced by closely spaced layers of iron wire mesh.
This technology was introduced in Nepal by RWSSSP itself and it had been adopted
by other programs in other places of Nepal too. In the very beginning of the program,
45 such jar were built Daudha VDC Gulmi (ENPHO 1996). Presently more than 4000
such jars have been constructed by RWSSP itself. The cost of construction of the jar
along with the rest of the RWH system amounts to approximately Rs. 7000. If the
thatched roof had to be replaced by Corrugated Galvanized Iron sheets, this cost will
rise to approximately Rs 12,000. This was advised to prevent contamination of the

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collected rainwater. The framework for this jar costs around Rs 12,000 but it is used
by the several houses in the community.

1.5 Objectives of the study

This study was conducted to meet the following objectives:
 To estimate the feasibility and potential of rainwater harvesting and
groundwater recharge capacity in the Dallu Awas area.
 To assess the consumption pattern of water in the study area.
 To understand the role of current sources of water in the study area.

1.6 Rationale of the Study

In the housing colonies water supply is a serious issue. The high standard of living
entails water availability in terms of both quality and quantity. Most colonies have
deep boring as the main source of water. The groundwater abstraction from the wells
is at the alarming state as it is overexploited beyond the recharge capacity. But the
extracted water is not only degrading the environment but also highly contaminated
and of very high cost.

The housing colonies have been gradually increasing in Kathmandu due to increasing
trend among people to live in high standard colonies. Like any other cities in the
world, Kathmandu valley has its own challenges, such as rapid urbanization process
and haphazard development. In housing colonies population density is high because
greater number of people lives in little space, which has put pressure on the city's
natural resources and physical space. Rainwater harvesting system may be one of the
options to certain extent to solve water problems in these areas.

Dallu Awas, one of the first planned housing projects, is however different from other
housing projects being implemented in Kathmandu valley. Though initiated in an
open agriculture land with land plotting, unlike current housing projects it does not
have centralized water supply system. The source of water supply is municipal water
supply supplemented through individual optional sources like dug wells, tankers etc.

1.7 Limitations of the study

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  The study was conducted in Dallu Awas area of the Kathmandu Metropolitan
City and hydrological and metrological data of Panipokhari station was used
for calculation.
 Precipitation pattern of only 10 successive year's i.e. 1999 to 2008 was
considered.

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Rainwater: Source of Civilization
Though rainwater harvesting has been in practice since long time, it has been
rejuvenated in Nepal due to shortage of water supply in both urban and rural context.
In this regard some of the rainwater harvesting practices adopted by other countries
have been studied. As water is essential for life, the history of the collection of
rainwater is as old as the history of mankind. In fact, most ancient civilization evolved
in areas that had vast hinterlands where water was available for irrigation and
navigation.

According to Department of fine Arts (1978), in Thailand, the existence of rainwater

harvesting and storage systems goes back more than 2000 years and there is evidence
that an elaborate system of dykes were built and used about 800 years ago.

According to Doelhomid (1981), because surface water and groundwater are brackish
in the Kalimantan area in Indonesia, rainwater was collected there for several
centuries.

According to Crasta (1982), in the Mediterranean region, rainwater collected from

roofs and stored in cistern was the principal source of water during the Phoenician,
Carthaginian and early Roman times from the sixth century onwards. Up to the 16 th
century, rooftop collection and storage was practiced in Venice, and there is evidence
that 177 public and 1900 private cistern held 665,000m3 of water to supply about 16
liters per capita per day. In Iran, rainwater harvesting has been gaining considerable
prominence and high levels of technology have been attained in the spreading of
floodwaters.

Evenari (1982) stated that the use of rainwater collection systems is known to have
existed as early as 4000 years ago in the semi-arid and arid regions of the Negev
desert in Israel, which has less than 150 mm of rainfall annually.

12
Acoording to Cuygeng (1983), in the Philippines, the use of rainwater is still being
practiced in the provinces as it is traditionally believed that it is safer than river water
for household and human consumption.

According to Weiner (1987), hillsides were cleared to increase run-off and contour
ditches collected water for irrigation. Underground storage volumes of up to 300 m 3,
enough for 10 families and their flock for a year, have also been reported.

Pakianathan (1989), has been reported that in the early Buddhist era in India, monks
living in the Elephanta caves in Bombay and the Udayagiri and Candagiri caves in
Orissa had laboriously hewn an intricate series of gutters and water cisterns in rock
faces to provide their domestic water supply throughout the year. In addition, the
Chola and Pandya kings in the seventh and eighth century A.D. had constructed
rainwater catchments tanks at the feet of many hills. Temples like Madurai have large
water tanks and the communities living around depended on them for their domestic
water needs.

Fattovich (1990) stated that the history of water harvesting in Ethiopia dated back as
the pre Axumit period (560 BC). It was a time when rainwater was harvested and
stored in ponds for agricultural and water supply purposes. Anthropologists have
documented evidences of the remains of ponds that were once used for irrigation
during this period. A roof water harvesting set up is still visible in the remains of one
of the oldest palaces in Axum; the palace of the legendary Queen of Sheba.

An old technology is gaining popularity in a new way. Rainwater harvesting is

enjoying a renaissance of sorts in the world, but it traces its history to biblical times.
Extensive rainwater harvesting apparatus existed 4000 years ago in the Palestine and
Greece. In ancient Rome, residences were built with individual cisterns and paved
courtyards to capture rainwater to augment from city’s aqueducts. As early as the
third millennium BC, farming communities in Baluchistan and Kutch impounded
rainwater and used it for irrigation dams.

According to Gould (1993), in Africa, catchment systems have been used for at least
2000 years, in which rainwater collected from thatched roofs, is collected in open jars.

Murase (1994) stated that there are isolated instances of the use of roof water
catchments systems in china, but rainwater is largely used for irrigation purpose.

13
Similarly, in Japan, the use of rainwater is collected and stored in basement and
subjected to some form of treatment. In earthquake prone cities, rainwater is collected
and stored for fire–fighting when normal supplies are disrupted.

According to Gould and Nissen-Petersen (1999), in the United States, evidence of

historical rainwater harvesting systems can be seen in Texas and Arizona. Rock
cistern in known as the Huhcco tanks in Texas and Tinajas in Arizona trapped
rainwater fir native dwellers, from the archaic hunters to the Mescaero Apaches, and
they later became a stopping point for Stagecoach travelers and Jesuit Missionaries. In
early communities of central Texas, central plazas went social and market places to be
collection surfaces for vast underground cisterns, which stored the collected rainwater
for use by adjacent shop and homes.

The concept of rainwater harvesting in china may date back to 6000 years. Ruins of
cistern built as early as 2000B.C. for storing runoff from hillsides for agricultural and
domestic purposes are still standing in Israel.

According to NGOFUWS (2010), in the case of Nepal, there is no history or written

document when our civilization used rainwater. But it is sure that the use of it started
when the civilization started. The valley was supplied with water through traditional
sources like ponds, wells and stone spouts in the Lichhavi period more than fifteen
hundred years ago. Traditional stone spouts locally known as Hitis are sunken
courtyards mostly enclosed in a compound wall with one or more than one
decoratively carved stone spouts that flow water continuously. The enumeration and
mapping study of traditional stone spouts in five municipal areas of valley showed
389 stone spouts which were constructed in the Lichhavi period more than 15 hundred
years ago. Currently, only 233 are working with the original water flow system and 45
of them are buried or destroyed.

The enumeration and mapping study of traditional stone spouts in five municipal
areas of valley had 389 stone spouts which had constructed date back. At recent, only
233 are working with the original water flow system and 45 of them are buried or
destroyed.

2.2 RWH in Urban areas

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Singapore, which has limited land resources and a rising demand for water, is on the
lookout for alternative sources and innovative methods of harvesting water. Almost
86% of Singapore’s population lives in high-rise buildings. Light roofing is placed on
the roofs to act as catchment. Collected roof water is kept in separate cisterns on the
roofs for non-potable uses. A recent study of an urban residential area of about 742 ha
used a model to determine the optimal storage volume of the rooftop cisterns, taking
into consideration non-potable water demand and actual rainfall at 15-minute
intervals. This study demonstrated an effective saving of 4% of the water used, the
volume of which did not have to be pumped from the subsurface.

According to study conducted by Evabaeri (1971) in India, various forms of water

harvesting (WH) have been traditionally throughout the centuries. In the sandier
tracts, the villagers of Thar Desert had evolved an ingenious system of RWH known
as Kunds or Kundis. Some of the very earliest agriculture, in the Middle East, was
based on technique such as diversions of “wadi” flow onto agriculture fields. In the
Negev Desert of Israel, WH systems dating back 4000 years or more have been
discovered. These schemes involved the clearing of hill sided from vegetation to
increase runoff, which was then directed to fields on the plains.

Gould (1992) stated that in the Philippines, rainwater harvesting was initiated in 1989
with the assistance of the IDRC, Canada. About 500 rainwater storage tanks were
constructed in the Captz Province during this project. The capacities of the varied
from 2 to 10 m3 and the tanks were made of wire framed ferrocement. The
construction of the tanks involved building a frame of steel reinforcing bars (rebar)
and wire mesh on a study reinforced concrete foundation. The tanks were then
plastered both inside and outside simultaneously, which reduced their susceptibility to
corrosion when compared with metal storage tanks.

According to Husssain (1998), in 1995, the World Bank assisted Community Water
Supply and Sanitation Project (CWSSP) conducted a study of the feasibility of RWH
for domestic use, incorporating RWH into official water supply schemes. This led to
the development of some low-cost technologies that helped the spread of RWH,
which had been retarded somewhat due to the high cost of storage and other facilities.
The recent detection of high level of arsenic concentration in numerous shallow tube
well water mostly across Bangladesh has caused serious problem for supplying safe

15
water for drinking and other domestic uses. A study by A Z M Hussain and H.
Momotaj is an attempt to access the potential for harvesting of rainwater as an
alternative option to provide arsenic free safe water for drinking and cooking purposes
at household level in Bangladesh. Example of successful RWH countries includes
Germany, Japan, and India.

According to study conducted by Biswas A.K (2004), water problems of the future
will continue to become increasingly more and more complex and will become more
and more intertwined with other development sectors like agriculture, energy,
industry, transportation and communication and with social sectors like education,
environment, health and rural or regional development. One of the main questions is
how this challenge can be successfully answered in a socially acceptable and
economically-efficient manner.

IRIN (2006) stated that Kenya had rainwater harvesting capacity of 121300 cubic
meters against its annual renewable water availability of just 600 cubic meters. The
country’s capital, Nairobi, has the capacity to provide for the water needs of a
population of 6-10 million, supplying each one with 60 liters a day if rainwater were
efficiently harvested, the study noted.

In Israel, research emphasis is on the hydrological aspects of micro catchments for

fruits such as almonds and pistachio nuts. In the USA and Australia WH techniques
are mainly applied for domestics and livestock water supply and research is directed
towards improving runoffs yields from treated catchment surfaces. In Sri Lanka,
notwithstanding the slaying of King Parakramabahu the great that not a drop of water
should flow unused to the sea, the uninterrupted supply of water for domestic
purposes has long been taken for granted. The water-supply infrastructure has not
kept pace with needs and RWH has not been promoted as in India, where urban
authorities have amended their by-laws to facilitate it.

Rainwater should be harvested, stored for human consumption and for other uses by
the inhabitants. But treatment is needed in terms of their pH, TSS, Fe and color.
Especially low quality of rainwater was observed in thatch and asbestos roofing
sheets. Thus, rainwater from these sources should be purified before consumption.

2.3 Rainwater harvesting in Nepal

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According to the Snowy Mountain Engineering Corporation (1992), the upper limit of
ground water extraction in the valley is 40.1 MLD however this limit has already been
exceeded with the current rate of groundwater extraction higher than 60 MLD. This
has resulted in continue lowering of groundwater table, the average rate of
groundwater depletion being 2.5 meter per annum (MPPW 2002). A study conducted
by Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) in 1990 estimated that the static
GW level started falling by 1.5 m annually after WSSC developed deep wells and
started groundwater pumping.

According to study conducted by Bohara R (1997), Daugha VDC of Gulmi district in

Lumbini zone is hardship area in terms of water scarcity. It takes three hour for one
round trip to fetch water. In that water scarce condition Rural Water Supply and
Sanitation Project (RWSSP/F) has began to give some attractive incentives to start the
rainwater harvesting program. It has made a provision of collecting Rs. 300 in cash
from each household including collection and transport local materials, provide
unskilled labor, provide water for construction and supply transport for construction
materials from nearest road. It was proposed that two jars be kept by each household
with a CGI roof and one jar and 180 sq.ft. of CGI sheet to replace the thatched roof.
With these intervention major impacts has been seen in the time reduction to collect
water and improvement in health and sanitation. A minimum of 30% time reduced
lessening drudgery and hardship. In fact this program has been successful with a
construction of 369 jars in March 1998 against a total target of 834. This success has
been replicated in other places in Gulmi and Palpa also.

Dhungel D.N (2001) stated that in areas suffering from severe water scarcity, rooftop
water harvesting, locally known as balesiko pani thapne, has been traditionally
practiced. In the hill town of Phulchowki, rooftop rainwater harvesting was initiated
in 1970 by the department of civil aviation for its office complex. A tank of 45000
liter storage capacity was built using stone masonry. It had a catchment area (roof) of
approximately 300 squares made of asbestos-cement corrugated sheets and a 200 mm
diameter semi-circular plain galvanized iron (GI) sheet, serving as the gutter.

According to study conducted by Dixit K.M (2002), RWH system has been practiced
in Nepal since 1980s through collection of rain water in ponds and conveying it to the
traditional stone spouts for multiple uses. However, there were no such scientific

17
structures for rainwater collection until 1960s when rainwater collection was first
scientifically tested at Pokhara Hospital. According to Sainju (2000), Similarly, the
mission hospital in Tansen, Palpa constructed a RWH system in 1969’s which is still
functional today. Tansen Hospital, located in the hill district of Palpa, has been
successfully maintaining its rainwater harvesting system through storage tanks for the
last 25 years. Peace Corps Nepal has also initiated community-based rainwater
harvesting scheme for its health post in the Ramechhap district and some similar
schemes for schools in Kaski district.

According to Dixit et.al (2002), in the past, the idea of collecting rainwater could not
gain popularity as there was abundant availability of water, however with the scarcity
of water it is heavily practiced today in urban and suburban areas of Nepal. In Nepal
initial effort to collect rainwater at household level was done by FINNIDA in Palpa
and Gulmi districts. Since then Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS),
Peace Corps Nepal, Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH), International Center for
Mountain Resource Development (ICIMOD), Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA), Nepal water Conservation Foundation (NWCF), and Department of
Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM) have been promoting the
system in different districts of Nepal.

Center for Integrated Urban Development (2003) conducted a Household Water Use
survey and research in Kathmandu Valley. The study revealed that the existing
average per capita domestic water consumption for primary household is 80 liters
while the secondary/renter household is 46 liters. The average consumption for all
types of household is found to be 73 lpcd. The water consumption pattern of the five
municipalities showed that Kathmandu had the highest consumption rate followed by
Lalitpur.

According to Limbu (2005), the water demand in the Naya Bazar Town planning area
was estimated to be 10323 liters of water per family per month. Out of total water
consumption at the household level, about 7% was used for the drinking and cooking
purposes, 59% for hygienic purpose like bathing, laundry and dishwashing and
remaining 34 % was for toilet flushing, gardening and cleaning vehicles. It was
estimated that 1,558,528 liters of water could be harvested annually from the roof top
of the single household of the surveyed case study area.

18
According to study conducted by Dixit K.M (2006), this idea of rainwater harvesting,
however, is not new in Nepal. There is an evidence of water harvesting structures
since pre-historic times. During those times rainwater harvested to meet the irrigation
water needs rather than for drinking. Ponds, lakes and other storage structures also
had been built to capture falling rain and use it later. Community ponds have been
built to collect rain and use by community people for washing and cleaning. Similarly
in hills, people uses bamboo slices to collect rain for drinking purposes.

Shrestha R and Shrestha S (2006) stated that the harvesting of rainwater involves
collection of the precipitation from roof of a building and other surface areas and is
stored in a tank. The water needs to be directed from roof gutters to a rainwater
storage tank. Through this simple technique one can meet all or at least a substantial
amount of one’s need from the free gift of nature.

According to Rajbhandari K (2007), rainwater harvesting techniques have been used

throughout the Kirtipur Housing Project to ensure alternate water supply facilities. In
addition to domestic use, rainwater is also being used to recharge ground water
through the use of recharge pits to help address the issue of water depletion caused by
water extraction from the community wells. 250 people reside in 44 houses and they
require 5m3 per day. Three underground storage tanks with cumulative capacity of
40m3 were constructed for storing harvested rainwater. 767m3 rainwater is being
harvested annually from these 44 housing units. Only one side of the roof of 29
houses is currently being used and around 165m3 of rainwater can further be
harvested from the other side of these houses. All these tanks have been installed with
hand pumps for easy access to water.

Shrestha R (2007) stated that rainwater harvesting system is a major source of water
in Eco-Home which is built in November 2002 with in the premises of 135 m2 in
Dallu, Kathmandu. The city water supply has been disconnected after the installation
of rainwater harvesting system there. Rainwater is stored in 9000 liters underground
tank and excess rainwater especially during rainy season is diverted into a dug well.
The dug well can store nearly 10,000 liters of water and also facilitates to recharge
groundwater. Eco-home can rely on rainwater for nearly nine to ten months and in the
remaining months it has to extract water from the rainwater recharged dug well.

19
According to Karanjit (2008), the daily demand in the Dallu Residential area was
found to be 259 liters per family and annual water demand was estimated to be 81,000
liters per family. It was estimated that 134,000 liters of water can be annually
harvested from the average roof-top area of 719 square feet in the study area. If RWH
system is installed in every house of Dallu residential area, 45% houses will have
surplus water for non consumptive use. As it was not possible to construct
underground storage tank in every single house to store all the harvested water, the
better option is to accumulate it to one central storage tank. Analysis showed that if a
central storage tank of area of 47,732 squares meters and depth of three meters is
constructed, 66% of total non consumptive water demand of Dallu residential area can
be met.

McMahon (2008) stated that 1 billion 510 million liters of rainwater can be harvested
annually in Kathmandu Valley. The study report pointed out that rainwater harvesting
technology is an effective solution to water scarcity in the Valley. The study revealed
that 91 percent Kathmanduites are using rainwater one way or another by collecting it
in buckets and small tanks. However, the study also stated that 65 percent
Kathmanduites do not have knowledge about systematic rainwater harvesting
technology.

Sharma (2008) carried out research on “Rainwater harvesting potential in Kathmandu

Valley- A case study of rainwater quality of Kalanki Area” which found that
Kathmandu Valley is appropriate for domestic rainwater harvesting as a
supplementary source of water supply. A roof area of 100m2 with a tank capacity of
10KL is sufficient to meet the demand of 5 member family. The physicochemical
characteristic of rainwater samples are generally below the WHO threshold. Since
concentration of presence of coliform bacteria is high it is suggested that rainwater
should be purified before domestic consumption.

According to UN- HABITAT and MPPW (2008), in response to the water crisis and
to realize Kathmandu Valley’s potential to harvest rainwater, UN-HABITAT, in
coordination with the NGOFUWS and in partnership with the Ministry of Physical
Planning and Works (MPPW) and Water Aid Nepal (WAN), launched the innovative
Rainwater Harvesting Promotion Program (RWHPP). The program established four
demonstration sites: one in Banepa at Scheer Memorial Hospital; the other three in

20
Kathmandu: at Trichandra College for use on college and for recharging the famous
Rani Pokhari pond, in a squatters’ rehabilitation community housing facility, at the
office of Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. In January
2006, the NGOFUWS officially launched the twelve-month pilot RWHPP in the five
Municipalities of the Kathmandu valley: Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur,
Madhyapur Thimi and in the town of Banepa. On the occasion of World Water Day,
22 March, 2005, it declared the Nepali calendar year 2062 B.S. as “Rainwater
Harvesting Year”.

According to MPPW (2009), currently it is estimated that over 11000 RWH systems
are in use in the hill districts of Nepal. A recent survey reported that around 78% of
the rain water users were satisfied with the service (Laia Domenech, MPPW & WHO-
Nepal, and November 2008). It can be concluded therefore that some 47’000 people
are getting a satisfactory service out of rainwater harvesting, often in water stressed
areas (uphill areas in Kaski, Tanhu, Doti, etc.)

According to MPPW (2009), the Department of Urban Development and

Construction has been working since early 2006 on promotion of rainwater harvesting
in an urban areas. This effort is supported by UN-Habitat, NGO Forum for Urban
Water Supply and Sanitation, ENPHO, Lumanti, etc.

Rajbhandari K (2009) studied potential volume of water that can be recharged from
12 Apartments and housings (A&Hs). It was estimated that the total potential is
516343m3 which is 3.3 times the total demand from dwellers. If this study conducted
in 12 A&Hs with 681 units is generalized, then 62% of theoretically available volume
of rainwater in A&Hs can be tapped to recharge Ground water. Regarding water
quality, GW quality in monsoon is better than in pre monsoon thus indicating the
effectiveness of rainwater in diluting the contamination.

According to study conducted by Thanju J. P and Shrestha B. D (2010) rainwater

harvesting (RWH) is not a new technology; it is an ancient legacy. On the tops of hills
and mountains of Nepal, ponds were dug in ancient times to collect rain water mainly
for livestock use. In the towns, ponds and stone spouts were constructed and these
were the main sources of water before introduction of piped water supplies. The

21
intricate system of traditional water supply of Patan, Nepal, consisting of a network of
rajkulos (royal irrigation channel), ponds, and stone spouts are centuries old.

According to Thanju et.al (2010), in Kathmandu, rainwater from large areas, such as
Tribhuvan International Airport, the Singh Durbar government office complex, the
Birendra International Convention Center, the large road area of Tinkune-
Koteshower, and other road surfaces, etc., can be used to collect rainwater. After
filtering it in a sand/gravel filter, it can be sent through ground water systems to wells
for public use. Large road surfaces are excellent places to collect rainwater to store in
ponds where it is allowed to percolate and recharge.

Recently CIUD has published manual on rainwater harvesting and recharge in the
year 2013.

2.4 Policies on Urban Water Supply and Sanitation

Government’s 3 Year Interim Plan (2007- 2010) provides the most recent guidance on
urban sector priorities highlighting, in particular, the need to address the effects of
rapid urbanisation on service levels, water quality and scheme maintenance. It
proposes the full integration of sewerage, on‐site sanitation and solid waste
management in all urban schemes and specifically endorses cost recovery from
consumers. Local authorities are responsible for overseeing project implementation
but with private sector organisations playing increasing roles. Interim Plan further
highlights the need for improved transparency and governance systems, including
consumer protection. Social inclusion is particularly emphasised including a
requirement to ensure that women and disadvantaged groups are fully represented and
involved in development processes.

National Policy on Rural Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation (2004) provides
guidance on water and sanitation service provision in rural areas using community led
participatory approaches. While partially relevant to the urban context, particularly
around the integration of inputs and local capacity building, it generally fails to
address the complex operational challenges to be faced by Municipal authorities in
implementing and managing urban services.

22
National Drinking Water Quality Standards (2006) provide details of the water quality
standards to be applied to all new urban systems and complement the Environment
Protection Act (1997) which requires Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) or
Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) of all new projects and pollution control for
all water resources.

The Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 2nd Amendment (2007), Water Supply
Management Board Act (2006) and Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission Act
(2006) facilitate the improved management of Kathmandu Valley’s water and
sanitation services. These establish the legal basis for private sector management of
schemes and independent fee setting and regulation and are applicable to all urban
schemes.
GoN’s Local Self Governance Act (1999) provides the legal basis for the devolution
of responsibilities and authorities for social, economic, institutional, and physical
infrastructure development, including water and sanitation systems, to local
government. While periodic district plans have been formulated in 52 districts a
decade long political conflict, including the absence of locally elected officials for
most of this period, have frustrated implementation plans.

National Urban Policy (2007) highlights the historical imbalances and haphazard
nature of urban development in Nepal. It views urban centres as catalysts for
economic development linked to north‐south and east‐west access corridors and flags
poor sanitation, environmental degradation and lack of services by the urban poor as
requiring urgent attention. Urban Policy proposes building the capacity of
Municipalities to plan and manage integrated local development activities including
the preparation of urban master plans to be moderated by central and regional
authorities. Private sector involvement and investment in infrastructure development
is specifically sought.

At the implementation level four major initiatives are addressing the Nation’s urban
water supply and sanitation challenges and provide important insights for the
development of this policy. These are the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation
Sector Project; the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Sector Development Program;

23
the Urban and Environment Improvement Project (UEIP) and several schemes
managed by the Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC).

National Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Policy 2009

The goal of the National Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy is to ensure the
socio‐economic development, improved health status and quality of life of urban
populations, including the poor and marginalised, through the provision of sustainable
water supply and sanitation services and protection of the environment. The main
objective of the policy is to ensure the availability of basic safe, accessible and
adequate water supply and sanitation services to all urban populations for improved
quality of life
Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997): Nobody shall create pollution in such a
manner as to cause significant adverse impacts on the environment or likely to be
hazardous to public life and people's health, or dispose or cause to be disposed sound,
heat radioactive rays and wastes from any mechanical devices, industrial enterprises,
or other places contrary to the prescribed standards.

Environment Protection Rules, 2054 (1997) envisaged about the IEE and EIA
provisions for RWH system. IEE is provisioned for the Collection of rain-
water in an area of not more than 200 hectares, and use of water sources (spring
and wet-lands) located within the same area but EIA is mandatory for collection
of rain-water in an area of more than Two Thousand hectares and use of water
sources (springs/wetlands) located within the same area
(www.lawcommission.com).

24
CHAPTER III: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area
3.1.1 Location
Dallu Awas is a residential area situated in the lap of Swoyambhu, ward no 15 of
Kathmandu Metropolitan City (Fig: 3.1). Its study area is bordered by Sitapaila and
Ichangu in the west and Bishnumati River in the east. It covers 20 hectares of land, of
which 25% is allocated for roads and 7% for open spaces. This planned area is
facilitated by black topped road, sewer system, electricity lines, hospitals, schools etc.
There are around 751 residential buildings (Lumanti 2012).

3.1.2 Population
According to the population census 1991 A.D, there are 19,627 peoples in Dallu area.
Out of which 2/3 is Newar, others are Tamang, Lama, Gurung, Bhraman, Khetri,
Muslim, Rai, Limbu, Pariyar etc. According to the population census 2001, there are
7,448 houses in larger Dallu with population 32,441 (CBS 2001). 751 houses are only
in the designated Dallu Awas area.

3.1.3 Water supply system

KUKL from Balaju treatment plant, which is about 5 km north of Dallu residential
area has been supplying the drinking water to this area. The water supply scheme uses
both ground and surface water sources as its raw water source. The treatment plant
consists of coagulation and sedimentation, rapid sand filter and chlorine feeding units
(Lumanti 2012).

25
 Site B

Site
A

Site
C

Fig: 3.1 Study area of Dallu Awas with augering locations (Google Image, 2013)

Site A: Dallu Awas office ground Site B: Geeta mata school ground

Site C: Chauni barek ground

26
3.2 Methodology
The detail framework of this research methodology is shown in Figure 3.2

Methodology of the study

Preliminary work Field work Report preparation

Literature reviews Data collection Documentation

Review of previously
studied relevant Primary data: Computation
documents, primary data was Analysis and
reports, papers. collected through
questionnaire survey in Interpretation
the field.
The data was
Secondary data: Collected both
Rainfall data were from field and
Selection of
generated referring to secondary
Study area
DHM, CIUD information
Dallu Awas area was
and previous studies through reports
selected for the study.
and literatures. and study
papers.

The data of field

survey were
Questionnaire computed with an
preparation. aid of
computer aided
Questions were software in pie
prepared on the basis chart and
tabulated form.
of socioeconomic and
cultural aspects Finally the
analysis and
interpretation was
done on the basis
of these data.

Fig 3.2: Flow chart showing methodology applied in the study

27
3.2.1 Preliminary work
In this phase, literature review was done through internet, reports and different study
papers. Conforming research objectives, area was selected. After this questionnaire
were prepared.
3.2.1.1 Literature review
Review of previously studied relevant documents, reports, papers of different
organization was done.
3.2.1.2 Selection of the study area
To fulfill the objectives of the study Dallu Awas area was selected for the research,
where water scarcity is more in comparison to other ward of Kathmandu and some of
the people had already installed rainwater harvesting system. So this area was more
suitable for the study.
3.2.1.3 Questionnaire preparation
Based upon the findings of the desk study and taking into consideration all the
important parameters required to meet the objective of the study a set of questionnaire
was designed. The questionnaire was concerned with different aspects available water
sources; water demand and consumption pattern and dwellers attitude in using
rainwater for household needs etc.

3.2.1.4 Determination of sample size

In this phase sample size was determined using simple random sampling formula,

Confidence level: 95% Population size: 751

Proportion: 0.01 Standard error: 0.01

Relative standard error: 100.00

Confidence interval: 0.01480 Upper: 0.02960 Lower: 0.00

Sample size: 88

28
3.2.2 Field work
In this phase, field visit was done. Primary data were collected through household
questionnaire survey in the field and secondary data was collected from different
organizations.
3.2.2.1 Data collection
 Primary data: Primary data is information collected by the researcher directly
through instruments such as surveys, interviews, focus groups or observation.
Primary data were collected from questionnaire survey, and direct observation
in the field (Annex7: Fig i,ii). Sanitary survey was carried out in the houses
where rainwater is used for drinking.
 Secondary data: Published data and the data collected in the past or other party
is called secondary data. Secondary data was obtained from the different
organizations such as NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation, KUKL,
WaterAid Nepal, TU library, BSP Nepal, UN Habitat, ENPHO, CIUD , DHM
and websites searching etc.
To compare the recharging potential of Dallu Awas, augering datas of three
different sites (Chauni barek, Geeta mata school's ground and Dallu Awas
office ground) of Dallu was obtained from CIUD.
3.2.3 Report preparation
In this phase, both the primary and secondary data obtained from questionnaire survey
were put in pie chart and tabulate form, and interpretation was done on the basis of
available data.
3.2.3.1 Data analysis
This stage concerned with the calculations and analysis of the gathered data and their
interpretations. Calculation of average catchment size, storage capacity of tank,
observation of rainwater harvesting components, attitude of respondents towards
rainwater harvesting system installation and daily water demand were done on the
basis of household questionnaire survey.

For data analysis descriptive as well as quantitative statistical methods were used.
First all of the data were entered in Microsoft Excel software and where required
transferred into code sheet. Descriptive method like frequencies counts, percentages
and means used to describe the characteristic of the respondent.

29
Rainwater harvesting potential for any catchment area was calculated from the simple
equation:

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) * Catchment area (sq.m) * Runoff

coefficient

Table: 3.1 Loss coefficient values

Catchment Surface Coefficient Value

Tiles 0.8-0.9

Corrugated Metal Sheets 0.7-0.8

Concrete 0.6-0.8

Brick Surface 0.5-0.6

(Source: National Building Code, Government of Nepal)

As 84% houses roof were concrete, runoff coefficient was taken as 0.7

As 5% houses roof were CGI, runoff coefficient was taken as 0.75

As 11% houses roof were concrete and CGI, runoff coefficient was taken as
(0.7+0.75)/2 = 0.725

30
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
Questionnaires survey was carried out in 88 houses in Dallu Awas (44 houses with
Rainwater Harvesting system installed and 44 houses with no Rainwater Harvesting
system installed).

A. Results of Household Questionnaire Survey from the respondents

having rainwater harvesting system

4.1 Catchment type:

In maximum (98% out of 44) houses rain water was harvested through roof, but in
about 2% house rainwater was harvested from ground surface as well as roof (fig:
4.1).

Roof &
Ground
surface
2%

Roof only
98%

Fig 4.1 Rainwater harvesting catchment type in the study area

4.2 Type of roof

The roof was concrete in 84% of the houses, 11% of the houses had Corrugated
Galvanized Iron sheets and concrete both type of roof and in about 5% houses the
roof was made up of CGI (fig 4.2 a).

31
 CGI & CGI only 5%
Concrete 11%

Concrete only
84%

Fig: 4.2 (a) Distribution of type of roof in the study area.

Both Slanted only

5% 4%

Flat only
91%

Fig: 4.2 (b) Distribution of type of roof in the study area

Figure 4.2 (b) shows that maximum 91% of roof was flat and 4% was slanted but 5%
of the houses roof was slanted as well as flat.

4.3 Rain water harvesting facility

Rain water harvesting facility was fully tapped in 98% of the houses and partially
tapped in about 7% of the houses (fig: 4.3).

32
 Partially
tapped,
7%

Fully tapped,
93%

Fig: 4.3 Rain water harvesting facility in the study area

4.4 Type of rainwater harvesting system

Most of the houses had both rain water harvesting and groundwater recharging
system, about 32% of the houses had rainwater harvesting system but they did not
have groundwater recharging system and few of the houses had groundwater
recharging system ( fig: 4.4).

Rain water
harvesting,
32%

Both, 59%
Ground water
recharge, 9%

Fig: 4.4 Type of rainwater harvesting system installed in the study area
4.5 Capacity of underground tank

Maximum (39%) of the respondents had underground tank with capacity of 10,000-
15,000 liters, respondents having underground tank with capacities of 5,000-10,000

33
liters, 500-5,000 liters, more than 15,000 liters was found to be 32%, 18%, and 7%
respectively. Few (4%) of the houses didn't have underground tank (fig: 4.5).

Not having
underground
More than tank
15,000 liter 4%
7%
500-5,000 liter
18%

10,000-15,000 5,000-10,000
liter liter
39% 32%

Fig: 4.5 Capacity of underground tanks in the study area

4.6 Investment in the system

Most of the houses have invested more than Rs.10, 000 for installing RWHS.
About 14% of the respondents didn’t know how much they have invested on
building the system, 13% of the houses invested Rs.5, 000 and about 7% of the
houses invested Rs.5, 000-10,000 for installation of RWHS (fig: 4.6).
Don't know Rs. 5,000
14% 13%
Rs. 5,000-
10,000
7%

More than
Rs. 10,000
66%

Fig: 4.6 Investment in the rainwater harvesting system.

4.7 Rainwater use

34
 During survey 2 houses were found installed with, RWH system only recently and
so far have not utilized the system. Fig 4.7 shows the major uses of harvested rain
water. Out of 44 respondents, maximum 52% of the respondents used rainwater
for washing, flushing and gardening, 38% used it for all purposes including
drinking, about 7% used rainwater for washing only and less 3% of respondent
used for flushing and gardening purposes.
Flushing, For all
gardening purposes
3% 38%

Washing,
flushing, For washing
gardening only
52% 7%

Fig: 4.7(a) Use of rainwater for different purposes.

Sanitary survey for using rainwater for drinkable purposes

Moderate,
40%

Low, 60%

Fig 4.7 (b): Relative risk of sanitary survey in the study area

Sanitary survey showed that relative risk was found to be low in 60% houses and
moderate in 40% houses.

35
4.8 Fulfillment of water requirement
Figure 4.8 shows the fulfillment of water requirement in the study area, about
74% of the respondents felt that rainwater does not fulfill water requirement,
about 26% of the respondents said that rainwater fulfilled water demand in their
houses.

Yes
26%

No
74%

Fig: 4.8 Fulfillment of water requirement in the study area

4.9 Amount of water fulfilled by rainwater in rainy season

In rainy seasons, daily 300 liter water was fulfilled through RW in 64% houses.
Similarly daily water fulfillment through RW by 300-600 liter, 1,200 liter, 600-900
liter and 900-1,200 liter was about 22%, 10%, 2%, and 2% respectively (fig: 4.9)

900-1200 liter More than

2% 1,200 liter
600-900 liter 10%
2%

300-600 liter upto 300 liter

22% 64%

36
 Fig: 4.9 Amount of water fulfilled by rainwater in rainy season

4.10 Average duration of rainwater use

Maximum (60%) of the respondents used rainwater up to 6 month, about 29% of the
respondents used more than 9 month, about 9% of the respondents used for 3 month
and only about 2% of the respondents used rainwater for 9 month (fig: 4.10).

more than 9 3 month

month 9%
29%

9 month 6 month
2% 60%

Fig: 4.10 Average duration of rainwater use

4.11 Use of rainwater when over flow occurs

When over flow occurs, Maximum 59% of the respondents recharged groundwater
from excess rainwater, about 29% of the respondents let it flow through the
drain,about 7% of the respondents let it flow in the in open place, and about 5% of the
respondents give rainwater to their neighbors for use (fig: 4.11).

37
 Neighbors
use them
5% Drain
29%

Others (Open
Dug Well place)
59% 7%

Fig: 4.11 Use of rainwater when over flow occurs in the study area

4.12 Tank ever empty in rainy seasons

Maximum (74%) of the respondents said tank does not empty in rainy seasons, but
about 26% of the respondents said sometimes tank becomes empty in rainy seasons as
well (fig: 4.12).

Yes
26%

No
74%
Fig: 4.12 Tank ever empty in rainy season

4.13 Level of satisfaction of the respondents towards RWH

Maximum (86%) of respondents were satisfied with rainwater harvesting system
but about 14% of the respondents were not (fig: 4.13).

38
 Not satisfied
14%

Satisfied
86%

Fig: 4.13 Level of satisfaction of the respondents towards RWH

4.14 Measures applied to improve the quality of harvested rainwater

Fig 4.14 shows that maximum (45%) respondents do not take extra measures for
quality improvement, 31% respondents use basic filtration only to improve the quality
of harvested rainwater, about 10% of the respondents use chemicals (Piyush-chlorine
solution) and filter, about 7% respondents boil rainwater before use, about 7%
respondents filter and boil to improve the quality of rainwater.

Boil before use Use

7% chemicals,filtratio
Nothing n
45% 10%

Filtration and boil Filtration only

before use 31%
7%

Fig: 4.14 Measures applied to improve the quality of harvested rainwater.

39
4.15 Use of first flush by the respondents

Maximum (64%) of the respondents practice first flush, but about 36% of the
respondents were not using first flush (fig: 4.15).

Not using
first flush
36%

Doing first
flush
64%

Fig 4.15 Use of first flush by the respondents

4.16 Preference of rainwater harvesting system

Most of the respondents 89% preferred personal rainwater harvesting system, about
11% of the respondents preferred communal rainwater harvesting system (fig: 4.16).

Communal
RWH system
11%

Private RWH
system
89%

Fig: 4.16: Type of RWHS Preferred by the respondents

4.17 Other sources of water in house except rainwater harvesting system

40
 Maximum 55% of the houses had dug well and KUKL supply, about 30% of the
houses had KUKL tap only, abou 11% of the houses had dug well only, and about
4% of the houses had Tube well and KUKL tap in their houses (fig: 4.17). This
result showed that 70% of the people still depend on GW as optional source.

KUKL tap Dug well only

only 11%
30%

Tube well & Dug well

KUKL tap &KUKL tap
4% 55%

Fig: 4.17 other sources of water in house except rainwater harvesting system
4.18 Information regarding other sources of water and their uses

For drinking, cooking, vegetable washing and utensils washing maximum number of
respondents used KUKL tap water if it is available, Maximum no of people used dug
well water for bathing and washing purposes only but few people used it for drinking
and cooking purpose if KUKL water is not enough. Though there were few tube
wells no one used it for drinking purpose as shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Other sources of water and their uses in the study area

Uses of water Dug well Tube well KUKL tap

Drinking 4 - 38
Cooking 6 1 37
Utensils washing 7 1 37
Raw vegetable washing 12 2 37
Bathing 24 2 18
Hand washing 24 2 11
Washing clothes 24 2 5

41
B. Results of HH Questionnaire Survey from the respondents not
having rainwater harvesting system
4.19 Sources of water in the house

Maximum (59%) houses had dug well and KUKL tap as the major source of water
supply, about 39% of the houses had KUKL tap only in their houses, and only about
2% of the house had tube well & tap as a source of water (fig: 4.18). Result indicates,
GW is the principal source of water supply.

T. well & Tap,

2% Tap only, 39%

Dug well &

Tap, 59%

Fig: 4.18 Sources of water in the study area

4.20 Total water demand of the house in a day

42
Daily water requirement was up to 300 liter in 50% of the houses. About 43% of
houses had 300-600 liter, and about 7% of the houses had more than 600 liters water
demand per day (fig: 4.19)

more than 600

liter
7%

300-600 liter
43%

up to 300 liter
50%

Fig: 4.19 Total water demand of the house in a day

4.21 Experience of buying water from tanker and jars

Maximum percentage (89%) of the respondents bought water from tanker or jars,
about 11% of the respondents did not have experience of buying water till now as
shown in figure 4.20 (a)

No
11%

Yes
89%
Fig: 4.20 (a) Experience of buying water from tanker and jars

43
 10000-15000 500-5000 liter
liter 9%
35%

5000-10000
liter
56%

Fig: 4.20 (b) Amount of water purchased in a month

Maximum percentage (56%) of the respondents bought 5,000-10,000 liter water in a

month, about 35% of the respondents bought 10,000-15,000 liter and about 9% of the
respondents bought 500-5,000 liter water/month as shown in figure 4.20 (b).

4.22 Feasibility of rainwater harvesting system in Dallu Awas

4.22.1 Economic Feasibility on the basis of storage capacity of reinforce concrete
cement (RCC) storage tank

Maximum percentage (43%) of the respondents had RCC tank with capacity 5,000-
10,000 liter, about 27% of the respondents had 10,000-15,000 liters storage tank, and
about 16% of the respondents did not have RCC storage tank in their houses, about
7% of the respondents had 500-5,000 liter storage tank, about 7% of them had more
than 15,000 liter storage tank (fig : 4.21).

Similarly all of the houses are modern houses with adequate and suitable catchment
area for rainwater harvesting. Also most of the houses have almost 90% of RWH
component already installed including underground storage tank. Minor modifications
are sufficient to harvest rainwater.

44
 more than no RCC tank 500-5000 liter
15000 liter 16% 7%
7%

10000-15000 5000-10000
liter liter
27% 43%

Fig: 4.21 Storage capacity RCC storage tank

4.22.2 Environmental feasibility on rainwater harvesting

Previously, Dallu Awas had septic tanks installed in the houses. But now sewer pipes
have been laid to manage sewer. Chance of groundwater contamination from sewage
is low. Similarly there are no industries in the area which may contaminate the
groundwater. Similarly there is no solid waste disposal site in the area. The solid
waste is properly managed. So chance of surface contamination is low. There are no
tall trees in the area so contamination chance from bird droppings is also low in the
catchment. There are few auto workshops but waste seems to be properly managed.

Though Dallu was agriculture land in the past, now it has been turned into a
residential area so there is little chance of leakage of fertilizer and pesticides if
rainwater used for recharge.

4.22.3 Technical feasibility for rainwater recharge.

The type of soil (sandy, silty, clayey) can control the rate of infiltration of rainwater
from the surface. For example, a sandy surface soil normally has a higher infiltration
rate than a clayey surface soil.

0
Thickness - 4.4 ft: Top soil
4.4 ft
Thickness - 4.2 ft:Yellow soil
45
 8.6 ft
Thickness - 2.7ft: Silty clay
11.3 ft

Thickness - 5.3 ft: Black soil

16.6 ft

Fig 4.22.3 (A): subsurface sediment distribution on the ground of Dallu Awas office.

In this area (Fig: 4.22.3 A), thickness of silty clay is just 2.7 ft, Below the silty clay
there is black soil layer with thickness of 5.3ft; infiltration rate is expected to be slow.
So potential of rainwater recharge are low in this area.
0
Thickness- 5ft: Top soil

5ft
Thickness- 3.9ft: Yellow soil

8.9ft
Thickness- 4.8ft: Black soil
13.7ft
Thickness- 0.7ft: Silty clay
14.4ft
Fig 4.22.3 (B) subsurface sediment distribution on the ground of Geeta Mata
School, Dallu

In this area (Fig 4.22.3 B), thickness of top and yellow soil is high. There is a black
soil layer just above the silty clay layer, silty clay layer thickness is just 0.7 ft, so
surface infiltration rate is expected to very slow.

0
Thickness- 3.6ft: Top soil
3.6ft
Thickness- 4.7ft: Yellow soil
8.3ft
Thickness- 1.7ft: Silty clay
10ft
Thickness- 1ft: Black soil
11ft

Thickness- 5ft: Silty clay

46
 16ft
Fig 4.22.3 (C): subsurface sediment distribution on the ground of Chhauni
barek (South direction from B gate)

In this area (Fig 4.22.3 C), after top and yellow soil layer there is silty clay layer with
thickness 1.7 ft, and in between 2 silty clay layers there is black soil layer which
thickness is 1 ft, after black soil layer there is silty clay having thickness 5 ft, so
infiltration chance is medium but there is higher possibility of more storage in the soil
compared to other two sites.

It can be concluded that Chhauni barek area has higher recharge potential and also
technically most feasible for recharge than that of Ground of Dallu Awas office and
Geeta Mata School's ground. Comparing Ground of Dallu Awas office and Geeta
Mata School's ground, recharge potential is higher in Ground of Dallu Awas office.
Presence of large number of dug wells in the study area indicates GW potential.
Hence recharge is still possible.

4.23 Rainwater harvesting and recharge potential in Dallu Awas

4.23.1 On the basis of roof area of the houses

Average rainfall =1531.644mm/year =1.531644 m/year (Annex 2)

Average roof area (RA) = 146.99 m2 (Annex 3)

Total number of houses = 751 (Lumanti, 2012)

As 84% of the houses roof was concrete,

Total roof area of the houses having concrete type catchment = (751 X 84/ 100) X
146.99 = 630.84 X 146.99 = 92727.17 m2

47
  Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (m) * Catchment area (sq.m) * Runoff
coefficient
= 1.531644 m/year X 92727.17 m2 X 0.7

= 99,417.51 m3 (99, 417510 liters)/year (1 m3= 1000 liter)

As 5% of the houses roof was CGI,

Total roof area of the houses having concrete type catchment = (751 X 5/ 100) X
146.99 = 37.55 X 146.99 = 5519.4745 m2

 Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (m) * Catchment area (sq.m) * Runoff

coefficient
= 1.531644 m/year X 5519.4745 m2 X 0.75

= 6340.40 m3 (6340400 liters)/year (1 m3= 1000 liter)

As 11% of the houses roof was concrete and CGI,

Total roof area of the houses having concrete type catchment = (751 X 11/ 100) X
146.99 = 82.61 X 146.99 = 12142.84 m2

 Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (m) * Catchment area (sq.m) * Runoff

coefficient
= 1.531644 m/year X 12142.84 m2 X 0.725

= 13483.92 m3 (13483920 liters)/year (1 m3= 1000 liter)

Total water harvesting potential = 99417.51 m3+ 6340.40 m3+13483.92 m3

= 1, 19,241.8327 m3

4.23.2 On the basis of total area of Dallu Awas

Total area of Dallu Awas = 20 hectar (Lumanti , 2012) = 20 0000m2

(1hector =10,000m2)

Area of Dallu Awas except houses = 20, 0000 m2 – 146.99 m2 X 751 = 89610.51 m2

 Rainwater harvesting potential in Dallu Awas except houses

48
 = 1.531644 X89610.51 m2 X 0.6 = 82,350.83 m3

Total Rainwater harvesting potential in Dallu Awas = 1, 19,241.8327 m3 + 82,350.83

m3 = 2, 01,592.66 m3

Potential water demand:

Total houses in Dallu Awas area = 751

Family size = 3.94 (source: CBS 2011)

Daily water consumption = 73 lpcd (source: NGO Forum)

= 73X365 =26,645 liter/person/year

Total water demand in Dallu Awas =751X3.94X26645 = 78,840,956.3 liter/year

 If total demand in Dallu Awas is fulfilled from RWH, the rainwater remaining
for recharge =Rainwater harvesting potential in Dallu Awas - Total water
demand in Dallu Awas
=1, 19,241.8327 m3 - 78,840.956m3 = 40400.8767m3

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Rainwater harvesting and recharge potential

Total amount of rainfall in Dallu Awas is 2, 01,592.66 m3. If all of the houses are
installed with rainwater harvesting system, then 1,19,241.8327 m3 water can be
harvested each year, which can easily fulfill the water demand (78,840.956 m3) of this
area, and remaining water (40,400.8767 m3) can be used for recharge.

According to Kasula J (2012), a house roofed with 100 m2 in Kathmandu has a

potential of harvesting 41 m3 of rainwater with weekly dependable rainfall of 518.6
mm. This volume of harvested rainwater is about 39.2% of total annual water demand

49
of four member family whereas it is about 88.54% of total water demand in 23 wet
weeks.

Dallu Awas has more rainfall than the water demand. Storage is however a problem.
Most of the people have underground tank with capacity of 10,000 - 15,000 liters, 7%
of the people had underground tank of capacity more than 15,000 liter, few of the
houses did not have underground tank. For the typical family size of 3.94 and the
water demand of 26,645 liter/person/year, an average family would require 1,04,981
liter/year. During monsoon, the tank size of 10,000 liters is expected to be full for the
4 months of monsoon. Even after the monsoon, the available water is sufficient for 35
days without any addition, if the tank can be supplemented with groundwater and with
20% rainfall in winter months, the tank would be sufficient for a family if properly
managed. Now out of 751 houses only 44 houses had installed rainwater harvesting
system.

5.2 Feasibility on Rainwater harvesting and recharge

Installation of rainwater harvesting system in new constructions require little

additional capital as most of the components are required to manage the rainwater.
Even in houses already constructed, to install RWHS in houses who have this system
need low cost because only minor modifications are sufficient. The most expensive
component of RWHS is the storage tank. In most of the houses of Dallu Awas there is
already RCC storage tank with capacity of 5,000 - 10,000 liter and some of the houses
had 10,000 - 15,000 liter storage tank, So RWHS is economically feasible. Only in
houses where the underground tanks need to be constructed, the cost is high. Thus
economically installation of rainwater harvesting system is feasible in most cases.

Dharan Municipality is providing 30 per cent rebate on the building permit fee from
the fiscal year 2009 for houses that install rainwater harvesting system, Kathmandu
Metropolitan City (KMC) is providing 10 per cent rebate on the building permit fee
from the fiscal year 2009 for houses that install rainwater harvesting system.

Type of soil profile also determines the recharging potential of any area. Though the
augering up to 17ft, showed the area having mainly silty sand , not so permeable. The
fact that the area has so many dug wells and tube wells indicate the area having
permeable body at the depth. Thus constructing recharge wells initially store water in

50
wells but gradually recharge the aquifer which is good because the well actually acts
as storage tank storing the rainwater.

If the collected rainwater is used for ground water recharge, it reduces the chances of
flooding and soil erosion. Though bird droppings are potential source of
contamination, regular cleaning of the roof catchment can take care of this problem.
So RWH is feasible In Dallu Awas area.

5.3 Other sources of water and its use in Dallu Awas

Groundwater remains the principal source of water supply in the area though many do
not use for drinking purpose. Comparing between houses having RWHS and not
having RWHS, in both cases most of the respondents have KUKL tap and dug well as
a source of water in their houses. Most of them used KUKL tap water for drinking
and cooking purpose and used dug well water mostly for bathing, washing and other
purposes because they felt that tap water is more hygienic and tastier than that of dug
well. People, who have rainwater harvesting system installed, do not have to face
water scarcity problem. Peoples who do not have rainwater harvesting system, most
them have water demand about 300 liter per day which cannot be fulfilled by KUKL
tap water so maximum people buy water from tanker or jars.

5.4 Information on Rainwater harvesting system

Most of the houses used roof as a catchment for Rainwater Harvesting System. In
most of the house, the roof was concrete and flat. In few houses roof was made up of
CGI and were slanted. The most common materials used for gutters and downspouts
were PVC pipe. About 64% of the respondents practice first flush system. Most of the
respondents had underground RCC tank for storing rainwater but few of them didn't
have undergrond tank. Maximum (39%) of the respondents had underground tank
with capacity of 10,000-15,000 liters, respondents having underground tank with
capacities of 5,000-10,000 liters, 500-5,000 liters, more than 15,000 liters was found
to be about 32%, 18%, and 7% respectively.

RWH facility was fully tapped in most of the houses. Maximum number of people
had both (RWH and GWR) system. The percentage of respondents either having
RWH or GWR system was 32 and 9 respectively.

51
In 44 houses practicing RWH, Most of the respondents have invested more than Rs
10,000 for RWHS, which is almost equal to an average family would spend on tanker
water in a year with the current tanker price at Rs. 1400 for 7000 liters. Thus the
investment is paid off in a year and half.

5.5 Harvested rainwater and consumption pattern

Maximum number of respondents used rainwater for washing clothes, flushing and
gardening purposes, people still hesitate to drink though it is much safer than
groundwater. They depend on KUKL tap water or jar water for drinking and cooking
purpose. This may be partly due to pollution and unavailability of improved filtration
system for using rainwater for drinkable purpose. Only 38% of the respondents used it
for all purposes including drinking and cooking. Sanitary survey in these houses
showed that relative risk is low in 60% houses and moderate in 40% houses. Most
respondents feel water demand is only partially fulfilled by rainwater most of the
people use rainwater for 6 month only, very few of them used it for 9 month. This
may be due to lack of enough storage facility. Maximum no of respondents recharged
groundwater from excess rainwater.

Rainwater does not fulfill total water demand of their houses even though most of the
people are satisfied from the system. Maximum number of respondents used first
flush system to avoid getting dirt and dust in the storage tank. Some of the
respondents filter boil and use chemicals to improve the quality of harvested water
and use it in drinking and cooking purposes.

Most of the respondents preferred private rainwater harvesting system with their
control in water use rather than community RWH system this may be because if
RWHS in their houses they can use it anytime with better quality and quantity. All of
the respondents agreed that rainwater harvesting is the best method to solve water
problem, this indicates that to some extent in Dallu Awas area rainwater has fulfilled
the water demand removing water scarcity.

52
CHAPTER: V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS

Groundwater is the principal source of water supply in the area after KUKL.
Increasing surface sealing from civil constructions and increasing abstractions is
likely deplete the reserve thus rainwater harvesting practice helps to limit
groundwater abstraction in wet months and post monsoon period depending on the
capacity of storage tanks available. Right now there is plenty of rainwater going into
waste as only about 6% (44 out of 751) houses have installed RWH system. If more
houses are installed with RWH, the stress on groundwater as well as municipal water
would be less. Only about 38% of the respondents using rainwater for drinking and
cooking purposes. Most of the people still hesitate to use rainwater in drinking
without pretreatment, so they use it for washing purposes.

53
Though augering to the depth of 17ft in three locations show mainly silty sand
deposits, presence of large number of dug wells indicate groundwater recharge
potential in the area. Only minor modifications in the existing systems can install
rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge system in a house.
There are no polluting sources in the area thus using rainwater is in general safe. It
has been concluded from the study that Dallu Awas area has a potential of 2,
01,592.66 m3 rainwater per year. Rainwater harvesting potential of 751 houses was
found to be 1, 19,241.8327 m3 each year, which can easily fulfill the water demand
(78,840.956 m3) of this area, and remaining water (40,400.8767 m3) can be used for
recharge.

The detailed questionnaire survey, direct observation and augering data analysis
revealed that RWH and GWR are economically, environmentally and technically
feasible. Thus, rainwater should be used as an additional source of water within Dallu
Awas area.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based upon the field findings, some recommendations have been made.

1. Biosand filter will be recommended for the direct use of rainwater.

2. The households will be made aware for rainwater harvesting system so that
stress on ground water is less through local agencies.
3. Excess rainwater will be used for ground water recharge.
4. Before harvesting the rainwater, regular cleaning of the roof catchment and
other accessories will be required so that better quality water can be harvested.

54
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JICA (1990): Groundwater management project in Kathmandu Valley, Final report,
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56
MPPW (2009): Status of Rainwater Harvesting in Nepal, Annual Report 2005,
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housing colonies of the Kathmandu district, School of Environmental science and
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WaterAid in Nepal (2011): Report – Rainwater harvesting for recharging shallow
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58
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Annex

Annex1: HH Questionnaire Survey

General Information:

 Name of the respondent:

 Address contact number;
 Total Family number in House
 Total number of people living in home

HH Questionnaire Survey for the respondents having rainwater harvesting

system

RWH component:

1. Catchment type: a. Roof b. Ground surface c. others

2. If roof: type of roof a. CGI b. concrete c. others
a. Slanted b. flat
3. RWH facility already installed?

59
 a. Yes b. No
If yes, a. partially tapped b. fully tapped
Type RWH/RWR/Both

Information regarding the system

4. What is the capacity of that tank?

5. How much did you invest on building the system?
a. 5,000 b. 5-10 thousand c. More than 10 thousand
d. Don't know
6. For what purpose is the rainwater used? Drinking/ laundry/ washing/ flushing/
gardening
7. Does rainwater fulfilled water demand in your house?
a. Yes b. No
8. How much demand is fulfilled by rainwater?
9. Average duration of rainwater use
a. ≤ 1 month b. 1-3 month c. 1-6 month d.1-9 month e. More
than 9 month

10. When over flow occurs, in where does the rainwater flow?

a. drain b. neighbors use them c. other

11. Does your tank ever empty between rainy seasons?

a. Yes b. No

Social aspects

12. Feelings towards the system?

a. Satisfied b. not satisfied? Explain why not
satisfied

13. What Measures you normally used to improve the quality of harvested rainwater?

a. Boil before use b. Use chemicals c. Filtration

d. It is clean enough e. clean tanks regularly

60
14. Do you use first flush system?

a. Yes b. No

Awareness level of the respondents

15. Which of the following systems would you prefer?

a. Communal RWH system

b. Private RWH system

Respondent's perception towards the system

16. Do you think RWH is the best method to solve water problem?
a. Yes b. No

Perception towards other sources of water

17. What are the other sources of water in your house except rainwater harvesting
system?

a. Stone spout b. Dug well c. Tube well d. KUKL tap

18. Information regarding other sources of water and their uses

Uses of water stone spout Dug well T.well KUKLtap

a. Drinking
b. Cooking
c. Utensils washing
d. Raw vegetable washing
e. Bathing
f. Hand washing
g. Washing clothes

HH Questionnaire Survey for the respondents not having rainwater harvesting

system

61
1. What are the sources of water in this house? Please mention all the available
sources.
a. Stone spouts b. Dug wells c. Tube wells d. KUKL tap
2. What is the total water demand of this house in a day?
….………./day
3. Is there any experience of buying water from tanker and jars?
a. Yes b. No

4. Is there any PVC or RCC storage tank for storing water? If yes please mention the
number as well as volume.
no ……… volume ………………..liters

Annex 2: Rainfall data

Latitude (deg/min): 2744

Longitude (deg/min): 8520
Elevation (m): 1335 amsl
Rainfall (mm) for PANIPOKARI (KATHMANDU)
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1999 6.4 11.4 0.0 0.0 90.6 327.2 DNA DNA 229.1 185.1 0.0 0.0

2000 0.0 0.0 10.0 54.8 174.0 298.7 336.2 551.7 149.6 0.0 0.0 0.0

2001 0.0 0.0 6.7 49.8 179.0 286.0 527.4 411.5 161.6 20.0 0.0 0.0

2002 0.0 31.4 60.7 68.3 205.9 223.4 604.9 438.1 251.1 0.0 12.7 0.0

2003 16.5 46.0 22.0 54.6 18.9 274.2 706.8 454.7 396.4 16.4 0.0 20.8

2004 15.2 0.0 0.0 122.7 186.1 66.8 355.8 199.1 214.5 108.2 30.1 0.0

2005 49.0 12.1 70.9 37.1 73.9 262.8 305.7 295.7 154.5 94.9 0.0 0.0

2006 0.0 0.0 22.5 129.8 165.7 190.6 394.8 441.1 275.2 20.4 0.0 23.1

2007 0.0 75.1 28.0 83.6 73.3 313.7 400.5 242.5 455.3 20.0 0.0 0.0

2008 0.0 41.0 48.0 31.1 125.3 223.2 253.3 314.0 239.0 27.5 0.0 12.1

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Source: Department of hydrology and metrology, 2012

Annex 3: Profile of Rainwater harvesting in Dallu Awas

S.No Owner's Name Block Plot No.of pipe Roof
Lines area(m2)
1 Prakash Kumar D 1164 2 57.84
Shrestha
2 Jhalanath Khanal H 1000 2 152.45
3 Swarnim school I 209/910/921 7 364
4 Indraprasad Poudel I 866 1 45.05
5 Ashok Maghaiya A 571 1 46.47
6 Bishnu Chitrakar F 1031 2
7 Bhupal Shrestha F 1019 2
8 Premratna Tuladhar A 571/B 2
9 Iswor Maharjan A 549 1
10 Sahaji pant I 914B 1 42.26
11 Community A 649 2 1200
Development Office
12 Satyanarayan Dangol I 823/B 1 60.91

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 13 Khemraj Pant G 813/B 1 38.26
14 Laxman Adhkari I 899/B 2
15 Min bdr Lama H 993 2 33.99
16 Hirakaji Maharjan B 997/A 1 120.32
17 Manjushree School Nipuhiti 1
18 Elviras Children E 1212 4 111.54
Home
19 C.C.H.S B 800 3 197.44
20 Dharma man J 1092 2 79
Maharjan
21 Ishwor man Dangol J 696/A 2 139.42
22 D.R Mainali I 937/C 1 92.95
23 Bhagawan Shrestha H 951 1 83.65
24 Prakash Amatya A 732/C 1 83.65
25 Prembdr Manandhar A 673 1 97
26 Kapil Maharjan A 661 1 111.54
27 Tara nidhi Bhurtel I 940 1 83.65
28 Kiranshekhar A 744/B 1 83.65
Amatya
29 Gautam Dongol B 644 1 55.77
Source: Dallu Awas Sthaniya Sahayog Samiti, Dallu Awas, 2013

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Annex 4: Data's of augering of Kathmandu city area
S.N Area From To Thickness Description
1 Ground of Dallu 0 4.4 4.4 Top soil
Awas office 4.4 8.6 4.2 Yellow soil
8.6 11.3 2.7 Silty clay
11.3 16.3 5 Black soil
2 Geeta Mata 0 5 5 Top soil
school's ground, 5 8.9 3.9 Yellow soil
Dallu 8.9 13.7 4.8 Black soil
13.7 14.4 0.7 Silty clay
3 Chhauni barek 0 3.6 3.6 Top soil
(South direction 3.6 8.3 4.7 Yellow soil
from B gate) 8.3 10 1.7 Silty clay
10 11 1 Black soil
11 16 5 Silty clay

Source: Center for Integrated Urban Development (CIUD), 2012

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Annex 5: World Health Organization (WHO 1996) guidelines
Rainwater Collection Systems Sanitary Survey
Date: _____
Name of family: _____________ Name of community: ____________
Number of people in family that drink water from this tank: ______

Score
1. Condition of ROOF: good (0) ____; fair (1) ____; poor (2) ____
2. Condition of guttering: good (0) ____; fair (1) ____; poor (2) ____
3. Guttering sloped to drain: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____
4. Inlet screened or protected: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____
5. Interior tank clean: good (0) ____; fair (1____; poor (2) ____
6. Condition of tank: good (0) ____; fair (1) ____; poor (2) ____
7. Method of withdrawal by tap: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____
8. Tap and other plumbing in good repair: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____
9. Method for diverting first flush available: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____
10. Vegetation overhanging roof catchment area: yes (0) ____; no (2) ____

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TOTAL:
Sanitary Survey- Risk Score: __________
Relative risk=1+2: low (<5) ____; moderate (5-10) ____; high (>10) ____

Annex 6: Table showing result of the survey

Results of HH Questionnaire Survey for the respondents having rainwater harvesting
system
RWH component:
1. Catchment type:
Type of catchment Number
Roof only 43
Roof &Ground surface 1
Total 44

2. If roof: type of roof(a)

Type of roof Number
CGI only 2
Concrete only 37
CGI & Concrete 5
Total 44

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If roof: type of roof (b)

Type of roof Number

Slanted only 2
Flat only 40
Both 2
Total 44

3. RWH facility
RWH facility Number
Partially tapped 3
Fully tapped 41
Total 44

Type
RWH 14
RWR 4
Both 26
Total 44

4. What is the capacity of that tank?

Capacity of tank Number
500-5000 liter 8
5000-10000 liter 14
10000-15000 liter 17
more than 15000 liter 3
Not having UG tank 2
Total 44

5. How much did you invest on building the system?

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 Investment Number
5,000 6
5-10 thousand 3
More than 10 thousand 29
Don't know 6
Total 44

6. For what purpose is the rainwater used?

Use of water Number
For all purposes 16
laundry/ washing only 3
Washing, flushing, gardening 22
Flushing, gardening 1
Total 42

7. Sanitary survey result

Relative risk Number
Low 3
Moderate 2
High 0

Total 5

8. Does rainwater fulfilled water demand in your house?

Saying Number
Yes 11
No 31
Total 42

9. How much demand is fulfilled by rainwater?

Water demand Number

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 Upto300 liter 27
300-600 liter 9
600-900 liter 1
900-1200 liter 1
more than 1200 liter 4
Total 42

10. Average duration of rainwater use

Duration Number
3 month 4
6 month 25
9 month 1
More than 9 month 12
Total 42

11. When over flow occurs, in where does the rainwater flow?

Flow of water Number

Drain 12
Neighbors use them 2
Well 25
Others(open place) 3
Total 42

12. Does your tank ever empty between rainy seasons?

Saying Number
Yes 11
No 31
13. Total 42

13. Feelings towards the system?

Respondents Number

70
 Satisfied 36
not satisfied 6
Total 42

14. What Measures you normally used to improve the quality of harvested
rainwater?

Measures used Number

Boil before use 3
Use chemicals, filtration 4
Filtration only 13
Filtration and boil before use 3
Nothing 19
Total 42

15. Use of first flush

Respondents Number
Using first flush 27
Not using first flush 15
Total 42

16. Which of the following systems would you prefer?

Preference of RWH system Number

Communal RWH system 5
Private RWH system 39
Total 44
.

17. Other sources of water in the house

Sources of water Number
Dug well only 5

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 Dug well &KUKL tap 24
T.well& KUKL tap 2
KUKL tap only 13
no other source 3

Total 44

18. Information regarding other sources of water and their uses

Uses of water stone spout Dug well T.well KUK

L tap
Drinking 4 38
Cooking 6 1 37

Utensils 7 1 37
washing
Raw vegetable 12 2 37
washing
Bathing 24 2 18
Hand washing 24 2 11
Washing 24 2 5
clothes

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Results of HH Questionnaire Survey for the respondents not having rainwater
harvesting system

1. What are the sources of water in this house?

Sources of water Number
stone spouts 0
Dug well only 26
Tube wells 1
Dug well &KUKL tap 17
Total 44

2. What is the total water demand of this house in a day?

Water demand per day Number
1-300 liter 22
300-600 liter 19
more than 600 liter 3
Total 44

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 3. Is there any experience of buying water from tanker and jars?
Respondents Number
Yes 39
No 5
Total 44

4. Storage capacity RCC storage tank

Capacity of tank Number
500-5000 liter 3
5000-10000 liter 19
10000-15000 liter 12
more than 15000 liter 3
no RCC tank 7
Total 44
Annex 7: Pictorial highlights

Fig i: Questionnaire survey being carried out Fig ii: Observing RWHS in the site
in the community

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Fig iii: Underground reservoir tank for RWH Fig iv: Typical RWH catchment

Fig v: A house throwing collected rainwater Fig vi: First flush system
in open place

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