School of Bioprocess

Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Design of
Automation Systems
(ERT 457/3)
Sensor Technology – Part 1

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Course Outcome (CO 1) School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Domain and

PO 10

PO 11

PO 12
PO 1

PO 2

PO 3

PO 4

PO 5

PO 6

PO 7

PO 8

PO 9
taxonomy
levels
Possible
Course Outcome (CO)
Assessment
C C TS
C P P EM ES EM CS LL ES
CTPS CTPS LS
CO1:
Ability to APPLY principle of
Assignment,
automation and sensor C4 Quiz,
technology for life-long A3 √ Tests,
Examination
learning in agricultural and
biological systems.

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A life-long learner is: School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• A person who is:

• Self-aware and reflective of her or his on-going learning
needs.
• Self-assesses for knowledge and skill deficiencies and sets
appropriate learning goals and tasks.
• Can find appropriate resources and learning
opportunities.
• Understands her or his learning preferences and knows
how to adapt them to maximize learning under different
circumstances.
• Sufficiently motivated to do so.

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Basic Automation Systems School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

A device for moving,

changing or controlling
Senses system input and output something
The information will be provided to controller
Perform actual work

Sensor Controller Actuator

Store program and make decisions

Ask actuators to perform works

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Basic Sensor System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

1. Sensor/Transducer Element
Senses and converts the input to a more convenience and
useful form to be utilised by the measurement system.

2. Signal Conditioning Or Intermediate Modifying

Element
Manipulating / processing the output of the transducer in
a suitable form.

3. Data Presentation Element

Provide information about the measurand (quantity to be
measured) or measured variable in quantitative form.
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Basic Sensor System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

VARIABLE SIGNAL
VARIABLE SENSOR &
CONVERSION CONDITIONING
QUANTITY TRANSDUCER
UNIT UNIT

SIGNAL
SIGNAL RECORDING/
TRANSMISSION OUTPUT
DISPLAYING
UNIT UNIT

Basic measuring sensing system elements represented in block diagram form

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Basic Sensor System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

1. Transducer
Converts the input to a more convenience and useful
form (electrical signal) to be utilised by the measurement
system.

2. Variable Conversion Unit

Convert the analogous electrical signal to the another
form for to make it suitable for conditioning. E.g., convert the
resistance into Voltage (Strain gauge sensor).

3. Signal Conditioning Unit

Process and conditioning the converted measured signal.

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Basic Sensor System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

4. Signal Transmission Unit

Transmit the measured value to the recording unit.

5. Signal Recording/Displaying Unit

Record or display the transmitted measured data.

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Basic Sensor System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

What is the advantage of sensor and transducer output

signal in the form of electrical and optical signal ?

Easy to process and transmit the data

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Requirement for Sensing System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• To obtain accurate, and reliable data on each and every

measurement.
• Sensor has to be well calibrated with the standard
measurement value and has high sensitivity to avoid
inaccuracy in the measured signal.
• The most important element in a measurement system
is the sensor. If the data is distorted or corrupted by the
sensor, there is often little that can be done to correct it.

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Good Sensing System School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Ensure that sensor operates satisfactorily in the

measurement environment (Eg., temperature range,
humidity, pressure and maximum shock and vibration.)
• Ensure that sensor characteristic provide the desired
data accuracy (Eg., Sensitivity).
• Ensure that the cables used in the system meets the
specification.
• Ensure that the sensor has been installed properly (Not
loose).

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Sensor static characteristic School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• To truly understand sensors, and how sensors that

measure the same physical input can differ, it is necessary
to understand sensor performance characteristics.
• The sensor characteristic performance can be found in the
data sheet prepared by a manufacturer.

1. Transfer function
2. Sensitivity
3. Dynamic range or span
4. Accuracy
5. Hysteresis
6. Error
7. Resolution
8. Response time

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Transfer Function School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• The transfer function shows the functional relationship

between physical input signal and electrical output signal.
• Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph
showing the relationship between the input and output
signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute
a complete description of the sensor characteristics.
• For expensive sensors that are individually calibrated,
this might take the form of the certified calibration
curve.

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Transfer Function School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Transfer function graph for LM35 temperature sensor

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Sensitivity School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship

between input physical signal and output electrical signal.
• It is generally the ratio between a small change in
electrical signal (output) to a small change in physical
signal (input).
• The minimum input of physical parameter that will
create a detectable output change
• Thermometer would have “high sensitivity” if a small
temperature change resulted in a large voltage change.

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Sensitivity School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

E.g., Thermocouple that

increases output by 5mV per
degree Celsius temperature
change has a sensitivity of
5mV/C.

Sensor sensitivity

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Dynamic range or span School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Span or dynamic range describes the maximum and

minimum input values that can be applied to a sensor
without causing an unacceptable level of inaccuracy.
• The dynamic range is the total range of the sensor from
minimum to maximum.

Example 1:

What is the dynamic range for a weight scale which has

minimum limit of 0 g and a maximum limit of 1000 g. ?
Answer = 100 g
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Accuracy School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Accuracy refers to a sensor’s ability to provide an output

close to the true value of the physical input.
• Specifically, it describes the maximum expected error
between the actual and ideal output signals. Accuracy is
often described relative to the sensor span.

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

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Hysteresis School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Some sensors do not return to the

same output value when the input
stimulus is cycled up or down. The
width of the expected error in terms
of the measured quantity is defined
as the hysteresis.
• This can lead to an unknown offset
over time and can therefore affect
the transfer function for that device.

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Error School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Systematically error
• Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that can
be corrected with compensation methods, such as
feedback, filtering, and calibration.
Source of the systematic error:
• Signal loss
• Signal interference
• Operator error

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Error School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Random error (Noise)

• Random error (also called noise) is a signal component that
carries no information.
• Noise can be measured by recording the signal in the
absence of the physical input, or by recording a known
physical input several times, then subtracting the known true
signal from the measured signal.
Source of random error:
• Noise in the physical input itself (such as the height of a
rough surface)
• Environmental noise (such as background noise picked up by
a microphone)
• Transmission noise

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Resolution School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Resolution is the smallest increment of the physical input

that causes a detectable change in output signal.
• The resolution of modern sensors varies considerably, so
is important to understand the resolution required for
an application before selecting a sensor.
• If the sensor resolution is too low for the application,
subtle changes in the physical input may not be detected.
• However, a sensor whose resolution is too high for the
application is needlessly expensive.

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Response Time School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Sensors do not change their

output immediately following a
change in the input. The period of
time taken for the sensor to
change its output from its
previous state to a value within a
tolerance band of the new
correct value is called response
time Response time for a sensor

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Sensor Selection School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

1. Sensor characteristic – available in the product data

sheet.
2. System characteristic – sensor and signal conditioning
unit must be selected to work together as a system.
3. Selecting a sensor/signal conditioner system for highly
accurate measurements requires very skilful and
careful measurement engineering. All environmental,
mechanical, and measurement conditions must be
considered. Installation must be carefully planned and
carried out.

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Sensor Selection School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• For the selection of the sensor, it is not adequate to

consider only that which we wish to measure. In fact,
every physical and electrical phenomenon that is present
needs to be considered.
• The user must remember that every measurement
system responds to its total environment.
• To obtain accurate, reliable data on each and every
measurement, reasonable cost, safe and functioning
systems is highly required.

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Sensor Selection School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

• Each sensing system will have different characteristics

will probably be subjected to different environments
with different data requirements.
• User should carefully analyse every aspect of the test to
be performed, the environmental conditions, and, if
available, the analytical predictions.
• This analysis will identify unavoidable compromises or
trade-offs and alert the engineer and his customer to
possible deficiencies in the results.

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Sensor Selection School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Example of poor sensor selection !

1. A sensing system must be exposed to a combined
environment of vibration and a rapidly changing
temperature. The engineer selects an accelerometer
for its high temperature rating without consulting the
manufacturer. Thermal transient output of the selected
accelerometer sensor distorts the vibration data.

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Sensor Selection School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Example of poor sensor selection !

2. A test requires that low g, low-frequency information
be measured on the axle bearings of railroad cars to
assess the state of the roadbed. After considerable
evaluation of the range of conditions to be measured, a
high-sensitivity, low resonance piezoelectric
accelerometer is selected. The shocks generated when
the wheels hit the gaps between track sections
saturate the amplifier, making it impossible to gather
any meaningful data.

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Points to check ? School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

1. Will the sensor, cable, power supply and amplifier operate

satisfactorily in the measurement environment?

Check:
• Temperature Range
• Maximum Shock and Vibration
• Humidity
• Pressure
• Acoustic Level
• Corrosive Gases
• Magnetic and RF Fields
• Nuclear Radiation
• Salt Spray
• Transient Temperatures
• Strain in the Mounting Surface

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Points to check ? School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

2. Will the sensor characteristics provide the desired data accuracy?

Check:
• Sensitivity
• Frequency Response
• Resonance Frequency
• Minor Resonances
• Internal Capacitance
• Transverse Sensitivity
• Amplitude Linearity and Hysteresis
• Temperature Deviation
• Weight and size
• Internal Resistance at Maximum Temperature
• Calibration Accuracy
• Strain Sensitivity
• Damping at Temperature Extremes
• Zero Measurand Output
• Thermal Zero Shift
• Thermal Transient Response

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Sensor Selection Tips School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

1. Set what to measure. Consider a right sensor for the

specific measurement. Refer to sensor data sheet.
2. Consider the environment of the sensor.
• Environmental effects are perhaps the biggest contributor to
measurement errors in most measurement systems.
• Sensors, and indeed whole measurement systems, respond to
their total environment, not just to the measurand. In extreme
cases, the response to the combination of environments may
be greater than the response to the desired measurand.
• One of the sensor designer’s greatest challenges is to minimize
the response to the environment and maximize the response
to the desired measurand.
3. Consider requirement for accuracy (uncertainty) of
the measurement. Sensor accuracy will affect the cost.

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Sensor Selection Tips School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

4. Assure that the whole system is calibrated and

traceable to a national standards organization (such as
National Institute of Standards and Technology [NIST]
in the United States).

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Sensor Application School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Water quality
There are normally three major categories of interest:
physical (turbidity, temperature, conductivity,) chemical
(pH, dissolved oxygen, metals concentration, nitrates,
organics), and biological (biological oxygen demand,
bacterial content).

Air quality
Semiconductor sensors are used to monitor atmospheric
gases (CO, CO , O , ammonia (NH ), CH , NO ), as well as
2 3 3 4 2

ambient temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure

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Sensor Application School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Noise pollution
Common sources include cars, rail, and air transport,
industry, neighbours, and recreational noise. Phone’s built-
in microphone (MEMS) can be used to collect noise-level
data points, which are tagged with location information
from the phone’s GPS coordinates

Soil
Key measurements include water content (capacitance,
neutron moisture gauge, time-domain transmission (TDT),
and time-domain reflectometry (TDR), temperature, pH,
organic matter content (optical reflectance), and nitrogen
levels.
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Discussion School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Sensor application in agriculture ?

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Example 2: Selection of Sensors School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Consider the selection of a sensor for the measurement

of the level of a corrosive acid in a barrel. The level can
vary from 0 to 2 m in a circular barrel which has a
diameter of 1 m. The empty barrel has a weight of 33.7 kg.
The minimum variation in level to be detected is 10 cm.
The acid has a density of 1050 kg/m3. The output from the
sensor is to be electrical. Propose a suitable sensor to
measure the weight of the corrosive acid in the barrel.

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Example 2: Selection of Sensors School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Answer:
Acid is corrosive, thus use indirect method to measure the
weight of the barrel that can provide electrical output (load
cells):

1050kg/m3 × πr 2 h × 9.8 = 16.17kN (Weight of acid)

16.17kN + 33.7kg × 9.8 = 16.5kN (Weight of acid + barrel)

r=1 m
Total weight varies from 1 to 16.5kN

h=2 m
*Resolution required:
10 cm change of level should be detected.
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Example 2: Selection of Sensors School of Bioprocess
Engineering
Firdaus Muttalib

Answer:
Sensor Resolution:

1050𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 𝜋 × 0.52 × 0.1 × 9.8 = 0.81𝑘𝑁

If 4 load cells are used to measure the weight of the barrel

than each load cells require a range of about 0 to 4.125
kN with a resolution of 0.20 kN.

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