Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials (EM 15) public elementary and secondary schools.
ry and secondary schools.” The IMC was created as an afterthought. The name
BSEd 4D1 | Midterm
What are instructional materials?
Every teacher needs resources in order to have a successful classroom. Instructional
materials are tools used in educational lessons, which includes active learning and assessment.
• It refers to the human and non-human materials and facilities that can be used to ease,
encourage, improved and promote teaching and learning activities.
• They are whatever materials used in the process of instruction.
• They are a broad range of resource which can be used to facilitate effective instruction.
• They are human and non-human material that a teacher uses to pass information to the
learner in his/her class.
• Instructional materials are defined as resources that organize and support instruction,
such as textbooks, tasks, and supplementary resources (adapted from Remillard &
Heck, 2014).
Brief Background of Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials in Philippine
Context
During the early years, the teaching-learning process revolved around the teacher
manipulating the discussion while the learners were just listening to the lecture. Aside from the
teacher talk, the materials they used were limited to chalk, chalkboard and textbooks if they are
available. This is what we refer to as Traditional Teaching. However, in the 1950s and ‘60s,
development in communications theory and systems concepts led to studies of the educational
process, its elements (i.e., teacher, teaching methods, materials used, students and their
responses), and their interrelationship. Hence, the field of audio-visuals shifted their emphasis
on the actual teaching-learning process. This field what we now call Audiovisual
Communications and Education Technology; through this, audio-visual materials are viewed
as integral part of the education system.
There is a body in the Department of Education called the Instructional Materials
Council Secretariat (IMCS). Stated in its website, it “provides technical assistance to the
Instructional Materials Council in the formulation and adoption of policies and guidelines, in
the development, evaluation, and procurement of textbooks and other instructional materials.”
Its mission is “to ensure that good quality and reasonably priced instructional materials are
made available or provided to all public elementary and secondary schools when and where
they are needed.” Its vision is that there are “quality instructional materials for students in
first appeared in 1983 in the General Appropriations Act, when the Textbook Council created
by Executive Order (EO) No. 806 in 1982 was listed as an Instructional Materials Council.
In 1985, the DepEd (then named Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports or MECS) tried
to justify the renaming of the Textbook Council through MECS Order No. 64.
Until 1987, the government directly managed and supervised the production and
distribution of textbooks and manuals through the Instructional Materials Development
Council (IMDC). However, this responsibility was transferred to private publishers with the
passage of the Book Publishing Industry Development Act (RA 8047). This Act also provided
for the adoption of multiple rather than single textbooks. (Morales, 2016)
DepEd Order 35, s. 1988 – utilization of Instructional Materials and Accountability.
In order to avoid fear of loss of instructional materials, school administrators are enjoined to
discuss the contents of the enclosed procedures for securing belief of property accountability
with school officials, teachers and other personnel concerned.
On 30 September 1993, then President Fidel Ramos finally issued EO 127, which
“revitalized the Instructional Materials Council by redefining its functions” and made it legal.
This EO listed the members of the IMC, namely, the Education Secretary, the Administrator
of the Instructional Materials Development Center (now the National Book Development
Board), the Director of Elementary Education, the Director of Secondary Education, and “two
(2) other members to be appointed by the President.” The IMC was given several powers, the
most curious of which is to “approve textbooks for use in private elementary and secondary
schools.” The most important function of IMC is to “select and prescribe textbook and
supplementary and reference books for use in public elementary and secondary schools.”
According to Cruz (2015), the IMCS has been the center of various controversies about
errors in textbooks and corruption in procurement. The problem lies not only in the persons
that staff the IMCS. One can reasonably argue that IMCS is understaffed, that it does not have
a budget proportionate to its importance in the country’s educational system.
Currently, learning materials and textbooks developed by the private sector are submitted
for evaluation to the Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS)—an agency attached
to DECS. Approved textbooks are listed in a catalogue from which school-teachers and
principals select those that are to be purchased for their respective schools. Other
teaching/learning support materials available in the schools include guides or manuals, teacher
support/, workbooks for students, apparatus for science and technology, and home economics,
video and cassette tapes, educational computer software, charts, maps and models. All of these
must also be submitted for evaluation at the national level before they can be released for
purchased for school level use. (Ditapat, n.d.)
The DepEd recently issued a textbook call for learning resources for the K to 12 curriculum.
Philippine publishers are now urging DepEd to lift a moratorium on the procurement of
supplementary materials. (Cruz, 2015)
DepEd Order 18, s. 2012 – Guidelines on the Allocation, Delivery, and Distribution of
Instructional Materials to Support the K-12 Curriculum
Procured the following:
• Learning Activity Packages (LAPs), modules, to support the initial implementation of the
K-12 curriculum. These include kindergarten workbooks, worksheets, learning modules
for pupils, teaching guides, and manipulative materials across all subject areas.
• Modules and reading materials written in the Mother Tongue (MT) will also be provided
to support the Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) pursuant to DO
no. 74, s. 2009
• Teacher-Support Materials: (1) Modified in-school, off-school approach (MISOSA)
modules for teachers and pupils; (2) Multi-grade teaching learning packages; (3) Madrasah
materials; (4) Drop-out reduction program learning packages; (5) All Tech-Voc materials;
(6) Open High School Program materials.
Prenscy (2012) said “Our students have changed radically and that, today’s students are no
longer the people our educational system was designed to teach.” Thus, nowadays technology
plays an essential role in the teaching-learning process. Furthermore, digital natives are said
not to go backwards and so technology must be brought and utilized to the classroom
successfully by the teacher and the student.
Developing Clear Understanding of the Preparation of IM: Guidelines for Selection of
Materials in English Language Arts Programs
× Guidelines for Selection of Materials in English Language Arts Programs
Instructional materials are essential tools in the English language arts classroom.
They allow students to interact with words, images, and ideas in ways that develop their
abilities in multiple literacies such as reading, listening, viewing, thinking, speaking,
writing, and technology. Because instructional materials are a primary resource for English
language arts teachers, they must be selected wisely.
× Scope of the Policy for Selection of Instructional Materials
What do we mean by “instructional materials”? In the past, the answer might have
been simply textbooks and workbooks. Today, however, the range has broadened
considerably, including young adult and graphic novels, informational text, websites, and
ever-changing technology. The focus of this, is not on selection in the narrow sense of
textbook adoption, but on curriculum and program planning that entails selection of a wide
range of materials, both print and digital, that can be used in whole-class study, small-
group work, and by individual students in extensive study.
As schools clarify the scope of the policy, they should consider not only purchased
materials, but also materials that are provided online as well as those generated by the
teacher and even the students (e.g., student writings discussed in class or small groups).
Also, the scope of the policy should not unwittingly stifle spontaneity and creativity in
teachers by requiring a formal selection process for all materials used for instructional
purposes. Sometimes the most effective learning experiences are those that make use of
unanticipated instructional materials: a letter to the editor, a blog or tweet, for instance, or
a newly released video version of a literary work read by the class.
× Criteria
Each school should develop its own criteria for selecting materials for inclusion in
English language arts programs, but virtually all criteria relate to two general requirements
for selections: materials must (1) have a clear connection to established educational
objectives and (2) address the needs of the students for whom they are intended.
× Connection to Educational Objectives
Instructional materials in the English language arts program should align with the
general philosophy of the school or district, the curriculum goals and objectives of the
English language arts program, and the learning outcomes of the particular course or grade
level. For instance, some materials may be included because they reflect the school’s
philosophy of encouraging critical thinking in relation to controversial situations and points
of view. Or materials may be included because they meet the curriculum objective of
presenting articulate voices from different eras or diverse cultures.
Policies should also reflect the understanding that an English language arts
program is not one instructional resource, but many; not one curriculum objective, but
several. Therefore, English language arts policies should seek to build a collection of
instructional materials that as a whole create balance and emphasis in the curriculum.
Clearly, no single textbook or set of instructional materials will meet the curricular goals
of presenting various points of view, situations, and styles; addressing diverse ability
 levels; and representing the contributions of people of diverse religions, ages, races,
ethnicity, abilities, and cultures.
× Relevance to Student Needs
Materials should be examined for level of difficulty. They must be readable if they
are to be truly accessible to students. Because readability formulas tend to be simplistic
measures, such formulas should be used cautiously, if at all. Teachers’ judgments about
the difficulty of a work are more soundly based on complexity of plot, organization,
abstractness of the language, familiarity of vocabulary, and clarity of syntax. Also, because
the average classroom includes students reading at several levels of proficiency, materials
judged as inappropriate for whole-class instruction might be suitable for small-group use
or for independent reading by more capable readers.
× Procedures for Selection of Instructional Materials
Good schools, recognizing the importance of support from parents and the
community, operate within a framework for democratic decision making. Materials
selection and challenged materials policies are important parts of that framework. Well-
established procedures for selecting instructional material ensure public involvement and
professional guidance. Therefore, it is essential that materials selection policies clearly
describe the steps involved in the selection process and the personnel responsible for each
step.
× Responsibility for Selection
Selecting materials requires in-depth knowledge: not just of students’ backgrounds
and learning experiences, but also of their abilities and interests; not just of educational
objectives, but of the best practices and range and quality of materials for meeting them;
not just of the particular work being considered, but of its place within the medium, genre,
epoch, etc., it represents. In short, responsible selection demands not only the experience
and education needed to make sound choices but also the ability to defend the choices
made.
× Selection Procedures
Selection procedures may vary in terms of the size of the group, nonteacher
participants, and schedules, but certain elements are important. In general, selection is most
appropriately done by the English language arts teachers who are closest to the students–
that is, by teachers at the building level. The group’s charge must be clearly specified and
understood by all. The process should be part of the school’s annual schedule, and adequate
time must be set aside for the work at hand.
× Opportunity for Informal Selection
Creative teachers take advantage of opportunities to use materials which do not
lend themselves to the formal selection process e.g., current online newscasts, websites,
videos, blogs, e-books, articles, student writing samples, or materials for short-term
projects. Such supplemental materials may be selected by the appropriate instructor; but
again, they must meet the general selection criteria of educational relevance and ability to
meet student needs.
The Roles of Instructional Materials in Teaching Language and Literature
Teaching materials are very important in teaching and learning process. It provides
the content of the lesson, the balance of skills taught, and the language practice of the student.
Material can support the teacher in teaching and the student in learning. For the teacher,
material provides the primarily to supplement the teacher’s instruction. For the student,
material provides the major source of the content that they need to learn.
The material can take many forms and the forms are: (a) printed materials such as
books, workbooks, worksheets, or readers; (b) non-printed materials such as cassette or radio
materials, video, or computer-based materials; (c) materials that comprise both printed and
non-printed source such as self-access materials and materials on the internet. Besides
magazine, newspaper and TV material also play a role in curriculum even though it is not
design the instructional use.
Cunningsworth (1995) summarizes the role of materials in language teaching as:
1. A resource for presentation materials (spoken and written)
2. A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
3. A reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
4. A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom
5. A syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that have already been determined)
6. A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence
• A resource for presentation materials
"Teaching materials" is a generic term used to describe the resources that teachers use
to deliver instruction. In simple terms, instructional materials are used in presenting topics
or lessons to the students.
• A source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
Materials provide the learners activities and or opportunities to use the target
language to achieve communicative purposes.
• A reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation etc.
The use of printed and non-printed materials such as textbooks, workbooks, audio
tapes, and videos can be a reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation.
• A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom
Teaching materials capture students’ interest and can get students engaged in class
discussion. It can also stimulate students’ creative and literary imagination.
• A syllabus
It serves as a reference and a standard for the attainment of the entirety of the
curriculum.
• A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain confidence
For less experienced teachers, materials may also serve as a form of teacher
training – they provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons.
❖ Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) suggest that for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve
the following functions:
• As a source of language
One example can be the use of literature as an instructional material. Literature is
authentic. It's good to expose learners to this source of language in the classroom because
the skills that they will acquire in dealing with the target language can be used outside the
classroom. Literature also encourages interaction since literary texts are often rich with
multiple layers of meaning which can be effectively mined for discussions and sharing
feelings or opinions. In addition to that, it expands language awareness by asking the
learners to examine sophisticated or non-standard examples of language which can occur
in literary texts that will make them aware of the norms of language use (Widdowson, 1975
quoted by Lazar 1993).
• As a learning support
Instructional materials are of prime importance for it serves as a guide and a support
for the learners as well as teachers. If, for example, a teacher is in a situation wherein she
wants to make her students remember and understand a lesson further, she'll have to at least
have an IM. That will save her face to an awkward silence while she writes on the board
and it'll be less time consuming if the teacher is prepared in advance. Regarding the
students, IMs serves a language when, for example, a drawing is posted in front it can
easily stimulate students' creative and literary imagination. It also develops their
appreciation of literature as well as of the target language.
• For motivation and stimulation
Instructional materials are motivating and it catches the students’ attention or interest.
If a student sees a visual in front, it somehow refreshes a student's mind and it helps him
to concentrate on the lesson further willingly as he thinks the visuals makes the lesson
interesting. Furthermore, it enhances the students' critical thinking. On the other hand,
using literature as a springboard can also help since it holds high status in many cultures
and countries which makes it motivating. For this reason, students can feel a real sense of
achievement at understanding a piece of highly respected literature. Lastly, literature
educates the whole person. By examining values in literary texts, teachers encourage
learners to develop attitudes towards them. These values and attitudes relate to the world
outside the classroom.
• For reference
It can also be a guide wherein you can reflect learning objectives for the attainment of
the entirety of the lesson. Course books introduce students to a variety of allusions for the
attainment of an educative experience and to add to students' knowledge of the world at
large.
Collie and Slater (1990) stated there are four main reasons which lead a language
teacher to use literature in the classroom. These are valuable authentic material, cultural
enrichment, language enrichment and personal involvement. In addition to these four main
reasons, universality, non-triviality, personal relevance, variety, interest, economy and
suggestive power and ambiguity are some other factors requiring the use of literature as a
powerful resource in the classroom context.
1. Valuable Authentic Material
Most works of literature are not created for the primary purpose of teaching a
language. Many authentic samples of language in real-life contexts (i.e. travel timetables,
forms, pamphlets, cartoons, advertisements, newspaper or magazine articles) are included
within recently developed course materials. Thus, in a classroom context, learners are
exposed to actual language samples of real life or real life like settings. Literature can act
as a beneficial complement to such materials, particularly when the first survival level has
been passed. In reading literary texts, because students have to cope up with language
intended for native speakers, they become familiar with many different linguistic forms,
communicative functions and meanings.
2. Cultural Enrichment
For many learners, the ideal wat to increase their understanding of verbal or
nonverbal aspects of communication in the country within which that language is
spoken—a visit or an extended say—is just not probable. For such learners, literary works,
such as novels, plays, short stores, etc. facilitate understanding how communication takes
place in that country. Though the world of a novel, play or short story is imaginary, it
presents a full and colorful setting in which the characters from many social or regional
backgrounds can be described. A reader can discover the way the characters in such literary
backgrounds can be described. A reader can discover the way the characters in such literary
works see the world outside (i.e. their thoughts, feelings, customs, traditions, possessions;
what they buy, believe in, fear, enjoy; how they speak and behave in different settings. This
colorful created world can quickly help the foreign learner to feel for the codes and
preoccupations that shape a real society through visual literacy of semiotics. Literature is
perhaps best regarded as a complement to other materials used to develop the foreign
learner’s understanding into the country whose language is being learned. Also, literature
adds a lot to the cultural grammar of the learners.
3. Language Enrichment
Literature provides learners with a wide range of individual lexical or syntactic
items. Students become familiar with many features of the written language, reading a
substantial and contextualized body of text. They learn about the syntax and discourse
functions of sentences, the variety of possible structures, the different ways of connecting
ideas, which develop and enrich their own writing skills. Students also become more
productive and adventurous when they begin to perceive the richness and diversity of the
language they are trying to learn and begin to make use of some of that potential
themselves. Thus, they improve their communicative and cultural competence in the
authentic richness, naturalness of the authentic texts.
4. Personal Involvement
Literature can be useful in the language learning process owing to the personal
involvement it fosters in the reader. Once the student reads a literary text, he begins to
inhabit the text. He is drawn into the text. Understanding the meanings of lexical items or
phrases becomes less significant than pursuing the development of the story. The student
becomes enthusiastic to find out what happens as events unfold via the climax; he feels
close to certain characters and shares their emotional responses. This can have beneficial
effects upon the whole language learning process. At this juncture, the prominence of the
selection of a literary text in relation to the needs, expectations, and interests, language
level of the students is evident. In this process, he can remove the identity crisis and develop
into an extrovert.
Maley (1989) lists some of the reasons for regarding literature as a potent resource in the
language classroom as follows:
1. Universality
Because we are all human beings, the themes literature deals with are common to all
cultures despite their different way of treatment - Death, Love, Separation, Belief, Nature
... the list is familiar. These experiences all happen to human beings.
2. Non-triviality
Many of the more familiar forms of language teaching inputs tend to trivialize texts
or experience. Literature does not trivialize or talk down. It is about things which mattered
to the author when he wrote them. It may offer genuine as well as merely “authentic”
inputs.
3. Personal Relevance
Since it deals with ideas, things, sensations and events which either constitute part
of the reader’s experience or which they can enter into imaginatively, they are able to relate
it to their own lives.
4. Variety
Literature includes within it all possible varieties of subject matter. It is, in fact, a
battery of topics to use in ELT. Within literature, we can find the language of law and of
mountaineering, of medicine and of bull-fighting, of church sermons and nursery talk.
5. Interest
Literature deals with themes and topics which are intrinsically interesting, because
part of the human experience, and treats them in ways designed to engaged the readers’
attention.
6. Economy and suggestive power
One of the great strengths of literature is its suggestive power. Even in its simplest
forms, it invites us to go beyond what is said to what is implied. Since it suggests many
ideas with few words, literature is ideal for generating language discussion. Maximum
output can often be derived from minimum input.
7. Ambiguity
As it is highly suggestive and associative, literature speaks subtly different
meanings to different people. It is rare for two readers to react identically to any given text.
In teaching, this has two advantages. The first advantage is that each learner’s interpretation
has validity within limits. The second advantage is that an almost infinite fund of
interactive discussion is guaranteed since each person’s perception is different. That no
two readers will have a completely convergent interpretation establishes the tension that is
necessary for a genuine exchange of ideas.
The Benefits of Instructional Materials in Teaching Language for Filipino Learners
7. Kochhar (2012)
One of the innovations in the educational system is the introduction of several new He supports that instructional materials are very significant learning and
teaching strategies at different levels of education. English language is a study connected with teaching tools. He adds that there is need for teachers to find necessary and relevant
all other subjects and all aspects of human life to enable people live a fulfilled, free interaction instructional materials to complement classroom interaction and textbooks in order to
and achievement in life. broaden and arouse students‟ interests in the subject.

Therefore, the importance of instructional materials cannot be underestimated in Types of Instructional Materials and Their Benefits
developing students‟ skills in English as a second language. Since instructional materials are
the devices developed to assist teachers in transmitting, organized knowledge and attitudes 1. Instructional Chart - a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical materials which
toward learners within an instructional situation (Nwachukwu, 2006). presents a clear visual summary.
• Motivates the students
The Usefulness of Instructional Material in Language Teaching • Shows continuity in the process
1. Awotua-Efebo, 2001 • Shows relationships by means of facts, figures and statistics
Although teachers use different instructional materials to motivate learning by • Presents matter symbolically
using textbooks, charts, models, graphics, real objects as well as improvised materials. • Presents abstract ideas in visual form
• Summarizes information
2. Olaitan & Agusiobo, 1994
• Shows the development of structures
The success of achieving what they are met to achieve in an instructional
• Creates problems and stimulates thinking
situation depend on the suitability of the instructional materials, adequacy and effective
utilization of the materials. • Encourages utilization of other media of communication

3. Omabe (2006) 2. Posters - pictorial devices are designed to attract attention and communicate a story, a fact,
He asserts that instructional materials are central in the teaching and learning an idea, or an image rapidly and clearly.
of English language because they are used to compliment efficiency of a teacher, and • Convey a specific message
effectiveness in lesson delivery. • Team work and Brainstorming
4. Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2004) • Make use of creativity
They affirmed that instructional materials facilitate learning of abstract
concepts by helping to concretize ideas and stimulate learners‟ imagination. 3. Flashcards - are small cards with a picture or symbol on them used both in teaching and in
development work.
5. Mathew (2012) • Associate the pictures and the words through various “look and say” activities.
The use of instructional materials make teaching effective as it enables learners • Repetition
to participate actively in classroom instruction.
6. Olumorin, Yusuf, Ajidagba and Jekayinfa (2010) 4. Slides and Film Strips - used for projecting pictures from a transparent slide on a wall or
Instructional materials help teachers to teach conveniently and the learners to screen.
learn easily without stress. They assert that instructional materials have The • Can enlarge small figures or illustrations
Importance of Instructional Materials in Teaching of English as A Second Language • Technology-mediated instruction
direct contact with all the sense organs of the students. • Convenient

5. Work Sheet - lists questions or activities for students or trainees to work through.
• Worksheets provide flexibility in the classroom as well as in the workshop, because they
can be used individually, in pairs, or in small groups to facilitate teamwork skills.
6. Newsletter - is an informal printed report, which is distributed to members of a particular
group in order to share information.
• Promotes good public relations, offering evidence that the school, college or other
organization is working hard to achieve its targets.
• Practices English fluency
• Source or reference for social-related lessons
7. Cartoon - is a simple picture of an amusing situation; sometimes it is a satirical comment
on a serious or topical issue.
• Makes use of vocabulary
• Can be used in sequencing and ordering of lessons
• Enables the students to discuss sensitive issues
• Makes the students discuss the cartoon based on what they perceive
Benefits of Instructional Materials in Teaching Literature for Filipino Learners
Within the course of our practice teaching we have encountered teaching a story or a
literary piece more than once. With the learners that we have, we sure do need a help, and that
help comes in the form of instructional materials.
Just like a gardener with his shovel and watering can, a teacher also needs some tools
to help her and her students meet an understanding. These tools are called “Instructional
Materials”. In teaching literature, it can come very handy. We have the most common printed
materials that we use, such as books and print-out copies of the pieces we’re discussing. We
may also use some non-projected display materials. We can bring objects that are related to the
story that will make our learners visualize better. For example, in the story of Aladdin and the
wonderful lamp, we may show a lamp to class while telling the story. The most commonly
used by us nowadays would be the still projected display materials, like Power point
presentations. Since most of our students are visual learners, creating a PowerPoint presentation
filled with pictures and captions will surely boost their comprehension. We may also show
them a film about the story. With today’s technology, we can improve our lessons greatly
without spending much time and money in making our instructional materials.
Let us move on to the benefits of Instructional Materials in teaching literature on ESL
learners.
• Delivery vehicles for instructional lessons or in a constructivist way as partners in
the learning process.
Since English is our second language and not our mother tongue, we cannot expect our
students to fully comprehend this command of language, let alone when they’re reading a
literary piece that is filled with hifalutin words or words that are unfamiliar. You may define
these words or tell the story in a different way to make it simpler, but you still most students
won’t understand. Gladly, we have our Instructional Materials to help us reach them, and also
help them build their understanding easily.
• It helps the learner build more meaningful personal interpretations of life and
his/her world.
If the learner could see that these characters in these literary pieces are much like them,
they become much more understandable. We can show raw materials about the piece that our
students may also use or have on their home thus making the character more relatable.
• Serves as a medium in representing what the learner knows and what he/she is
learning.
We can utilize Instructional materials to assess our learner’s knowledge. We can use
some pictures and have them explain the story themselves.
Learning and teaching becomes a whole space for wonder and creativity. With the use
of instructional materials, either its modern or traditional, we can now connect with our students
better, and teach them better by igniting their different senses in learning.
Implications for The Use of IM in Teaching Language And Literature
In teaching language and literature, one cannot exclude the benefits and advantages of
utilizing instructional materials. It’s role in education is felt in any given time, situation, and
topic. As stated by Cunningsworth, instructional materials give us a representation of what we
are learning and gives stimulation in order for our students to learn just no name a few.
Now as we have discussed before, in choosing the IM that we will be utilizing there
are several factors to consider. Generally, these guidelines help in making the IM more
effective and more user friendly to both teacher and learner.
Considering these, what are the possible implications of using instructional materials? To
name a few, they are:
 Instructional materials streamline the teaching-learning process by providing maximum
learning progress.
 They produce a more inducing learning environment,
 Provide concrete examples of abstracts and concepts,
 Stimulate interest among learners,
However;
 Developing and producing IMs requires careful forethought and planning,
 Can often be inaccessible,
 If done poorly can be distraction rather than a supplement to learning,
 Certain IMs can be bothersome to maneuver and relocate.
*Cone of Experience (Edgar Dale)
The Cone of Experience by Edgar Dale is a visual model that is composed of eleven
(11) stages starting from concrete experience at the bottom of the cone then it becomes more
and more abstract as it reaches the peak of the cone. Also, according to Dale, the arrangement
in the cone is not based on its difficulty but rather based on abstraction and on the number of
senses involved. The more the senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the
learning will be but it does not mean that concrete experience is the only effective experience
that educators should use in transferring knowledge to the learners.
The cone is based on the relationships of various educational experiences to reality
(real life), and the bottom level of the cone, "direct purposeful experiences," represents reality
or the closest things to real, everyday life. The opportunity for a learner to use a variety or
several senses (sight, smell, hearing, touching, movement) is considered in the cone.
Principles on the Cone of Experience:
Direct experience allows us to use all senses. Verbal symbols involve only hearing.
The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better the chance that
many students can learn from it. Each level of the cone above its base moves a learner a step
further away from real- life experiences, so experiences focusing only on the use of verbal
symbols are the furthest removed from real life.
Motion pictures (also television) is where it is on the cone because it is an observational
experience with little or no opportunity to participate or use senses other than seeing and
hearing. Contrived experiences are ones that are highly participatory and simulate real life
situations or activities. Dramatized experiences are defined as experiences in which the learner
acts out a role or activity.
Verbal Symbols - principal medium of communication
• This level bears no physical resemblance to the objects or ideas for which they stand.
may be a word for concretion, idea, scientific principle, formula or philosophic aphorism
Visual Symbols - chalkboard/whiteboard, flat maps, diagrams, charts
• Fits the tempo of presentation of idea, topic or situation. Very easy to procure and
prepare. Limitations: lack of ability to use the media size of visuals simplification of
visual materials leads to misconceptions
Recordings, Radio, Still Pictures - attention – getting, particularly projected views
• Concretize verbal abstraction.
• Limitations: size of pictures or illustrations expensiveness of projected materials and
equipment timing difficulties between radio shows and classroom lessons
Television and Motion Pictures - a solution to time and space constraints
• Provides “windows to the world”. An effective media for presenting movement,
continuity of ideas or events and substitute for dangerous direct learning experiences
• Limitations: Expensive, viewing problems, timing with classroom lessons,
misconceptions about time, size, and ideas
Exhibits - Present objects or processes otherwise impossible inside the classroom
• Exposure to new ideas, discoveries, inventions.
• Problems that may be encountered: too little space time – consuming maintenance
Demonstrations - visualized explanation of an important fact or idea or process. May require
nothing more than observation or students may be asked to do what has just been shown how
to do.
Disadvantages: ideas or processes might not be interpreted or conceived very well
visibility to all learners
Field Trips - undertaken primarily for the purpose of experiencing something that cannot be
encountered within the classroom. A rich experience in learning about objects, systems, and
situations.
Disadvantages: time-consuming expensive high exposure to danger /accidents
inadequacy of the community’s resources
Dramatized Experiences – it helps get closer to certain realities that are no longer available • Recordings
at first hand; stirring and attention getting. Participant learns to understand intimately the *Educational materials which could be heard from the radio
character he portrays and teaches cooperative work.
Disadvantages: time consuming without commensurate results participation is limited 2 Types of Recordings
to few individuals 1. Audio discs
2. Audiotapes
Contrived Experiences - an “editing” of reality. Substitutes for confusing or unmanageable
Come in 3 forms:
first – hand experiences and it is easier to handle, manipulate or operate.
Student passively listen to audio materials
Disadvantages: simplification leads to misconceptions, distorted views, and Students are provided self-monitors
incomplete pictures of reality no freedom to handle expensive or fragile models, mock Students are provided with a tape recorder, video monitor or computer
– ups, specimens, etc.
Advantages:
Direct, Purposeful Experiences - unabridged version of life itself; direct participation with 1. Can capture & store the original sound
responsibility for the outcome. The basis for the most effective and lasting learning. 2. Easily operated
Disadvantage: not all things can be learned through direct, first hand experiencing 3. Duplication of audiotapes is easy
4. Ideal for learning languages
Audio Media 5. Can be used for small or big groups
• Sounds transmitted, purchased or received through high fidelity waves which are
heard through audio equipment Disadvantages:
• Used in speech rehearsals, drama, musical & dance presentations, radio & TV 1. Recordings can be easily erased by accident
broadcasting etc. 2. Appeal only to the sense of hearing
3. Background noises may be included while recording
Types of Audio Media
Projected Media
• Radio & Broadcasts It refers to media formats in which visual and verbal images are projected or enlarged on a
*Educational materials which could be heard from the radio screen by passing strong light through a transparent material or through opaque materials.
*Can be done live or taped
*Can be school broadcast or general broadcast Types of Projected Media:

Advantages: • Overhead Projection

1. Can be used anywhere, with or without electricity *done using an overhead projector
2. Best means of bringing up-to-date news
3. Provide examples of good and bad speech 2 Types of Recordings
4. Adaptable to small or large audiences
Overhead Projector:
Disadvantages: *box-like device with a large stage on the top surface
1. One-way communication medium only -light from powerful lamp inside the box is condensed by a special type of lens,
2. Programs move at constant speed & cannot conduct drills known as Fresnel lens, and passes through a transparency placed on the stage
3. Teachers cannot control the timing of “on-schedule” radio programs
4. The use of radio demand training in listening skills Overhead transparencies:
*created from clear acetate, photographic film or plastics used for covering
 1. Provides visual stimulation & motivation for learners
Advantages: 2. Cheaper than slides
1. Can be used even in normal room lighting 3. Can be presented without fear of having pictures disorganized
2. Allows presenter to have direct eye contact with audience 4. Speed of viewing can be controlled by user
3. Can be adjusted for large group 5. Integrated into individualized instruction programs
4. Easily made or can be reused
5. Less costly Disadvantages:
1. Sequence of pictures can’t be altered
Disadvantages: 2. Less popular because of video cassettes
1. Needs much care 3. Needs much care
2. Opaque materials can’t be projected 4. Not effective in fully lighted environment
3. Doesn’t lend itself to individual instruction
• Opaque
• Slides *Uses nontransparent materials
*Small transparent photographs individually mounted for one-at-a-time projection *Operated by directing onto a material a very strong incandescent light, which is
*Slides (2x2 in.) are inserted into a slide projector reflected upward to strike a mirror which aims the light beam through a series of
*Interesting media for topics that involve places and people lenses onto a screen.

2 Types of Recordings Advantages:

Advantages: 1. No need to produce transparencies
1. Can be arranged into many different sequences 2. Allows group viewing
2. Portable; easily stored 3. There’s a wide variety of materials to be projected
3. Allow presenter to remain in front of the room
4. Can be used in individualized instruction program Disadvantages:
5. Controlled by users 1. Not effective unless room is completely darkened
2. Heavy
Disadvantages: 3. Some parts are unsafe to touch (due to heat generated by the lamp)
1. Becomes easily disorganized
2. Not effective in fully-lighted environment
3. May lead to jamming of slides • Computer Image Projection
4. Costly *Process of projecting computer-based materials using Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
5. Outdated; replaced by CDs projector
6. Careless storage lead to permanent damage *Projector is connected to a computer then focused to a screen

• Filmstrips Digital Light Processing (DLP)

*Comes in a roll of 35mm transparent film *Another type of projector
*Contain series of related still pictures which are placed in sequential order each *Clearer and more vivid pictures compared to LCD
individual picture is called a frame *Can be used in semi-lit room

2 Types of Recordings Advantages:

Frames: pictures intended for showing one at a time using a filmstrip projector 1. Project all which appears in a computer screen
Advantages: 2. Professional looking
 3. Displays can be changed after or even during presentations • The use of television program in the field of education.

Disadvantages: Three Methods of Distributing ETV Programs

1. Room must be darkened 1. Open Broadcast Television
2. Costly -telecast over the air and can be seen by anyone.
Example: Sineskwela, Mathinik
Different Types of Instructional Materials
2.Close-Circuit Television
1. Printed Materials 5. Projected Media -A system which limits distribution of an image to those receivers which are
A. Textbooks A. Overhead Projector directly connected to an original point.
B. Supplementary Materials B. Slides
C. Filmstrips 3. Video Recordings
2. Graphic Materials D. Opaque -refer to electronic recordings of ETV programs through video taped or video
A. Drawings and Illustrations E. Computer Assisted Projection discs. It can be played back using Video Home System (VHS).
B. Charts
C. Diagrams 6. Motion Media B. Video
D. Graphs A. Educational Television • From the Latin word “videre” which means “I see”.
E. Posters B. Video • Display of recorded pictures on a television-type screen.
F. Cartoons and Strip Drawings C. Film/Motion Pictures
G. Maps and Globes C. Film/Motion Pictures
7. Display Media • Consists of series of still pictures that “move” past the projector light to create the
3. Pictorial Media A. Exhibits illusion of motion.
1. Still Pictures B. Chalkboard/Blackboard • The illusion created by the projector (Persistence of Vision)
2. Photographs C. Multi-purpose Board
3. Flash Cards D. Bulletin DISPLAY MEDIA
4. Audio Media A. Exhibits
A. Radio and Broadcast • Displays of various of various objects designed to form an integrated whole for
B. Recordings instructional purpose.
C. Language Laboratory • Feature various forms of visual media, models, and real objects.
MOTION MEDIA & DISPLAY MEDIA Types of Exhibits
1. Displays
MOTION MEDIA -An array of objects, visuals, and printed materials.
• a class of graphics that make use of video and/or animation technology in a way that -include descriptive information about the objects or visual shown.
an illusion of motion or a transforming appearance is created.
• these motion graphics are usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects 2. Dioramas
that are necessary for learning. -from the Greek words “di” which means “through” and “orama” which means
• the use of both auditory and visual senses at the same time. “a sight”. Diorama means “to see through”.
-consists of 3D foreground, usually models of people, animals, etc.
TYPES OF MOTION MEDIA -also called “exhibit in a box”.
A. Educational Television (ETV)
 B. Chalkboard
• Formerly known as “blackboards”.
• Most familiar device used by teachers and students to present data.
• Useful aids for presenting and explaining ideas.
• the cheapest instructional material used by the teachers in the classroom.
C. Multi-Purpose Board
• Also known as whiteboards or marker boards.
• Requires an erasable marker rather than chalks.
• Suitable for projection of slides, films, and overhead transparencies.
D. Bulletin Boards
• Present brief news announcements of urgent interest posted for public notice.
• Can also serve as instructional aids.
• Provides decoration and motivation.
AUTHENTIC AND CREATED MATERIALS
Authentic Materials
• Sometimes called “authentic” or “contextualized”, real-life materials are those that a
student encounters in everyday life but that weren’t created for educational purposes.
They include newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, as well as driver’s manuals,
utility bills, pill bottles, and clothing labels.
• Authentic materials are print, video, and audio materials students encounter in their
daily lives, such as change-of-address forms, job applications, menus, voice mail
messages, radio programs, and videos.
• Authentic materials are not created specifically to be used in the classroom, but they
make excellent learning tools for students precisely because they are authentic.
Two Main Categories of Authentic Materials
1. Authentic Print Materials
Examples: Utility Bills, Street Signs, Traffic Tickets, Greeting Cards, Calendars,
Report Cards, TV Guide, and such.
2. Authentic Auditory Materials
Examples: Phone messages, Radio broadcast, Mocies, Videos and DVDs, Television
programs, and such.
Created Materials
• Created materials are made according to the needs of the students.
• They either supplement course books or replace sections that are not suitable for the
class.
• Created materials can, unlike authentic materials, be graded to the level of the students.
However, created materials are not real and may not be interesting. They do not provide
the opportunity to gain real information and know what is going on in the world around
them. They do not reflect the changes in language use and do not give the learner the
proof that the language is real.
Syllabus
• An outline of the subjects in a course of study or teaching.
• The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught
in the particular subject.
• A syllabus is considered as a guide for both teacher and learner by providing some
goals to be attained.
• It contains general rules, policies, instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects,
test dates, and so on.
Syllabus can be divided into two: Product-oriented and Process-oriented.
• A product-oriented syllabus focuses on things learned at the end of the learning
process/ (outcomes) rather than the process itself.
• Process-oriented syllabus focuses on the processes of learning.
What is in a basic syllabus?
A Syllabus usually contains the following components:
1. Title Page
Course number and title, semester and year, number of credits, meeting times and location,
instructor information (name, office location, office hours, contact information).
2. Course Description
A brief introduction to the course: scope, purpose and relevance of the material.
3. Vision, Mission, Goals, and Course Objectives
Skills and knowledge students will gain.
4. Course Organization
Explanation of the topical organization of the course.
5. Materials
Required (and/or optional) books (with authors, editions, and ISBNs), reserve readings,
course readers, software, and supplies with information about where they can be obtained.
6. Pre-Requisites and Co-Requisites
Courses students need to have taken before this one (or at the same time); prerequisite skill
sets (e.g., programming languages, familiarity with software).
7. Course Requirements
What students will have to do in the course: assignments, exams, projects, performances,
attendance, participation, etc. Includes the nature and format of assignments and the expected
length of written work, as well as due dates for assignments and dates for exams.
8. Evaluation and Grading Policy
What the final grade will be based on. There is usually a breakdown of components and an
explanation of the instructor’s grading policies (e.g., weighting of grades, curves, extra-credit
options, the possibility of dropping the lowest grade).
9. Course Policies and Expectations
Policies concerning attendance, participation, tardiness, academic integrity, missing
homework, missed exams, recording classroom activities, food in class, laptop use, etc. Also
includes professor’s expectations for student behavior (e.g., respectful consideration of one
another perspectives, open-mindedness, creative risk-taking).
10. Course Calendar
A day-to-day breakdown of topics and assignments (readings, homework, project due dates).
11. Advice
How to use the syllabus.
What makes a good syllabus?
A Learner-Centered Approach
• Move away from the “instructor-centered” model.
• Attend to research on the psychology of learning: e.g., attention spans, memory and
retention, active learning.
• Attend to research on the characteristics of today’s students.
• Increases students’ perception of the relevance and interest of the course.
Basic Goals of a Learner-Centered Syllabus
1. Define students’ responsibilities.
2. Define instructor’s role and responsibility to students.
3. Provide a clear statement of intended goals and student outcomes.
4. Establish standards and procedures for evaluation.
5. Establish a pattern of communication between instructor and students.
The Instructor Benefits of a Learner-Centered Syllabus
1. Helps you re-conceptualize your course, making it more effective and useful.
2. Prevents conflicts and misunderstandings between instructor and students.
3. Ask how each and every component of your course can most effectively support student
learning.
4. Consider not just content but SKILLS learned (skills “stick” better over the long term).
5. Contribute to developing students’ desire for and ability to pursue life-long independent
learning.
Planning Your Syllabus
• What skills, knowledge and attitudes are most important?
• How can they be effectively built into your course?
• How can you assess whether or not students have acquired the skills, knowledge and
attitudes in question?
• (Not just for grading or program assessment, but for improving teaching.)
Tools Students Need for Living and Working Effectively in Society
1. Assess and use resources effectively.
2. Work alone and collaborate with others.
3. Think and communicate effectively using appropriate means such as writing,
speaking, listening, and performance.
4. Understand and respect differences.
5. Clarify personal values, goals, and purposes.
Types of Syllabus
Grammatical Syllabus
A grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. It can be compared to
other types of syllabi based around tasks, vocabulary, functions or topics. Learners learn
grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in
communication, leading to many artificial contexts for practice, and perhaps an inability to
transfer learning to real communication. The aim of this syllabus is to develop the knowledge
and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction. Organizing learning around a
grammatical syllabus has been criticized because of this, but it is still the most common type
of syllabus in published materials, mostly because it is the easiest type of syllabus to sequence.
Let’s take a look of its advantages first.
 • From simpler to more complex grammatical structures
• Introduces the grammatical system more easily
• Sequencing and selection of teaching items is not as difficult as it with other syllabi
The following are the disadvantages of a grammatical syllabus:
• It over-emphasizes language structure and neglects communicative competence
• It does not address the immediate communication needs of the learners
• It hampers the students’ creative sides because it confines him/her within the walls of
some specific rules
• The role of the student here is passive
Situational Syllabus
A situational syllabus is often defined as one in which the contents are organized
according to situations in which certain language is likely to be employed. The aim of this
syllabus is to prepare the learner for the future situation in which he/she might use the language.
the advantages of a situational syllabus are:
• Refers to practical needs rather than abstract analysis
• A learner-centered syllabus, since it takes account of the learner and his needs
• It enables the learner to act appropriately in various social content
• It focuses on learners’’ speaking ability
The said syllabus’ disadvantages are:
• Grammar is dealt with incidentally
• It does not provide with clearly defined criteria for the sequencing of teaching items
• It has limited potential for the language learner interested in acquiring global language
proficiency
Functional-Notional Syllabus
The functional-notional syllabus is brought and influenced by both theories of
language and language learning/acquisition. The focus of the said syllabus are the students and
their communicative purposes. And there are clear benefits connected with the functional-
notional syllabus associated with a communicative teaching approach and plenty of criticisms
exist when put it into practice as well. The advantages of the notional syllabus include that it
could consider the communicative facts of language from the beginning with concerning of
grammatical and situational factors. So, it is superior to the grammatical syllabus possibly. In
the grammatical syllabus language elements are demonstrated more in complete possibilities
of the language than the use of it needed in conversation so learners would complain that
foreign language learning is not practical and they have few opportunities to use out of it.
However, a functional-notional syllabus would teach language to use it rather than instructing
the use of its exclusive forms (Wilkins, 1976). Moreover, Harlow and Linda L. (1978) point
that by perceiving language as a real means of communication; learners would feel more
motivated to learn as they would feel what they were learning is useful. Language functions in
a real-life setting would generate a special kind of excitement for learning and leads to
productive learning. Therefore, as comparing to the structural syllabus where elements of
language are learned in an isolated way from real life, students' communicative competence
and confidence can be well developed, and teachers can revitalize teaching materials to meet
learning objectives in functional-notional approach study. Furthermore, the functional-notional
syllabus is superior to the situational syllabus because it can include both of the most important
grammatical forms and all kinds of language functions in it rather than concentrate those exist
in specific situations typically (Wilkins, 1976).
This syllabus is extremely useful for ESP clauses in which the learners can learn part
of the language which they are badly in need without wasting their time and energy for detailed
study of the whole language system. Furthermore, the act of the communication in this syllabus
is intrinsically motivating. The language forms, its functions, and communicative skills they
have learned can be used immediately in the communicative activities and in role plays, or even
in the real world. This direct effect of language use motivates the learners. They feel quite
satisfied and are eager to learn as much as possible according to their needs because they are
not passive listeners but active participants. Every syllabus has its demerits, so does the
functional-notional syllabus. When putting it into practice, we will find that it presents some
problems.
• Dividing language into discrete units of functions may misrepresent the nature of
language as a communication
• The selection, grading, and sequencing items for the syllabus are difficult
• What order should the grammar be taught in for the students to be able to apply it to
functions?
• Impossibility of defining functions with precision and clarity
Skill-based Syllabus
This syllabus is introduced by Nunan (1999), he believes that skill is explicit form into
implicit form by means of practice.
This is organized around the language or academic skills that the students will most
need in order to use and continue to learn the language.
The content of the language teaching involves a collection of particular skills that may
play a role in using language.
 The linguistic competencies like pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse
are merged together into generalized types of behavior.
The aim of this syllabus is to teach the specific language skills that may be useful or
necessary in using language such as:
x listening to spoken language for the main idea
x writing well-formed paragraphs
x delivering effective lectures
Advantages:
• Appropriate when learners need to develop specific skills
• Focused on performance in relation to specific task that provides a practical
framework for designing courses and teaching materials.
Disadvantages:
• Inappropriate for general purpose or beginner level classes
• Focused on discrete aspects of performance rather than on developing more global
and integrated communicative abilities.
Content-based Syllabus
This syllabus is intended to design a type of instruction in which the crucial goal is to
teach specific information and content using the language that the learners are also learning.
The language learning occurs concurrently with the content learning while the subject
matter is of primary and vital importance.
The learners are at the same time language students and learners of whatever content
and information is being taught.
The aim of this syllabus is to teach some content or information using the language
that the students are also learning.
The focus is on the language which is not presented directly but introduced through
the content of other subjects (Science, Geography, Mathematics, etc.).
Advantages:
• Acquires the target language in the course of doing other things
• Helps students to master other aspects of school learning
• Provides a framework within which language learners can have sustained engagement
on both mastery of content and acquisition of language
Disadvantages:
• Frustrates language learners due to the fact that they may be denied to the language
that makes him able to set the task
• Is no more creative than the language-based model
Topical Syllabus
This is designed according to topics.
This is similar to topical situational syllabus however it is organized by topics or
themes, rather than situations.
The topics are selected by the textbook author on the basis of his or her sense of the
importance of the topics or themes to the lives of the students for whom the tect is designed.
Advantages:
• Facilitates comprehension
• Makes linguistic form more meaningful
• Addresses students' needs
• Variety within learning
Disadvantages:
• Interest issues
• Content issues
• Inaccessible to some students due to cultural, academic, or ability differences
Task-Based Syllabus
Based on task-based learning, an approach where learners carry out tasks such as
solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt comes out of the linguistic
demands of the activity. A task-based syllabus structured around a series of these tasks.
• A Task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language which their attention is
particularly focuses on meaning rather than form.
• Syllabus is referred to the selecting and grading of content.
Task-based syllabus are constructed with varieties of tasks as the basic blocks, focusing
on using the target language in real world rather than drilling on the isolate grammatical items.
Aspects of Task-Based Syllabus Design
Language Data
1. Authentic data are samples of spoken or written language that not specifically written for
purpose of language teaching.
2. Non-authentic data are dialogues and reading passages that have specially written.
Information
They need experiential information about the target culture, they need linguistic
information about target language systems, and they need process information about how to go
about learning the language.
Practice
The third and final essential element is practice.
Conclusion
Task-based syllabus are constructed with varieties of tasks as the basic blocks, focusing
on using the target language in real world rather than drilling on the isolate grammatical items.
In making practical decisions about task-based syllabus design, one must consider all the
possible factors that might affect the teach ability of the syllabus. Adjusting the choice and
integrating the different types according to learners’ needs.
Layered Syllabus
• Mixed (layered) syllabus a mix of two or more types of syllabuses together into what
looks like a different type of syllabus.
• A multi-focus syllabus is one, which includes a variety of elements, specifically
structures, functions and notions, situations and topics. Situational-structural syllabus,
predominantly a skills-based syllabus with a topical sub syllabus.
Advantages
*Some of the limitations of the other types of syllabus is avoided, because there are a variety
of elements addressed.
*It can allow for a two-pronged approach, in which one prong emphasizes working
systematically on structures and vocabulary to build up general linguistic knowledge and the
other prong concentrates on meeting immediate communicative needs and on building up
sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence.
Disadvantages
*Since there are more elements to weave together into a syllabus, it might take more planning
time and "book-keeping".
*It might be harder to sequence than a structural-lexical syllabus.
Factors Affecting Materials Preparation
• Learning Styles
• Aptitude
• Proficiency
1. Understanding the Operational functionality - Since educational communication
and technology is a fairly new area of importance in education, it is a lightly technical
field, and to understand how it can affect the instructional delivery.
2. Teacher’s Knowledge - This has a great impact on the effective application of
teaching aids or instructional materials, this is because the teachers uses need to
understand the sequential presentation of the instructional gadgets so as to suit the
interests of the learners and its appropriateness with the instructional tasks.
3. Student Population - Part of the application of teaching aids or instructional materials
process is the target population for whom the materials are to be used and the setting
or vicinity where the learning should take place.
4. Time - Time is also a serious problem or factor that delay the effective use of
instructional materials ineffective instructional delivery in the class.
5. Lack of Supply of Materials - This factor seems to be the handicap why most
educational institutions are unable to acquire relevant teaching equipment and
materials.
6. Lack of funds - There are sophisticated teaching aids or instructional materials that
can make learning easier and faster such as computer – aided program but lack of funds
has effects on its importation and use in schools.
General Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials
1. Principle of Appropriateness
2. Principle of Authenticity - The instructional materials must present accurate, up-to-
date and dependable information.
3. Principle of Cost - If the materials that you will use is quite expensive, you may find
other alternative materials.
 4. Principle of Interest - The instructional materials must catch the interest of the
learners and must stimulate curiosity or satisfy the learner’s need to know. It must have
the power to motivate, encourage creativity, and imaginative response among users.
5. Principle of Organization and Balance - Instructional materials must be well
organized and well balanced in content. Purpose of the material must be clearly stated
or perceived. There should be logical organization, clarity and accordance with the
principles of learning: Reinforcement, Transfer, and Application.
Principle in Material Design
Six Principles in Material Design (David Nunan)
• Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve.
• Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task.
• Materials should stimulate interaction.
• Materials should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language.
• Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills, and skills in learning.
• Materials should encourage learners apply their developing skills to the world beyond
the classroom
• Materials should provide learners with opportunities to use target language to achieve
communication process
• Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually
delayed
• Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning style
• Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes
• Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction
• Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic &
emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities
• Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice
• Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback

Hutchinson and Waters’ Principles of Material Design

• Good materials provide stimulus to learning and encourage students to learn.
• Good materials should help the teaching-learning process.
• Materials embody a view of nature of language learning.
• Materials reflect the nature of the learning task.
• Materials function to broaden the basis of teacher training by introducing teachers to
new techniques.
• Materials provide correct models of appropriate language use.

Tomlinson’s 16 Principles of Material Design

• Materials should achieve impact
• Materials should help learners to feel at ease
• Materials should help learners to develop confidence
• What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful.
• Materials should require & facilitate learners’ self-investment
• Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught
• Materials should expose learners to language in authentic use
• The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input