Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Advances in effusive cooling techniques of gas turbines

Giovanni Cerri a, Ambra Giovannelli a, Lorenzo Battisti a,*
, Roberto Fedrizzi b

a
University of Rome3, via della Vasca Navale, 79, 00146 Rome, Italy
b
University of Trento – DIMS, via Mesiano, 77, 38050 Trento, Italy

Abstract

Gas turbine combustion chambers and turbine blades require better cooling techniques to cope with the increase in operating tem-
peratures with each new engine model. Current gas turbine inlet temperatures are approaching 2000 K. Transpiration-cooled compo-
nents have proved an effective way to achieve high temperatures and erosion resistance for gas turbines operating in aggressive
environments, though there is a shortage of durable and proven technical solutions. Effusion cooling, on the other hand, is a relatively
simple and more reliable technique offering a continuous coverage of cooling air over the component’s hot surfaces. This paper presents a
numerical model suitable to design the geometric features of effusive cooling systems of gas turbine hot components, and to evaluate their
thermo-fluid-dynamic characteristics. The model has been developed specifically with the aim to show the potential advantages deriving
from the adoption of the new PoroformÒ technology. According to this technology the design of the distributions of the diameter and
density of holes on the cooled surface allows complete freedom for the thermo-mechanical optimization of the cooled component, with a
view to reducing the metal’s working temperature and achieving isothermal conditions for large blade areas.
In this paper the diameter, density and spacing of the holes, the adiabatic film efficiency and the coolant air consumption of a first
stage gas turbine effusion cooled blade are extensively discussed to highlight the system cooling capacity.
The results of two cooling solutions for a first-stage gas turbine blade are presented, i.e. the thermo-fluid-dynamic optimized design
and one possible manufacturing-oriented optimized design of the cooled component.
Ó 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Effusive cooling; Gas turbines; Blades; Combustion chambers

1. Introduction The transpiration cooling, for example, is obtained by

Numerous experimental and numerical studies have
shown the potential deriving from the adoption of transpi-
ration cooling for advanced cooling problems [1–11]. With
regard to combustor liners cooling for instance, the main
drawback of pure film cooling is actually that the heat sink
potential of the cooling air is not effectively utilized, and
cooling air flows represent a significant portion of the total
flow entering the combustor. Consequently attention is
focused on wall cooling schemes that make more efficient
use of cooling air, allowing the designer more latitude in
overall secondary flow management.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0461 882515; fax: +39 0461 882599.
E-mail address: lorenzo.battisti@ing.unitn.it (L. Battisti).
means of porous walls; they combine two heat exchange
effects: the convective one at the cooler surface and through
the wall, and the ‘‘film’’ one at the warmer surface where
hot and cold gases mix. The mixing produces both an
increase of the heat exchange coefficient by convection,
dependent on the fluids’ flow features, and a drop of the
gas temperature at the surface (see Metzger et al. [12]).
The net effect is however a decrease of the heat flux from
the hot gas to the component’s surface.
Transpiration cooling is obtained, for instance, through
sintered stainless steel walls (PorosintÒ [13]), which usually
have a pore diameter ranging between 10 and 50 lm and a
wall thickness of about 1 mm. Although they have been
extensively used to demonstrate the suitability of porous
materials and evaluate their thermodynamic efficiencies,
problems occurring when the component has to cope with

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.10.012
 G. Cerri et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698 693

Nomenclature

BR Blowing Ratio Tfilm hot gas film temperature

c chord Tg,r hot gas total temperature at the rotor blade inlet
Dh hole hydraulic diameter Te,o coolant effusive temperature
m_ e;o effused cooling air mass flow ve,o coolant effusive speed
Nh holes’ density vg hot gas speed
r radius x chordwise holes’ pitch
rh blade hub radius gfilm adiabatic film efficiency
s curvilinear coordinate qe,o coolant effusive temperature
Twall wall temperature qg hot gas density
Trec hot gas recovery temperature

both thermal and mechanical stress have limited the appli-

Hot gas stream
cation of this technology to the turbomachinery field. Film
Film cooling
Meanwhile, manufacturing solutions have been deve-
Coolant
loped to reproduce the cooling features of porous walls in
systems with a better behavior in terms of thermo-mechan- Hot gas stream Film

ical resistance. They are called effusive systems and adopt Impingement
structural solutions consisting of metallic nets and walls cooling
Coolant
with discrete holes. In the Seventies, Curtiss Wright [14]
conducted tests on gas turbines using metallic nets shaped Hot gas stream
Film
onto supports, obtaining good results in terms of both Effusion cooling
TIT (turbine inlet temperature) and surface fouling. In the Coolant

eighties two new technologies came onto the scene: the Hot gas stream Porous wall
TransplyÒ from [15] and the LamilloyÒ from Detroit Diesel Film

(G.M. Corporation) [16,17]. About the latter, an industrial Transpiration

use is forecast for the combustion chamber of the F136 air- Coolant

craft engine [18]. TransplyÒ (see Fig. 1) is produced by braz- Convection

Hot gas stream
ing together two or more laminates of a high temperature Film
alloy containing an interrelated pattern of holes and chan- Transply
nels, produced by electro-chemical machining. LamilloyÒ
Coolant
(see Fig. 1) is a multi-laminate porous structure fabricated Impingement

from several diffusion-bonded, photoetched thin (0.254 to Hot gas stream

Film
0.635 mm) metal sheets (usually three or five) (see Fig. 1).
Lamilloy
Typical holes diameter to spacing ratio could be around
4. This solution allows freedom in holes size and spacing, Coolant
laminate thickness, number of laminates, grid depth, grid
Hot gas stream Film
diameter, and grid spacing. Serious thermal gradients are
nevertheless an intrinsic drawback of such architecture. Poroform
LamilloyÒ and TransplyÒ were developed to maximize Coolant

the inner convective heat transfer, while much of the liter-
ature on film cooling focuses on improving the heat shield-
ing processes. When film cooling is used, the strategies for
improving the inner convection are impingement cooling
and reducing the diameter of the holes (increasing their
number accordingly).
If the number of holes increases considerably, the film
cooling system is called an effusion cooling system. A num-
ber of studies [19–27] analyze the performance of such sys-
tems: walls have been investigated with hole diameters
ranging between 640 and 8820 lm, hole densities between
4305 and 26910 m2, and a spacing parameter x/Dh
between 1.9 and 10.7. No data are available on the
mechanical features of the slabs used. Regarding the fluid
Fig. 1. Main cooling technologies using intermediate fluids. (a) Cooling
schemes; (b) wall manufacturing technologies suitable for cooling by air
effusion.
dynamic behavior, permeability (or pressure difference)
does not affect the hot–cold gas mixing process in the case
of porous media, but discrete holes strongly influence the
mixing process due to their larger diameter. In the latter
case, the injection velocities of the coolant are higher, thus
reducing the stability of the boundary layer at the external
blade’s surface. The coolant injection speed can be moder-
ated by reducing the diameter of the holes and increasing
their number to maintain the same coolant mass flow. This
694 G. Cerri et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698
means that the boundary layer’s features can be influenced
to a minor extent, as they are by a porous wall.
In effusion cooling systems, the inner convective heat
transfer and the heat shielding process are strongly related
in that an intense heat extraction by convection through
the holes reduces the ability of the cooling air to lessen
the heat transfer between the hot gas and the blade’s wall,
due to its higher temperature when it is injected into the
main flow. Recently, a new technology called PoroformÒ
[28] (see Fig. 1) has been presented. It allows manufactur-
ing components having walls equipped with micro holes,
obtained by galvanic electroforming techniques. The fabri-
cation process allows the fabrication of effusive systems
with the required distribution of hole diameter and density
on the cooled surface, to achieve isothermal conditions for
large component areas. According to this technology, the
component is replicated onto a matrix serving as a cathode
for the galvanic bath. On the matrix, dielectric prefabri-
cated areas prevent the metallic growth during the deposi-
tion process, thus ending as holes on the electroformed
wall.
While the mechanical strength is still under test, the
thermo-fluid-dynamic behavior exhibited excellent poten-
tial. In a former work [27], by the use of a dedicated 2D
model, the authors showed that a very effective cooling sys-
tem performance can be obtained only by varying the
diameter and distribution of the holes, without the need
for using pressure control systems within the blade.
The analysis indicated that for the selected test case, the
blade could withstand temperatures up to 1200 K with TIT
equal to 2000 K, using the effusive cooling system described
herein, by providing at the same time an uniform tempera-
ture distribution over the blade’s wall.
From the manufacturing point of view, a regular array
of holes, instead of the one freely determined as a conse-
quence of the thermo-fluid-dynamic optimization leads to
a simpler fabrication of the matrix for the galvanic bath.
Therefore, using the 2D code, a set of simulations were per-
formed for a 3 mm thick gas turbine blade wall, which wall
features large areas having a single hole spacing. The effect
of this technological choice on the cooling effectiveness,
wall isotherms, blowing ratio is here presented and
discussed.
2. 2D Numerical model
Taking the turbine’s cycle data as a starting point, the
code computes a 1D thermo-fluid-dynamic analysis at the
mid span, followed by a NISRE (non isentropic radial
equilibrium) analysis, to assess gas temperature, pressure
and velocity at the rotor inlet annulus. The 2D pressure
and gas speed distributions on the rotor blade are then
computed using a panel method [30]. The static gas temper-
ature around the blade is calculated assuming a uniform
total temperature along the rotor channel. Such an
assumption is justified by the consideration that the total
amount of effused cooling air is minimal in current gas tur-
Fig. 2. Scheme of the control volumes.
bine practice, and even less cooling air has been shown to
be necessary for the PoroformÒ technology [29]. The fea-
tures of the effusing cooling air at the blade surface are
obtained from said thermo-fluid-dynamic conditions by
applying the energy and mass conservation equations to
appropriate control volumes. Fig. 2 shows the projections
of the three control volumes considered (the length orthog-
onal to the plane of the figure is unitary), i.e. volume (a)
encloses the inner surface of the shell, volume (b) includes
the single hole through the blade wall and a proper volume
adjacent to the inner surface of the blade, and volume (c),
with a generic surface area A, encloses a section of the
blade wall and again a proper volume at the inner surface
of the blade, like volume (b). A full discussion of the equa-
tions applied to the three control volumes can be find in
[29].
2.1. Choosing the geometric features of the wall
The code allows computing the hole diameter and sur-
face distribution once the flow field conditions on the outer
surface of the blade’s wall, the cooling air conditions at the
blade’s hub and the wall temperature are known. Wall
thickness and temperature depend on the materials used
and the maximum allowable stress on the blade, in both
transient and stationary turbine working conditions. A first
evaluation suggested a suitable wall thickness between 0.5
and 2.5 mm at a blade’s working temperature of 1200 K;
this is typical of turbine components made out of single-
crystal nickel-based alloys, like GTD 111, for example.
Even though the mentioned wall thickness is adequate for
blades manufactured with current techniques, a wall thick-
ness of 3 mm was conservatively chosen for this analysis.
The choice of the optimal hole diameter is based on the
assumption that both external and internal flow parameters
(internal pressure, external pressure, main stream speed,
temperature, etc.) are set as constraints. The geometrical
features of the cooling system (i.e. external hole diameter
and distribution) are thus used as free variables to design
a cooling system that minimizes the cooling air mass flow,
once a maximum working temperature (Twall = 1200 K)
and a maximum blowing ratio ðBR ¼ qe;o ve;o =qg vg ¼ 0:4Þ
are set (this last constraint enables the disturbance on the
boundary layer due to air injection from the blade wall
 G. Cerri et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698 695

to be controlled). Thus the procedure allows a thermo- Table 1

fluid-dynamic optimization of the hole diameter and spac- Blade’s geometrical parameters and flow features at the mid span
ing by setting an objective function written as Cycle parameters
Cycle pressure ratio 9.1
F ob ðx; Dh Þ ¼ min fm_ e;o jBR  0:4 < 0; T wall  1200 ¼ 0g: TIT (K) 2000
Mass flow (kg/s) 23.4
ð1Þ
Rotor parameters
Since the holes are arranged in hexagonal arrays as in Blade working temperature (K) 1200
Fig. 3 (this distribution assures the best surface coverage Peripheral velocity (m/s) 386
by the cooling air), holes’ spacing and diameter are con- Relative frame inlet angle (°) 42
nected to each other and to the hole density (holes per Relative frame inlet Mach number 0.59
Relative frame total temperature (K) 1747
square meter): Blade hub coolant pressure (bar) 6.3
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
x 3 Rotor blade geometrical features
¼ : ð2Þ Chord (mm) 42.7
Dh 2N h D2h Height (mm) 38
Pitch/chord 0.86
A manufacturing-oriented optimization, aimed at a simpler
fabrication of the matrix used in the galvanic bath, is car-
ried out with a similar procedure. According to such a
strategy, wall temperature and effused-air blowing ratio
are still set as constraints; however, the hole spacing is
set uniform within large areas on the blade surface, allow-
ing the hole diameter to be only free variable. It follows
that, the minimization of the effused-air flow rate is pre-
cluded, if this design approach is pursued.

3. Results

A typical first-stage rotor blade in a heavy-duty gas tur-

bine was chosen for the present analysis. Fig. 2 represents
the mid span section and Table 1 gives the turbine’s cycle,
stage and geometrical data chosen for the numerical
Fig. 4. Surface distribution of hole diameters.
simulations.
Figs. 3–7 show the results of the simulation where the
hole diameters, hole density and spacing are obtained by
solving the objective function (Eq. (1)). Figs. 8 and 9 show
the blowing ratio and on hole diameter distribution conse-
quent to fixing uniform hole spacing for large blade areas.

3.1. Thermo-fluid-dynamic optimization

Fig. 4 shows the external diameter of the holes versus

the normalized curvilinear coordinate s/c and the normal-

Fig. 5. Surface distribution of hole density.

ized blade length. Said diameter ranges between about 10

Fig. 3. Surface distribution of holes. The arrow shows the flow (chordwise)
direction.
and 90 lm on the blade’s outer surface, the minimum value
being prompted by the need to prevent fouling in the holes.
The chordwise distribution of the hole diameters is strongly
affected by the pressure gradient between the outer and
inner sides of the blade’s wall. Where the external pressure
is lower (along the red segments), the diameter of the holes
696 G. Cerri et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698
Fig. 6. Surface distribution of adiabatic film efficiency.
Fig. 7. Surface distribution of spacing parameter.
Fig. 8. Surface distribution of specific mass flow of coolant.
is smaller, while it becomes larger, the lower the pressure
gradient. This parameter is also generally lower at the
blade’s tip than at the hub because the cooling air pressure
on the inner surface of the blade increases from hub to tip
due to the centrifugal force.
The distribution of the hole diameters depends on the
limitation imposed on the blowing ratio: where the pressure
gradients are higher, the holes have to be narrower to pro-
duce pressure losses intense enough to contain the cooling
Fig. 9. Blowing ratio surface distribution.
air ignition speed. The constraint on the effusion speed lim-
its the maximum diameter too, which in this case is about
90 lm. The holes at the leading edge have a small diameter
as well, for much the same reason: though minor pressure
gradients are encountered at the leading edge between the
inner and outer surfaces of the blade, the hot gas speed is
near zero, so the cooling air effusion velocity needs to
approach the same value.
The density of holes per unit area is shown in Fig. 5. The
maximum hole density is confined to the area with the
smallest hole diameters. I.E., the red area features hole den-
sities higher than 3000 holes/cm2 with a peak at about
9000 holes/cm2 at the very leading edge. A greater density
of holes in the areas where they have smaller diameters
ensures that the necessary cooling air mass flow is still pro-
vided on the blade’s outer surface. The adiabatic film effi-
ciency defined as:
T rec  T film
gfilm ¼ ð3Þ
T g;r  T e;o
is plotted in Fig. 6. In the areas with narrower holes, the
adiabatic film efficiency reaches its maximum values and
the film temperature drop (see Eq. (3)), giving rise to the
best heat shielding effect.
The plot in Fig. 7 comes from the one in Fig. 6, since the
adiabatic film efficiency is more or less inversely propor-
tional to the spacing parameter x/Dh. The adiabatic film
efficiency is in the range of 0.23–0.35, while the spacing
parameter x/Dh varies from 3 to 10, which is typical of effu-
sive cooling systems (see Andrews et al. [20]).
The distribution of the cooling air mass flow per unit
area is shown in Fig. 8: it follows the hole diameter and
adiabatic film efficiency distributions, showing that a lower
coolant mass flow is needed in the areas where there is a
better heat removal from the wall (through narrower holes)
and a better heat shielding at the blade’s outer surface. The
geometrical configuration of the holes discussed above
enables a total coolant mass flow of about 0.0057 kg/s to
be obtained for the whole blade. In the case of a turbine
rotor built with 60 blades, the coolant mass flow is about
1.2% of the hot gas mass flow.
 G. Cerri et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 692–698
3.2. Manufacturing-oriented optimization
Figs. 3–7 show that a continuous variation of hole diam-
eter and distributions guarantees an isothermal blade sur-
face and minimum cooling mass flow consumption.
Since a great simplification in the fabrication of the
matrix could be obtained if large areas on the blade’s sur-
face are fabricated with uniform hole distribution, a new
solution of the cooling problem was investigated moving
from the results of the former simulations oriented to a
thermo-fluid-dynamic optimization. In particular such
areas were tentatively identified moving from that of
almost constant hole spacing (see) in Figs. 9 and 10 those
areas are highlighted with rectangles named with letters
from ‘‘A’’ to ‘‘H’’. For each area, the hole spacing in chord-
wise direction was established (see also Table 2). In partic-
ular, it was decided to maintain the blowing ratio lower
than 0.4 everywhere on the blade’s surface, while keeping
an isothermal surface temperature of 1200 K.
Compared to what emerges from the simulations carried
out for the thermo-fluid-dynamic optimized case, the blow-
ing ratio distribution presents a large variability on the sur-
face ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 (see Fig. 9). For the same
reason, the hole diameter distribution changes with respect
to the one presented in Fig. 4. Fig. 10 shows that the aver-
age hole diameter decreases significantly, even though the
hole diameter still ranges from 10 to 90 lm.
The hole configuration discussed allows roughly the
same coolant mass flow to be effused through the blade sur-
face compared to the thermo-fluid-dynamic optimized case,
since this parameter is essentially proportional to the blade
temperature and working conditions. The matrix manufac-
turing-oriented optimization brings an increase of the
holes’ number by a factor of about 2.5, i.e. 14,000 holes
Fig. 10. Temperature surface distribution.
Table 2
Spacing between rows of holes
A B C D E F G H
x hole spacing (lm) 450 250 120 60 200 300 500
697
in the thermo-fluid-dynamic optimized case – 33,000 holes
in the present case, where the hole spacing is smaller than
the optimum value for large portions of the blade’s surface.
This increase is easily managed during the matrix fabrica-
tion stage and does not determines additional fabrication
costs for the component, since this technology is cost insen-
sitive to the number of holes required on the surface.
A further improvement with respect to the manufactur-
ing process could be obtained if the hole diameter would be
set constant within sub-areas that are included in the ones
presented in Figs. 9 and 10. However, since in this case the
hole diameter is set (i.e. it is not computed as in previous
cases), a certain temperature variability has to be accepted
within each of the sub-areas. It follows that, the extent of
the sub-areas as to be setup as a function of the maximum
temperature gradients that are acceptable on the blade’s
wall. This extra step is not presented in this paper for
brevity.
4. Conclusions
The paper presents a discussion of some consequences of
the flexibility offered by the PoroformÒ technology on the
design and performance of the effusive cooling systems.
The 2D model, developed for designing and analyzing the
geometrical parameters of effusive cooling systems, proves
that a very effective cooling system performance can be
obtained either by varying both the diameter and distribu-
tion of the holes, or by fixing the hole spacing, with minor
effects on cooling effectiveness and cooling air consump-
tion. The latter solution copes quite well with a simplifica-
tion in the design and fabrication matrix for the
electroforming process. The analysis showed that for both
cases the blade can withstand temperatures up to 1200 K
using the effusive cooling system described herein, and that
the coolant mass flow for the manufacturing-optimized
case resulted to be about unchanged compared to the
thermo-fluid-dynamic optimized one.
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