CHAPTER 3: VOLTAGE SAGS AND INTERRUPTIONS

• Sources of Sags and Interruptions

• Characteristics and Classification of Voltage Sags
• Estimating Voltage Sag Performance
• Sensitivity of Equipment to Voltage Sag
• Effect of Voltage Sags on Equipment
• Fundamental Principles of Protection
• Solutions at the End-User Level
• Evaluating the Economics of Different Ride-Through
Alternatives
• Motor-Starting Sags
• Utility System Fault-Clearing Issues

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Sources of Voltage Sags and Interruption

There are three source types recognized can cause voltage sags
occur in power system namely; short circuit fault, large motor
starting and energizing of transformer. Third of the source types
produce different characteristics of voltage sag.

Duration range for interruption types are as follows:

Instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles
Momentary 30 cycles to 2 seconds
Temporary 2 seconds to 2 minutes
Sustained greater than 2 minutes

The monitoring result for one month in medium voltage network

with 98 numbers of monitor and total number recording is 756.
The recorded were grouped in different classes as shown in Table
3.1. Prepared by Surya Hardi, PhD 2
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short circuit fault

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 There are four types of faults that may occur in transmission
and distribution systems. The potentials of the various fault types
are shown in Figure 3.2.

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Example of voltage
sag waveform due
to faults

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Large motor starting

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During starting process, induction motor current can achieve 5
to 7 times of full load current (Gomez and Morcos, 2002) and it
will causes another source of voltage sags.
The motor starting current is fluctuates, which are rapidly
rising up to peak, followed by quickly drops to a multiple value
of its nominal level. After that, the current is smoothly decreased
toward it nominal, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.6 shows voltage amplitudes of the three-phases
during induction motor starting. The sag duration due to motor
starting is usually taking a longer time, but the voltage sags
resulted commonly are small and do not lead to serious matters
at the customer (Gomez and Morcos, 2002; Styvaktakis and
Bollen, 2003).

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Fig. 3.5 Starting current motor

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Fig. 3.6: Voltage sags caused by starting motor (Styvaktakis and Bollen, 2003)

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3. Transformer energization
Transformer energization causes a sudden drop in voltage
followed a slow recovery same as motor starting, but the voltages
drop are different. The drop voltage caused by transformer
energization is not same in magnitude.

(a) Instantaneous voltage waveform (b) RMS voltages

Fig. A voltage sag due to the energization of an unloaded transformer

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 There are differences between the third of sources sags
which are as follows:

(i) Sag caused by a fault is characterized by a sudden drop

voltage and the voltage returns to normal in short time.
(ii)Sag caused by motor starting is characterized by a sudden
drop voltage but the voltage restoration takes longer time.
Voltage drop of the third phases is the similar in magnitude.
(iii)Sag resulted by energization of transformer shows a sudden
drop voltage and a smooth restoration, but the voltage drop is
not similar in the three phases. Another behavior of
energizing transformer is appearance of second harmonic
distortion significantly.

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Characteristics and Classification of Voltage Sags
1. magnitude and a duration
A voltage sag is normally characterized by a magnitude and a
duration. These parameters many cause the equipment disrupt
or malfunction.

According to IEEE std. 1159 (1995), sag magnitude range from

10% to 90% of nominal voltage and sag duration from one half
cycles to one minute (magnitude less than 10% are classified as
interruptions). Sag magnitude is the net rms voltage in percent or
per unit of system nominal voltage. Sag magnitude is remaining
voltage.
As an illustration in a 220 V, voltage sag of 20% it means that
the voltage remain 44 V.
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 Fig. 3.7 Voltage sag described by magnitude and duration

Generally sag magnitude is determined by fault types and fault

location whereas the fault clearing times of protection systems.

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The duration of voltage sag is defined as the time difference
between the beginning and the end of the voltage sag or in other
word duration of the sag is the time interval between the point on
wave of sag initiation and recovery.
It is determined by clearing time of the protective device.

In high and medium voltage, the faults are cleared by protective

device and circuit breaker. Faults in low voltage systems are
normally cleared by fuses with typical fault clearing times between
10 milliseconds and a few seconds.

The duration of voltage sag is total of the operation time of relay

and a circuit breaker,

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Many types of fault clearing devices and each characteristic
usually has an absolute minimum time that it takes to clear the
fault,

 current limiting fuses: less than one cycle

 expulsion fuse: 10 - 1000 ms
 distance relay in zone 1: 100 - 200 ms
 distance relay in zone 2: 200 - 500 ms
 differential relay: 100 - 300 ms
 over current relay: 200 - 2000ms

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2. Point on wave of sag initiation

POW of sag initiation is the phase angle of the sinusoidal voltage

where the voltage sag begins.
The POW has affect the performance of equipment such as DC
motor drives which are used to control thyristor connected to the
AC line, relays, motor-starters and contactor and induction motor
(IEEE Std. 1159, 1995; Guash et. al., 2004 and Djokic et. al.,
2007).
Voltage (Volt)

Voltage (Volt)

73ms
121ms
Time (ms) Time (ms)

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3. Phase shift
A short circuit fault can cause voltage drop and also change in
phase angle as well (Bollen, 2000; Djokic et. al., 2006).
Phase shift is the difference phase angle among of normal voltage
and voltage during the fault. Phase shift may result in several
equipment disrupting, tripping, or even damage and it depends on
the type electronic device.

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Voltage recovery instant (restoration of supply voltage to normal)
related to the fault clearing time instant.
It can cause large inrush current for rectifiers, peak current and
peak torque for motor load and possible saturation of transformers.
Voltage (Volt)

Time (millisecond)

Fig. Voltage recovery of three-phase sag waveform

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4. Repetitive voltage sags
Lightning stroke and re-closer operations are the main causes of
repetitive voltage sags (double sags).

Fig. Common reclosing sequences for line re-closers

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 Delay

First sag Second sag

Voltage (Volt)

Time (millisecond)

Fig. Repetitive voltage sag event

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Classification of Voltage Sag

Different types of faults and transformer winding connection

create different types of voltage sags.

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Fig. type of voltage sag basic classification
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Estimating Voltage Sag Performance
1. Caused by short circuit.
A very simple calculation method to assessment of voltage sag is
based on the voltage divider equivalent circuit introduced by Bollen
(2001) such as in Figure 3.
Bus

Load
Z1
G Fig. 3
Z2

the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) during

fault is,
Z2 3.1
VLoad 
Z1  Z 2
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Where:
Z1 is the source impedance at the PCC
Z2 is the impedance between the PCC and the fault.

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 pZ1 (1 - pZ1)

Z0
G
Load

Z2

Fig. 2.12 A simple for faults in a sub-transmission loop.

a equation voltage sag at load bus for system loop

p(1  p) Z12
Vsag1  3.2
Z 0 ( Z1  Z 2 )  pZ1 Z 2  p(1  p) Z12

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If the fault is closer to CB1, then CB1 opens to clear the fault and the load bus
will experience a voltage of magnitude,

p (1-pZ1)

Z2

(1  p) Z1
Vsag2  3.3
( Z 0  Z 2 )  (1  p) Z1

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the above formulas it is easy to see that the opening of CB1
will lead to an increase in voltage because

Z 0 (Z1  Z 2 )  pZ 0 Z1

. Similarly, it can be shown that if CB2 opens first

(for a fault closer to CB2), then the voltage sag magnitude will
also increase.

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As an illustration, simple three-phase calculations for radial
distribution systems, the fault occurs on bus B-1.

INFINITE
BUS 132 Kv 33 Kv B-2 B-1

J.04 J.07 J.05

J.02

Fig. the positive sequence reactance of radial distribution

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While fault current is flowing from the infinite bus to bus B-1, the
voltage at the bus B2 is

j 0.5
VB  1.0  0.28 p.u.
j 0.40  j 0.2  j 0.70  j 0.5

It means that the voltage at load experience 72% sags.

The voltage at the 33 kV bus and all loads on F1 and F2 including C,

j 0.70  j 0.5
V33  1.0  0.67 p.u.
j 0.40  j 0.2  j 0.70  j 0.5

It means that the voltage at load experience 33% sags.

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an example of parallel distribution, a three-phase fault occurs
close to bus B-1.

B-1 B-2

CB1 CB2
J 0.1 J 0.3
G
Load
J 0.1

CB3 CB4
J 0.4

Reactance: pZ1 = j0.1; (1-p) Z1 = j0.3; Z2 = j0.4 and Z0 = j0.1.

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By using equation (3.2) and (3.3), the voltage at the load is

( j 0.1)( j 0.3)
Vsag1 
j 0.1( j 0.3  j 0.4)  ( j 0.1)( j 0.4)  ( j 0.1)( j 0.3)

Vsag1  0.23

It means that the voltage at load experience 77% sags.

an example of parallel distribution, a three-phase fault occurs

close to bus B-2

j 0.3
Vsag2   0.5 p.u
( j 0.1  j 0.4)  ( j 0.1)

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2. Caused by motor starting.

The voltage experienced by a load fed from the same bus as the
motor is

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A sources voltage of 1 pu, when a motor of rated power S motor is f
ed from a sources with a short circuit power Ssource. The sources
impedance can be writed as,

Zs = (Vn)^2 / Ssource

For impedance during starting,

ZM = (Vn)^2 / βSmotor

β is the ratio between starting current and the nominal current.

Vsag = (Ssource) / (Ssouce + βSmotor )

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Let Zs is source impedance at the pcc, ZM teh motor impedance
during run up and ZT the transformer transformator. The
magnitude of the voltage sag experienced by the sensitive load is

37
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The short circuit power of the souces Ssource, the rated power of
the notor Smotor and assuming that the transformer has the same
rated power of the motor and and impedance ϛ can be found

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Sensitivity of Equipment to Voltage Sag

There are several standards have been recognized to evaluate right

through of equipment against variation of supply voltage:
1. Power acceptability curve proposed by The Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA)
2. in 1996 The CBEMA re-designed is called Information
Technology Council Curve (ITIC)
3. Latest standard is known as Semiconductor Equipment and
Material Institute (SEMI) F47 curve.

IEEE Std. 1159 (1995) and IEEE Std. 1346 (1998) recommend that
way to present ride-through of equipment against voltage sags is
voltage tolerance curve or sensitivity curve.
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Fig. : The CBEMA power acceptability curve (Heydt, et. al., 2001)

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Fig.: The ITIC power acceptability curve (IEEE Std.1346, 1998).

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The SEMI F47 is an identical curve produced for semiconductor
processing equipment from voltage sag immunity

Fig.: SEMI F47 and ITIC curves

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Present the equipment performance when it was subjected to
voltage sags which is the voltage-tolerance curve or sensitivity
curve.

Fig.: Typical equipment voltage tolerance curve

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Example To find Voltage tolerance/sensitivity curve

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The ability of sensitive equipment to withstand to voltage sags
without dropout is known as ride-through capability.

Sensitivity of equipment to voltage sag characteristics can be

commonly grouped into three main categories as follows (Dugan, et.
al., 2003).

1. Equipment which are sensitive against sag magnitude only. For

examples, process controls equipment, motor drive and many
kinds of automated machines.
2. Equipment which are sensitive to the main characteristics which
are sag magnitude and sag duration.
3. Equipment which are susceptible against other characteristics.
These include contactor, ASD and induction motor, computer.

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Bolen et. al., (2010) proposed a latest immunity distinction for
equipment into many different ions and labeled as A, B, C, C1 and
D

Class A is top level

Class B is high level
Class C is moderate level of
Voltage (%)

Class C1 is moderate level

(as per IEC-6100-4-11)
Class D is moderate level

Duration (millisecond)

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Effect of voltage sag and interruption on equipment

1. Contactors
• A contactor operates when the electromagnetic coil is fed by a
voltage source. The coil produces a current that induces a
magnetic field to close the electrical contacts.
• When the supply voltage is disconnected from the coil, the
spring causes the contact retain in open position
• Voltage sags and interruption
will cause electrical current
held-in contactors until drop
out
• An AC coil contactor is
electromechanical device,
which act as a switch to
connect and disconnect
to a varies of electric systems
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Figure : Basic motor control circuits

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 60% sag magnitude with 100ms sag
duration, contactor did not trip.

30% sag magnitude with 100ms sag

duration, the contactor trip

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For 60% sag magnitude with 100ms
sag duration, the contactor did not
trip

For 40% sag magnitude with 100ms sag

duration), the contactor tripped

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in different four points which are P, Q, R and S which their located in points: P
(50%; 40 ms), Q (40%; 40ms), R (20%; 40ms) and S (20%; 80ms). Compare
with points P and Q located in similar sag duration (40ms), but different in sag
magnitude which are 50% and 35%, respectively. The point P shows contactor
remains closed, whereas at point Q (for deeper sag) the contactor drops out.
Point R indicates the contactor did not trip when it was subjected to voltage sag
(20%; 40ms). Point S indicates the contactor is in tripping condition which it
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Figure: Sensitivity curves of contactor B in various POW of voltage sag initiation

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