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Other Storage Systems
Flash Memory: Flash Memory:
No moving parts , less mechanical failures • Small in size makes it possible to use with
solid state storage system, consume less power Digi. cam, Dig. Media players, smart phones,
any other portable data transfer devices
h bl d f d i
• Available as Flash memory cards, USB flash
drives, solid state drives, hybrid drives.
• USB Flash Drives:
• Flash memory media integrated into self
• Flash Memory cards: contained unit that uses a USB interface and
• Small card containing one or more memroy chips, consequently connects to PC or other device via a
a controller chip, other electrical components, standard USB port.
and metal contact to connect the card to the • They become active only when plugged in, since
device or reader with which it is being used. their power is provided through the USB
their power is provided through the USB
interface.
• Compact CF, secure Digital(SD), Secure Digital • Small enough to carry in a pocket or on a
High Capacity(SSHD), Multimedia Card(MMC), keychain.
memory stick, smart media • 512MB to 16 GB
• Capacity : 4 GB ‐16GB, 32 GB is expected very
soon.
• Solid State Drives(SSD) and Hybrid Hard Drives(HHD)
Hybrid Hard Drives(HHD) Hybrid Hard Drives(SSD) an alternative to
Solid State Drives(SSD) a replacement to conventional conventional hard drives;
hard drives; smaller, faster and consume very less
p
power, makes them very attractive specially for
y p y g
While most hard drives contain an integrated flash
portable computers. memory cache of 2MB to 16 MB to improve
Internal: Capacity up to 256 GB. performance, HHD’d combine a large flash
External SSD: express card solid state drives that plug into memory cache of around 1 GB with a magnetic
express slots. hard drive.
future: External solid drives which can connect via USB,
SATA ports Emerging technology: Magneto resistive random
access memory, phase change memory
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Smart cards: Remote storage systems:
• A hard drive or a folder accessed via a
network
• When the remote device is accessed through
a local network it is referred as network
storage.
• Online storage is the term most often refers to
storage accessed through internet.
Storage for large computers: Network‐Attached Storage
• Storage server with multiple high speed hard drives • Network‐attached storage (NAS) is storage made available
over a network rather than over a local connection (such as a
• Ex; 2,560 hard drives for a total capacity of say 600 TB
bus)
• Enterprise storage systems
• typically use fast fibre channel or iscsi connections and
are scalable.
• Storage servers may also be used in Network attached
storage(NAS), storage area network(SAN) and
redundant array disks(RAID)
Storage Area Network RAID Structure
• Common in large storage environments (and
becoming more common) • RAID – multiple disk drives provides reliability
• Multiple hosts attached to multiple storage arrays ‐ via redundancy.
flexible
• RAID is arranged into six different levels.
i di i diff l l
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RAID (cont) Stable‐Storage Implementation
• Several improvements in disk‐use techniques • Write‐ahead log scheme requires stable
involve the use of multiple disks working storage.
cooperatively.
• Disk
Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage
striping uses a group of disks as one storage • To implement stable storage:
p g
unit. – Replicate information on more than one
nonvolatile storage media with independent
• RAID schemes improve performance and improve failure modes.
the reliability of the storage system by storing – Update information in a controlled manner to
redundant data. ensure that we can recover the stable data after
– Mirroring or shadowing keeps duplicate of each disk. any failure during data transfer or recovery.
Hierarchical Storage Management (HSM)
Operating System Issues
• Major OS jobs are to manage physical devices • A hierarchical storage system extends the storage
and to present a virtual machine abstraction hierarchy beyond primary memory and secondary
storage to incorporate tertiary storage — usually
to applications implemented as a jukebox of tapes or removable disks.
• Usually incorporate tertiary storage by extending the
Usually incorporate tertiary storage by extending the
• For hard disks, the OS provides two file system.
abstraction: – Small and frequently used files remain on disk.
– Raw device – an array of data blocks. – Large, old, inactive files are archived to the jukebox.
– File system – the OS queues and schedules the • HSM is usually found in supercomputing centers and
interleaved requests from several applications. other large installations that have enormous volumes
of data.
Speed Speed (Cont.)
• Access latency – amount of time needed to locate data.
• Two aspects of speed in tertiary storage are – Access time for a disk – move the arm to the selected cylinder
and wait for the rotational latency; < 35 milliseconds.
bandwidth and latency. – Access on tape requires winding the tape reels until the selected
block reaches the tape head; tens or hundreds of seconds.
– Generally say that random access within a tape cartridge is
• Bandwidth is measured in bytes per second. about a thousand times slower than random access on disk.
• The
The low cost of tertiary storage is a result of having many
low cost of tertiary storage is a result of having many
– Sustained bandwidth – average data rate during a cheap cartridges share a few expensive drives.
large transfer; # of bytes/transfer time. • A removable library is best devoted to the storage of
Data rate when the data stream is actually flowing. infrequently used data, because the library can only satisfy a
relatively small number of I/O requests per hour.
– Effective bandwidth – average over the entire I/O
time, including seek or locate, and cartridge
switching.
Drive’s overall data rate.
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Reliability Cost
• A fixed disk drive is likely to be more reliable than • Main memory is much more expensive than disk storage
a removable disk or tape drive.
• The cost per megabyte of hard disk storage is competitive
with magnetic tape if only one tape is used per drive.
• An optical cartridge is likely to be more reliable
than a magnetic disk or tape. • The
The cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk drives have
cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk drives have
had about the same storage capacity over the years.
• A head crash in a fixed hard disk generally • Tertiary storage gives a cost savings only when the number
of cartridges is considerably larger than the number of
destroys the data, whereas the failure of a tape drives.
drive or optical disk drive often leaves the data
cartridge unharmed.
Price per Megabyte of DRAM, From 1981 to 2004 Price per Megabyte of Magnetic Hard Disk, From 1981 to 2004
Price per Megabyte of a Tape Drive, From 1984‐2000