Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A majority of the world’s population is living in the seismic hazard region. This
number is rapidly increasing due to the developments of the cities and mega cities situated
in the seismic regions. So for preventing the loss resulting from seismic activities in the
seismically affected areas the structures should be design with due consideration of seismic
forces.
For designing a seismic resistant structure the structural engineer is responsible for
analysing the forces with a proposed level of accuracy and prepares an economic criterion
to fulfil structural design. There is a need to develop structures that not only survive in the
strongest expected earthquake of the area without collapsing, but also suffer very limited or
no damage in the earthquakes with larger probability of occurrence. The design approach
adopted in the Indian Standard 1893: 2016 is to ensure that:-
Structure possess at least minimum strength to with stand minor earthquakes of design
basic earthquake (<DBE) which occur frequently without damage; resist moderate
earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage though some non-structural
damage may occur; and aims that structures withstand a major earthquake as maximum
considered earthquake (MCE) without collapse.
Choosing an appropriate lateral force resisting system has a significant effect on
performance of the structure in buildings. Steel structures are obviously one of the best
choices for the building constructions in the world. Among these buildings for lateral load
resisting systems, different types of braced structures are probably the most favourite
types, due to less skill needed for welding and joints, and possibility to use common and
lighter section for beams and braces. So this study is aimed at investigating and comparing
various types of bracing system including X- Bracing, V- Bracing and Inverted V-Bracing.
For providing a good comparison among all bracing types chosen here for study three
dimensional models were analyzed using a computer software for evaluation of differences
and advantages of each types of bracing system. The sections used in modelling are Indian
Sections. The types of loading are derived from IS 875: 1987, IS 1893(part 1):2002, IS
800:2007 and ASCE 7-10.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Among such imported ideas, building with steel is trying to find a foothold in India
today. It is very common to see a public building with structural steel in the U.S. and
Europe.Once finished with infill walls, external cladding, flooring materials, paint finish,
doors and windows, only a subject expert may identify a steel building. As a technology, it
is much faster than any other existing approaches, offering a wide choice of material
finishes.The material gives it greater fire safety, while making it easy for future
maintenance and alterations.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
𝐴
𝑀𝐿 = log 10 [𝐴 ] (1.1)
0
whereML is the Richter magnitude, A is the maximum excursion of the seismograph and A0
is a parameter that depends on the epicentral distance. In practice earthquakes that have a
magnitude smaller than 3.0 are usually not perceivable. The Richter scale is usually
wrongly referred to in reports as present day the moment magnitude scale is preferably
used. This scale measures earthquakes in terms of the released energy and is mostly
formulated to overlap with the predecessor.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 3
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The previous records of earthquake and their size is given below in table 1.1.
In a seismologist’s point of view the magnitude scales are suitable to measure the size of
earthquakes but in terms of structural engineering this information about a certain event is
far from adequate. Building structures are directly subjected to the displacements,
velocities and accelerations caused by the mechanical wave propagation.These largely
depend on several additional factors like the epicentral distance and the various mechanical
parameters of the underlying soil.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 4
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
To utilize these advantages for seismic applications, the design engineer has to be familiar
with the relevant steel design provisions and their intent and must ensure that the
construction is properly executed. This is especially important when welding is involved.
a) Torsion: Objects and buildings have a center of mass, a point by which the object
(building) can be balanced without rotation occurring. If the mass is uniformly distributed
then the geometric center of the floor and the center of mass may coincide. Uneven mass
distribution will position the center of mass outside of the geometric center causing
"torsion" generating stress concentrations. A certain amount of torsion is unavoidable in
every building design. Symmetrical arrangement of masses, however, will result in
balanced stiffness against either direction and keep torsion within a manageable range.
b) Damping: Buildings in general are poor resonators to dynamic shock and dissipate
vibration by absorbing it. Damping is a rate at which natural vibration is absorbed.
d) Strength and Stiffness: Strength is a property of a material to resist and bear applied
forces within a safe limit. Stiffness of a material is a degree of resistance to deflection or
drift (drift being a horizontal story-to-story relative displacement).
e) Building Configuration: This term defines a building's size and shape, and structural
and non-structural elements. Building configuration determines the way seismic forces are
distributed within the structure, their relative magnitude, and problematic design concerns.
Regular Configuration buildings have Shear Walls or Moment-Resistant Frames or
Braced Frames and generally have:
Low Height to Base Ratios
Equal Floor Heights
Symmetrical Plans
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 5
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Irregular Configuration buildings are those that differ from the "Regular" definition and
have problematic stress concentrations and torsion.
Soft first storey is a discontinuity of strength and stiffness for lateral load at the ground
level.
Discontinuous shearwalls do not line up consistently one upon the other causing "soft"
levels.
Variation in perimeter strength and stiffness such as an open front on the ground level
usually causes eccentricity or torsion.
Re-entrant corners in the shapes of H, L, T, and U develop stress concentration and
torsion. Seismic designs should adequately separate re-entrant corners or strengthen them.
Knowledge of the structure's time period, torsion, damping, ductility, strength,
stiffness, and configuration can help one determine the most appropriate seismic design
devices and mitigation strategies to employ.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 6
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The bracing can be classified according to plane in which they are used or
asconcentric braced frame,eccentric braced frame with link beams. The basic classification
is given in Fig 1.1.
Bracing
Horizontal Vertical
Bracing Bracing
Diaphragm
Concentric Eccentric
Traingulation
X,K,V Type X,K,V with
Bracings linked element
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 7
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 8
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.5.4 K-Bracing
In K Bracing braces connect to the columns at mid-height.This frame has
more flexibility for the provision of openings and results in the least bending
in floor beams. [Fig. 1.4]
1.5.5 V-Bracing
This involves two diagonal members extending from the top two corners of a
horizontal member and meeting at a centre point at the lower horizontal member, in the
shape of V, Inverted V-bracing (also known as chevron bracing) involves the two members
meeting at a centre point on the upper horizontal member.
Both mean that the buckling capacity of the compression brace is likely to be
significantly less than the tension yield capacity of the tension brace. This mean that when
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 9
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
the braces reach their resistance capacity, the load must be resisted in the bending of the
horizontal member.
Inverted V bracing is concentric and therefore can counteract the lateral loading by
truss action but only if the compression bar does not buckle. The buckling resistance of the
compression bar is reached usually at a substantially smaller loading than the tensile
ultimate resistance of the tension brace. If the buckled diagonal does not carry any further
loading the growing axial force of the tensile diagonal has to be carried by the connected
beam. This behaviour is not necessarily better or worse, but inevitably different from the
strictly truss behaviour of diagonal bracings.[Fig 1.5]
The eccentric link element between the ends of the braces is designed as a weak but
ductile link which yields before any of the other frame members. Therefore it provides a
dependable source of ductility and, by using capacity design principles, it can prevent the
shear in the structure from reaching the level at which buckling occurs in any of the
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 10
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
members. The link element is relatively short and so the elastic response of the frame is
similar to that of the equivalent concentrically braced frame (CBF). The arrangement thus
combines the advantageous stiffness of CBFs in its elastic response, while providing much
greater ductility and avoiding problems of buckling and irreversible yielding which affect
CBFs in their post-yield phase. This system also helps the structure to reduce the buckling
of columns and beams and the stiffness of the structure is increased. [Fig 1.6]
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 11
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Ductility is the property, which allows the structure to undergo large plastic
deformations without significant loss of strength [Fig. 1.7]. Ductility (µ) is defined as the
ratio of the ultimate deformation (𝛿𝑢 ) at an assumed collapse point, to the yield
deformation (𝛿𝑦 ). It may be noted that the collapse point may be assumed to lie on the
descending branch of the load-deformation curve. This is still safe because earthquake
loading is transient and will cease to act after a short time and so the structure will not be
toppled.
Hysteretic energy is the energy dissipated by inelastic cyclic deformations and is
given by the area within the load-deformation curve also called the hysteretic curve. In
structures having low hysteretic energy dissipation capacities, even if the deformations are
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 12
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
well below the ultimate deformation, the structure is likely to collapse due to low-cycle
fatigue effect as described below.
The degradation of strength and stiffness under repeated inelastic cycling is called
lowcycle fatigue. Ensuring that the structure is able to dissipate a large amount of
hysteretic energy in each cycle can minimise low-cycle fatigue effect. The area enclosed
by the force-deformation loops gives the hysteretic energy. Larger area implies more
dissipation of hysteretic energy as shown in Fig. 1.7. One way of ensuringgood ductility
and energy dissipation capacity in steel structures is to use thicker sections thereby
avoiding early local buckling. Thus, plastic and compact sections are preferred over semi-
compact and slender sections. Other parameters, which control ductility, are slenderness
ratio and axial load ratio of the members.
With reference to framed structures, it has been found that some collapse
mechanisms ensure larger energy dissipation capacities compared to some other collapse
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 13
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Although all of the above mentioned concepts are important for ensuring the safety
of structures during a severe earthquake, one should keep in mind the great uncertainty
associated with the seismic behaviour of structures. Past earthquakes have demonstrated
that simplicity is the key to avoid unforeseen effects and so attention given at the planning
stage itself can go a long way in ensuring safety and economy in seismic design.
Although the selection of a suitable site and foundation is not within the scope of
this chapter, some guidelines are given in view of the wrong advice given by several
‘experts’ in the aftermath of the Gujarat earthquake. It is common sense to select a site
where the bedrock is available close to the surface so that the foundations can be laid
directly on the rock. Conversely, where such a condition is not available it is a simple
matter to say that the site should be avoided. However the engineering problem arises
when, due to practical reasons, it is not possible to avoid a site where bedrock is not
available close to the surface.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 14
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
In this study time history analysis is used for comparing the bracing systems. So
ETABS is chosen here for analysis and obtaining data for comparison.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 15
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2: In this chapter the literature review is discussed i.e. the work done by various
researchers in the field of modelling of steel structural members and its analysis. The
conclusion of the each literature review is also listed in this chapter
Chapter 4: This chapter deals with the method of analysis used for seismic analysis of
building and analysis method adopted for the current research.
Chapter 5: Deals with the analysis of steel frames with various concentric bracing using
ETAB’S v.16.03
Chapter 6: The results from time history analysis, comparison between the steel frames
with various eccentric bracing, all are discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 7: Finally, salient conclusions and recommendations of the present study are
given in this chapter followed by the references.
Time History Analysis of Steel Framed Structure with Various Types of Bracing Page 16