CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
A majority of the world’s population is living in the seismic hazard region. This
number is rapidly increasing due to the developments of the cities and mega cities situated
in the seismic regions. So for preventing the loss resulting from seismic activities in the
seismically affected areas the structures should be design with due consideration of seismic
forces.
For designing a seismic resistant structure the structural engineer is responsible for
analysing the forces with a proposed level of accuracy and prepares an economic criterion
to fulfil structural design. There is a need to develop structures that not only survive in the
strongest expected earthquake of the area without collapsing, but also suffer very limited or
no damage in the earthquakes with larger probability of occurrence. The design approach
adopted in the Indian Standard 1893: 2016 is to ensure that:-
Structure possess at least minimum strength to with stand minor earthquakes of design
basic earthquake (<DBE) which occur frequently without damage; resist moderate
earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage though some non-structural
damage may occur; and aims that structures withstand a major earthquake as maximum
considered earthquake (MCE) without collapse.
Choosing an appropriate lateral force resisting system has a significant effect on
performance of the structure in buildings. Steel structures are obviously one of the best
choices for the building constructions in the world. Among these buildings for lateral load
resisting systems, different types of braced structures are probably the most favourite
types, due to less skill needed for welding and joints, and possibility to use common and
lighter section for beams and braces. So this study is aimed at investigating and comparing
various types of bracing system including X- Bracing, V- Bracing and Inverted V-Bracing.
For providing a good comparison among all bracing types chosen here for study three
dimensional models were analyzed using a computer software for evaluation of differences
and advantages of each types of bracing system. The sections used in modelling are Indian
Sections. The types of loading are derived from IS 875: 1987, IS 1893(part 1):2002, IS
800:2007 and ASCE 7-10.

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1.2 Steel Building

During the recent decades, our society has been continuously experimenting with
newer materials and construction alternatives. Sometimes it is to solve a problem, often to
derive benefits like monetary savings, occasionally to strive for a greener future or could
be to explore a personal thought. Not all have led to replicable ideas, but this impulse to
explore which is important to us. Sometimes, we have simply tried out a foreign practice,
like concrete technology, which came from Europe in a big way after our independence.
Within half a century, it has swept across India, shifting the way we built for centuries.

Among such imported ideas, building with steel is trying to find a foothold in India
today. It is very common to see a public building with structural steel in the U.S. and
Europe.Once finished with infill walls, external cladding, flooring materials, paint finish,
doors and windows, only a subject expert may identify a steel building. As a technology, it
is much faster than any other existing approaches, offering a wide choice of material
finishes.The material gives it greater fire safety, while making it easy for future
maintenance and alterations.

1.2.1 Steel as a Building Material

Steel provides several advantages over other building materials:
 Steel is structurally sound and manufactured to strict specifications and tolerances.
 Any excess material is 100% recyclable.
 Steel does not easily warp, buckle, twist or bend, and is therefore easy to modify and
offers design flexibility. Steel is also easy to install.
 Steel provides a significantly greater strength-to-weight ratio in their frames.
 Steel is cost effective and rarely fluctuate in price.
 Steel allows for improved quality of construction and less maintenance, while offering
improved safety and resistance.
Yet, Steel buildings are not common in India. The primary reason is cost, where all the
above advantages come at a price not always worth, unless we are building in a congested
city centre a commercial property with high site value. Return of investment is emerging as
an overriding criterion in our construction industry. Steel structures demand greater
precision than those built with masonry or concrete frame, which cannot be guaranteed by
all contractors.

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1.3 Earthquakes and their representation in Seismic Analysis and Design

1.3.1. Strength and Appearance of Earthquakes
An earthquake is a result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that
creates seismic waves. The source of the energy is the movement of the tectonic plates that
forcesthe edges of the plates to deform and store mechanical energy via deformation.
Earthquakes can also be experienced away from tectonic fault lines as a result of volcanic
activity for example. The origin of the quake is the so calledhypocentre; this is the source
from where the waves propagate. The perpendicular projection of the hypocentre on the
surface is the epicentre where the destruction is usually the largest. Earthquakes have been
recorded for centuries and since the mid19th century they are even measured by
seismometers. To quantify the strength of an earthquake various scales have been
developed.
Some, like the Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS) or the Medvediev-Sponhauer-
Karnik (MSK)scale distinguish the earthquakes based upon their effect mostly in the built
environment. Asthese are strongly dependent on the epicentral distance and the density of
habitation, they arenot appropriate to compare seismicity on different sites. For the sake of
site independentcomparison numerous magnitude scales are in use and still being
developed. The magnitudeis a dimensionless number that grades the size of earthquakes
upon the measured amplitudesof the waves. The most commonly known scale was
developed by Charles Richter. TheRichter magnitude depends on the largest registered
amplitude and can be computed from

𝐴
𝑀𝐿 = log 10 [𝐴 ] (1.1)
0

whereML is the Richter magnitude, A is the maximum excursion of the seismograph and A0
is a parameter that depends on the epicentral distance. In practice earthquakes that have a
magnitude smaller than 3.0 are usually not perceivable. The Richter scale is usually
wrongly referred to in reports as present day the moment magnitude scale is preferably
used. This scale measures earthquakes in terms of the released energy and is mostly
formulated to overlap with the predecessor.

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The previous records of earthquake and their size is given below in table 1.1.

Table 1.1Annual number and intensity of earthquakes globally

Magnitude Size Number of return
8 and above Great 1
7-7.9 Major 18
6-6.9 Strong 120
5-5.9 Moderate 800
4-4.9 Light 6200

In a seismologist’s point of view the magnitude scales are suitable to measure the size of
earthquakes but in terms of structural engineering this information about a certain event is
far from adequate. Building structures are directly subjected to the displacements,
velocities and accelerations caused by the mechanical wave propagation.These largely
depend on several additional factors like the epicentral distance and the various mechanical
parameters of the underlying soil.

1.3.2 Representation of an Earthquake in Seismic Engineering

The analysis of buildings is possible by means of applying acceleration records on the
supported nodes of finite element models of the structures that are linear both in material
and geometry. This is called Linear Time History Analysis (LTHA). Conducting such type
of analysis requires a lot of work in the model building, post processing of the huge
amount of data, computational capacity and time. Moreover, the analysis of one particular
earthquake does not even mean much as seismic actions can be very versatile. But strictly
speaking we do not need to consider the whole loading history; it is satisfactory to know
the maximum seismic action effects. For this purpose the time history analysis is in
common practice, the basis of which will be introduced in the next chapters.

1.4 Seismic Design of Steel Building

The selection of particular type of framing system depends upon the lateral forces
acting on the structure.Steel is one of the most widely used materials for building
construction in world. The inherent strength and toughness of steel are characteristics that
are well suited to a variety of applications, and its high ductility is ideal for seismic design.

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To utilize these advantages for seismic applications, the design engineer has to be familiar
with the relevant steel design provisions and their intent and must ensure that the
construction is properly executed. This is especially important when welding is involved.

1.4.1 Seismic Design Factors

The following factors affect the design of the building. It is important to understand
these factors and deal with them prudently in the analysis and design phase.

a) Torsion: Objects and buildings have a center of mass, a point by which the object
(building) can be balanced without rotation occurring. If the mass is uniformly distributed
then the geometric center of the floor and the center of mass may coincide. Uneven mass
distribution will position the center of mass outside of the geometric center causing
"torsion" generating stress concentrations. A certain amount of torsion is unavoidable in
every building design. Symmetrical arrangement of masses, however, will result in
balanced stiffness against either direction and keep torsion within a manageable range.

b) Damping: Buildings in general are poor resonators to dynamic shock and dissipate
vibration by absorbing it. Damping is a rate at which natural vibration is absorbed.

c) Ductility: Ductility is the characteristic of a material (such as steel) to bend, flex, or

move, but fails only after considerable deformation. Non-ductile materials (such as poor
reinforced concrete) fail abruptly by crumbling. Good ductility can be achieved with
carefully detailed joints.

d) Strength and Stiffness: Strength is a property of a material to resist and bear applied
forces within a safe limit. Stiffness of a material is a degree of resistance to deflection or
drift (drift being a horizontal story-to-story relative displacement).

e) Building Configuration: This term defines a building's size and shape, and structural
and non-structural elements. Building configuration determines the way seismic forces are
distributed within the structure, their relative magnitude, and problematic design concerns.
Regular Configuration buildings have Shear Walls or Moment-Resistant Frames or
Braced Frames and generally have:
 Low Height to Base Ratios
 Equal Floor Heights
 Symmetrical Plans

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 Uniform Sections and Elevations

 Maximum Torsional Resistance
 Short Spans and Redundancy
 Direct Load Paths

Irregular Configuration buildings are those that differ from the "Regular" definition and
have problematic stress concentrations and torsion.
Soft first storey is a discontinuity of strength and stiffness for lateral load at the ground
level.
Discontinuous shearwalls do not line up consistently one upon the other causing "soft"
levels.
Variation in perimeter strength and stiffness such as an open front on the ground level
usually causes eccentricity or torsion.
Re-entrant corners in the shapes of H, L, T, and U develop stress concentration and
torsion. Seismic designs should adequately separate re-entrant corners or strengthen them.
Knowledge of the structure's time period, torsion, damping, ductility, strength,
stiffness, and configuration can help one determine the most appropriate seismic design
devices and mitigation strategies to employ.

1.5 Braced Frames

A braced frame is a structural system commonly used in structures subject to
lateral loads. The addition of a brace frame increases a structure's stability against lateral
loads such as wind loading and seismic pressure. The members in a braced frame are
generally made of structural steel, which can work effectively both in tension and
compression.
The beams and columnsthat form the frame carry vertical loads, and the bracing
system carries the lateral loads. Braced framesreduce lateral displacement, as well as the
bending moment in columns; they are economical, easily erected and have the design
flexibility to create the strength and stiffness required.
The positioning of braces however, can be problematic as they can interfere with
the design of the facade and the position of openings. Buildings adopting high-tech or post-
modernist styles have responded to this by expressing bracing as an internal or external
design feature.

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The bracing can be classified according to plane in which they are used or
asconcentric braced frame,eccentric braced frame with link beams. The basic classification
is given in Fig 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Various Bracing System Used In Structure

A flow diagram representing the classification of bracing.Fig. 1.2.

Bracing

Horizontal Vertical
Bracing Bracing

Diaphragm
Concentric Eccentric

Traingulation
X,K,V Type X,K,V with
Bracings linked element

Fig 1.2 Bracing Classifications

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1.5.1 Vertical Bracing

Bracing between column lines (in vertical planes) provides load paths for the
transference of horizontal forces to ground level. Framed buildings required at least three
planes of vertical bracing to brace both directions in plan and to resist torsion about a
vertical axis.

1.5.2 Horizontal Bracing

The bracing at each floor level (in horizontal planes) provides load paths for the
transference of horizontal forces to the planes of vertical bracing. Horizontal bracing is
needed at each floorlevel, however, the floorsystem itself may provide sufficient
resistance. Roofsmay require bracing.Trussing, or triangulation, is formed by inserting
diagonal structural members into rectangular areas of a structural frame, helping to
stabilise the frame. If a single brace is used, it must be sufficiently resistant to tension and
compression.
1.5.3 Cross-bracing
Cross-bracing (or X-bracing) uses two diagonal members crossing each other.
These only need to be resistant to tension, one brace acting to resist sideways forces at a
time depending on the direction of loading. As a result, steel cables can also be used for
cross-bracing. However, this provides the least available space within the façade for
openings and results in the greatest bending in floor beams. [Fig. 1.3]

Fig.1.3 X- Bracing used in a building

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1.5.4 K-Bracing
In K Bracing braces connect to the columns at mid-height.This frame has
more flexibility for the provision of openings and results in the least bending
in floor beams. [Fig. 1.4]

Fig. 1.4 K-Bracing System

K-bracing is generally discouraged in seismic regions because of the potential

for column failure if the compression brace buckles, K bracing may result in the bending of
the columns. The bending of the columns and the huge gravity forces may cause second
order and stability problems, that greatly increases collapse hazard. Therefore, K-bracing is
not recommended and in seismic resistant buildings it is generally prohibited by codes. The
unnecessary bending resistance of the members in the lateral load resisting favours the use
of pinned connections. Not only the diagonal ends, but also the column splices and the
beam-column connections can be perfect hinges without harming structural stability.

1.5.5 V-Bracing

This involves two diagonal members extending from the top two corners of a
horizontal member and meeting at a centre point at the lower horizontal member, in the
shape of V, Inverted V-bracing (also known as chevron bracing) involves the two members
meeting at a centre point on the upper horizontal member.
Both mean that the buckling capacity of the compression brace is likely to be
significantly less than the tension yield capacity of the tension brace. This mean that when

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the braces reach their resistance capacity, the load must be resisted in the bending of the
horizontal member.
Inverted V bracing is concentric and therefore can counteract the lateral loading by
truss action but only if the compression bar does not buckle. The buckling resistance of the
compression bar is reached usually at a substantially smaller loading than the tensile
ultimate resistance of the tension brace. If the buckled diagonal does not carry any further
loading the growing axial force of the tensile diagonal has to be carried by the connected
beam. This behaviour is not necessarily better or worse, but inevitably different from the
strictly truss behaviour of diagonal bracings.[Fig 1.5]

Fig. 1.5 V and Inverted Vbracing system

1.5.6 Eccentric bracing

This is commonly used in seismic regions and allows for doorways and corridors in
the braced bays. It is similar to V-bracing but instead of the bracing members meeting at a
centre point there is space between them at the top connection. Bracing members connect
to separate points on the beam or girder. This is so that the 'link' between the bracing
members absorbs energy from seismic activity through plastic deformation. Eccentric
single diagonals can also be used to brace a frame. So in eccentrically braced frames
(EBFs), some of the bracing members are arranged so that their ends do not meet
concentrically on a main member, but are separated to meet eccentrically.

The eccentric link element between the ends of the braces is designed as a weak but
ductile link which yields before any of the other frame members. Therefore it provides a
dependable source of ductility and, by using capacity design principles, it can prevent the
shear in the structure from reaching the level at which buckling occurs in any of the

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members. The link element is relatively short and so the elastic response of the frame is
similar to that of the equivalent concentrically braced frame (CBF). The arrangement thus
combines the advantageous stiffness of CBFs in its elastic response, while providing much
greater ductility and avoiding problems of buckling and irreversible yielding which affect
CBFs in their post-yield phase. This system also helps the structure to reduce the buckling
of columns and beams and the stiffness of the structure is increased. [Fig 1.6]

Fig. 1.6Eccentric Bracing System

.
1.6 Distribution of Ductility and Demand in Braces
It is important to ensure a reasonable uniform distribution of ductility demand in
the braces over the height of the structure. If this is not achieved, and the braces at one
level yield well before the others, a weak storey might form, concentrating most of the
ductility demand at that level. To avoid this, Eurocode 8( EC-8) places a restriction on the
ratio of bracing member strength to strength required from the seismic design. The ratio
between maximum and minimum values of this ratio must not exceed 125%.

1.7 Arrangement of Tension and Compression Braces

Within any plane of bracing, the compression diagonal braces should balance the
tension diagonal braces at each bracing level, in order to avoid tension braces contributing
most to lateral resistance in one direction and compression braces in the other. This is to
satisfy the general principle that the diagonal elements of bracings should be placed in such
a way that the load–deflection characteristics of the structure are the same for both positive
and negative phases of the loading cycle.

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1.8. Non-Structural Damage Control by Bracing

All items, which are not part of the structural system, are considered as "non-
structural", and include such building elements as:
 Exterior cladding and curtain walls
 Parapet walls
 Canopies and marquees
 Chimneys and stacks
 Partitions, doors, windows
 Suspended ceilings
 Routes of exit and entrance
 Mechanical, Plumbing, Electrical and Communications equipment
 Elevators
 Furniture and equipment
These items must be stabilized with bracing to prevent their damage or total
destruction. Building machinery and equipment can be outfitted with seismic isolating
devices, which are modified versions of the standard vibration isolators.Loss arising from
non-structural damage can be a multiple of the structural losses.

1.9 Lateral Load Consequences on Steel Structure

The important properties of structures, which contribute to their elastic resistance
under moderate earthquakes, are its yield strength and elastic stiffness. During a severe
earthquake, the structure is likely to undergo inelastic deformations and has to rely on its
ductility and hysteretic energy dissipation capacity to avoid collapse.

Ductility is the property, which allows the structure to undergo large plastic
deformations without significant loss of strength [Fig. 1.7]. Ductility (µ) is defined as the
ratio of the ultimate deformation (𝛿𝑢 ) at an assumed collapse point, to the yield
deformation (𝛿𝑦 ). It may be noted that the collapse point may be assumed to lie on the
descending branch of the load-deformation curve. This is still safe because earthquake
loading is transient and will cease to act after a short time and so the structure will not be
toppled.
Hysteretic energy is the energy dissipated by inelastic cyclic deformations and is
given by the area within the load-deformation curve also called the hysteretic curve. In
structures having low hysteretic energy dissipation capacities, even if the deformations are

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well below the ultimate deformation, the structure is likely to collapse due to low-cycle
fatigue effect as described below.

The degradation of strength and stiffness under repeated inelastic cycling is called
lowcycle fatigue. Ensuring that the structure is able to dissipate a large amount of
hysteretic energy in each cycle can minimise low-cycle fatigue effect. The area enclosed
by the force-deformation loops gives the hysteretic energy. Larger area implies more
dissipation of hysteretic energy as shown in Fig. 1.7. One way of ensuringgood ductility
and energy dissipation capacity in steel structures is to use thicker sections thereby
avoiding early local buckling. Thus, plastic and compact sections are preferred over semi-
compact and slender sections. Other parameters, which control ductility, are slenderness
ratio and axial load ratio of the members.

Since earthquake loading produces large deformation as well as low-cycle fatigue,

both ductility and energy dissipation capacity are required to resist severe earthquakes.
Experimental studies have shown that these two capacities are interrelated and a large
demand on one tends to decrease the other.

Fig. 1.7 Earthquake Resistant Properties

With reference to framed structures, it has been found that some collapse
mechanisms ensure larger energy dissipation capacities compared to some other collapse

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mechanisms. The technique of ensuring a preferred collapse mechanism by suitably

adjusting the capacities of the members is called Capacity Design. In practice, due to the
difficulties associated with inelastic analysis and design, no attempt is made to calculate
the actual capacities in relation to seismic demand and it is only ensured that the members
and joints of the structure have adequate ductility and energy dissipation capacities and the
structure as a whole will fail in a preferred collapse mechanism.

1.9.1 Philosophy and Methodology of Steel Frame Design

In addition to strength requirements at the ultimate load, structures are also
designed to have adequate stiffness in the lateral direction under service loads. This is
usually ensured, by limiting the relative displacement between successive floors, known as
the storey drift. For buildings, a maximum allowable storey drift of 0.004 times the storey
height is normally used under moderate earthquakes.

Although all of the above mentioned concepts are important for ensuring the safety
of structures during a severe earthquake, one should keep in mind the great uncertainty
associated with the seismic behaviour of structures. Past earthquakes have demonstrated
that simplicity is the key to avoid unforeseen effects and so attention given at the planning
stage itself can go a long way in ensuring safety and economy in seismic design.

Although the selection of a suitable site and foundation is not within the scope of
this chapter, some guidelines are given in view of the wrong advice given by several
‘experts’ in the aftermath of the Gujarat earthquake. It is common sense to select a site
where the bedrock is available close to the surface so that the foundations can be laid
directly on the rock. Conversely, where such a condition is not available it is a simple
matter to say that the site should be avoided. However the engineering problem arises
when, due to practical reasons, it is not possible to avoid a site where bedrock is not
available close to the surface.

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1.10 Overview of ETABS

ETABS is the software package developed specifically for analysis and design of
building systems. ETABS features an intuitive and powerful graphical interface coupled
with unmatched 3D object based modelling, analytical and design procedures integrated
using a common database. Although quick and easy for simple structures, ETABS can also
handle the largest and most complex building models, including a wide range of
geometrical nonlinear behaviours, making it the tool of choice for structural engineers in
the building industry. Modelling tools and templates, code-based load prescriptions,
analysis methods and solution techniques, all co-ordinate with the grid-like geometry
unique to this class of structural software. Basic or advanced systems under static or
dynamic conditions may be evaluated using ETABS.
From the start of the design conception through the production of schematic
drawings, ETABS integrates every aspect of the engineering design process. The Various
advantages of using ETABS as an analysis software are given below:

1. ETABS offers a single user interface to perform modelling, analysis, design,

detailing and reporting.
2. It has a wide selection of templates for quickly starting a new model. At this
model template stage, the user has the ability to define grid and grid spacing
and the number of stories.
3. It has many drawing and drafting utilities are built in like common industry
standard shortcuts and controls to enhance the modelling experience.
4. It offers to view and manipulate analytical model with great precision. Plans
and Elevation views automatically generated at every grid line.
5. In ETABS data can be viewed and edited using on-screen tables. This is quite
useful for defining a model from spread sheets or viewing analysis or design
results.
6. ETABS has dynamic analysis capabilities include the calculation of vibration
modes using Ritz or Eigen vectors, response-spectrum analysis, and time-
history analysis for both linear and nonlinear behaviour.

In this study time history analysis is used for comparing the bracing systems. So
ETABS is chosen here for analysis and obtaining data for comparison.

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1.11 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis is organized as per detail given below:
Chapter 1:This chapter introduces to the steel buildings, the advantage of the steel as a
building material, seismic design and the seismic design factors. The various method
adopted in the seismic design of building are also discussed in the brief.

Chapter 2: In this chapter the literature review is discussed i.e. the work done by various
researchers in the field of modelling of steel structural members and its analysis. The
conclusion of the each literature review is also listed in this chapter

Chapter 3: In this chapter work methodology has been discussed in detail.

Chapter 4: This chapter deals with the method of analysis used for seismic analysis of
building and analysis method adopted for the current research.

Chapter 5: Deals with the analysis of steel frames with various concentric bracing using
ETAB’S v.16.03

Chapter 6: The results from time history analysis, comparison between the steel frames
with various eccentric bracing, all are discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 7: Finally, salient conclusions and recommendations of the present study are
given in this chapter followed by the references.

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