FABRICATION OF ELECTRICITY FROM ROAD

Abstract
The automotive industry in India is one of the largest in the world and one of the
fastest growing globally. India's passenger car and commercial vehicle
manufacturing industry is the seventh largest in the world, with an annual production
of more than 3.7 million units in2010 We every day mesh up with these vehicles
give us headache. But this mesh up could be answer of new type power generation.
Road Power Generation (RGP)is one of the most recent power generation concepts.
This device is engineered as a practical and useful alternative energy technology for
generating clean electricity from the millions of vehicles on our roadways . Once
fully optimized and installed, engineers anticipate that devices may be used to
augment or replace conventional electrical supplies for powering roadway signs,
street and building lights, storage systems for back-up and emergency power, and
other electronics appliances, and even devices used in homes and businesses.
This device converts the kinetic energy of the vehicles into electric energy. This is
done by moving p late installed on the road, this plate take the stroke motion of the
vehicles and convert it to the rotary motion by crank mechanism and it generates the
electricity

Working Principle

Road power generation (RPG) is a system design to capture waste and kinetic energy
from all vehicles. This device converts the kinetic energy of the vehicles into electric
energy. This is done by moving plate installed on the road, this plate captured very
small movement from the road surfaces and it transferred to a keyway flywheel
system. From hundreds of wheel lies a single flywheel having used to driving
machinery. The RPG included the method of driving one flywheel to another, once
it reached predetermining velocity. The RPG flywheel system has been developed
to achieve large amount of moment of inertia in relatively small space. The captured
energy is converted into electricity which is fed into power grid. With the following
block diagram we can easily understand the overall working of the automatic street
light.

Features

(i) The units have minimum visual impact on their s

urrounding environment.
(ii) The RPG emits no noise.
(iii) The unit will have minimum cost of installati
on and maintenance.
(iv) This unit could be located at the close proxim
ity to services and power grid.
(v) Possible answer for battery charging station.
(vi) Completely isolated street light or traffic lights

SCOPE OF THE PAPER The utilization of energy is an indication of the growth of

a nation. For example, the per capita energy consumption in USA is 9000 KWh per
year, whereas the consumption in India is 1200 KWh. One might conclude that to
be materially rich and prosperous,a human being needs to consume more and more
energy. A survey on the energy consumption in India had pub`lished a pathetic report
that 85,000 villages in India do not still have electricity. Supply of power in most
part of the country is poor. Hence more research and development and
commercialization of technologies are needed inthis field. India, unlike the top
developed countries has very poor roads. Talking about a particular road itself
includes a number of speed breakers. By just placing a unit like the “Power
Generation Unit from Speed Breakers”, so much of energy can be tapped. This
energy can be used for the lights on the either sides of the roads and thus much power
that is consumed by these lights can be utilized to send power to these village

CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

 Working BATTERY
 DC MOTORS
 RACK & Principle

 WORM GEARS
 INVERTER
  CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE STUDY
 REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

The automotive industry in India is one of the largest in the world and one of the
fastest growing globally. India's passenger car and commercial vehicle
manufacturing industry is the seventh largest in the world, with an annual production
of more than 3.7 million units in2010 We every day mesh up with these vehicles
give us headache. But this mesh up could be answer of new type power generation.
Road Power Generation (RGP)is one of the most recent power generation concepts.
This device is engineered as a practical and useful alternative energy technology for
generating clean electricity from the millions of vehicles on our roadways . Once
fully optimized and installed, engineers anticipate that devices may be used to
augment or replace conventional electrical supplies for powering roadway signs,
street and building lights, storage systems for back-up and emergency power, and
other electronics appliances, and even devices used in homes and businesses.
This device converts the kinetic energy of the vehicles into electric energy. This is
done by moving p late installed on the road, this plate take the stroke motion of the
vehicles and convert it to the rotary motion by crank mechanism and it generates the
electricity

Working Principle

Road power generation (RPG) is a system design to capture waste and kinetic energy
from all vehicles. This device converts the kinetic energy of the vehicles into electric
energy. This is done by moving plate installed on the road, this plate captured very
small movement from the road surfaces and it transferred to a keyway flywheel
system. From hundreds of wheel lies a single flywheel having used to driving
machinery. The RPG included the method of driving one flywheel to another, once
it reached predetermining velocity. The RPG flywheel system has been developed
to achieve large amount of moment of inertia in relatively small space. The captured
energy is converted into electricity which is fed into power grid. With the following
block diagram we can easily understand the overall working of the automatic street
light.

Features
(i) The units have minimum visual impact on their s
urrounding environment.
(ii) The RPG emits no noise.
(iii) The unit will have minimum cost of installati
on and maintenance.
(iv) This unit could be located at the close proxim
ity to services and power grid.
(v) Possible answer for battery charging station.
(vi) Completely isolated street light or traffic li
ghts

SCOPE OF THE PAPER The utilization of energy is an indication of the growth of

a nation. For example, the per capita energy consumption in USA is 9000 KWh per
year, whereas the consumption in India is 1200 KWh. One might conclude that to
be materially rich and prosperous,a human being needs to consume more and more
energy [4]. A survey on the energy consumption in India had pub`lished a pathetic
report that 85,000 villages in India do not still have electricity. Supply of power in
most part of the country is poor. Hence more research and development and
commercialization of technologies are needed inthis field. India, unlike the top
developed countries has very poor roads. Talking about a particular road itself
includes a number of speed breakers. By just placing a unit like the “Power
Generation Unit from Speed Breakers”, so much of energy can be tapped. This
energy can be used for the lights on the either sides of the roads and thus much power
that is consumed by these lights can be utilized to send power to these village
BATTERY:

In our prototype, we use 12v battery and they have variety of uses in our daily
life. From consumer electronics to robotics, from health care products to industries, almost
every second device we use has one battery or the other. Battries have become an
indispensible part of our lives.

We cannot comprehend living without cellphones, torches, laptop computers, music players
like the ipod, but how do we power them up? Answer lies in the battries. Similarly cars are
one of the main modern day necessties which use battries to power the head lamps and
backlights.

All of this power requirement means that we need a robust, portable and an efficient source
of power. There are a couple of factors one has to look out while choosing the type of 12v
battry. Because a twelve volt battery can be of many types, sizes, form factors, and materials.
12 volt is just the rating of the battery and it does not specify something physical. Batteries
are also available in other voltage ratings such as 24, 9 and 5 volt. Its rather a quantity. There
are many types of batteries depending upon the construction.

12 volt lead acid batteries:

One of the most common type of 12V battery is the 12v lead acid battery. It is a dc battery
with lead terminals and an acid, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an electrolyte in lead
acid battery. It is the battery of choice for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power supplies
and other vehicles. 12V lead acid battery is used in cars as there is no risk of handling in
cars. 12volt lead acid battery is also used in battery banks and backup systems at power
sensitive systems, such as telecom switches, like anyother 12v dc battery because its a source
of dc 12volt power.

Lead acid 12V battery is rarely used in home appliances and uses. For example, computer
UPS' rarely use lead acid battery as it is not very easy to handle and can cause potential
hazards,such as a fire etc.Home users generally prefer a solid state battery such
as the one used in dry cells over 12v lead acid batteries or rechargeable battery which
provides 12volt power . Those are found in torch lights, calculators, watches, clocks and toys.

12v Battery Construction:

In a 12 volt lead acid battery, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an electrolyte in lead acid
battery. The casing is usually made up of plastic, rubber or any other hard material in order
to avoid the acid housed inside. Inside, it is made of up many small cells.
Metals are used for cathodes and anodes (negative and positive terminals respectively for the
12 Volt Battery.

12 volt lead acid battery is the 12 volt dc battery for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power
supplies and other vehicles. This type of battery is also used in battery banks and backup
systems at power sensitive systems, such as telecom switches.

It is 12v dc battery but is not a portable 12v battery or 12v rechargeable battery and 12v
battery pack due to its size and handling issues. For example, computer UPS' rarely use lead
acid battery as it is not very easy to handle and can cause potential hazards, such as a fire
etc.

Lead acid batteries used in the RV and Marine Industries usually consist of two 6-
volt batteries in series, or a single 12-volt battery. These batteries are constructed of several
single cells connected in series each cell produces approximately 2.1 volts. A six-volt battery
has three single cells, which when fully charged produce an output voltage of 6.3 volts. A
twelve-volt battery has six single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of
12.6 volts.

A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of lead dioxide
and a negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between. The
plates are enclosed in a plastic battery case and then submersed in an electrolyte consisting
of water and sulfuric acid (see figure # 1). Each cell is capable of
storing 2.1 volts.

In order for lead acid cell to produce a voltage, it must first receive a (forming) charge
voltage of at least 2.1-volts/cell from a charger. Lead acid batteries do not generate voltage
on their own; they only store a charge from another source. This is the reason lead acid
batteries are called storage batteries, because they only store a charge. The size of the battery
plates and amount of electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can
store. The size of this storage capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery.
A typical 12-volt battery used in a RV or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it
can supply 10 amps of current for 12.5 hours or 20-amps of current for a period of 6.25
hours. Lead acid batteries can be connected in parallel to increase the total AH capacity.

In figure # 2 below, six single 2.1-volt cells have been connected in series to make the typical
12-volt battery, which when fully charged will produce a total voltage of 12.6-volts.

Lead Acid Batter Discharge Cycle

In figure # 3, above a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb) and the
chemical reaction between sulfuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to light
the bulb. This chemical reaction also begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a
substance called lead sulfate also known as sulfation (shown as a yellow build-up on plates).
This build-up of lead sulfate is normal during a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to
discharge, lead sulfate coats more and more of the plates and battery voltage begins to
decrease from fully charged state of 12.6-volts (figure # 4).

In figure # 5 the battery is now fully discharged, the plates are almost completely covered
with lead sulfate (sulfation) and voltage has dropped to 10.5-volts.

NOTE: Discharging a lead acid battery below 10.5 volts will severely damage it!

Lead sulfate (sulfation) now coats most of the battery plates. Lead sulfate is a soft material,
which can is reconverted back into lead and sulfuric acid, provided the discharged battery
is immediately connected to a battery charger. If a lead acid battery is not immediately
recharged, the lead sulfate will begin to form hard crystals, which can not be reconverted by
a standard fixed voltage (13.6 volts) battery converter/charger.

NOTE: Always recharge your RV or Marine battery as soon as possible to prevent loss of
battery capacity due to the build-up of hard lead sulfate crystals!

Lead Acid Battery Recharge Cycle

The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a
converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or maintain
your battery. Proper recharging and maintenance requires an intelligent charging system
that can vary the charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine
battery. Progressive Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery
problems and reduce battery maintenance.

The discharged battery shown in figure # 6 on the next page is connected to a

converter/charger with its output voltage set at 13.6-volts. In order to recharge a 12-volt lead
acid battery with a fully charged terminal voltage of 12.6-volts, the charger voltage must be
set at a higher voltage.

During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the electrolyte
and water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These gasses
are very flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside.
Gassing causes water loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added
periodically. Sealed lead acid batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to
recombine into the electrolyte. If the battery is overcharged pressure from these gasses will
cause relief caps to open and vent, resulting in some water loss. Most sealed batteries have
extra electrolyte added during the manufacturing process to compensate for some water loss.

The battery shown in figure # 7 above has been fully recharged using a fixed charging voltage
of 13.6-volts. Notice that some lead sulfate (sulfation) still remains on the plates. This build-
up will continue after each recharging cycle and gradually the battery will begin to loose
capacity to store a full charge and eventually must be replaced. Lead sulfate build up is
reduced if battery is given an Equalizing Charge once every 10 discharge cycles or at least
once a month. An Equalizing Charge increases charging voltage to 14.4 volts or higher for a
short period. This higher voltage causes gassing that equalizes (re-mixes) the electrolyte
solution.

Since most RV and Marine craft owners seldom remember to perform this function,
Progressive Dynamics has developed the microprocessor controlled Charge Wizard. The
Charge Wizard will automatically provide an Equalizing Charge every 21 hours for a period
of 15 minutes, when the battery is fully charged and not in use. Our 2000 Series of Marine
Battery Chargers have the Charge Wizard feature built-in.

One disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is the
recharge time is very long. A typical 125-AH RV or Marine battery will take approximately
80 hours to recharge at 13.6 volts. Increasing the charge voltage to 14.4-volts will reduce
battery recharge time for a 125-AH battery to 3-4 hours. Once a battery reaches 90% of full
charge, the voltage must be reduced from 14.4-volts to 13.6-volts to reduce gassing and water
loss. The optional Charge Wizard automatically senses when a battery has a very low state of
charge and automatically selects its BOOST MODE of operation. BOOST MODE increases
the voltage of a PD9100 Series converter/charger to 14.4 volts. When the battery reaches the
90% charge level, the Charge Wizard automatically reduces the charge voltage down to 13.6
volts to complete the charge. Again, this is a standard feature on our Marine Chargers.

Another disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is that
once it is fully charged, 13.6 volts will cause considerable gassing and water loss. To prevent
this from occurring the charging voltage must be reduced to 13.2-volts. The Charge Wizard
will automatically select its STORAGE MODE of operation (13.2-volts) once the battery
reaches full charge and remains unused for a period of 30 hours. This feature is standard on
all of Progressive Dynamics Marine Battery Chargers.

At a charging voltage of 13.2 volts, the converter/charger will maintain a full charge, reduce
gassing and water loss. However, this lower voltage does not provide enough gassing to
prevent a battery condition called Battery Stratification. Battery Stratification is caused by the
fact that the electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all mixtures,
one component, the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and
concentrate at the bottom of the battery (see figure #8).

Most converter/chargers on the market are set at approximately 13.6-volts. During the
battery recharge cycle lead sulfate (sulfation) begins to reconvert to lead and sulfuric acid.
This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of
lead sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity and battery life. In order to
prevent Battery Stratification, an Equalization Charge (increasing charging voltage to 14.4-
volts) must be applied periodically. The Charge Wizard automatically selects its
EQUALIZATION MODE (14.4 volts) every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes. This
Equalizing Charge feature is standard on our Marine chargers.

As you have learned, in order to properly charge and maintain a lead acid battery you must
use an intelligent charging system. Progressive Dynamics, Inteli-Power 9100 Series RV
converters with a Charge Wizard installed, or one of our Inteli-Power Marine Battery
Chargers will provide the intelligent charging system your battery needs for a long life, with
low maintenance.

Disadvantages of 12 volt battery:

The main disadvantage 12volt lead acid is that it has one of the lowest energy to weight ratio.
This means that this type of 12v battery also has a low energy to volume ratio, which in turn
means that the size of the battery has to be big in order to provide significant amount of
power. Secondly its not portable.

Another major concern about lead acid 12v battery, which is a 12volt power source, is that
about environment. Almost all the batteries used in vehicles are lead acid and this means
that the disposal of these batteries can beome a big hurdle. Since there are alot of cars, this
mean alot of old batteries need to be dumped somewhere and improper disposal means
damaged environment.The automotive industry is now looking for alternatives to replace
lead acid battery in automative applications towards a environmentally safe option

Note: Please do note that the current rating is VERY important. DONOT plug in a battery
which has higher amperage than your modem or router can handle. Most modems and
routers are usually rated at around 1 ampere. So a 12V Battery of that rating should be used.

DC MOTORS:
 The small Brush 12v DC Motor was designed for high volume OEM
applications with low cost being the primary objective. The Small Brush 12v DC Motor
comes in sizes from 0.29" to 3.6" diameter. Anaheim Automation also offers a line of quality
Permanent Magnet 56C 12v DC Motor products available in many different Horsepower
levels, ranging from 1/2 all the way to 1 horsepower with various operating voltages. Larger
in size, these motors can deliver torque from 288 to 576 oz-in. Custom

speed, options include optimizing the maximum torque, current, voltage, cabling, wiring,
connectors, and shaft modifications. With our Brush 12v DC Motor products you get great
quality, great customer service, and competitive prices. Please note that not all small dc
motors are stock items, and that minimum purchases will be required for most part numbers
listed. However, for most applications, going to another dc motor series, or just a size larger,
may provide the solution for your requirements.

Small 12v DC Motor

• Torque: 0.3 to 18.5 Ounce-Inches

•Sizes: From 20mm to 52mm
•Cost- Effective Rotary Motion Control
•DC Motors are Fully Reversible
•Medical,Pump,Semiconductor Applications
•Popular for Robotics and Hobbyists
• Customization and Motor Adders Available

56C Permanent Magnet 12v DC Motor

•Torque:288 to 576 oz-in
•FrameSize:56C
•Speed:1800 and 2500RPM

•Cost-Effective Rotary Motion Control

•DC Motors are Fully Reversible
•Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC)
•Class F Insulation means max temp upto 221° F with full load

Permanent Magnet Motors

In a Permanent Magnet motor a coil of wire (called the armature) is arranged in the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet in such a way that it rotates when a current is passed through
it. Now, when a coil of wire is moving in a magnetic field a voltage is induced in the coil - so
the current (which is caused by applying a voltage to the coil) causes the armature to rotate
and so generate a voltage. It is the nature of cause and effect in physics that the effect tends
to cancel the cause, so the induced voltage tends to cancel out the applied voltage (indeed
were the effects to add, we should have a perpetual motion machine!).

Voltage is electrical pressure. Current is electrical flow. Pressure tends to cause movement,
or flow so an electrical pressure is a force which moves electricity - or an 'electromotive force'
(EMF). The induced voltage caused by the armature's movement is a 'back EMF' - 'back'
because it tends to cancel out the applied voltage so that the actual voltage (pressure) across
the armature is the difference between the applied voltage and the back EMF.

The value of the back emf is determined by the speed of rotation and the strength of the
magnet(s) such that if the magnet is strong the back emf increases and if the speed increases,
so too does the back emf. It follows from this that if you use a weaker magnet to make a
particular motor, you will get a higher speed motor!

If you apply now a load to the armature, it will slow down. The back emf will decrease so the
difference between applied voltage and back emf will increase. It is this difference that causes
the current in the armature to flow - so the current will increase as you increase the
mechanical loading. It should be apparent therefore that an unloaded motor will take little
current. It should also be clear that if you apply more voltage the motor will speed up, apply
less and it will slow: this is what the motor speed controller does: it varies the voltage applied
to the motor.

Shunt Wound Motors

Shunt would motors have two windings (so 4 wires): a high resistance field and a low

resisance armature. If the shunt wound field is permanently energised, it behaves just like a

permanent magnet and there is then very little difference between a shunt-wound and a

permanent magnet. If you chose a controller with a parking brake driver, this can be used

to energise the field winding (subject to required current) which will then be switched off

when the motor is at rest, saving power consumption.

Series Wound Motors

These have totally different characteristics to PM or shunt motors. However most 4QD
reversing controllers can be supplied factory-modified to drive them. See our FAQ sheet for
more information.

How can I tell what motor I have?

 The motor has only 2 wires

When the motor wires are swapped (positive motor to negative battery) the motor runs
in the other direction. The motor is a brushed permanent magnet type and will work
with our controllers. Be aware however that some permanent magnet motors are not
made for reversing but are designed to only run in one direction. When the motor wires
are reversed , the motor runs in the same direction.
 This is likely to be a series-wound motor. Such motors are not good for speed control.
The motor has 4 wires. The motor may be a series-wound or a shunt-wound motors or
a compound-wound motor, See

 The motor has more than 2 wires.

 The motor has a different number of wires.

Nameplate ratings

The nameplate on a PM motor usually quotes a voltage, a rotation speed and a current. But,
as we have seen, the current is dependant on the mechanical loading and the rotation speed
is proportional to the applied voltage and to the load. So what do the figures on the motor
nameplate mean.

Voltage and Speed

For most people, the nameplate figures are misleading. To say a motor is 24v is to
misunderstand it. A better was of understanding would be if the motor specifications were
that the motor gives so many rpm. per volt, and is suitable for operating at voltages up to 36.
As far as I know only the Lynch motor is specified like that. So a '24v' motor, rated at 3000
rpm, gives (3000/24) 125rpm per volt. The actual maximum voltage it can stand may well be
a lot more than the nameplate says and will either be limited by centrifugal force or by the
maximum rate at which the commutator can switch the current or simply because the
accelerated brush wear at the higher speed may be unacceptable.The voltage and speed on
the nameplate are simply the speed you can expect from a motor when it is running from the
nameplate voltage and loaded so that it draws the rated current.

Current and load

The nameplate current is in fact a safe working continuous load. If you load a motor so that
it draws more than this current then, eventually, it may overheat. In practise, most
applications only place intermittent loads on the motor.The motor, unloaded, will run a little
faster and will draw very little current. If you lock the rotor a typical motor may draw as
much as 20 times the nameplate current - but it will very quickly heat. However most motors
will safely take a 300-400% overload for about one minute - if your mechanical loading is
enough to cause that much current to be drawn.

Locked armature' or Stall current

This rating is, frankly, misleading. It is not safe to pass this current through most motors for
more than a second or two. It is best to ignore it when choosing a controller - unless you wish
to be able to burn out the motor.If you are not using a controller, then the switchgear used
to start the motor will have to be chosen to take the locked armature rating current for an
instant as 'inrush current'. If the controller does not have current limiting (all controllers
made by 4QD do!) then it will have to be capable of withstanding the locked armature
current as an inrush.

Suppression - Motor Capacitor

Motors are electrically noisy. Electrical noise reduces system reliability and can on rare
occasion, cause controllers to fail. True, such failure is partly down to MOSFET technology,
which improves steadily with time, so such failures are geting less commom. 4QD controllers
are as least susceptible to this effect as any controller, but it is advisable chose a motor with
internal suppression: many manufacturers can do this on request - a small ceramic
capacitor, value aaround 10n, is fitted internally across the motor brushes. If your motor
does not include this, fit one externally across the motor connections as near to the motor as
possible.

RACK & WORM GEARS:

GEARS:
 A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another
toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a
transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be
considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of
a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear; however,
a gear can also mesh with a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing
translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is
that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.

When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined, a mechanical advantage is
produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a
simple relationship.

In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term gear,
as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to
describe similar devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when
the device does not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.

Spur Gears:

Spur gears are the most common type used. Tooth contact is primarily rolling, with sliding
occurring during engagement and disengagement. Some noise is normal, but it may become
objectionable at high speeds.

Rack and Pinion.

Rack and pinion gears are essentially a linear shaped variation of spur gears The spur rack
is a portion of a spur gear with an infinite radius.

Internal Ring Gear:

Internal gear is a cylindrical shaped gear with the meshing teeth inside or outside a circular
ring. Often used with a spur gear. Internal ring gears may be used within a planetary gear
arrangement.

Helical Gear:

Helical gear is a cylindrical shaped gear with helicoid teeth. Helical gears operate with less
noise and vibration than spur gears. At any time, the load on helical gears is distributed over
several teeth, resulting in reduced wear. Due to their angular cut, teeth meshing results in
thrust loads along the gear shaft. This action requires thrust bearings to absorb the thrust
load and maintain gear alignment. They are widely used in industry. A negative is the axial
thrust force the helix form causes.

Helical Rack Gear:

Helical rack gears are linear shaped and meshes with a rotating helical gear.

Double Helical Gear:

Double helical gear may have both left-hand and right-hand helical teeth. The double helical
form is used to balance the thrust forces and provide additional gear shear area.

Face Gear:

Face gears are a circular disc with a ring of teeth cut on one side. The gear teeth are tapered
toward the center of the tooth. These gears typically mate with a spur gear.

Worm Gear:

Worm gears teeth resembles ACME screw thread which mates with a helical gear, except
that it is made to envelope the worm as seen along the worm's axis. Operation of worm gears
is analogous to a screw. The relative motion between these gears is sliding rather than rolling.
The uniform distribution of tooth pressures on these gears enables use of metals with
inherently low coefficients of friction such as bronze wheel gears with hardened steel worm
gears. These gears rely on full fluid film lubrication and require heavy oil compounded to
enhance lubricity and film strength to prevent metal contact.

Double Enveloping Worm Gear:

The double enveloping worm gear has a radial changing pitch diameter. This increases the
number and amount of tooth shear area

Hypoid Gear:

Hypoid gears are typically found within the differential (rear axle) of automobiles. The gear
arrangement allows the translation of torque ninety degrees. Hypoid gears are similar to
spiral bevel gears except that the shaft center lines do not intersect. Hypoid gears combine
the rolling action and high tooth pressure of spiral bevels with the sliding action of worm
gears. This combination and the all-steel construction of the drive and driven gear result in
a gear set with special lubrication requirements, including oiliness and anti-weld additives
to withstand the high tooth pressures and high rubbing speeds.
Straight Bevel Gear:

Straight bevel gears have tapered conical teeth which intersect the same tooth geometry.
Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between shafts with intersecting center lines. The
intersecting angle is normally 90 deg but may be as high as 180 deg. When the mating gears
are equal in size and the shafts are positioned at 90 degrees to each other, they are referred
to as miter gears. The teeth of bevel gears can also be cut in a curved manner to produce
spiral bevel gears, which produce smoother and quieter operation than straight cut bevels.

Spiral Bevel Gear:

Spiral bevel gears have a helical angle spiral teeth.

Screw Gear (Crossed Helical Gear):

Screw gears are helical gears of opposite helix angle will mesh when their axes are crossed.
Comparison with drive mechanisms

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an advantage over
other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that
depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are in close
proximity, gears also have an advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts
required; the downside is that gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication
requirements may impose a higher operating cost.

Types:

External vs internal gears

Internal gear

An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone.
Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder
or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees.
Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal.

Spur

Spur gear

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or
disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the
edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be
meshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Helical
Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the
teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved,
this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in
parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each
other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in
this configuration the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears".

The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more
smoothly and quietly.[ With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a
single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually
across the tooth face to a maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single
point on the opposite side. In spur gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their
entire width causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds.
Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise
control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application involves
high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is
considered to be high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.[8]

A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs
to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction
between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.

Skew gears

For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal
pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness can be different. The relationship between the two
shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as defined:

for gears of the same handedness

for gears of opposite handedness

Where is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound
because there is only a point contact between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there
is a line contact.

Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative of the helix
angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a right-handed helix and a left-
handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle between
shafts is zero – that is, the shafts are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as described in the
equations above) is not zero the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles, the helix
angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees.

 3D Animation of helical gears (parallel axis)

 3D Animation of helical gears (crossed axis)

Double helical

Double helical gears, or herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented
by "single" helical gears, by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. A double
helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears joined together. This
arrangement cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in the
opposite direction. However, double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to
their more complicated shape.

For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible arrangements for the
oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. One arrangement is stable, and the other is
unstable. In a stable orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is
directed toward the center of the gear. In an unstable orientation, both axial forces are
directed away from the center of the gear. In both arrangements, the total (or net) axial force
on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears become misaligned in
the axial direction, the unstable arrangement will generate a net force that may lead to
disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force.
If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a
stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need
for different bearings.

Bevel

Bevel Gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears
mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this
point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can
be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at
90 degrees are called miter gears.

Spiral bevels
Spiral bevel gears

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a
variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the tooth's length and set at
an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear
teeth. Zerol bevel gears have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral
bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins
as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below
5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.

Hypoid

Hypoid gear

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch
surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of
revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact
between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel
gear teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with
the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gears.
This style of gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials; which are
normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.
Crown

Crown gear

Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right
angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown.
A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are
sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an
escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.

Worm

Worm gear
4-start worm and wheel

Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical
gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.

Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear
ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while
worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable
sliding action, leading to low efficiency. Worm gears can be considered a species of helical
gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually
fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities.
The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists
for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'.
A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the
helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact
sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw
nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with
more than one tooth is called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is
not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix
angle, is given.

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts
to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the
gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component
circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that
do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as for instance when it is
desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism
hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed
instruments.

If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact
will be achieved If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear
is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each
other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called
a cone-drive or "Double enveloping"

Worm gears can be right or left-handed, following the long-established practice for screw
threads

 3D Animation of a worm-gear set

Non-circular

Non-circular gears

Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to
transmit torque to another engaged member with minimum noise and wear and maximum
efficiency, a non-circular gear's main objective might be ratio variations, axle displacement
oscillations and more. Common applications include textile machines, potentiometers and
continuously variable transmissions.

Rack and pinion

Rack and pinion gearing

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large
radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion:
the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles
to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an
interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth
shapes for gears of particular actual radii are then derived from that. The rack and pinion
gear type is employed in a rack railway.

Epicyclic

Epicyclic gearing
In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet
gearing (see below) and mechanical differentials.

Sun and planet

Sun (yellow) and planet (red) gearing

Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion
in steam engines. It was famously used by James Watt on his early steam engines in order to
get around the patent on the crank.

In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel
is green and the driveshaft is grey.
Harmonic drive

Harmonic drive gearing

A harmonic drive is a specialized gearing mechanism often used in industrial motion control,
robotics and aerospace for its advantages over traditional gearing systems, including lack of
backlash, compactness and high gear ratios.

Cage gear

A cage gear, also called a lantern gear or lantern pinion has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel
to the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or
lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at either end into which the tooth rods and
axle are set. Lantern gears are more efficient than solid pinions, and dirt can fall through
the rods rather than becoming trapped and increasing wear.
Sometimes used in clocks, the lantern pinion should always be driven by a gearwheel, not
used as the driver. The lantern pinion was not initially favoured by conservative clock
makers. It became popular in turret clocks where dirty working conditions were most
commonplace. Domestic American clock movements often used them.

Magnetic gear

All cogs of each gear component of magnetic gears act as a constant magnet with periodic
alternation of opposite magnetic poles on mating surfaces. Gear components are mounted
with a backlash capability similar to other mechanical gearings. At low load, such gears work
without touching, giving increased reliability without noise.

Nomenclature
General nomenclature

Rotational frequency, n

Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM.

Angular frequency, ω

Measured in radians per second. rad/second

Number of teeth, N

How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case of worms, it is the number of
thread starts that the worm has.
Gear, wheel

The larger of two interacting gears or a gear on its own.

Pinion

The smaller of two interacting gears.

Path of contact

Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth.

Line of action, pressure line

Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the same
direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from moment to
moment during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth. For involute gears,
however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed along the same line—that is, the
line of action is constant. This implies that for involute gears the path of contact is
also a straight line, coincident with the line of action—as is indeed the case.

Axis

Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft.

Pitch point, p

Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes.

Pitch circle, pitch line

Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point.
A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness,
pressure angle and helix angles are defined.
Pitch diameter, d

A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness,
pressure angle and helix angles are defined. The standard pitch diameter is a basic
dimension and cannot be measured, but is a location where other measurements are
made. Its value is based on the number of teeth, the normal module (or normal
diametral pitch), and the helix angle. It is calculated as:

in metric units or in imperial units.[19]

Module, m

A scaling factor used in metric gears with units in millimeters whose effect is to
enlarge the gear tooth size as the module increases and reduce the size as the module
decreases. Module can be defined in the normal (mn), the transverse (mt), or the axial
planes (ma) depending on the design approach employed and the type of gear being
designed.[19] Module is typically an input value into the gear design and is seldom
calculated.

Operating pitch diameters

Diameters determined from the number of teeth and the center distance at which
gears operate.[5] Example for pinion:

Pitch surface

In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a pitch circle in the axial direction.
More generally, the surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as one moves
along the axis. For bevel gears it is a cone.
Angle of action

Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the point where mating teeth first
make contact, the other leg on the point where they disengage.

Arc of action

Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of action.

Pressure angle,

The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each
other, and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears, the teeth
always exert force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line;
and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is constant.

Outside diameter,

Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the teeth.

Root diameter

Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the tooth.

Addendum, a

Radial distance from the pitch surface to the outermost point of the tooth.

Dedendum, b

Radial distance from the depth of the tooth trough to the pitch surface.

Whole depth,
 The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it is equal to addendum plus
dedendum or to working depth plus clearance.

Clearance

Distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate.

Working depth

Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their operating addendums.

Circular pitch, p

Distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on
the same gear, measured along the pitch circle.

Diametral pitch,

Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter. Could be measured in teeth per
inch or teeth per centimeter.

Base circle

In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the involute of the base circle. The radius
of the base circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch circle.

Base pitch, normal pitch,

In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an
adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the base circle.

Interference

Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces.

Interchangeable set

A set of gears, any of which will mate properly with any other.
Helical gear nomenclature
Helix angle,

Angle between a tangent to the helix and the gear axis. It is zero in the limiting case
of a spur gear, albeit it can considered as the hypotenuse angle as well.

Normal circular pitch,

Circular pitch in the plane normal to the teeth.

Transverse circular pitch, p

Circular pitch in the plane of rotation of the gear. Sometimes just called "circular

pitch".

Several other helix parameters can be viewed either in the normal or transverse planes. The
subscript n usually indicates the normal.

Worm gear nomenclature

Lead

Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the next turn of
the same thread, measured parallel to the axis.

Linear pitch, p

Distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent
thread, measured parallel to the axis. For a single-thread worm, lead and linear pitch
are the same.

Lead angle,

Angle between a tangent to the helix and a plane perpendicular to the axis. Note that
it is the complement of the helix angle which is usually given for helical gears.
Pitch diameter,

Same as described earlier in this list. Note that for a worm it is still measured in a
plane perpendicular to the gear axis, not a tilted plane.

Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the gear.

Tooth contact nomenclature

Line of contact

Path of action

Line of action


Plane of action

Lines of contact (helical gear)

Arc of action

Length of action


 Limit diameter

Face advance

Zone of action

Point of contact

Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each other.

Line of contact

A line or curve along which two tooth surfaces are tangent to each other.

Path of action

The locus of successive contact points between a pair of gear teeth, during the phase
of engagement. For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes through the pitch
point. It is the trace of the surface of action in the plane of rotation.

Line of action

The path of action for involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch
point and tangent to both base circles.

Surface of action
 The imaginary surface in which contact occurs between two engaging tooth surfaces.
It is the summation of the paths of action in all sections of the engaging teeth.

Plane of action

The surface of action for involute, parallel axis gears with either spur or helical teeth.
It is tangent to the base cylinders.

Zone of action (contact zone)

For involute, parallel-axis gears with either spur or helical teeth, is the rectangular
area in the plane of action bounded by the length of action and the effective face width.

Path of contact

The curve on either tooth surface along which theoretical single point contact occurs
during the engagement of gears with crowned tooth surfaces or gears that normally
engage with only single point contact.

Length of action

The distance on the line of action through which the point of contact moves during
the action of the tooth profile.

Arc of action, Qt

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from the beginning to
the end of contact with a mating profile.

Arc of approach, Qa

The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from its beginning of
contact until the point of contact arrives at the pitch point.

Arc of recess, Qr
 The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from contact at the
pitch point until contact ends.

Contact ratio, mc, ε

The number of angular pitches through which a tooth surface rotates from the
beginning to the end of contact.In a simple way, it can be defined as a measure of the
average number of teeth in contact during the period in which a tooth comes and goes
out of contact with the mating gear.

Transverse contact ratio, mp, εα

The contact ratio in a transverse plane. It is the ratio of the angle of action to the
angular pitch. For involute gears it is most directly obtained as the ratio of the length
of action to the base pitch.

Face contact ratio, mF, εβ

The contact ratio in an axial plane, or the ratio of the face width to the axial pitch.
For bevel and hypoid gears it is the ratio of face advance to circular pitch.

Total contact ratio, mt, εγ

The sum of the transverse contact ratio and the face contact ratio.

Modified contact ratio, mo

For bevel gears, the square root of the sum of the squares of the transverse and face
contact ratios.

Limit diameter
 Diameter on a gear at which the line of action intersects the maximum (or minimum
for internal pinion) addendum circle of the mating gear. This is also referred to as the
start of active profile, the start of contact, the end of contact, or the end of active
profile.

Start of active profile (SAP)

Intersection of the limit diameter and the involute profile.

Face advance

Distance on a pitch circle through which a helical or spiral tooth moves from the
position at which contact begins at one end of the tooth trace on the pitch surface to
the position where contact ceases at the other end.

Tooth thickness nomenclature

Tooth thickness

Thickness relationships


 Chordal thickness

Tooth thickness measurement over pins

Span measurement

Long and short addendum teeth

Circular thickness

Length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on the specified datum circle.

Transverse circular thickness

Circular thickness in the transverse plane.

Normal circular thickness

Circular thickness in the normal plane. In a helical gear it may be considered as the
length of arc along a normal helix.
Axial thickness

In helical gears and worms, tooth thickness in an axial cross section at the standard
pitch diameter.

Base circular thickness

In involute teeth, length of arc on the base circle between the two involute curves
forming the profile of a tooth.

Normal chordal thickness

Length of the chord that subtends a circular thickness arc in the plane normal to the
pitch helix. Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the
standard pitch diameter.

Chordal addendum (chordal height)

Height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular thickness arc.
Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard
pitch diameter.

Profile shift

Displacement of the basic rack datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-
dimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth
thickness, often for zero backlash.

Rack shift

Displacement of the tool datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-
dimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth
thickness.

Measurement over pins

 Measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and a
reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a
datum surface or either one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces
opposite the first. This measurement is used to determine tooth thickness.

Span measurement

Measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as the
measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodified
portion of the involute, the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base
cylinder. It is used to determine tooth thickness.

Modified addendum teeth

Teeth of engaging gears, one or both of which have non-standard addendum.

Full-depth teeth

Teeth in which the working depth equals 2.000 divided by the normal diametral pitch.

Stub teeth

Teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.000 divided by the normal diametral
pitch.

Equal addendum teeth

Teeth in which two engaging gears have equal addendums.

Long and short-addendum teeth

Teeth in which the addendums of two engaging gears are unequal.

Pitch nomenclature

Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth.
It is a dimension measured along a line or curve in the transverse, normal, or axial directions. The
use of the single word pitch without qualification may be ambiguous, and for this reason it is
preferable to use specific designations such as transverse circular pitch, normal base pitch, axial
pitch.

Pitch

Tooth pitch

Base pitch relationships

Principal pitches

Circular pitch, p

Arc distance along a specified pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles
of adjacent teeth.
Transverse circular pitch, pt

Circular pitch in the transverse plane.

Normal circular pitch, pn, pe

Circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal
pitch helix between helical teeth or threads.

Axial pitch, px

Linear pitch in an axial plane and in a pitch surface. In helical gears and worms, axial
pitch has the same value at all diameters. In gearing of other types, axial pitch may
be confined to the pitch surface and may be a circular measurement. The term axial
pitch is preferred to the term linear pitch. The axial pitch of a helical worm and the
circular pitch of its worm gear are the same.

Normal base pitch, pN, pbn

An involute helical gear is the base pitch in the normal plane. It is the normal distance
between parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of action in the normal plane,
or is the length of arc on the normal base helix. It is a constant distance in any helical
involute gear.

Transverse base pitch, pb, pbt

In an involute gear, the pitch on the base circle or along the line of action.
Corresponding sides of involute gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is
the constant and fundamental distance between them along a common normal in a
transverse plane.

Diametral pitch (transverse), Pd

Ratio of the number of teeth to the standard pitch diameter in inches.

Normal diametral pitch, Pnd

Value of diametral pitch in a normal plane of a helical gear or worm.

Angular pitch, θN, τ

Angle subtended by the circular pitch, usually expressed in radians.

degrees or radians

INVERTER:

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that

changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any
required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and
control circuits.

Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. The electrical inverter is a high-
power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters
were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC

The absence of a mains power outlet is often keenly felt on camping sites,
with car repairs in the middle of nowhere and with picnic or party events in the countryside.
In some cases, mains power can only be brought to a remote site by running a very long cable
— which either dangerous, impossible or not available. Whatever the occasion, planned or
unexpected, it is great to have a power inverter available capable of changing the 12-V car
battery voltage into 230 volts AC.The idea for a simple, portable ‘power outlet’ was first
suggested by a trainee at the Aixcom company, which is normally involved with high-tech
power inverters and special high-current power supplies. The trainee, called Dirk, had been
trying for quite some time to build a power inverter for his model aircraft club. In his
enthusiastic attempts he ran into problems obtaining the special integrated circuit that was
to form the heart of his project. When he was finally successful in obtaining the elusive chip,
albeit at horrific costs, all the circuit did was produce a loud bang at switch-on, wrecking a
lot of components.

Types

Square wave

The square wave output has a high harmonic content, not suitable for certain AC loads such
as motors or transformers. Square wave units were the pioneers of inverter development.

Modified sine wave

The output of a modified square wave, quasi square, or modified sine wave inverter is similar
to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching
positive or negative. It is simple and low cost (~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible with most
electronic devices, except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser
printers, fluorescent lighting, audio equipment.Most AC motors will run off this power
source albeit at a reduction in efficiency of approximately 20%

Multilevel

A multilevel inverter synthesizes a desired voltage from several levels of direct current
voltage as inputs. The advantages of using multilevel topology include reduction of power
ratings of power devices and lower cost. There are three topologies - diode clamped inverter,
flying capacitor inverter and cascaded inverter.

Pure sine wave

A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (less than 3% total
harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is
compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design
is more complex, and costs more per unit power.

Resonant

Resonant inverters are based on resonant current oscillation.

Grid tie

A grid tie inverter is a sine wave inverter designed to inject electricity into the electric power
distribution system. Such inverters must synchronise with the frequency of the grid. They
usually contain one or more Maximum power point tracking features to extract the
maximum amount of power, and also include safety features.

Synchronous

A synchronous inverter connects to a grid and allows routing to or from the grid depending
on need.

Stand-alone

A stand-alone inverter is often used to convert direct current produced by renewable energy
sources like solar panels or small wind turbines for power to homes and small industries,
mostly in remote locations lacking a utility grid.
Solar

A solar inverter can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by an off-grid electrical
network. Solar inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays,
including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.

Solar micro

A solar micro-inverter converts direct current from a single solar panel. Micro-inverters
contrast with conventional string or central inverter devices, which are connected to multiple
solar panels.

Air conditioner

An air conditioner inverter modulates the frequency of the alternating current to control the
speed of the air conditioner motor to achieve continuous adjustment of temperature control.

CCFL

A CCFL inverter powers a cold cathode fluorescent lamp.

Basic designs

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the

centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow
current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the
primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the
primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary
circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and
a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the
stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that
the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical
inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios.
A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns.

As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types
of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Certain
ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR). SCRs provide
large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be controlled
over a variable firing range.

Output waveforms

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output
transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as
opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using
Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine
waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the
fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the
series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis
data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion (THD)
is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the
fundamental voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the
characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage
supply to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.
Advanced designs

H-bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and antiparallel diodes.

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in
inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or
less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.

The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can
be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied
to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are
applied to allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while
limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power
at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the
filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.

Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often
connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load
current when the switch is turned off. The antiparallel diodes are somewhat similar to the
freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.

signal
harmonics harmonics System
waveform transitions THD
eliminated amplified Description
per period
 2-level
2 - - square ~45%[4]
wave

3-level
"modified >
4 3, 9, 27,... -
square 23.8%[4]
wave"

5-level
"modified >
8
square 6.5%[4]
wave"

2-level
10 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11,... very slow
PWM

3-level
12 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11,... very slow
PWM

Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about
the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc. Waveforms that
have steps of certain widths and heights can attenuate certain lower harmonics at the expense
of amplifying higher harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the
positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by
three (3rd and 9th, etc.) can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The
required width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative
steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps.
 Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width
modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used
as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is
not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics.
Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because
filtering is much more practical at high frequencies, where the filter components can be
much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes
produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented
by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier
frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control
inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while
also improving the quality of the waveform.

Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel

inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels.
For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct
current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By
connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive rail and ground,
the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative rail, then both to the
ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a
three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.

Three phase inverters

3-phase inverter with wye connected load

 Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high
power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists
of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For
the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one
switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a
line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage
step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics
that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM
techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the
waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.

3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform of
voltage between terminals A and C (23-2 states).To construct inverters with higher power
ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current
rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase
shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step
inverter is obtained with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the
purpose of achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is
improved as well.

How to Choose an Inverter/Charger?

• To avoid overloads, the total wattage of connected equipment must be lower than the
continuous wattage rating of the Inverter/Charger.Equipment wattages are often listed on
nameplates or in manuals. If your equipment is rated in amps, multiply by the AC voltage
to estimate wattage. (Example: 1,3 amps × 230 volts = 300 watts.)

• If your AC source suffers from frequent voltage fluctuations, consider models with
automatic voltage regulation (AVR). AVR corrects voltages without draining battery power,
preserving runtime and reducing battery wear. AVR is very useful for conditioning
generator sources. (Applicable models: APSINT3636VR, APSX3024SW and
APSX6048VRNET.)

• If you are powering computers, network equipment or other sensitive electronics, consider
models with fast transfer times (from AC source to battery) and pure sine wave output for
maximum compatibility.*(Applicable models: APSX3024SW, APSX6048VRNET and
HCRK-INT have fast transfer times and pure sine wave output. APSX750 and APSX1250
have fast transfer times and simulated sine wave output.)

* Some loads require pure sine wave output for proper operation, such as automated teller
machines(ATMs), compact fluorescent lights, fans and electronics with PFC-corrected,
switched-mode powersupplies, including many computers and LCD monitors. Use
APSX3024SW, APSX6048VRNET or HCRK-INT for these loads. Consult the product
manual or contact the manufacturer for more information about backup power
requirements for your equipment.

12V Inverter 230V/50Hz

The small and very light (5.5kg) power inverter has been designed to handle appliances with
high surge demand up to 4.5kW. Various protection circuits (short circuit, under and over
voltage, overload, surge control (DSC) and overheating) will guarantee best
functionality.Galvanic insulation between battery and AC-output offers safe operation.

If no appliances are attached the inverter returns after a time delay to the power
saving stand-by mode.The optional remote control (RP03, to be used with US80/160) makes
the control of the inverter easy and convenient. We recommend using batteries with a
capacity of 150Ah or more to back up the inverter sufficient. 4 new aluminium mounting feet
make installation easy and secure.

Inverter Applications:

 4WD, service and emergency vehicles, police, mobile homes,

 mountain huts, telecom stations, coaches.

The lightweight and compact IBS inverter of the corresponding output class are able to
operate a large number of applications (see table 'Ultra Sine Inverter "). Please apply the
recommended battery capacity to achieve the maximum efficiency observed.

 Pure sine wave output

 Start power 3.2-4.5kW with Dynamic Surge Control (DSC) monitors
 New and improved cooling performance for best power at high ambient temperature
 Robust design with aluminum housing
 Cover and soil powder coated new
 New mounting feet for easy professional installation
 Intelligent discharge protection with uControllerüberwachung
 External power terminal for + / - battery terminals M8
 Optional remote control new RP03

Datasheet For Inverter 12V/230VAC/50Hz

Order - Nr. US160/12V/230V US160/24V/230V

Rated power output 1600W (TA+40°C) 1600W (TA+40°C)

Surge Power. 4500W max. 4500W max.

System battery
12V 24V
voltage

System voltage at
230VAC/50Hz 230VAC/50Hz
the output AC

AC output waveform 100% pure Sinus 100% pure Sinus

versatile appliances coupler to accept versatile appliances coupler to accept

230V connector
an adapter plug for any country an adapter plug for any country

Input voltage range 11.8V off, Reset 12.3V on, 23.6V off, Reset 24.6V on,

15.5V off, Reset 14.5V on, 31V off, Reset 29V on,

<10.5V instant shutdown <21V instant shutdown

Undervoltage
dynamic, power-compensated dynamic, power-compensated
shutdown

Internal power:

No Load
1.2A 0.8A
consumption

Stand-by
0.3A 0.15A
consumption

Off 5mA 4mA

Maximum current
350ADC 160ADC
consumption

Efficiency >92 % >93%

Remote Control
Available as option Available as option
RP03

Technology high frequency high frequency

dual processor dual processor

galvanic isolation galvanic isolation

Security features Over / Under Voltage Over / Under Voltage

Overtemperature Overtemperature

Overload / Current Limit Overload / Current Limit

short current short current

Dynamic Surge Control (DSC) Dynamic Surge Control (DSC)

Protection wrong polarity /internal fuse wrong polarity /internal fuse

Cooling tunnel cooling/monitored by uProc. tunnel cooling/monitored by uProc.

Temperature range -10°C...+40°C -10°C...+40°C

Casing aluminum aluminum

Seal IP40 IP40

Cable / terminal 2x50mm2/M8 2x25mm2/M8

Weight 12.1 lbs /5.5kg 12.1 lbs /5.5kg

Dimensions [mm]
417x257x83mm 417x257x83mm
WxHxD

CE approval yes yes

APPLICATIONS:

DC power source utilization

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile.
The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough to power two
sixty watt light bulbs.An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries,
solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in
particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce
DC at any desired voltage.Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar
panels into alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.

Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power
when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC
power to recharge the batteries.

Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction
heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then
changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.
HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter
plant converts the power back to AC.

Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the

frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the
controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC
power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key
component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors in
some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius, BYD e6 and Fisker Karma.
Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric
vehicle applications. In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power
from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

Air conditioning

An inverter air conditioner uses a variable-frequency drive to control the speed of the motor
and thus the compressor.

The general case

A transformer allows AC voltage to be stepped up or down to a desired voltage at the same

frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC
or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can
never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the
power dissipated as waste heat.

CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE STUDY

Road Power Generation is new type of unconventional source of energy. This is a type of
vibration harvesting. This used waste energy of vehicles and converts kinetic energy to
electric energy. RPG possible answer for battery charging station and it may be possible
the electric vehicle can be recharge with green power and power coming from electric
vehicles earned wasted kinetic energy. The higher frequency of passing vehicles provides
higher capacity of electricity generated by road power generation.

REFERENCES

IJAEEE,Volume1,Number 1 Noor Fatimaet al.ISSN:2319-1112 /V1N1:9-14 ©IJAEEE [1]

Mukherjee, D., Chakrabarti, S., Fundamentals ofrenewable energy systems, New Age
international limited publishers, New Delhi, 2005.
[2] Sharma, P.C., Non-conventional power plants, Public printing service, New Delhi, 2003.
[3] Mukherje, D., Chakrabarti, S., Non-conventionalpower plants, New Delhi, 2005. [4] Nota,
R., Barelds, R., Engineering method for r
oad traffic and railway noise after validation and fine-tuning, Harmonoise WP 21-35, 2005.
[5] Hamet, J.P., Besnard, F., Doisy, S., Lelong, J., New vehicle noise emission for French
traffic noise prediction, 71:861–9, 2010. [6] Gagen, M.J.,Novel acoustic sources from
squeezed cavities in car tires, J Acoust Soc Am, 794–801,1999. [7] Makarewicz, R., Gałuszka,
M., Road traffic noise prediction based on speed-flow diagram. Appl Acoust; 72:190–5, 2011.
[8] Makarewicz, R., Zołtowski, M., Variations of road traffic noise in residential areas, J
Acoust SocAm; 124:3568–75, 2008. [9] Watts, G., et al., Effects of speed distribution on the
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[11] Raja, A.K., Non-conventional power engineering, Public printing service, New Delhi,
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