Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Evaluation of the potential of pelletized biomass from different

municipal solid wastes for use as solid fuel
Ting Wang a, Yuening Li a, Jing Zhang a, Jingbo Zhao a, Yan Liu a, Luna Sun a, Boyang Liu b, Hongjun Mao a,⇑,
Yingchao Lin a,⇑, Weizun Li c, Meiting Ju c, Fudong Zhu d
a
Center for Urban Transport Emission Research, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, College
of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
b
QES Department, Novozymes (China) Biotechnology Ltd, Tianjin 300457, China
c
College of Environment Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
d
Dongon Environmental Protection Technology Ltd, Jiangsu 224007, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Four different municipal solid wastes (dog manure, horse manure, apple pomace waste and tea waste)
Received 26 July 2017 and an industrial by-product (NovoGro) were used to produce solid fuel pellets. The mixtures followed
Revised 20 November 2017 a raw material to NovoGro ratio of 50:1. The pellets diameters varied between 4 and 5 mm, and the aver-
Accepted 25 November 2017
age length was 20 mm. The dog manure, horse manure, apple pomace waste and tea waste pellets were
Available online 8 December 2017
denoted as DN, HN, AN and TN, respectively. The combustion characteristics of the pelletized fuels were
investigated, such as total moisture, ash content, calorific value and ash fusion point, etc. The physico-
Keywords:
chemical properties were analyzed by using a number of analytical techniques including X-ray fluores-
Solid waste
Biomass
cence spectrometry (XRF), X-ray diffraction spectrometry (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Binder and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results of the mechanical, thermal and morpho-
NovoGro logical properties show that the raw materials were effectively combined with the NovoGro binder; fur-
Pellets thermore, the DN, HN and TN pellets exhibited excellent mechanical and thermal properties, including
Renewable energy high calorific values (>16.30 MJ/kg), high resistance to mechanical shock (>99%), high volatile matter con-
tents, optimal softening temperatures and optimal ash contents. However, the high K, Ca, and Si contents
of the AN can form low-melting-point eutectics, which can cause slagging. Moreover, the AN materials
had large particle sizes, and high cellulose and hemicellulose contents led to high total moistures, low
softening temperatures and low calorific values. The AN was not suitable for use as a fuel. The results sug-
gested that NG is an effective binder for pelletization of biomass and showed the feasibility of using
municipal solid wastes for energy production.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction fermentation residue and either lignite coal or anthracite coal to

Concerns about the growing shortage of fossil fuels have
increased the interest in biomass and other renewable energy
sources. A rapid growth of the pellet market has been observed
over the last several years. Today, wood pellets are one of the most
internationally traded solid biomass commodities used specifically
for energy purposes (Henderson et al., 2017; Sikkema et al., 2011).
However, because of the lack of raw material for manufacturing
fuel pellets, other raw waste materials from energy crops have
been used more frequently. Su et al. (2011) used a mixture of
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hongjun_mao@hotmail.com (H. Mao), dei@nankai.edu.cn
(Y. Lin).
produce a solid fuel with a high combustion performance. Later,
dewatered-sewage sludge and mixtures of other food wastes were
developed to produce solid fuel for treating and disposing of sew-
age sludge (Wu et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2013). More recently, a
selection of some residual biomasses, such as nonedible oilseed
(Doshi et al., 2014), packaging grass/leaves, wood waste and card-
board (Lohri et al., 2015) were evaluated to determine their poten-
tial as solid biofuels. Municipal solid waste refers to by-products
generated from the urbanization of human society, which includes
materials such as product packaging, bottles, batteries, food
wastes, and pet manures (Xue et al., 2011). It has been estimated
that in 2015, the total amount of municipal solid waste generated
worldwide reached 2 billion tonnes (Wilson et al., 2015). The com-
position of municipal solid waste was mainly organic species. The

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.11.043
0956-053X/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Wang et al. / Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266 261

high organic matter confers a high calorific value to the waste Table 2
(Sheng and Azevedo, 2005). Thus, municipal solid waste could be Application of the four types of bio-wastes.

used as a fuel for energy production. One of the methods of con- Application Bio-waste Citation
verting waste biomass into energy is to produce solid fuels in the Bio-gas Dog manure Phetyim et al. (2015)
form of pellets or briquettes through pressure agglomeration Horse manure Mönch-Tegeder et al.
(Colley et al., 2006; Kaliyan and Morey, 2009; Sokhansanj and (2014)
Turhollow, 2004). The elemental composition and combustion Bio-oil Horse manure Elkasabi et al. (2015)
Tea waste Uzun et al. (2010)
characteristics of some solid biofuels are shown in Table 1. The ele- Compost Horse manure Benito et al. (2009)
mental composition of solid fuels were determined by their raw Apple pomace Kopčić et al. (2014)
materials. The ash contents of bio-waste solid fuels varied between waste
3.1 and 7.9%, which were much higher than that of the wood pel- Soil fertilizer Horse manure Azizi (2007); Ferreras
et al. (2006)
lets, but were comparable to the charcoal. The calorific values of
Sorbent for contaminant Tea waste Amarasinghe and
the bio-waste solid fuels were lower than the charcoal, but were removal Williams (2007)
similar to that of the commercial wood pellets. Hence, the solid Apple pomace Chand and Pakade
biofuels are potential fuels for combustion. waste (2015)
Pelletization is a process of compacting loose material to form a Organic soil amendments for soil Horse manure Bolan et al. (2003)
remediation
densified, homogeneous product. Pellets are often favored in fuel
Directly combust for heat Horse manure Lundgren and
applications because of their enhanced physical properties, which production Pettersson (2009)
include easy feeding and handling (Razuan et al., 2011). Binders Apple pomace Virmond et al. (2010)
play a vital role in the pelletization process. Binder addition could waste
improve pellet durability and strength. Generally, binders affect
pellet stability in three ways. Binders occupy spaces, resulting in
more compact pellets, act as adhesives, and exert forces such as pellets. The ash content and calorific value of the pellets were also
van der Waals forces and electrostatic forces on compounds pre- measured.
sent (Kaliyan and Morey, 2010; Ruscoe et al., 2005). NovoGro
(NG) is a by-product from the Biological Treatment Plant of Novo-
zymes. NG is produced from a centrifuged fermentation broth 2. Materials and methods
through heating and lime amendment to inactivate all microorgan-
isms and contains 19% (mass fraction) organic matter (Qiao et al., 2.1. Acquirement and preparation of the raw materials
2014; Wang et al., 2014). Thus, NG may be a good binder candidate
to evaluate. Dog manure, horse manure, apple pomace waste and tea waste
Dogs and horses are popular pets in many countries. Conse- were used to produce the pellets. In Chinese cities, keeping dogs as
quently, increasing amounts of dog manure and horse manure pets and horses for tourism is common. According to the policy of
have to be managed and treated. Apple pomace waste and tea the Chinese government (Animal Epidemic Prevention Law of the
waste are common municipal solid wastes produced in rural areas People’s Republic of China), dogs and horses should be properly
daily. Table 2 shows the application of these four types of vaccinated and are controlled by the animal epidemic prevention
bio-wastes in the literatures. These bio-wastes have been used to and quarantine system. The manures from dogs and horses are
produce bio-gas, bio-oil, compost, soil fertilizer, sorbent for mixed with other municipal solid wastes. Dog manure, apple
contaminant removal, and organic soil amendments for soil reme- pomace waste and tea waste were acquired from a residential
diation, and they directly combust for heat production. However, neighborhood in downtown Tianjin. Horse manure was collected
there are almost no reports in the literature on the production of from a horse ranch in the Dongli District of Tianjin.
solid fuel pellets. NG obtained from the Biological Treatment Plant of Novozymes
In this study, four different municipal solid wastes (dog manure, in Tianjin, China, was used as the binder. Novozymes is the largest
horse manure, apple pomace waste and tea waste) were used as enzyme company in the world, with biological treatment plants
the raw materials to produce solid fuel pellets. For the first time, across North America, South America, Europe and Asia (Further
NG was used as the binder in the pelletization process. The physic- information about the company and its productions can be
ochemical properties and combustion characteristics of the pel- acquired from its homepage at https://www.novozymes.com/).
letized fuels from the different municipal solid wastes were During the enzyme production process, the centrifuged residue
compared. The bulk and surface element contents of the pellet of fermentation broth of potato flour, cornstarch and other raw
samples were determined by using an element analyzer and an materials is obtained, and then the residue is heated and amended
X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), respectively. The surface with lime to inactivate all microorganisms. This by-production is
morphology was investigated with SEM. FTIR spectra were mea- NovoGro (NG). NG contains N, P and K elements, mineral nutrients
sured and used to study the chemical surface structures of the and organic substances. The yield of NG is approximately 100 tons

Table 1
Elemental composition and combustion characteristics of different solid biofuels.

Solid biofuels C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) Total moisture (%) Ash (%) HHV (MJ/kg) LHV (MJ/kg) Citation
Reed canary grass 48.6 6.8 37.3 0.3 4.7 5.5 19.5 – Bridgeman et al. (2008)
Wheat straw 40.6 6.0 42.58 0.19 8.6 7.9 17.617 – Motghare et al. (2016)
Cotton waste 50.5 7.0 22.48 1.18 4.8 3.1 19.652 – Motghare et al. (2016)
Soybean waste 43.8 6.3 48.5 1.4 5.8 4.7 18.770 – Motghare et al. (2016)
Municipal solid waste remains 51.2 6.2 40.1 0.1 – 4.4 – 17.2 Edo et al. (2016)
Wood pellets 50.2 5.9 43.2 0.08 7.6 0.5 – 19.0 Johansson et al. (2004)
Bark pellets 52.1 5.9 37.8 0.48 7.8 3.7 – 20.1 Johansson et al. (2004)
Wood logs 50.6 6.4 42.7 0.05 15/26/38 0.3 – 19.0 Johansson et al. (2004)
Charcoal 72.2 2.9 23.6 1.3 4.6 4.7 26.070 – Motghare et al. (2016)
262 T. Wang et al. / Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266
per day, and NG has been supplied as a fertilizer to the municipal
green area and the surrounding farmland without charge.
The moisture contents of the dog manure, horse manure, apple
pomace waste, tea waste and NG were 65.9%, 70.2%, 84.5%, 87.1%
and 69.0%, respectively. The four raw materials and one binder
were air dried for a period of 48 h in an open area with a highest
air temperature at 25 ± 2 °C. Then, each substance was grinded to
homogenize the average particle size and passed through a 10-
mesh sieve, and the moisture content reduced to approximately
6.0%.
The mixtures followed a raw material to NG ratio of 50:1 for
pellet production. A certain amount of water was added at a con-
centration of 15%. The materials were stirred in a hard polyethy-
lene container for 10 min to obtain a homogeneous material.
2.2. Production of solid fuel pellets
After combing the waste, binder and water, the obtained mix-
ture was subjected to pelletization process. The pellets were pro-
duced in a flat-mold biomass particle granulator, with an average
production capacity of 300–500 kg h 1. The pellets diameters var-
ied between 4 and 5 mm, and the average length was 20 mm. The
process was conducted at an ambient temperature of 25 °C.
2.3. Ultimate analysis of pellets
Seventy-two hours after pelletizing, the pellets were weighed
on an analytical balance and were measured with an electronic
Vernier caliper. The bulk density was determined from the ratio
between the mass and the volume. The bulk C, H, O, N and S con-
tents of the pellets were determined using an element analyzer
(Elementar Vario EL, Germany). The contents of the remaining pri-
mary elements in the pellets were determined by using an XRF
analyzer (MagixPW2403, NED). The crystal structure of the pellets
was studied by using an XRD analyzer (Rigaku D/max-2500, JP).
2.4. The combustion characteristics of the pellets
The most suitable pellet for commercialization has an ideal
combination of resistance to mechanical shock and calorific value.
The ash content was determined by combusting the pellet at
750 °C for 6 h in open crucibles in muffle furnaces according to
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D1762-84
(ASTM D1762-84, 2007). The volatile matter content was deter-
mined by combusting the pellet at 900 °C for 7 min in a lid-
covered crucible in the muffle furnaces (Kang et al., 2012). The
shatter strength of the pellets was measured by the drop-shatter
method (Law of the People’s Republic of China on the coal industry,
drop shatter test of industrial briquette, MT/T925-2004). After
dropping from 2 m above the steel plate 3 times, the percentage
of particles larger than 13 mm was set as dropping intensity. To
measure the higher heating value (HHV) and lower heating value
(LHV) of the samples, the pellets were placed in a calorimeter
bomb (SDACM3100, Sundy, China) and combustion was performed
in excess of O2 and under a pressure of 30 atm. The ash fusion tem-
peratures (AFTs) of the pellets were measured in Ar and H2 atmo-
spheres using an ash fusion analyzer (SDAFDY2000d, Sundy, China)
according to the Chinese National Standards (Proximate analysis of
coal, GB/T 212-2008).
2.5. Morphological properties of the pellets
The surface morphology of the pellets was investigated by SEM
(QUANTA 200, USA). The FTIR spectra of the pellets were scanned
in the region 400–4000 1/cm with a Bruker Fourier transform
infrared spectrometer (Tensor 27, Bruker, USA) using KBr pellets.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Ultimate analysis of the pellets
The pellets were derived from dog manure, horse manure, apple
pomace waste and tea waste binding with NG and denoted as DN,
HN, AN and TN, respectively.
Table 3 depicts the elemental composition of the pellets. All tests
were carried out in triplicate to ensure reproducibility of the
results. The elemental composition of the pellets depends on their
biomass origin. Thus, the contents of alkali metal oxide, silicon
oxide and alkali earth metal oxide varied between the pellets.
Table 3 shows that, besides the macro-element (C, H, O and N),
the pellets were mainly composed of Ca, K and Si, but there were
also significant amounts of P and Mg. The DN was typically a Ca-
rich pellet, suggesting its usefulness for SO2 capture. High concen-
trations of K and Ca may form low-melting-point eutectics, which
can cause slagging (Mao et al., 2015). The K and Ca contents of AN
were relatively high among those of the four pellets. Thus, AN
had a potential to form surface deposits on the boiler surface. Dur-
ing the combustion process, the silicon compounds in the fuel could
cause abrasion damage (Mathison et al., 2010). The Si contents of
DN and HN (1.46% and 2.54%, respectively) were higher than that
of AN and TN (0.82% and 0.97%). However, other studies have sug-
gested that the Si contents of solid fuels are range from 0.16% to
21.00% (Chen et al., 2012; Febrero et al., 2015; Jin et al., 2017;
Munnings et al., 2014). Hence, the Si contents of the four pellets
were acceptable for solid fuels. P is one of the harmful elements
in fuel. During combustion, the phosphorus compounds were vola-
tilized and increased the ash deposition, leading to a decrease in the
boiler efficiency (Fusco et al., 2016). In other studies, the P contents
ranged from 0.03% to 7.10% (Chen et al., 2012; Febrero et al., 2015;
Jin et al., 2017; Munnings et al., 2014); thus, in this study, the P con-
tents of the four pellets were considered average. However, the P
content of DN (3.01%) was considerably higher than that of the
other three pellets. Hence, a dephosphorization treatment should
be considered for further application of DN pellets. The presence
of Cl can reduce the melting point, encouraging the deposition of
ash (Magdziarz et al., 2016). The pellets can be ordered from great-
est to lowest Cl content as follows: TN > DN > HN > AN. Moreover,
there is almost no Cl content in the AN pellets.
Results of the XRD analysis are illustrated in Fig. 1. The X-ray
diffractograms showed an intense peak at 2h = 21.7° (Peak 1) for
DN, HN and TN. This peak is attributed to the presence of silica
such as quartz (Niu et al., 2010). The peak at 2h = 26.6° (Peak 2)
for DN, HN and TN is attributed to the stacking of graphitic basal
planes (Mafu et al., 2016). Moreover, any deviation of this peak
from the original 2h = 25° is associated with a highly disordered
structure (Guerrero et al., 2008). Thus, the different intensities
among DN, HN and TN suggest structural differences in their gra-
phitic planes and carbon arrangements. The very sharp peak at
2h  30° (Peak 3 & 4) is due to the presence of calcite, the most
stable polymorph of calcium carbonate, in HN and TN (Mafu
et al., 2016). The AN samples exhibited a very sharp peak at
50.2° (Peak 5), which is attributed to the presence of small
amounts of silicate compounds (Mafu et al., 2016). The alkali-
silicate compounds were low-melting-point eutectics, which can
cause slagging. The K content of AN was the highest among the
four pellets (Table 3). Thus, sintering and agglomeration would
occur during the combustion process of AN.
3.2. Analysis of the combustion characteristics of the four pellets
The combustion characteristics of the four pellets were investi-
gated, and the results are shown in Table 4. The total moisture con-
tent is the most important factor of fuel flammability since fuel
 T. Wang et al. / Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266 263

Table 3
Elemental composition of pellets (%).

Pellets C H O N S P K Mg Ca Fe Al Si Cl
DN 36.84 7.45 31.69 3.78 0.91 3.01 1.04 0.17 1.74 0.61 0.26 1.46 0.29
HN 38.29 7.45 35.16 1.29 0.26 1.12 1.00 0.24 3.37 0.42 0.19 2.54 0.20
AN 39.09 8.36 34.74 1.06 0.14 0.69 2.30 0.07 3.57 0.19 0.93 0.82 0
TN 44.47 7.60 46.18 4.45 0.56 1.11 1.17 0.09 3.62 0.33 0.18 0.97 0.71

medium ash coal, respectively. Thus, the DN could be used as a fuel

Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction patterns recorded for the pellet samples. (DN: dog manure
binding with NG; HN: horse manure binding with NG; AN: apple pomace waste
binding with NG; TN: tea waste binding with NG). (1 – silica; 2 – graphitic plane; 3,
4 – calcite; 5 – silicate compounds).
water status is the determinant in fire ignition and fire propaga-
tion. A certain amount of water (15%) was added into the mixture
of raw materials and the binder before the pelletization process.
After pelleting, the total moisture contents of DN, HN and TN
reduced to 11.7%, 12.6%, and 10.3%, respectively. The reduction
was due to the moisture loss during the pelletization process
(Stelte et al., 2011; Thek and Obernberger, 2004) The optimal total
moisture content of materials for combustion is <12% (Chuvieco
et al., 2004). The total moisture of the AN was as high as 18.9%.
Moreover, as the storage time increase, the pellets derived from
apple pomace waste easily absorbed moisture from the air, result-
ing in increased moisture.
The ash contents of the DN and HN were considerably higher
than those of the AN and TN. It was due to the fact that the live-
stock manures usually contain higher ash contents than those of
plant-based materials (Zhang et al., 2013). Based on the ash con-
tents of the four pellets (Table 4), the AN and TN were classified
as low ash coal according to the International Standard (Classifica-
tion of coals, ISO 11760-2005) and Chinese National Standard
(Classification for quality of coal. Part 1: Ash content, GB/T
15224.2-2010). According to the International Standard, the DN
and HN were classified as moderately high ash coal and medium
ash coal, respectively; according to the Chinese National Standard,
the DN and HN were classified as medium ash coal and low-
substitute during a shortage of high-rank fuels. However, the HN,
as a low-rank fuel, might need further refinement (Li et al.,
2015). Si content directly determines the ash content of solid fuel
(Daood et al., 2014). The Si levels of the DN and HN pellets were
significantly higher than that of the other two pellets (Table 3),
consistent with the tendency of the pellet ash contents. All four
of the pellets had relatively high volatile matter contents (60%).
Thus, they were easily ignited in the initial stage. However, the
duration of combustion is determined by the fixed carbon content
(Riaza et al., 2014). The order of the fixed carbon contents of the
four pellets was DN < AN < HN < TN. Hence, the TN exhibited an
excellent combustion performance.
The most suitable pellet for commercialization is one that has
the ideal combination of resistance to mechanical shocks and
calorific value. All four of the pellets had high shatter strengths
to mechanical shocks. The TN had the highest HHV and LHV, while
the AN had the lowest HHV and LHV. According to the Chinese
National Standard (Classification for quality of coal. Part 3: Calorific
value, GB/T 15224.32010), the HHV and LHV of low-rank coals are
below 16.30 MJ/kg and 12.51 MJ/kg, respectively. Hence, the HHV
and LHV values of the DN, HN and TN above were commonly
accepted values for fuel, indicating that they have the potential
to be used as fuel. However, the calorific value of the AN was rel-
atively low.
The deformation temperature (DT), softening temperature (ST),
hemisphere temperature (HT) and flow temperature (FT) of the DN
were the highest among the temperatures of the four pellets, while
those of the AN were the lowest. For the thermal application of bio-
mass, the DT is usually considered as the important parameter (Du
et al., 2014; Lindström et al., 2007). The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Research Committee defined when
the difference of FT and DT was above 149 °C, the slagging would
be less likely to occur during combustion. The differences of FT
and DT of DN, HN, AN and TN were 172, 10, 8 and 18 °C, respec-
tively. The Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) Committee defined
when the ST of the pellet was above 1230 °C, the slagging would
be less likely to occur during combustion. The ST values of the
DN, HN, AN and TN were 1304, 1233, 1165 and 1192 °C, respec-
tively. Thus, the DN and HN show preferable slagging properties.
The ST of the AN was the lowest among the four pellets, implying
that the AN had the potential to cause slagging. This was consistent
with the result of the elemental composition of the pellets in
Section 3.1.
The typical comparison of the elemental composition and com-
bustion characteristics of different solid biofuels are shown in

Table 4
Combustion characteristics of pellets.

Pellet Proximate analysis (%) Calorific value Ash fusion point (°C) Shatter strength (%) Density (m/cm3)
(MJ/kg)
Total moisture Ash Volatile matter Fixed carbon HHV LHV DT ST HT FT
DN 11.7 20.24 61.71 6.36 17.41 12.98 1156 1304 1320 1328 99.47 1.19
HN 12.6 17.81 58.47 11.12 16.55 12.51 1226 1233 1235 1236 99.89 1.07
AN 18.9 5.31 58.77 16.02 16.02 11.77 1160 1165 1166 1168 99.83 1.24
TN 10.3 8.74 62.34 18.62 19.52 15.99 1180 1192 1195 1198 99.87 1.01
264 T. Wang et al. / Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266
Fig. 2. SEM photography of the pellet samples. (DN: dog manure binding with NG; HN: horse manure binding with NG; AN: apple pomace waste binding with NG; TN: tea
waste binding with NG). (a, d, g, j: 700; b, e, h, k: 500; c, f, i, l: 2000).
Fig. 3. The FTIR spectra of the pellet samples.
Table 1. The elemental composition of solid fuels were determined
by their raw materials. The ash contents of the AN and TN were
considerably higher than those of wood pellets and charcoal but
were comparable to other wastes. However, the ash contents of
DN and HN were higher than that of other wastes and pellet fuels.
Thus, it was important to pay attention to the ash reduction of the
DN and HN for further application. Indeed, the HHV and HLV of the
four pellets in this study were lower than those of wood pellets and
charcoal. However, the HHV of the four pellets, especially the DN
and TN, were comparable or even slightly higher than those of
other types of bio-waste fuels. Moreover, according to the policy
of the Chinese government (Animal Epidemic Prevention Law of
the People’s Republic of China), pet dogs and horses should be
properly vaccinated and are controlled by the animal epidemic
prevention and quarantine system. Hence, the concentrations of
pathogens in raw manure were greatly reduced. Besides, after
the air drying, grinding and pelletization process, there are no
obvious odours of the pellets. Hence, due to the shortage of fossil
fuels in the world and the shortage of fuelwood in China, solid fuels
produced from bio-wastes have the potential for a broad range of
applications for sustainable development.
3.3. Morphological properties of pellets
The morphological properties were identified with SEM and
FTIR spectroscopy.
 T. Wang et al. / Waste Management 74 (2018) 260–266
The SEM micrographs given in Fig. 2 show a regular morphology
and distribution of the four pellets. The DN particles were homoge-
nous and of uniform size (Fig. 2a and b). It suggested that the NG
binder was mixed well with the dog manure materials. It was
noticeable that the reflective surface of the particles was due to
the mineral composition (Fig. 2c). Hence, it was consistent with
the result that the DN pellets had a relatively high ash content of
20.24% (Table 4). The HN particles mainly included fibrous materi-
als (Fig. 2d), including forage grass fiber and horse hair fiber
(Fig. 2e). The NG binder covered the horse manure surface effec-
tively and even penetrated the pores (Fig. 2f). The AN materials,
including apple pulp, kernel and peel residues, were inhomoge-
neous and had different shapes (Fig. 2g and h). Moreover, the AN
particle size was considerably larger than that of the other three
pellets. These characteristics were not conducive to the pelletiza-
tion process. Hence, the calorific value of AN was the lowest among
the four pellets (Table 4). The TN materials mainly included fibrous
particles and bulk particles (Fig. 2j and k). There were many macro-
and micro-pores in the surface of the TN particles (Fig. 2l); the NG
binder could penetrate into these pores. In addition, the fibrous
materials were intertwined with the bulk materials to form a tight
aggregation structure. Hence, the calorific value of the TN was the
highest among the four pellets and was comparable with that of
conventional coal fuel (Matin and Chelgani, 2016).
The FTIR technique was employed to study the chemical struc-
ture of the biomass pellets (Fig. 3). In the FTIR spectra, the band at
approximately 1650 cm 1 was the result of the C@O stretching
vibration of the hemicellulose component (Mayer et al., 2012).
The next spectrum bands at approximately 1550 cm 1 (C@C
stretching) corresponded to lignin (Fierro et al., 2007). The bands
at approximately 1100 cm 1 (CAO stretching) and 800 cm 1
(CAH bending) indicated the characteristic vibration of lignin
(Asadieraghi and Daud, 2015). Among the four different biomass
pellets, TN showed an obvious peak at 1535 cm 1, while AN
showed peaks of greater band intensity at 1658 cm 1, 1078 cm 1
and 790 cm 1. It was possibly an evidence of a higher lignin con-
tent in the TN and a higher cellulose and hemicellulose content
in the AN. Thus, the calorific value of the TN pellet was the highest
among the four biomass pellets, and that of the AN was the lowest
(Table 4).
4. Conclusions
Four different municipal solid wastes (dog manure, horse man-
ure, apple pomace waste and tea waste) and an industrial by-
product (NovoGro) were used to produce solid fuel pellets. The
morphological properties show that the raw materials of the dog
manure, horse manure and tea waste effectively combined with
the NG binder. The results of the mechanical and thermal proper-
ties show that the DN, HN and TN pellets exhibited excellent
mechanical and thermal properties, including high calorific values
(HHV > 16.30 MJ/kg), high resistance to mechanical shock (>99%),
high volatile matter contents, optimal softening temperatures
and optimal ash contents. Furthermore, among the DN, HN and
TN pellets, the TN pellet exhibited the best combustion perfor-
mance. However, the high K, Ca, and Si contents of the AN would
form low-melting-point eutectics, which can cause slagging. More-
over, the AN materials had large particle sizes and high cellulose
and hemicellulose contents. Thus, the AN had a high total mois-
ture, low softening temperature and low calorific value, suggesting
that the AN was not suitable for use as a fuel. The results demon-
strated that NG is a good binder for the pelletization of biomass.
Moreover, it showed the feasibility of the usage of the biodegrad-
able (or organic) municipal solid wastes for the production of solid
fuels.
265
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by Natural Science Foun-
dation of Tianjin – China [15JCQNJC15200] and Key Technologies
R & D Program of Tianjin [16YFZCSF00410].
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