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239
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
INTRODUCTION
My research has been in rheology and non-Newtonian fluid mechanics. My early and continuing
work has been in polymer rheology (i.e., viscoelastic fluid mechanics). Particle suspensions
(slurries)1 became a parallel interest in 1974 after an approach by Alcoa Inc., in Western Australia,
who introduced us to the waste slurry product of the alumina industry: bauxite residue, more com-
monly known as red mud. At the time, we thought that 15,000 tonnes per day of fine-particle (dry)
waste, pumped to disposal at a pH of 13 and at a low concentration (Newtonian fluid), was a huge
amount of waste. We were not aware that other miners at that time were producing as much as
100,000 tonnes per day (now, 240,000 tonnes per day) on a dry basis of fine-particle waste of a
Newtonian fluid slurry and were also pumping to a tailings dam or pond. We were not aware of the
considerable impact this slurry waste in the industry has had, and is having, on the environment.
Working with Alcoa, we learned that simply removing, reusing, and recycling water from the
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waste slurry represents a step toward more sustainable practice in the industry. As the concentra-
tion of such a slurry is increased as a result of dewatering, non-Newtonian behavior is observed,
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characterized by shear thinning, a yield stress, and in some instances, thixotropic behavior.
Such high-concentration, nonideal (dirty) suspensions in the resource industries have meant
that new, simple, and portable rheological methods and techniques have been needed for both
shear and compression rheology to measure and interpret the basic flow properties. Also, some
older empirical techniques have needed to be modified and interpreted in a more fundamental way
so the results could be used in design. Understanding and exploiting this rheology has resulted in
dramatic improvement in the waste-disposal strategy. This article reviews these techniques and
illustrates how industry itself has motivated their development.
1
The terms “slurry” and “suspension” are used interchangeably.
2
Approximately two billion normal truck loads.
240 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
Process water
(from desalination plants,
lakes, boreholes, rivers,
or other sources)
Figure 1
The extraction process.
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3
OXFAM in Vietnam has produced a video on the failure.
a
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b
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Figure 2
(a) The Hungarian bauxite residue (red mud) tailings dam that (b) failed in October 2010 (37).
Figure 3
A large tailings dam with successive lifting of the dam wall—a common practice to increase dam capacity.
(See http://www.orosur.ca/_resources/media/opex/Tailings-Dam.jpg.)
242 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
science and technology, is simply, yes. The free water in the tailings dam is the major problem.
Elimination of this water, by moving to paste-tailings disposal, is one possible answer.
Figure 4
An iron ore paste tailings (6). Notice the toothpaste-like consistency (see Paste Thick Associates website,
http://www.pastethic.co.za/).
The next defining moment in our involvement with the mining industry and its waste was in
1994 at the XVIIIth International Mineral Processing Conference held in Sydney, Australia. Here
it was obvious that, although the industry was very interested in mine stope materials (underground
fill), they had little interest in or were not aware of the alumina industry and its movement toward
Figure 5
Alcoa Western Australia paste thickener under construction (photograph courtesy of Alcoa West. Aust.).
244 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
dry stacking on the surface. The communication across industrial boundaries, (e.g., copper, coal,
alumina) was poor.
With the advent of paste and thickened tailings conferences, starting in 1999, these boundaries
have virtually been eliminated. The first of the annual series was a learning seminar in Edmonton,
Canada organized by Bruce Regensburg from Syncrude in November 1999. Interestingly, it was
the oil sands industry that hosted the first meeting. Richard Jewell, from the Australian Center
for Geomechanics, organized the next meeting in Perth, Australia, in 2000. It was originally con-
ceived by Jewell and Ted Lord from Syncrude. Jewell, Lord, and, somewhat later, Andy Fourie
formed the team that has been the major driving force in these annual meetings. The meetings
rotate around the world and have been held in Canada, Australia, Africa, Chile, and Europe. They
have had quite an impact, particularly on bringing rheology to the mining industry and on devel-
oping technology for paste and thickened tailings. In the opening remarks at the 2000 meeting,
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Jewell (9) said, “It is the practical issues of producing (thickening) and transporting the high density
product that are addressed in greater detail in this seminar.” This object has now been achieved.
Understanding the rheology of fine-particle water slurries produced by the industry has been of
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critical importance. Emanating from the Paste and Thickened Tailings meetings has been the
publication of a Paste and Thickened Tailings Guide, the first edition of which was published in
2002 and the second edition in 2006 (10).
Basic Concepts
In terms of flow, slurries may be classified as either Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluids. Current
tailings-disposal practice in many cases deals with low-concentration Newtonian suspensions,
which are pumped in turbulent flow to the disposal pond. Paste and thickened tailings generally
exhibit non-Newtonian behavior.
The viscosity, η, of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the shear stress, τ , to the shear rate, γ̇ ,
such that
τ
η= . 1.
γ̇
Figure 6 is the textbook representation of inelastic non-Newtonian behavior (11, p. 7).
Viscoelastic effects are generally unimportant in mineral-suspension rheology.
Inelastic Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between the applied shear stress and the
shear rate, as shown in Curve A on Figure 6. Flow is initiated as soon as a shear stress is applied.
The linear relationship between the shear stress and the shear rate indicates a constant viscosity.
Concentrated mineral tailings display non-Newtonian behavior in that they possess a yield
stress. The yield stress, τ y , is the critical shear stress that must be exceeded before irreversible
deformation and flow can occur. The yield stress is an engineering reality, although the rheology
community debates its actual existence (12).
Curve B on Figure 6 shows a yield stress followed by a linear shear stress–shear rate relationship,
commonly known as Bingham behavior. Although not a true viscosity according to Equation 1,
the gradient of this line is referred to as the Bingham plastic viscosity. The form of Figure 7 was
D
B
sti c
m pla C
gha
Bin
τy A
1
n<
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t
an
lat
Di
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proposed at the Second Paste and Thickened Tailings Seminar (10) in an attempt to define the
difference between a slurry, a paste, and a filter cake.
It has now been established that the measure of strength shown on the ordinate in Figure 7 is
the true rheological yield stress, and the concentration is generally reported in weight percent. The
question of what a paste is is almost redundant; a paste has a yield stress. So-called thickened tailings
represent the continuum, and a paste tailings can have a yield-stress variation from perhaps 10 to
almost 1,000 for mine stope fill material. The alumina industry handles a material with a yield stress
of approximately 40 Pa. There can be a great deal of variation in the yield-stress concentration
curve for a particular industry; Figure 8 illustrates that variation within Alcoa World Alumina (13).
Concentration is not the unique variable; the yield stress is. For the data shown in Figure 8, the
concentration varies from approximately 36%wt to 53%wt for the same yield stress of 20 Pa. This
Paste Cake
Strength
Slurry
Concentration
Figure 7
A typical yield-stress concentration curve for a tailings suspension (10).
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CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
140
Kwinana
120 Point Comfort
Jamaica
100
Yield stress (Pa)
80
60
40
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20
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0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Concentration (% w/w)
Figure 8
Yield stress as a function of concentration for bauxite residue (red mud) from different alumina samples (13).
variation occurs within the same industry and varies greatly from industry to industry, as illustrated
in Figure 9, which shows the yield stress as a function of concentration for eleven different mineral
tailings (13). Every material is different. All tailings exhibit an exponential rise in yield stress with
concentration, with the yield stress generally beginning to rise rapidly for yield stresses greater
than 200 Pa. At a yield stress of 200 Pa, the concentration varies from approximately 0.24 (mass
fraction) for a coal mine tailings, to approximately 0.68 for a copper tailings, to 0.8 for a mine
stope fill material.
In addition to yield-stress behavior, the viscosity of the material will vary with shear rate.
As the shear rate is increased, pseudoplastic or shear-thinning materials exhibit a decrease in
1,600
1,200
Sand clay tails 1
1,000 Sand clay tails 2
Manganese tails
800 Nickel tails 1
Nickel tails 2
600
Red mud tails 1
400 Red mud tails 2
Copper tailings
200 Paste fill
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solids mass fraction
Figure 9
A comparison of the yield-stress concentration behavior for the fine-particle waste from a variety of minerals
(13).
viscosity [Curve D (1,1), Figure 6]. Dilatant, or shear-thickening, materials exhibit an increase
in viscosity with increasing shear rate [Curve C (1,2), Figure 6]. Dilatant behavior, although
relatively rare, is sometimes observed in mineral suspensions at high concentrations. For the
different fluid categories, various empirical flow models are used to describe this flow behavior.
The most commonly used equations are the Oswald-De Waele model (power law) for shear
thickening of shear-thinning materials,
τ = K γ̇ n , 2.
and the Herschel-Bulkley model for yield stress, shear thinning or yield stress, shear thickening
materials,
τ = τ H B + K γ̇ n . 4.
The Bingham model is
Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2013.4:239-257. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
τ = τ B = η B γ̇ . 3.
In these equations, K and n are experimentally determined constants from the basic shear stress–
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248 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
the material. We have seen many consulting reports in which this yield stress has been used as a
basis for design. The yield stress is the value of the shear stress when the material initially flows, and
in principle it can be determined if the measurements of the shear stress as a function of shear rate
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are made at low enough shear rates. However, there are difficulties in reaching such low shear rates;
slip invariably occurs in the concentric cylinder geometry at low shear rates. Thus, extrapolated
values of the shear stress–shear rate data are not easy to obtain and are often in significant error.
Figure 10 illustrates the potential errors associated with extrapolation, dependent upon the shear-
rate region in which data are available. The results in Figure 10 were obtained with a capillary
rheometer, a conventional Couette (concentric cylinder rheometer), and a vane-in-cup device
used to eliminate slip. For the capillary, the shear stress and shear rate were obtained from the
measured pressure drop, p, as a function of volumetric flow rate, Q, in a tube of length, L, and
diameter, D. As such,
Dp
τw = 5.
4L
and
3n + 1 8V
τw = , 6.
4n D
1,000
Vane
yield
Shear stress (Pa)
stress
100
Capillary results
Concentric-cylinder results
Vane-and-cup results
Vane yield stress
10
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Shear rate (1/s)
Figure 10
Flow curve for a paste sample, yield stress = 250 Pa (13).
Speed Torque
Torsion
head
Vane
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Dv Sample
Figure 11
Illustration of the vane device for yield-stress measurement.
which is the slope of a log-log plot of τ w versus 8V/D. Data obtained with the capillary and the
Couette rheometers should agree, as they do in Figure 11, at the higher shear rates. But at the
lower shear rates both deviate from the vane-and-cup results, which extrapolates to the correct
yield stress. Both the capillary and Couette data at shear rates of less than approximately 300 s−1
illustrate the dramatic influence of slip flow at a solid surface. At a shear rate of 10 s−1 , there is a
factor-of-four difference in the observed shear stress.
250 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
Slump height
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Figure 12
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The vane device and the principals involved are illustrated in Figure 11, and the basic equation
for analyzing the data is given as
π l 1
Tm = d 3 + τy . 9.
2 d 3
Basically, the vane is inserted into the suspension and rotated at a very low speed, where the torque
is observed as a function of time. The torque increases until reaching a maximum value, Tm , when
the material yields. The maximum torque is related to the yield stress by Equation 9, where d is
the diameter of the vane and l is its height. Equation 9 is valid if end effects are minimized, and
this is possible if using a large enough l/d vane. The great advantages of the vane are that the
material yields on itself, slip generally is not an issue, and the vane can be inserted into the fluid
in different regions. This technique is now used worldwide to measure yielding in all materials.
The development of the technique was motivated by a need generated by the alumina industry
(15–19).
Table 2 Matched slump heights for coal, gold, and lead-zinc tailings compared with the respective
yield stresses
Variable Coal tailings Gold tailings Lead-zinc tailings
Specific gravity (kg/m3 ) 1,450 2,800 4,100
Solids concentration (%w/w) 36 75 75
Slurry density (kg/m3 ) 1,120 1,930 2,310
Slurry height (mm) 203 203 203
Calculated yield stress (Pa) 160 275 330
Predicted pressure drop (kPa/m)a 5.07 8.13 9.60
a
Pressure drop prediction assumes: Bingham material; Bingham viscosity = 1 Pa.s; Horizontal pipeline; Pipeline internal
diameter = 200 mm; Pipeline velocity = 1 m/s.
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τ y is a dimensionless slump (τ y = τ y /ρgH), and S is the dimensionless slump, which is the actual
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252 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
Torque
sensor
Bob
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L
Air gap
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Sample
R
εR
Figure 13
Illustration of a Couette rheometer.
In the equations, τ 1 and τ 2 are the shear stresses at the surfaces of the bob, and f(τ ) is the shear
rate, γ̇ . Note in Equation 12 that the shear rate is hidden inside an integral. That the shear rate
is not explicitly defined causes some considerable difficulties in analyzing the data. Integration of
Equation 12 depends on knowing a functional form between the shear stress and shear rate (i.e.,
substituting a fluid model like Equations 2–4). Such a model will not be available a priori; hence,
approximate techniques are needed to evaluate the shear rate in the cup-and-bob rheometer,
particularly when the gap is wide, which is necessary for the paste- or suspension-like materials
that are of interest here. Often a narrow gap assumption is made to define the shear rate simply
by Equation 13:
2
γ̇1 = f (τ1 ) = . 13.
(1 − ε2 )
This definition, often embedded in instrument software, is not valid for the wide gap required
when dealing with paste-like systems.
2
γ̇1 = , 15.
S1
1,000
SLIP! Pumping
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Floc Extrusion
formation
10
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Figure 14
Shear stress–shear rate data for a nickel-laterite slurry feed (25).
and
d ln T
S1 = . 16.
d ln
The shear stress and the shear rate on the inner bob surface, rotating in an infinite medium, are
now directly defined and not dependent on any particular model assumption. The procedure is as
follows: The torque is measured as a function of rotational speed and plotted on a log-log graph.
Generally, the slope of this graph will be a constant S1 . Once S1 is known, the shear rate is defined, as
is the shear stress, from the torque measurements. The idea of a bob in an infinite medium has been
relatively obscure (26). Combining this analysis with the idea of using the vane itself as a rotational
device results in a new rheometer, the bucket rheometer. The vane itself has a distinct advantage
in that slip is effectively eliminated. Using the vane as the rotating bob allows measurements to be
made in the absence of slip. The advantages of the vane rotating in an infinite medium (i.e., in a
bucket of fluid) are obvious. All that is required is a vane and a torque-measuring head, and hence,
the device is portable. Additionally the shear stress and the shear rate data are easily determined. It
should be noted that Equations 14–16 are also valid for yield-stress materials. Figure 14 illustrates
some data obtained for a nickel laterite slurry, which is the feed to the extraction process. The figure
illustrates the regions in which the data would be required and again also illustrates clearly the
slip problems associated with the cup-and-bob and capillary instruments. Also, the vane-and-cup
rotation device extrapolates to the vane–yield stress measurement. The vane rheometer generally
is not suitable for Newtonian (low-viscosity) fluids (27).
CONCLUSION
Significant advances in the past decade in thickener technology and performance (28) and in
pumping high-density slurries (29), coupled with the application of rheological principles and
using the new techniques to measure basic fluid properties for mineral slurries, have had and
are having a major impact on waste minimization and environmental performance of the mining
254 Boger
CH04CH11-Boger
Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2013.4:239-257. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org ARI 6 May 2013 14:33
Figure 15
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industry. The contrast between low-concentration Newtonian slurry discharge to a dam and a
non-Newtonian paste disposal is clearly illustrated in the photographs shown in Figure 15.
The technology has now matured to the extent that many tailings dams could be eliminated
and reclamation could occur concurrently by using paste technology. Such an application would
be consistent with the basic principles of sustainability: reduce, recycle, and reuse (30). In an article
entitled, “Making Tailings Disposal Sustainable: A Key Business Issue,” Tacey & Hart (31, p. 13)
state, “Implementation of paste and thickened tailings can result in reduced cost and financial risk,
based on full life cycle costs, improved environmental benefits and improved public perception
and safety.” The problem is that full life cycle accounting methods are generally not used or
imposed.
Incremental accounting methods are employed that allow the gradual accumulation of the costs
for closure and rehabilitation over the life of the mine as an expense (not real money). The total
liability is not recognized until the end of the operation, when cash flow will be at a minimum.
At this stage, companies often escape the liability, which is then left with the taxpayer—hence the
superfund in the United States (32). There is apparently no accounting standard tailored for the
mining industry that adequately addresses the long-term liability of remediation costs (31), not to
mention the cost of maintenance of the site after mediation. Perhaps the easiest analogy is that you
accumulate household waste in your backyard and do not deal with the cost of disposal until the
house is sold or the occupant is deceased. Then the liability becomes someone else’s responsibility.
Clearly, the mandatory introduction of life cycle accounting methods that recognize the entire
anticipated liability as soon as it occurs would drastically change the attitude of the industry toward
waste disposal. It would seem logical and ethical to adopt such methods.
To offset the accounting practice, up-front performance bonds and environmental sureties have
become a requirement in most countries around the world. However, they rarely cover the real
cost of rehabilitation and long-term maintenance. For instance, in the state of Western Australia
(one of the world’s major miners), the policy is improving, but the bonds still may be inadequate.
By January 2014, the minimum bond rate will be 50% of the actual closure costs, estimated by a
third party (33). The current rate for a tailings storage facility is $12,000, to increase to $18,000
per hectare from January 1, 2012, as a minimum rate. High-risk facilities (potential acid-mine
drainage) may attract a higher-than-minimum rate. As the Western Australian Department of
Mines and Petroleum (33) states, “The purpose of environmental performance funds is to ensure
that the State is not exposed to unacceptable cost should mine operations fail to meet real and
potential requirements on their tenements.”
The tide is turning. A social license to operate is becoming more difficult to obtain for the
mining industry, in part because of the environmental record of the industry. Major investors
have divested themselves of millions of dollars of shares in companies with a poor environmental
record (34). To use an analogy expressed by Jones in his unpublished opening remarks in the Paste
and Thickened Tailings Seminar in 2002 (35), “The rubbish end of our business still has far too
many things being spilt over our neighbours’ front gardens.” This observation was made ten years
ago and is still true today.
In paste and thickened tailings, we are not talking about rocket science, we are talking about
accounting practices that discourage protection of the environment and regulators who have not
had the political support to implement the latest technology. This is changing. The recent ERCB
Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2013.4:239-257. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Directive 074 by the Energy Resource Conservation Board, Alberta, Canada (36), requires that
a trafficable surface for tar-sands tailings has to be established within ten years for final closure.
This step forward in regulation will have an impact worldwide in a very positive way and will
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encourage the use of paste tailings technology. Technology does not stand in the way of adopting
a more sustainable practice for waste management in the mining industry.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The author is not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might
be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks the Australian Research Council for career-long support. He is particularly
grateful to the Alcoa Corporation (Western Australia) for their initial approach in 1974 and for
the help of the corporate champions Peter Colombera (deceased), Don Glenister, and David
Cooling. The students who completed their PhD theses in the area need special recognition: G.
Sarmiento, Q.D. Nguyen, N. Pashias, F. Sofra, D. Cooling, and B.C. Hart. Also, I would like to
thank Phoebe Nash, Masoud Khabazi, and Paul Nemits, fourth-year (senior) project students in
Chemical Engineering at Monash University, for a fresh look at the viability of paste tailings. Fi-
nally, I would like to thank my friend and colleague Christine Collis for the support in preparation
of this manuscript and many others.
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