0394C8
The pH scale is also logarith mic,
whic h means that a change of one Bottery Acid
unit on the scale means a ten-fold Lemon Juice
change in how acidic or alkaline a Vinegar
solution is. Battery acid at pH 1 is
only one unit down the scale from
lemon juice (pH 2) , but is ten times "PURE" Rain (5·6)
more acidic. It is 100 times more
acidic tha n vinegar, which has a pH
value of 3.
ACID RAIN
, , , , l !
o 2 3 4 5 6
ACIDIC
Figure 1, The pH scale.
Acid Rain - what it is
Unpoll uted rain is already slightly
acidic because of the presence in air of
carbon dioxide , which combines wi th
water to form carbonic acid. This rain
has a pH value of 5.6, However, rain
is seldom un polluted . When rain is
conta minated with sulphuric and nitric
acids the pH falls below 5 .6. This is
what we refer to as acid rain.
Spring snowmelt can raise a stream's acid content to levels highly tox-
ic to newly hatched fish.
Distilled Water
tmmonia
! ! .'. .'. , '.
7 8 9 10 " 12 13 14
NEUTRAL BASIC
H owever, wh ile we use acid rain as
a common term to refer to this
problem, these pollutants can be
deposited on land and water in
several ways. In wet deposition, acidic
poll utants are depos ited by snow, fog
and mist, as well as rain. They may
also be deposited directly from the
atmosphere as gases or particles
withou t any association with
precipitation. This is called dry
deposition. Th us , while the term acid
rain will do for general reference to
the problem, m ore precise terms for
this form of poll ution are acidic
precipitation, or, more generally ,
acidic deposition.
In some areas wet and dry
deposition of acids are abou t eq ual. In
Newfoundland , however, there is
about six times as much wet
deposition as dry deposition.
 4

considering the problem of acid rain , Ontario - is concerned about acid

Where it comes from the concept of transportation of rain.
pollutants to distant areas is as im- The major source areas of acid rain
portant as the concept of trans- are large industrial areas such as
The acidic pollutants in acid rain formation from weak acid to strong Ontario in Canada , and the Ohio
originate as emissions of sulphur acid. Thus Newfound land - where River Valley area in the United States.
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Most the total annual emissions of sulphur (lNCO's Sudbury smelter is the world's
of them come from three main dioxide is less than one month's largest single emitter of sulphur
I
sulphur dioxide emissions from the dioxide). It is estimated that of all the
~
sources: 1) the burning of fossil fuels
I (coal and oil) in thermal power plants; INCO nickel smelter in Sudbury, acid rain pollutants being deposited in
I. 2) the burning of gasoline in motor
vehicles; 3) the smelting operations of
plants which refine nonferrous metal
ores. Power plants and industrial
sources contribute most of the sulphur
dioxide pollutants; motor vehicle
emissions are the largest single source
of oxides of nitrogen in the at-
mosphere.
Once into the atmosphere these
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are
transformed by contact with sunlight,
ozone and oxygen into higher oxides,
which then combine with moisture to
form sulphuric acid and nitric acid,
two strong acids capable of doing
serious damage to the environment.
(Fig 2)
The pollutants may rapidly fall to Motor vehicle emissions are the largest single source of oxides of
earth near their source area or they nitrogen in the atmosphere.
may remain in the atmosphere for
days and be transported thousands of
kilometresby moving air masses. In

OXIDES OF SULPHUR AND NITROGEN DESPOSITIDN

wei dry
D 0
D a

0 0

a 0
a D
EMISSION SOURCES rain, snow, gases,
mist particles

--.....1I!'4
IMPACTS - aquatic
lit""
terrestrial ~
,P - -
. .- ,P

Power plants burning fossil fuels Figure 2. The origins of acidic deposition.
emit sulphur dioxide.
 5

Newfoundland, approximately 60 per

cent come from Canadian sources and
40 per cent from the United States.
They are brought here by the
prevailing westerly air movements
across North America .

LABRADOR
50 100 ISO 200 1m

50 100 150 mile~

, ~
,.!
N
\.. I Precipitation sampler.

How much we get

•
• •.. .... ..• ..
• •• "
• How much acid rain is actually
reaching us here in Newfoundland and
..
.Churchi ll
FoIIS*.
•
_. • •• • Goose);!
•• e.

•
• DyOY.
• • •• • •
• •
Labrador?
The most acidic rain in North
America falls in the northeastern
United States, where the pH averages
4.0 to 4.2 , approximately 40 times
more acidic than clean rain.
In Newfoundland , the analysis of
precipitation samples collected weekly
from eleven deSignated sites
throughout the province (Fig . 3) in-
dicates that our most acidic
, Precipitation sampling sites precipitation occurs along the south
• lake sampling sites coast and in the southwestern area of
Newfoundland, measuring pH 4.5 on
average. This is about 12 times more
acidic than clean rain. The acidity
tends to decrease as you move from
the southwestern corner of the island
to the northeast. The regions around
Bonavista Bay have precipitation
which averages pH 4.8, six times
more acidic than clean rain.
Precipitation in Labrador tends to be
less acidic than on the island. The
NEWFOUNDLAND
50 100 150 km
average pH value at Goose Bay is
50 100 miles
4.8. Most of Labrador north of Goose
Bay has a precipitation pH value
higher than 4.8 , which means the rain
is less acidic.

Figure 3. Location of lake water sampling sites and 11 automatic

precipitation samplers.
I 6
Impact on fresh waters
As far as research has yet been able
to determine, the major impact of acid
rain is the acidification of surface
waters.
1. Freshwater systems - rivers and
I streams, lakes and ponds - abound
~ in Newfoundland and Labrador. Some
I. of them are more seriously affected
than others by acid rain. The ability of
a body of water to resist the impact of
acid rain is termed the buffering
capacity of the water. Some fresh-
water systems are very we ll buffered
and are completely resistant to
acidification; others have no buffering
capacity and are extremely sensitive to
acid rain. Generally speaking, it is the
dissolved materials in a body of fresh
water which determines its buffering
capacity.
Most important in buffering acid rain
are ions of calcium (Ca' + ),
magnesium (Mg' + ), carbonate (CO,'-)
and bicarbonate (HCO, -). Carbonate
and bicarbonate ions in surface waters
are derived partly from dissolved
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere ,
but this source is not very large. The
relative amounts of these four ions
found in a body of water depends
Many of Newfoundland 's freshwater systems are highly susceptible to.
damage by ac id rain .
Table 1. Classification scheme for the sensitivity of areas of Newfoundland and
Labrador based on regiona l geology.
Class Re lative Geology
sensitivity
1 Low Extensive areas of lim estone and
dolomite
2. Low to Moderate Sedimentary rocks , containing
widespread calcium and magnesium
carbonates
3. Moderate Volcanic terrains; major mafic igneous
complexes
4. Moderate to High Quartz-feldspar gneisses ; sedimentary
rocks poor in calcium and magnesium
carbonates
5. High Granites and related rocks
(This is a generalized and relative scale. Only in areas of class 5 and perhaps
some areas within class 4 wo uld the sensitivity be extreme enough to cause
concern.)
mainly on the underlying rock . The identify sensitive surface waters of
chemical composition of the bedrock Newfoundland and Labrador based on
controls the composition of the the carbonate content of the un-
derived soils which , together with derlying bedrock. An initial survey of
glaCial tills , control the chemical make- existing geological data for Newfound-
up of surface waters. land and Labrador has led to the
Geological maps can be used to designation of five classes of sensitivity
to acid rain , ranging from very in-
sensitive to highly sensitive. (Table 1)
Figure 4 depicts the distribution of
these classifications throughout the
province. These preliminary maps will
be refined as more information
becomes available throug h further
research. Even at this stage of
resea rch , however, it is clear that large
areas of the province are moderately
to highly sensitive to acid rain.
 7

LABRADOR
o 59 ~ I~ zqokm

o 5'0I!do i 150m

~
I

SENSITIVITY TO ACID RAIN

• High
_ High 10 Moderate
o Moderate
II l owto Moderate
• Low

NEWFOUNDLAND
9 zp 4jl 6,0 8,0 milt1

o 50 ISo km

Figure 4. Areas of varying degrees of sensitivity of water to aCidification, based on regional geology.
8
Impact on fish
The effects of acid deposition on
fish are well documented for Scan-
dinavia, southern Nova Scotia and
parts of Ontario, and the Adirondack
Mountains region of New York.
Acid rain can affect fish directly or
indirectly. One of the major direct
effects is alteration of blood chemistry.
Another is retardation of egg
development. Indirect effects include
reduction in the kinds and supply of
food available to fish, and an increase
in the solubility from surrounding soils
of certain trace metals, such as
aluminum, which are toxic to fish.
(Another metal whose solubility in-
creases with pH - increased acidity
- is mercury , which, though it is not
toxic to fish, renders them inedible
from a human health point of view.)
Some species of fish are more
sensitive than others to acid in the
water. (Table 2) Among the most
important recreational and commercial
species in Newfoundland and
Labrador are eastern brook trout,
Atlantic salmon and Arctic char. Other
recreational species include brown
trout and rainbow trout in Newfound-
land, and lake trout, lake whitefish
and northern pike in Labrador.
Among trout and salmon, rainbow
trout are the first species to be affected
Brook trout (left), rainbow (center) and German browns, three of many
fish species threatened by acid rain .
by acidification. They cannot survive
in waters with a pH less than 5.5.
Brook trout are the most tolerant to
increased acidity.
Table 2. pH levels at which
populations of fish species decline,
cease to reproduce , or disappear.
Species pH Level(s)
Habitat acidification can be lethal
to fish fry.
Salmon and Trout
Rainbow trout 5.5 - 6.0
including brook trout and Atlantic
Lake trout 5.2 - 5 .5 salmon. The fry stage of trout and
Atlantic salmon 5.0 - 5.5
salmon also coincides with the time of
Arctic char about 5 maximum acidity in most rivers , which
Brown trout 5.0
usually occurs in the spring as the
Brook trout about 4.5 -5 snow melts. Most of the acid which
accumulates in the snow throughout
Others
the winter washes into the lakes and
Lake whitefish less than 4.4 streams during the early runoff.
Northern pike 4.2 - 5.2
Applying the sensitivity map of
surface waters to fish distribution
The different life stages of an in- throughout Newfoundland and
dividual species of fish also have Labrador, we see that approximately
varying degrees of tolerance towards 20 per cent of the province's total
increased acidity. Studies indicate that Atlantic salmon production lies in high
the fry stage (shortly after emergence sensitivity areas. It is also estimated
from' the riverbed gravel where they that about 20 per cent of the total
were spawned and hatched) is the trout (brook trout and landlocked
most sensitive in a number of species, salmon) production on the island of
Newfoundland comes from these
highly sensitive zones. Rainbow trout
and brown trout, two introduced
species, are confined mainly to the
Avalon Peninsula, whose waters are
rated moderately to highly sensitive.
The important commercial Arctic char
fishery in northern Labrador is remote
from the polluted air masses
associated with the highly in-
dustrialized areas of Canada and the
U.S.
Fish in lakes and rivers along the
southwest coast of Newfoundland
have the greatest potential to be af-
fected by acidification . This area has
the highest rainfall in the province and
is the first area to receive air masses
moving in from the major industrial
areas of central and eastern U.S. and
Canada. Precipitation in this area has
the lowest pH (highest acidity) in the
province.

Impact on soil and
plants
Less is known about the effects of
acid rain on soil and plants than on
surface waters and fish , but some
information is available.
Acid rain accelerates the leaching of
nutrients from soil; releases toxic
metals in soil; alters the chemistry of
leaf surfaces ; affects pollen ger-
mination , fertilization and seed
development ; affects fruit formation,
seed germination and seedling growth.
As acid ,rain is a low intensity factor
and terrestrial systems are complex
and variable in both space and time,
the effects of acid rain on forest
growth and soil chemistry are slow
and continuous and are not easily
demonstrated. However, the
reproductive phase of plants
(pollination , fertilization and seed
development) , seed germination and
seedling establishment are more
sensitive to acid rain , and the effects
on these are relatively easy to study
and demonstrate.
9
White spruce pollen germination: severely retarded (left) under strong
(pH 2.6) simulated acid rain conditions, less affected by slight (pH 5.6)
acidification.
Research
Across Canada many groups and
agencies are researching acid rain and
its effects.
Among those operating in New-
foundland and Labrador are New-
foundland's Department of the En-
vironment, and the Environmental
Protection Service and Atmospheric
Environment Service of Environment
Canada. At eleven sampling stations
established throughout the province
(Fig. 3) these three agencies use
OBRARV
INSTITUTE OF OCEAN SCIENCES
10
automatic precipitation samplers to
make weekly collections of rain or
snow from which amounts of wet
acidic deposition are determined . This
program will likely be expanded during
the next few years in order to make a
full assessment of the amount of acidic
precipitation taking place throughout
the province.
The Canadian Forestry Service in
Newfoundland is doing research to
develop measures of the relative
sensitivity of various types of plants to
acid rain, the effects of simulated acid
rain on forest soils, and the effects of
acid rain on pollen germination in
forest trees . Already there have been
encouraging results. A method for
determining a buffering capacity index
for the foliage of plants has been
standardized to establish the relative
sensitivity of plants to acid rain.
Lichens, for example, have been
found to have a very low buffering
capacity index , and therefore are
sensitive to acidic pollutants such as
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.
Preliminary findings indicate that
pollen germination and pollen tube
growth are probably not affected at the
acidity levels of rain occurring in New-
foundland at this time. Acidity
associated with a pH value below 3.6
inhibits pollen germination and pollen
tu be growth.
Researchers in Memorial University's
geography department are attempting
to trace the origins of individual acidic
lainfall events from samples collected
at various sites in Newfoundland. The
purpose is to relate the acidity of
rainfall in these events to the sources
of pollutants and to determine the
associated weather conditions. This
will help researchers establish the
origins of acidic pollution entering this
Research includes simulated acid rain experimentation on plants, sampling water and aquatic life in head-
water lakes, and monitoring salmon rivers for acid content.
province; determine whether certain
areas of the island are likely to get
acid rain more often than others; and
calculate the probable frequency of
acid rainfall events in anyone year.
Canada's Department of Fisheries
and Oceans is also involved in acid
rain research. The department has
initiated a prograrl1 to document the
status of fresh waters and associated
fish populations in relation to the
impacts of acid rain in sensitive regions
of eastern Canada. This program will
establish a sound data base against
which future changes resulting from
acid rain might be measured. Two
major studies have been undertaken
by the department in the Newfound-
land Region , one to determine the
sensitivity of lakes and rivers to acid
rain and the other to document the
background levels of selected trace
metals in fish.
Water samples have been collected
from 109 small headwater lakes in
remote areas of Newfoundland. (Fig.
3) Samples of tiny aquatic plants
(p hytoplankton) and animals
(zooplankton) were taken from each
lake to determine species composition
and species dominance. Samples of
fish were also taken where possible.
Preliminary results from this survey
show that lakes with lowest pH values
(highest acidity levels) occur on the
southwest coast and along the eastern
side of the Great Northern Peninsula.
The second study involves
monitoring the water quality of
selected Atlantic salmon rivers on a
monthly basis. These rivers are
currently being considered as sites for
salmon enhancement activity; their
sensitivity to acid rain and their
seasonal variability in water quality, as
well as the timing of their maximum
pH depression (highest acid content),
are especially important.
A survey of remote lakes in
Labrador (with the exception of
northernLabrador) is also in progress
(Fig. 3). In addition , a selected
number of Atlantic salmon rivers in
Labrador will be sampled to determine
whether a more frequent sampling
program is warranted for these rivers.
Other studies planned by the
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
include a more frequent sampling of
rivers and streams in the highly
sensitive areas of Newfoundland
during the heavy fall rains and spring
snowmelt to determine times and
locations of maximum pH depressions
and associated concentrations of trace
metals in water and fish.
Finally we may note that many
lakes in Newfoundland drain bogs,
resulting in naturally acidic waters due
to the presence of organic acids. Fish
in these lakes may respond differently
from those in clear water lakes to
further acidification of the water, since
they have evolved in a naturally acidic
environment. This is also being studied
by the Department.

More research needed
The study of the impact of acid rain
in Newfoundland and Labrador started
only recently , but already there is
sufficient evidence to obtain an overall
preliminary assessment. Although we
have areas of high sensitivity in this
province , damage does not appear to
be as serious as in other parts of
Canada such as Ontario and Nova
Scotia. However, this is not to say we
are free from any acid rain problems
- more study and research are
required. The possible impact of in-
creased fuel consumption to satisfy our
Glossary of terms
Acid: A concentration of hydrogen
ions (H + ) in aqueous solution.
Acidity is expressed as a pH less than
7.0 .
Base: Opposite of acid ; con-
centration of hydroxyl ions (OH-) in
solution. Basic or alkaline solutions
have a pH greater than 7.0.
pH: A numerical expression of the
concentration of hydrogen ions in
aqueous solution . The units are ex-
pressed as the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentration: pH 0
to 7 is acidic , pH 7.0 is neutral and
pH 7 to 14 is alkaline.
Acidification: The increase in
acidity of an aqueous solution due to
the addition of acids .
Transformation: The process
whereby sulphur dioxide and the
oxides of nitrogen are changed to
sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the
atmosphere. The transformation is
dependent on the interaction of these
gases with sunlight , oxygen , ozone
and particulate matter.
Buffer: A chemical which , is
aqueous solution , will resist changes in
pH or, if added to a solution, will
change the pH of that solution .
11
ever growing need for energy can
place further stress on our sensitive
regions by increasing acidic deposition
in our province . Several agencies are
maintaining research and monitoring
efforts so that these threats can be met
and remedial action taken before acid
rain destroys the beauty and
productivity of our province.
The laboratory, center of the fight
agai nst acid rain.
Wet deposition: A process of
precipitation whereby acidic chemicals
such as· sulphuriC acid and nitric acid
are removed from the atmosphere and
deposited on the earth's surface in
rain , snow, fog , etc .
Dry deposition: The processes ,
excluding preCipitation , by which
materials are removed from the at-
mosphere and deposited on the
earth's surface. These processes in-
clude deposition of both particles (such
as fly ash , sulphates and nitrates) and
gases (such as sulphur dioxide and
nitric oxide).
Transportation: The process
whereby gaseous and particulate
pollutants enter a moving air parcel
and are carried away from the source
area. Thus pollution can be tran-
sported great distances and spread
over large areas from a particular
pOint of origin.
12

The agencies listed below are actively involved in research and

monitoring of acid rain and have contributed to the production of this
information sheet. Further information can be obtained by writing to
these agencies.

Fisheries Research Branch Department of Min"s and Energy

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Government of Newfoundland and
Newfoundland Region Labrador
P .O. Box 5667 PO. Box 4750
51. John's , Newfoundland 51. John's, Newfoundland
A1X 5Xl AIC 5T7

Atmospheric Environment Service Department of Geography

Environment Canada Memorial University of Newfoundland
P.O. Box 9490 51. John's, Newfoundland
51. John's, Newfoundland A1C 557
AlA 2Y4

Canadian Forestry Service

Environment Canada
Newfoundland Forest Research Center
P.O. Box 6028
51. John's, Newfoundland
A1C 5X8

Environmental Protection . Service

Environment Canada
P .O. Box 5037
51. John's , Newfoundland
AIC 5V3

Department of the Environment

Government of Newfoundland and
Labrador
P .O. Box 4750
51. John's, Newfoundl,nd
A1C 5T7

Published by:
Communications Division
Department of Fisheries and Oceans

~
l
Newfoundland Region
P.O. Box 5667
51. John's, Newfoundland
,I A1C 5Xl
II
IB (Tel: 722-4421, 4423, 4645)