MISN-0-210

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FROM MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

by
Peter Signell
Michigan State University

1. Introduction
a. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FROM b. Waves in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS c. Vector Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
d. Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Vector Derivatives
y a. The Gradient Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
b. The Divergence Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
c. The Curl Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
`
cB 3. Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Electromagnetic Waves
a. No Charge, No Current; Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
b. Plane-Polarized Monochromatic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
x c. Production by a Radio Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
d. How The Waves Manifest Themselves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

` Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
E Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

A. The Curl as a Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

z
B. Proof of a Vector Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Project PHYSNET · Physics Bldg. · Michigan State University · East Lansing, MI

1
ID Sheet: MISN-0-210
Title: Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell’s Equations
Author: P. Signell, Michigan State University
Version: 10/18/2001 Evaluation: Stage 0
Length: 1 hr; 20 pages
Input Skills:
1. Vocabulary: charge density (MISN-0-147), current density (MISN-
0-118), displacement (MISN-0-25), sound waves, wave frequency,
wavelength, waves on strings, wave speed (MISN-0-202), wave
equation (MISN-0-201).
2. Take derivatives of transcendental functions (MISN-0-1).
3. Take scalar and vector products of vectors using Cartesian unit
vectors (MISN-0-2).
Output Skills (Knowledge):
K1. Vocabulary: propagation (of a wave), polarization (direction of),
plane-polarized (wave), monochromatic (wave).
K2. Given Maxwell’s Equations, the “curl-curl” vector identity, and
the definitions of the gradient, divergence, and curl operators, de-
rive the wave equations for electric and magnetic field vectors at
chargeless currentless space-points.
Output Skills (Rule Application):
R1. Given the definitions of the gradient, divergence, and curl opera-
tors, verify that a given electromagnetic wave, consisting of cou-
pled electric and magnetic waves, satisfies Maxwell’s Equations.
R2. Given the direction of polarization, direction of propagation, fre-
quency and amplitude of a monochromatic plane-polarized elec-
tromagnetic wave, write down the electric and magnetic fields in
vector form. Sketch the situation.
Post-Options:
1. “Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves,” (MISN-0-
211).
2. “Brewster’s Law and Polarization,” (MISN-0-225).
3 4
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OF PROJECT PHYSNET
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ADVISORY COMMITTEE
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Views expressed in a module are those of the module author(s) and are
not necessarily those of other project participants.
c 2001, Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET, Physics-Astronomy Bldg.,
°
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MISN-0-210 1 MISN-0-210 2

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FROM another vector one.

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 1d. Partial Derivatives. When taking derivatives of field quantities
by we generally use “partial derivatives,” denoted ∂, to remind us that the
spatial coordinates are not functions of time. That is, whereas a particle
Peter Signell has a single value of, say, x, at any particular time, a field has values at a
Michigan State University continuum of values of x. Otherwise, partial derivatives are like ordinary
derivatives:
∂ ¡ 3 4 5¢
x y z = 3x2 y 4 z 5 ,
1. Introduction ∂x
1a. Background. The transport of energy through mechanical sys- ∂
(sin 3x cos y) = 3 cos 3x cos y .
tems via the collective motion of the particles that make up the system is ∂x
a familiar phenomenon, spectacularly demonstrated, for example, when
the voice of a soprano shatters a glass across the room from her. This
energy is carried by the “displacement” waves that can be made to propa- 2. Vector Derivatives
gate through the system (the “displacement” referring to the displacement
from equilibrium of the particles of the system or of the pressure in the 2a. The Gradient Operator. The gradient operator operates on a
gas). scalar function and produces a vector function that is the steepest “up-
hill” slope at any point where the vector function is evaluated. That is,
1b. Waves in Space. It is also possible for electric and magnetic the gradient of a function, evaluated at some space-point, points in the
fields to propagate as waves in empty space, the electric and magnetic direction that is most steeply “up hill” in that function at that point. The
field vectors playing the same role in electromagnetic waves as the trans- magnitude of the gradient is the value of the slope in the “steepest ascent”
verse displacement of the particles of a string do in waves along a stretched direction at that space-point. As an example, suppose the gradient of a
string, or the pressure displacement associated with the propagation of field scalar field f is the vector field ~g . In Cartesian coordinates this is:
sound waves in air. The important difference is that there is no medium
through which this electromagnetic wave propagates, although perhaps ~ ≡ x̂ ∂f + ŷ ∂f + ẑ ∂f .
~g = ∇f (1)
one could say the “medium” is the vacuum! Electric and magnetic fields ∂x ∂y ∂z
may exist in space without a material medium being present, and if they
vary in space and time in the appropriate way, the spatial variation will ~ 3 y 4 ) = (3x2 y 4 )x̂ + (4x3 y 3 )ŷ.
¤ Show that ∇(x
propagate as a wave, transporting energy. This module deals with the
propagation of energy through a vacuum via electromagnetic disturbances 2b. The Divergence Operator. The “divergence” operator operates
whose space and time variation satisfy the conditions for wave propaga- on a vector function, say ~g (x, y, z), to give a scalar function f (x, y, z):
tion.
~ · ~g ≡ ∂gx + ∂gy + ∂gz .
f =∇ (2)
1c. Vector Derivatives. To deal with electromagnetic waves in space ∂x ∂y ∂z
it is far easier to use Maxwell’s equations in derivative form than in inte-
gral form. In electricity and magnetism we are dealing with scalar fields The divergence of a vector function, evaluated at some space-point,
like the charge density ρ and vector fields like E,~ and we will find that gives the extent to which the function has a source or sink at that point.
we must deal with three kinds of derivative operators: the “gradient” For example, the divergence of an electric field gives the charge density
operator that operates on a scalar field and produces a vector one, the at that point (positive charges are sources for the field, negative charges
“divergence” operator that operates on a vector field and produces a scalar are sinks).
one, and the “curl” operator that operates on a vector field and produces ¤ Show that: ∇ ~ · x3 y 4 z 5 ẑ = 5x3 y 4 z 4 .
¡ ¢

5 6
MISN-0-210 3 MISN-0-210 4

∂2B~ ~
2c. The Curl Operator. The “curl” operator operates on a vector
= −∇ ~ × ∂E .
function, say ~g (x, y, z), to give another vector function: ∂t 2 ∂t
We now put Eqs. (6) and (7) into the right sides of the above two equations
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
~ × ~g ≡ ∂gy − ∂gx ẑ + ∂gz − ∂gy x̂ + ∂gx − ∂gz ŷ . (3)
∇
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x to get:
1 ∂2E ~
The curl of a function, evaluated at some space-point, gives the greatest − 2 2 =∇ ~ × (∇ ~ × E)
~ , (8)
c ∂t
“circulation” at that point, where by “circulation” one means the line
integral of the function around a loop of infinitesimal radius. The direc- 1 ∂2B ~
− 2 2 =∇ ~ × (∇ ~ × B)
~ , (9)
tion of the curl is normal to the plane of the loop with the greatest line c ∂t
integral.1 To further reduce the above equations, we make use of the identity:2
~ × x3 y 4 z 5 ẑ = 4x3 y 3 z 5 x̂ − 3x2 y 4 z 5 ŷ.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
¤ Show that: ∇ ~ × (∇
~ × A)
~ = ∇(
~ ∇~ · A)
~ − (∇
~ · ∇)
~ A~ = ∇(
~ ∇~ · A)
~ − ∇2 A
~.
∇ (10)

~ is any vector field and:

where A
3. Maxwell’s Equations
2 2 2
Here are the famous Maxwell’s Equations in differential form: ~ = ∂ + ∂ + ∂ .
~ ·∇
∇2 ≡ ∇
~ ·E
~ = 4πke ρ , ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∇ (4)
~ ·B
~ = 0, Finally, using that identity and Eqs. (4) and (5) for our chargeless case,
∇ (5)
we get these two wave equations for waves traveling with velocity c:
~
~ ×E
∇ ~ = − ∂B , (6) ~
∂t 1 ∂2B ~,
= ∇2 B (11)
~ c2 ∂t2
~ ×B
∇ ~ = 4πkm j + c−2 ∂ E . (7)
∂t 1 ∂2E~
~.
= ∇2 E (12)
Gauss’s law is the integral form of Eq. (4). Ampere’s law is the integral 2
c ∂t 2
form of Eq. (7) for the case where the electric field does not vary with
time. The Ampere-Laplace-Biot-Savart law is derived from a combination 4b. Plane-Polarized Monochromatic Waves. We can write down
of Eqs. (5) and (7), also for the case where the electric field does not vary solutions to the wave equations, Eqs. (11) and (12), for the case where
with time. The Faraday-Henry law of magnetic induction is the integral the field vectors lie entirely in a plane and where the solutions contain
form of Eq. (6). only one frequency. Of course one must show that the solutions we write
down really are solutions by substituting them into Eqs. (11) and (12) and
showing that those equations are satisfied. For the electric field vector the
4. Electromagnetic Waves plane-polarized monochromatic solution is:
4a. No Charge, No Current; Waves. For the case where there is ~ 0 cos(~k · ~r − ωt) ,
~ =E
E (13)
no charge or current at a point in space, it is easy to show that waves can
exist there. We set ρ = 0 and j = 0 in Eqs. (4)-(7), then take the time 2 This identity is proved in Appendix B. Physicists often remember the rule,
derivative of both sides of Eqs. (6) and (7): Help: [S-3] ~ × (B
A ~ × C)
~ = B(
~ A~ · C)
~ − C(
~ A~ · B)
~ ,
2~ ~
1 ∂ E ~ × ∂B , as the words ”BAC minus CAB” along with the positions of the parentheses. However,
2 2
=∇ with A~ ≡ B~ ≡ ∇,
~ we must rearrange the order on the right side of the equation to
c ∂t ∂t keep the operators to the left of the functions they operate upon. Thus we wind up
1 For another way to remember the definition of the curl, see Appendix A. with Eq. (10).

7 8
MISN-0-210 5 MISN-0-210 6

where the direction of ~k gives the direction of propagation of the electric field to the right of the antenna is as given on this module’s cover. Then
wave and the magnitude of ~k is 2π divided by the wave’s wavelength and use Eqs. (15) tell you the direction of the electric field and the direction
is related to the wave’s frequency through its velocity:3 of propagation of the wave.
2π 1 c 4d. How The Waves Manifest Themselves. Depending on its
k= ; ω = 2πf ; f= = ,
λ T λ frequency, an electromagnetic wave may be a radio or television wave
coming through the air to your receiver, or it could be an X-ray, or a
where ω is the wave’s angular frequency, f is its frequency, T is its period,
gamma ray from a radioactive decay, or a ray of light of a particular color.
c is its speed, and λ is its wavelength.
These objects are all identical waves except for their frequencies.
¤ Show that Eq. (13) satisfies Eq. (12) by direct substitution on both sides
of Eq. (12). Help: [S-2]
Acknowledgments
Now with Eq. (13), Eq. (6) becomes:
Preparation of this module was supported in part by the National
~ = −(~k × E
~ ×E
∇ ~ 0 ) sin(~k · ~r − ωt) , Science Foundation, Division of Science Education Development and
Research, through Grant #SED 74-20088 to Michigan State Univer-
~ which can only be true if the arguments in the
but this equals (∂/∂t)B sity.
cosine functions match:

B ~ 0 cos(~k · ~r − ωt) .
~ =B (14) Glossary
We put the solutions, Eqs. (13) and (14), into Eqs. (11) and (12) and find: • propagation: motion.

~ 0 = 1 (~k × E
B ~ 0 ) = 1 (k̂ × E
~ 0) , • polarization, direction of: in a plane-polarized electromagnetic
ω c wave, the direction of the electric field vector.
so:
• plane-polarization: in an electromagnetic wave, the condition in
Ê0 × B̂0 = k̂ which the electric field vector always lies in the same plane (in con-
E ~0 = 0
~0 · B trast to, say, circular polarization where the electric field vector rotates
(15)
around the axis of propagation).
1
B 0 = E0 .
c • monochromatic: in an electromagnetic wave, the condition of a wave
having a single frequency, a single wavelength (in contrast to being a
¤ Show that the picture on the cover of this module requires all three of mixture of different wavelengths). In a more sophisticated view, it
Eqs. (15). means that there is only one Fourier component.
4c. Production by a Radio Transmitter. A vertical radio trans-
mitter tower is a good example of a device that produces a plane-polarized A. The Curl as a Determinant
monochromatic wave (the frequency of the wave is the frequency to which
you set the dial in order to receive the wave). A large current is sent up Recall that the cross-product ~ and D
of two vectors C ~ can be written
and down the vertical tower, as a sine wave with a single frequency. as the determinant
¯ ¯
¤ Suppose we look at the tower during the part of the cycle when the ¯ x̂ ŷ ẑ ¯
~ ×D ~ =¯
¯ ¯
current is moving upward. Use Ampere’s law to show that the magnetic C ¯ Cx Cy Cz ¯
¯
3 These are general properties of waves: see “The Wave Equation,” (MISN-0-201).
¯ Dx Dy Dz ¯

9 10
MISN-0-210 7 MISN-0-210 PS-1

The x-component of vector C ~ ×D

~ is the term in the expanded determinant
which is proportional to x̂:
PROBLEM SUPPLEMENT
~ x = ∂Dz − ∂Dy
~ × D)
(∇
∂y ∂z ¤ Warning: First make sure you have done the first five (out of the six)
The other two components of the curl of D are thus: problems scattered through the text, marked like this warning. If you
skip any one of them, you will probably not be prepared for even the first
~ y = ∂Dx − ∂Dz
~ × D)
(∇ problem below.
∂z ∂x
Note: Problems 4-7 also occur in this module’s Model Exam.
~ z = ∂Dy − ∂Dx
~ × D)
(∇
∂x ∂y
1. The electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum is repre-
sented by:

B. Proof of a Vector Identity Ex = 0 ,

£ ¤
We here prove: Ey = 0.50 (N/C) cos 2.09 m−1 (x − ct) ,

~ × (B
A ~ × C)
~ = −(A
~ · B)
~ C~ + B(
~ A~ · C)
~ . Ez = 0 .

We only need to prove the identity for one component since the others a. Determine the wavelength, frequency, polarization, and propagation
will follow by cycling the subscripts. So we take the x-component of the vector of the wave. Help: [S-4]
left side: b. Determine the components of the wave’s magnetic field.
Help: [S-1]
~ × (B
[A ~ × C)]
~ x
2. Solve (a) and (b) of Problem 1 for the wave represented by:
~ × C)
= A y (B ~ z − A z (B
~ × C)
~ y
Ex = 0 ,
= Ay (Bx Cy − By Cx ) − Az (Bz Cx − Bx Cz ) £ ¤
= −(Ay By + Az Bz )Cx + Bx (Ay Cy + Az Cz ) Ey = 0.50 (N/C) cos 0.419 m−1 (x − ct) ,
= −(Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )Cx + Bx (Ay Cy + Az Cz + Ax Cx ) £ ¤
Ez = 0.50 (N/C) cos 0.419 m−1 (x − ct) .
~ · B)C
= −(A ~ x + B x (A
~ · C)
~
3. Determine the components of the E-~ and B-fields
~ which describe the
hence: following electromagnetic waves that propagate along the positive x-
~ × (B
~ × C)
~ = −(A
~ · B)
~ C~ + B(
~ A~ · C)
~ axis:
A
~
a. A wave whose plane of E-vibration makes an angles of 45◦ with the
~ for A
so substituting ∇ ~ and B:
~
positive y- and z-axes.
~ × (∇
∇ ~ × C)
~ = −(∇
~ · ∇)
~ C~ + ∇(
~ ∇~ · C)
~ ~
b. A wave whose plane of E-vibration makes an angle of 120◦ with the
~ × (∇
~ × C)
~ = −∇2 C
~ + ∇(
~ ∇~ · C)
~ , positive y axis and an angle of 30.0◦ with the positive z-axis.
∇
and the identity is proved.

11 12
MISN-0-210 PS-2 MISN-0-210 PS-3

4. Given these electric and magnetic fields: Brief Answers:

2π
Ex = E0 cos (y + ct), Ey = 0, Ez = 0, 1. a. 3.01 m, 1.00 × 108 Hz, polarized in the ŷ direction, ~k = 2.09 m−1 x̂.
λ
Bx = 0, By = 0, Bz = 0. b. Bx = 0 ,
a. Determine whether or not these fields satisfy the wave equations. By = 0 ,
£ ¤
[D] Bz = 0.17 × 10−8 T cos 2.09 m−1 (x − ct) .
b. Determine whether or not these fields satisfy Maxwell’s Equations.
2 a. 15.0 m, 2.00 × 107 Hz, polarized in the y-z plane, ~k = 0.419 m−1 x̂ .
[B]
b. Bx = 0 ,
c. If your answer to (a) and (b) is yes, what relationship must exist
between the E and B amplitudes? [A] By = −0.17 × 10−8 T cos[0.419 m−1 (x − ct)] ,
Bz = +0.17 × 10−8 T cos[0.419 m−1 (x − ct)] ,
5. Given these electric and magnetic fields:
³x ´ 3 a. Ex = 0,
Ex = 0, Ey = E0 sin[2πν − t ], Ez = 0, Ey = +0.707E0 cos(kx − ωt).
c ³x ´
Bx = 0, By = 0, Bz = B0 sin[2πν − t ]. Ez = +0.707E0 cos(kx − ωt).
c
Bx = 0,
(a), (b), (c): Repeat Problem 1 using the above components.
By = −0.707(E0 /c) cos(kx − ωt).
Answers: (a) [G], (b) [E], and (c) [H]. Bz = +0.707(E0 /c) cos(kx − ωt).
6. With: b. Ex = 0,

Ex = E0 cos(kz − ωt), Ey = E0 cos(kz − ωt), Ez = 0, Ey = −0.500E0 cos(kx − ωt),

Ez = +0.866E0 cos(kx − ωt).
write down the space-time dependence of the components of the mag-
Bx = 0,
netic field that will result in an electromagnetic wave that satisfies
both the wave equations and Maxwell’s equations. [C] By = −0.866(E0 /c) cos(kx − ωt).
Bz = −0.500(E0 /c) cos(kx − ωt),
7. A plane-polarized monochromatic electromagnetic wave of frequency
ν has the electric field polarized in the z-direction and the wave propa- A. No such wave exists.
gates in the negative y-direction. Determine the components of E ~ and
~
B that satisfy Maxwell’s equations and the wave equations. [F] B. No.
E0
C. Bx = − cos(kz − ωt),
c
E0
By = + cos(kz − ωt),
c
Bz = 0.
D. Yes.
E. Yes.

13 14
MISN-0-210 PS-4 MISN-0-210 AS-1

F. Ex = 0,
Ey = 0, SPECIAL ASSISTANCE SUPPLEMENT
h ³y ´i
Ez = +E0 cos 2πν +t ,
c S-1 (from PS-Problem 1)
E0 h ³ y ´i For electromagnetic waves, the three important directions are: k̂, the
Bx = − cos 2πν +t ,
c c direction of propagation; Ê, the direction of the electric field; and B̂,
By = 0, the direction of the magnetic field. Any two of these may be known in
a problem and we must find the third. Since these three are mutually
Bz = 0. perpendicular, they obey this cyclic rule:

G. Yes. Ê × B̂ = k̂ ,
H. B0 = E0 /c. k̂ × Ê = B̂ ,
B̂ × k̂ = Ê ,
where each line is obtained from the one above it by cycling the vectors
one place to the right.

S-2 (from TX-4b)

Recall that ~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ and ~k · ~r = kx x + ky y + kz z. Then:

~ x (~k · ~r) = ∂ (~k · ~r) = kx .

∇
∂x
~ y and ∇
and similarly for ∇ ~ z . Then:

~ ~k · ~r) = ~k .
∇(

This means that:

~ cos(~k · ~r − ωt) = −~k sin(~k · ~r − ωt) .
∇

Now you fill in the remaining steps to get:

~ = −k 2 E
∇2 E ~.

and do a similar job on the other side of the wave equation.

15 16
MISN-0-210 AS-2 MISN-0-210 ME-1

S-3 (from TX-4a)

The various partial derivatives, (∂/∂t), (∂/∂x), etc., are independent of MODEL EXAM
each other so can be taken in any order. Thus, for example,

~ ∂ f (~r, t) = ∂ ∇f
∇ ~ (~r, t) , ~ = x̂ ∂f + ŷ ∂g + ẑ ∂h
∂t ∂t ∇f
∂x ∂y ∂z
where f is any function. ~ · ~g = ∂gx + ∂gy + ∂gz
∇
∂x ∂y ∂z
S-4 (from PS-Problem 1) µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
∂gy ∂gx ∂gz ∂gy ∂gx ∂gz
(~k·~r) is written in the problem as (2.09q
m−1 x). The obvious conclusion is ~ × ~g =
∇ − ẑ + − x̂ + − ŷ
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
that ky = kz = 0 and hence that k = kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = kx = 2.09 m−1 .
~ × (∇
∇ ~ ∇
~ × ~g ) = −∇2~g + ∇( ~ · ~g ) ; ∇2 ≡ ∇
~ ·∇
~
~ ·E
∇ ~ = 4πke ρ
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0
~
~ = − ∂B
~ ×E
∇
∂t
~
~ = 4πkm j + c−2 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t

1. See Output Skills K1-K2 in this module’s ID Sheet.

2. Given these electric and magnetic fields:
2π
Ex = E0 cos (y + ct), Ey = 0, Ez = 0,
λ
Bx = 0, By = 0, Bz = 0.
a. Determine whether or not these fields satisfy the wave equations.
b. Determine whether or not these fields satisfy Maxwell’s Equations.
c. If your answer to (a) and (b) is yes, what relationship must exist
between the E and B amplitudes?
3. Given these electric and magnetic fields:
³x ´
Ex = 0, Ey = E0 sin[2πν − t ], Ez = 0,
c ³x ´
Bx = 0, By = 0, Bz = B0 sin[2πν − t ].
c
(a), (b), (c): Repeat Problem 1 using the above components.

17 18
MISN-0-210 ME-2

4. With:

Ex = E0 cos(kz − ωt), Ey = E0 cos(kz − ωt), Ez = 0,

write down the space-time dependence of the components of the mag-

netic field that will result in an electromagnetic wave that satisfies
both the wave equations and Maxwell’s equations.

5. A plane-polarized monochromatic electromagnetic wave of frequency

ν has the electric field polarized in the z-direction and the wave propa-
gates in the negative y-direction. Determine the components of E ~ and
~ that satisfy Maxwell’s equations and the wave equations.
B

Brief Answers:

1. See this module’s text.

2. See Problem 4 in this module’s Problem Supplement.
3. See Problem 5 in this module’s Problem Supplement.

4. See Problem 6 in this module’s Problem Supplement.

5. See Problem 7 in this module’s Problem Supplement.

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