Wang, Y.-Z. (2000). GeÂotechnique 50, No.
1, 83±88
Distribution of earth pressure on a retaining wall
Y. - Z . WA N G 
On the basis of Coulomb's concept that the earth pressure
against the back of a retaining wall is due to the thrust
exerted by a sliding wedge of soil between the back of the
wall and a plane which passes through the bottom edge of
the wall and has an inclination of è, a differential equation
of ®rst order is set up by considering the equilibrium of the
forces on an element of the wedge. A theoretical result for
the unit earth pressure on a retaining wall is obtained. A
comparison is made between Coulomb's formula and the
formula presented here, and the earth pressure calculated
by the formula presented here is also compared with experi-
mental observations.
KEYWORDS: earth pressure; theoretical analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The pressure against the back of a retaining wall caused by
back®ll and surcharge on the ground surface is a classical
problem of soil mechanics. Coulomb's (1776) theory and
Rankine's (1857) theory are commonly applied to the calcula-
tion of the earth pressure on a retaining wall (Craig, 1983).
Rankine's theory is applicable to the calculation of the earth
pressure on a perfectly smooth, vertical wall, but most retaining
walls are far from frictionless. Coulomb's formula was estab-
lished on the basis of the equilibrium of the forces on a whole
sliding wedge between the plane of failure and the back face of
the retaining wall. Strictly speaking, Coulomb's theory is applic-
able only to the calculation of the resultant total earth pressure
and cannot be used to determine the distribution of the earth
pressure. The approximate distribution of the earth pressure can
be determined numerically by computing the resultant earth
pressure at various depths along the wall (Wu, 1976). The unit
earth pressure calculated on the basis of Coulomb's and Ranki-
ne's theories varies linearly with depth. However, a lot of
laboratory and ®eld experiments show that the unit earth
pressure is curvilinearly distributed on the back of a wall, for
example, the experiments of Kankanina, Shirvy, Kahana and
Caharly (Kerlyn, 1977). A different interpretation is given of
the experimental results, but a solution for the unit earth
pressure has not been achieved.
In this paper on the basis of Coulomb's concept that the earth
pressure against the back of a retaining wall is due to the thrust
exerted by a sliding wedge of soil between the back of the wall
and a plane which passes through the bottom edge of the wall
and has an inclination (relative to the horizontal) of è, a basic
equation is set up by considering the equilibrium of the forces
on an element of the wedge. It is a ®rst-order differential
equation for the unit earth pressure. The solution of the equa-
tion is obtained, giving a theoretical result for the unit earth
pressure on a retaining wall.
BASIC EQUATION
It has been shown, from a vast amount of experimental data,
that a sliding surface exists in the soil behind a retaining wall
Manuscript received 3 September 1998; revised manuscript accepted 18
May 1999.
Discussion on this paper closes 31 August 2000; for further details see
p. ii.
 Tianjin University.
83
Sur la base du concept de Coulomb indiquant que la press-
ion terrestre sur l'arrieÁre d'un mur de souteÁnement est due
aÁ la pousseÂe exerceÂe par une cale de sol glissante situeÂe
entre le dos du mur et un plan qui traverse le bas du mur
avec une inclinaison de è, nous eÂtablissons une eÂquation
diffeÂrentielle du premier ordre en consideÂrant l'eÂquilibre des
forces sur un eÂleÂment de la cale. Nous avons obtenu un
reÂsultat theÂorique pour la pression terrestre unitaire sur le
mur de souteÁnement. Nous avons fait une comparaison entre
la formule de Coulomb et la formule preÂsenteÂe ici et nous
comparons aussi la pression terrestre calculeÂe graÃce aÁ la
formule preÂsenteÂe avec les observations expeÂrimentales.
under the limit equilibrium condition, and the surface can be
approximated by a plane which passes through the bottom edge
of the wall and has an inclination (relative to the horizontal) of
è. The triangular mass of soil between this plane of failure and
the back face of the wall is referred to as the sliding wedge. On
the basis of experimental results, it is assumed that the earth
pressure against the back of the wall is due to the thrust exerted
by the sliding wedge when the wall moves forward. Now, taking
the sliding wedge as an isolated unit, as shown in Fig. 1(a), an
element of thickness d y is taken from the wedge at a depth y
below the ground surface. The forces on this element include
the vertical pressure p y on the top of the element, the vertical
reaction p y ‡ d p y on the bottom of the element, the horizontal
reaction px of the retaining wall, the shear ô1 between the
back®ll and the back of the retaining wall, the normal reaction
r of the soil at rest, the shear ô2 between the sliding back®ll
and the remaining back®ll at rest, and the weight dW of the
element, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The shearing forces on the top
A
q
B
y
dy H
C
(a)
py
τ1 τ2
px dW
r
py 1 dpy
(b)
Fig. 1. Analytic model
84 WANG
and bottom of the element are neglected, considering that the tion (10) into the boundary condition, the constant A can be
wedge slides as a whole. determined as
It can be shown from the equilibrium condition of the  
horizontal forces on the element, that ãH K
Aˆ qÿ (11)
aK ÿ 2 H aKÿ1
dy
px d y ‡ ô2 cos è ÿ r
sin è Substituting above formula into equation (10), this leads to
dy    aKÿ1
3 cos(908 ÿ è) ˆ 0 (1) ãH Hÿy
sin è py ˆ q ÿ
aK ÿ 2 H
This can be written as
ãH H ÿ y
px ‡ ô2 cot è ÿ r ˆ 0 (2) ‡ (12)
aK ÿ 2 H
The following equation can be obtained from the equilibrium According to equation (5), px ˆ Kp y , so that the horizontal
condition of the vertical forces on the element: unit earth pressure can be obtained as
p y ( H ÿ y) cot è ‡ dW ÿ ( p y ‡ d p y )( H ÿ y ÿ d y) "   aKÿ1
ãH Hÿy
dy px ˆ K q ÿ
3 cot è ÿ ô1 d y ÿ ô2 sin è ÿ r aK ÿ 2 H
sin è #
dy ãH H ÿ y
3 cos è ˆ 0 (3) ‡ (13)
sin è aK ÿ 2 H
Omitting the differential terms of second order, this can be
Equation (13) can also be written as
simpli®ed to
px ˆ K q q ‡ K ã ã y (14)
d py 1
ˆã‡ [ p y ÿ r ÿ (ô1 ‡ ô2 ) tan è] (4) where K q and K ã are the surcharge pressure coef®cient and the
dy Hÿy
back®ll pressure coef®cient, respectively. The two coef®cients
where ã is the unit weight of the back®ll. Let vary with the depth y below the ground surface. They are given
by
px ˆ Kp y   aKÿ1
Hÿy
ô1 ˆ px tan ä (5) Kq ˆ K
H
ô2 ˆ r tan j "   aKÿ2 #
K Hÿy Hÿy
where K is the lateral pressure coef®cient, ä is the frictional K㠈 1ÿ (15)
angle between the back of the wall and the back®ll and j is the aK ÿ 2 y H
internal friction angle of the back®ll.
Substituting equation (5) into equation (2), it can be shown
that
COMPARISON WITH COULOMB EARTH PRESSURE FORMULA
sin è cos j Coulomb's theory
rˆK py (6) The derivation of Coulomb's formula is illustrated here.
sin(è ÿ j)
Coulomb's theory is based on the concept of a plane of failure
Substituting equations (5) and (6) into equation (4), the follow- extending upward and backward through the earth back®ll, as
ing equation can be obtained: shown in Fig. 1(a). The triangular mass of soil between this
  plane of failure and the back face of the retaining wall is referred
d py cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä) tan è py to as the sliding wedge. If the plane of failure is arbitrarily
ˆ 1ÿ K ‡ã (7) located so as to make an angle è with the horizontal, such as BC
dy sin(è ÿ j) cos ä Hÿy
in Fig. 1(a), the forces acting on the sliding wedge consist of the
which is the basic equation for the unit earth pressure on a weight W of the soil within the wedge; a thrust R normal to the
retaining wall. plane of failure, which is exerted by the soil to the right of the
plane BC; a shearing force T 2 , which acts upwards along BC and
is equal to R tan j at the limit of equilibrium; a thrust Pn normal
to the back of the wall, which is exerted by the wall; and a
SOLUTION OF BASIC EQUATION shearing force T1 , which acts upwards along AC and is equal to
Equation (7) is a ®rst-order differential equation for the Pn tan ä at the limit of equilibrium. The resultant of R and T 2 is
vertical unit earth pressure. Letting F and at failure it makes an angle j with the normal to the plane
BC; the resultant of Pn and T1 is P and at failure it makes an
cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä) tan è angle ä with the normal to the plane AC. The forces W and F
aˆ (8) must be balanced by the thrust P. The equal and opposite
sin(è ÿ j) cos ä
reaction to P is the resultant force of the earth pressure on the
equation (7) can be written as retaining wall. The force P can be determined by means of the
force polygon, leading to
d py py
ˆ ÿ(aK ÿ 1) ‡ã (9) W sin(è ÿ j)
dy Hÿy Pˆ   (16)
ð
The general solution of equation (9) is sin ‡èÿjÿäÿá
2
1 ã
p y ˆ A ( H ÿ y) aKÿ1 ‡ ( H ÿ y) (10) where j represents the frictional angle of the back®ll, ä is the
K aK ÿ 2 frictional angle between the back®ll and the back of the wall
in which A is a constant, which can be determined by the and á is the angle between the back of the wall and the
boundary condition. Suppose that a surcharge q is exerted on vertical. When á ˆ 0, the weight of the sliding wedge is
the back®ll surface, i.e. p y ˆ q when y ˆ 0. Substituting equa- W ˆ 12ã H 2 cot è. The force P is
 EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALL 85
…H …H
1 sin(è ÿ j) cot è
P ˆ ãH2 (17) T1 ˆ ô1 d y ˆ px tan ä d y ˆ Px tan ä
2 cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä) 0 0
 
Equation (17) shows that P varies with the angle è. To sin(è ÿ j) sin ä cot è 1 2
ˆ qH ‡ ã H (24)
obtain the critical value of è which yields the maximum value cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä) 2
of P, dP=dè is set equal to 0. This procedure gives the active
force on the retaining wall: The resultant earth pressure on the wall is
q
1 P ˆ P2x ‡ T 21
Pa ˆ ã H 2 K a (18)
2  
1 2 sin(è ÿ j) cot è
where Ka is called the active earth pressure coef®cient and is ˆ qH ‡ ã H (25)
2 cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä)
given by
If the surcharge q ˆ 0, the resultant earth pressure becomes
cos2 j  
Ka ˆ " r#2 (19) 1 sin(è ÿ j) cot è
Pˆ ãH2 (26)
sin(j ‡ ä)sin j 2 cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä)
cos ä 1 ‡
cos ä
It can be seen from equations (17) and (26) that the resultant
earth pressure presented here is the same as that given by
It can be seen from equation (18) that the active earth Coulomb's theory, regardless of the lateral pressure coef®cient
pressure pa is a quadratic function of the wall height H, and K.
the unit pressure Pa can be obtained as The resultant earth pressure presented here also varies with
the angle è. The maximum resultant earth pressure obtained by
dPa varying the angle è is de®ned as the active earth pressure. It
pa ˆ ˆ ã yK a (20)
dy can be demonstrated that the parameter a corresponding to the
critical value of è which yields the maximum resultant pressure
which increases linearly with y. is related to the active earth pressure coef®cient K a of Cou-
The unit earth pressure can also be found numerically by lomb's theory by a ˆ 1=Ka cos ä.
computing the resultant earth pressure at various depths along
the wall. Supposing that there are innumerable sliding planes Distribution of earth pressure. The linearly distributed unit
parallel to the plane BC in the sliding wedge, the back of the earth pressure given earlier can be assumed to be based on
wall can be divided into a number of increments and it is Coulomb's theory. However, the unit earth pressure given by the
possible to calculate the average unit pressure in each of the present theory is
increments. This procedure can also give a unit earth pressure q q
which increases linearly with y (Wu, 1976). p ˆ p2x ‡ ô21 ˆ p2x ‡ p2x tan2 ä ˆ px =cos ä (27)
However, the earth pressure given in equation (20) is not
unique, since other distributions of unit earth pressure can give Substituting px given in equation (13) into equation (27), we
the same resultant earth pressure as equation (20). For example, obtain
the resultant pressure Pa ˆ 12ã H 2 K a can also be obtained by "   aKÿ1
integrating the quadratically distributed unit earth equation K ãH Hÿy
pa ˆ (3=2)(ã= H) y 2 K a . pˆ qÿ
cos ä aK ÿ 2 H
#
ãH H ÿ y
‡ (28)
aK ÿ 2 H
Comparison of present theory with Coulomb earth pressure
formula This is curvilinearly distributed and related to the lateral
The resultant earth pressure. The total horizontal earth pres- pressure coef®cient K. When K ˆ 1=a, equation (28) becomes
sure can be obtained by the following integration:
1
…H p ˆ (q ‡ ã y) (29)
a cos ä
Px ˆ px d y (21) This is linearly distributed. So the linearly distributed unit earth
0
pressure is a special case of the earth pressure presented here,
Substituting px given in equation (13) into the above formula, in the case K ˆ 1=a.
we obtain
    Height of application of resultant earth pressure. In the case
H ãH 1 ãH2 where the earth pressure is linearly distributed, the height H p of
Px ˆ K qÿ ‡ application of the resultant earth pressure from the wall bottom is
aK aK ÿ 2 2 aK ÿ 2
  1 3q ‡ ã H
1 1 2 aK Hp ˆ H (30)
ˆ qH ÿ ã H 2 ÿ 3 2q ‡ ã H
a 2a aK ÿ 2 ak ÿ 2
  If the surcharge q ˆ 0, H p ˆ 13 H.
1 1 For the curvilinearly distributed earth pressure presented here,
ˆ qH ‡ ã H 2 (22)
a 2 the height of application of the resultant earth pressure can be
determined by the following procedure. The resultant moment
Substituting equation (8) into the above equation, we obtain of the earth pressure about the wall bottom can be obtained by
the integration
  …H
sin(è ÿ j) cos ä cot è 1 2
Px ˆ qH ‡ ã H (23) Mˆ ( H ÿ y) px d y (31)
cos(è ÿ j ÿ ä) 2
0

The shearing force on the back of the wall is Substituting equation (13) into the integration leads to
86 WANG
 
K H2 1 angle j ˆ 378. The shape of the sliding face and the magni-
Mˆ q ‡ ãH (32) tude and distribution of the earth pressure on the retaining wall
aK ‡ 1 3
were investigated using the model system. The earth pressures
The height H p of application of the resultant pressure is on the model wall were calculated in the present work using
  the formula presented above and the Coulomb formula.
M 1 aK ÿ 1 3q ‡ ã H Figure 2 shows the experimental results and the calculated
Hp ˆ ˆ ‡ H (33)
Px 3 3(aK ‡ 1) 2q ‡ ã H results for an internal friction angle j ˆ 378 and a frictional
angle between the back®ll and the wall ä ˆ 0. The magnitude
When aK , 1, the height H p of application of the resultant and distribution of earth pressure are shown in Fig. 2(a) for the
pressure is higher than the height H p of the linearly distributed experimental observations and for the results calculated by the
pressure; when aK ˆ 1, H p ˆ H p ; and when aK . 1, Coulomb formula and the present formula. The effect of the
H p . H p . In the case where the active earth pressure is reached, lateral pressure coef®cient K on the distribution of earth
the lateral pressure coef®cient is K ˆ 1=K a cos ä, and pressure is shown in Fig. 2(b); the effects of the lateral pressure
aK ˆ K=K a cos ä. Generally, K . K a , i.e. aK . 1, so the height coef®cient K on the surcharge pressure coef®cient K q and the
of application of the resultant earth pressure presented here is back®ll pressure coef®cient K ã are shown in Figs 2(c) and 2(d),
higher than the height for a linearly distributed earth pressure. respectively.
Figure 3 shows the experimental and calculated results for an
internal friction angle j ˆ 328 and a frictional angle between
CALCULATION AND COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA the back®ll and the wall ä ˆ 108. The magnitude and distribu-
In the 1960s, Caharly (Kerlyn, 1977) conducted a model tion of earth pressure are given in Fig. 3(a) for the experimental
experiment on earth pressure on a retaining wall. The model observations and for the results calculated by the Coulomb
height of the retaining wall was 4 m. Sand was used as the formula and the present formula. The effect of the lateral
back®ll, with a unit weight 㠈 18 kN=m3 and internal friction pressure coef®cient K on the distribution of earth pressure is

p: kN/mm p: kN/mm
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
0.0 0.0

1.0 y: m 1.0
y: m

2.0 2.0

3.0 3.0

4.0 4.0
Present theory K 5 0.4 K 5 0.3
Coulomb K 5 0.4
Experiment K 5 0.5
(a) (b)

Kq Kγ
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.0 0.0

0.2 0.2

0.4 0.4
y/H

y/H

0.6 0.6

0.8 0.8

1.0 1.0

K 5 0.3 K 5 0.3
K 5 0.4 K 5 0.4
K 5 0.5 K 5 0.5
(c) (d)

Fig. 2. Calculated and experimental results, in the case j ˆ 378, ä ˆ 0: (a) comparison of
present theory with Coulomb's theory and experiment; (b) effect of K on distribution of earth
pressure; (c) effect of K on surcharge pressure coef®cient; (d) effect of K on back®ll pressure
coef®cient
 EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALL 87
p: kN/mm p: kN/mm
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
0.0 0.0

1.0 1.0

y: m
y: m

2.0 2.0

3.0 3.0

4.0 4.0
Present theory K 5 0.4 K 5 0.3
Coulomb K 5 0.4
Experiment K 5 0.5
(a) (b)

Kq Kγ
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.0 0.0

0.2 0.2

0.4 0.4
y/H
y/H

0.6 0.6

0.8 0.8

1.0 1.0
K 5 0.3 K 5 0.3
K 5 0.4 K 5 0.4
K 5 0.5 K 5 0.5
(c) (d)

Fig. 3. Calculated and experimental results, in the case j ˆ 328, ä ˆ 108: (a) comparison of
present theory with Coulomb's theory and experiment; (b) effect of K on distribution of earth
pressure; (c) effect of K on surcharge pressure coef®cient; (d) effect of K on back®ll pressure
coef®cient

shown in Fig. 3(b); the effects of the lateral pressure coef®cient
K on the surcharge pressure coef®cient K q and the back®ll
pressure coef®cient K ã are shown in Figs 3(c) and 3(d),
respectively.
The resultant earth pressures and the heights of their applica-
tion were calculated numerically by computing the areas under
the graphs of unit earth pressure and the centres of the areas
for different lateral pressure coef®cients K; they are listed in
Table 1.
The unit earth pressure presented here varies curvilinearly
with the depth y. The distribution of earth pressure is related to
the lateral pressure coef®cient K: the height of application of
the resultant earth pressure increases with K, but the magnitude
of the resultant pressure is independent of K and equal to that
calculated by the Coulomb formula.
CONCLUSIONS
The Coulomb formula gives the resultant earth pressure on a
retaining wall on the basis of the concept of the limit equili-
brium of the forces on the whole sliding wedge, and the
distribution of the unit earth pressure is assumed to be linear in
practice. The formula presented in the present work gives the
unit earth pressure on the basis of the limit equilibrium of the

Table 1. Resultant pressures and heights of their application

Method K ˆ 0:3 K ˆ 0:4 K ˆ 0:5

Px : kN=m Hp : m Px : kN=m Hp : m Px : kN=m Hp : m

j ˆ 378, ä ˆ 0 Coulomb 35´80 0´33 H 35´80 0´33 H 35´80 0´33 H
Present theory 35´61 0´36 H 35´76 0´41 H 35´79 0´45 H
j ˆ 328, ä ˆ 108 Coulomb 40´45 0´33 H 40´45 0´33 H 40´45 0´33 H
Present theory 40´27 0´34 H 40´42 0´39 H 40´44 0´43 H
88
forces on an element of the sliding wedge, and the earth
pressure is curvilinearly distributed. Summarizing the re-sults of
this study, the following remarks can be made.
(a) The unit earth pressure is linearly distributed only in the
case of innumerable parallel sliding planes forming
innumerable sliding subwedges within the sliding wedge,
and providing the resultant earth pressure of each subwedge
is calculated separately.
(b) If the wedge between the rear of the wall and the failure
plane passing through the bottom edge of the wall slides as
a whole, i.e. only one sliding plane, passing through the
bottom edge of the wall appears, the unit earth pressure will
not be linearly distributed and the earth pressure formula
presented here is applicable in this case. A linearly
distributed earth pressure is obtained only as a special case
when K ˆ 1=a.
(c) The resultant earth pressure calculated by the formula
presented here is the same as that calculated by the
Coulomb formula and is independent of the lateral pressure
coef®cient K. However, the height of application of the
resultant pressure is higher than that of a linearly distributed
pressure and is related to the lateral pressure coef®cient K:
the height of application of the resultant earth pressure
WANG
increases with K, which will result in a larger overturning
moment. The value of K should be between the active earth
pressure coef®cient K a and the coef®cient K 0 of earth
pressure at rest, and needs to be investigated further.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented here has been supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
59679003 and the Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin, China
under Grant 973606311.
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maximis et minimis a quelques problems de statique relatits a
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Craig, R. F. (1983). Soil mechanics. Wokingham: Van Nostrand Rein-
hold.
Kerlyn, H. K. (1977). Mechanics of granular structures. Beijing: People's
Communication Publishing House [in Chinese; translated from Rus-
sian by Chen Wanjia].
Rankine, W. J. M. (1857). On the stability of loose earth. Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc., Lond. 147, Part 1, 9±27.
Wu, T. H. (1976). Soil mechanics. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.